Javanese language, literature and theatre [1996, completed 1992]

Southeast Asian Languages and Literatures A bibliographical guide to Burmese, Cambodian, Indonesian, Javanese, Malay, Minangkabau, Thai and Vietnamese EDITED BY E. ULRICH KRATZ Tauris Academic Studies I.B.Tauris Publishers LONDON· NEW YORK JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEAlRE 5. JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE 113 decades. It is not a comprehensive bibliographical review. What is included here is a personal selection of two hundred significant monographs, text editions and translations, collections of papers, major articles, and important though as yet Bernirrd Arps unpublished dissertations. The discussion proceeds from linguistics via literary studies to theatre and dance, the latter two restricted to the roles of language. In view of my present preoccupations in research and teaching, there is a bias towards Modem Javanese language, traditional literature in Modem Javanese, and wayang theatre, and in particular anthropological approaches to these. Much of Almost thirty years have elapsed since the last stocktaking of studies on Javanese what is published in Indonesia has a limited circulation and will have escaped my language and verbal arts, Uhlenbeck's Critical survey (1964). Meanwhile the attention. I take the opportunity to point out a number of gaps; some potentially subject has experienced both an internationalization and a shift of concentration to interesting topics have scarcely been treated or not at all, and certain approaches, Indonesia. Then the number of scholars working in neither the Netherlands nor developed in other fields, which could be fruitfully applied to Java, have not yet Indonesia was minute. (See also the brief historical outline in Ras, 1992:297- been taken up. Needless to say, many more topics and avenues of research could 313.) Now the proportion of significant studies produced in the United Kingdom, be identified and developed. Germany, France, and in particular Australia and the United States has increased considerably, while Malaysia and Japan are budding. This becomes clear at a Javanese linguistics glance from the contents of Caraka: newsletter for lavanists, published In Uhlenbeck's survey the bulk of studies on Javanese language consisted of biannually under the editorship of S. O. Robson from 1982. But at present the textbooks and miscellaneous articles. Relatively few of these were inspired by greatest scholarly activity takes place in Indonesia itself. For instance, the only developments in linguistics outside the Javanese or Indonesian field. This has journal that is predominantly concerned with studies on Javanese language and changed fundamentally. Students of Javanese in the United States, the literature, Widyaparwa (l;i68-), is published in Yogyakarta. Besides Yogyakarta Netherlands, Australia, Britain, and Germany, are now workiug against the there are centres of Javanese studies in Jakarta, Surabaya, Surakarta, and several background of general theories of language. The most important outlets for both other places. The main languages of scholarly writing on Javanese are now articles and monographs are the series Pacific Linguistics published in Canberra Indonesian and English rather than Dutch and Javanese. and NUSA published in Jakarta. This essay is ap attempt to trace the main paths which scholars have cleared in In Indonesia too language studies are now on a firm theoretical footing. Here the vast jungle of Javanese language and language use during the past three political circumstances dictate that priority is given to the study of the national 114 SOU11J-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES JAV ANESELANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND 11lEATRE 115 language, Indonesian. In works on this topic important observations on Javanese a series of articles (1968, 1970, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1991) he has described are sometimes made, because Javanese, being the major 'regional' language, syntactic and morphological phenomena in the language of the parwa. Lingual greatly influences Indonesian. Moreover, as the first language of a number of features of the kakawin remain largely unexplored, With the exception of a short prominent Indonesian linguists, Javanese invites comparisons with Indonesian. note by Zoetmulder (1974:441-4), this applies to an even greater extent to the Some articles and monographs specially devoted to Javanese have appeared as language of the kidung. Finally, de Casparis and Damais have given some well. The journal Widyaparwa often contains studies of a linguistic nature. The attention to lingual aspects of Old Javanese inscriptions (e.g., Damais, 1970, de national language development centre (Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Casparis, 1986), Bahasa) in Jakarta regularly publishes commissioned research reports on various linguistic topics. Modem Javanese Access to Modern Javanese, important in its own right as well as for an Old Javanese language understanding of modern Indonesia, remains easier than access to Old Javanese. Access to Old Javanese texts is still hampered by the scantiness of introductory There is in fact a choice of dictionaries and textbooks. In 1974 Home published a and reference material. Alongside Zoetmulder's grammar based on one of the Javanese-English dictionary, In older dictionaries, the glosses are in Dutch, and in parwa (prose narratives derived from the Indian epics), first pnblished in 1950 addition the Javanese is sometimes in Javanese script. Home's dictionary is also and reprinted in 1983, two concise introductions have appeared, one an English most up-to-date as regards the development of the language, However, its translation from Russian (Teselkin, 1972), the other in Indonesian (Mardiwarsito usefulness is restricted by its limited coverage and by the inaccuracy of some of and Harimurti, 1984). Being very simple, however, these do little justice to the its definitions. A number of Javanese-Indonesian and Javanese monolingual lingual variety that hides under the label 'Old Javanese'. dictionaries have appeared in Indonesia. Although more recent, they fan short of The most substantial advances in the field of Old Javanese language have been the standards set by Poerwadarminta in his monolingual dictionary of 1939. A made in lexicography and grammar. The dictionary prepared by Zoetmulder and possible exception is Prawiroatmodjo, 1981. It is fairly comprehensive, but its Robson (1982) supersedes earlier dictionaries and word lists in definitions tend to be rather imprecise, For the interpretation of traditional poetry' comprehensiveness and accuracy as well as accessibility. It is indispensable for of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, C. F. Winter's Kawi-Javaansch the interpretation of parwa, kakawin (poems in Sanskrit-derived metres), kidung' woordenboek, compiled in co-operation with the famous court scholar (poems in indigenous verse fonns), and even for Modern Javanese works of the Ranggawarsita in the mid-nineteenth century, is still useful. It was recently issued sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. in romanized form (1987), which has made it more accessible. Uhlenbeck is one of the very few scholars active in Old Javanese linguistics. In In the 1980s two new textbooks of Javanese appeared, one in Dutch (Ras, 116 JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES 117 1982), the other in English (Keeler, 1984). Ras's is primarily based on written (1965, 1975b, 1983b). While his theoretical framework (Dutch structural materials. Its focus is on morphology, with relatively little attention to syntax and linguistics, primarily influenced by the Prague School) is sometimes considered discourse structure. This makes it most suitable as a reference grammar for dated; his meticulous analyses and the explicit presentation of his findings have reading. Its review of metrics and poetic figures (Ras, 1982:309-37) is valuable rarely been surpassed by students of Javanese. Moreover, certain central features for those interested in traditional verse. For students in need of a command of of his theory which for some time were considered irrelevant by other linguistic spoken Javanese, Keeler's textbook is more appropriate. It provides extensive schools, such as his stress on the role of inference in interpretation and on the exercises in the different speech levels, including the formulaic locutions that are roles of intonation in syntax, have recently regained attention. A disadvantage of needed for polite interaction. In order to be most effective, Keeler's textbook his studies is that little use is made of natural spoken language data. The sources requires knowledge of Indonesian, and preferably some basic Javanese as well. In are written texts and formal interviews with informants. Uhlenbeck gave his practice the former is not a problem, because most students will indeed have personal view of the development of Javanese linguistics and his own aims within studied Indonesian before they turn to Javanese. Unless one's interests are not the it in a booklet published upon his retirement as Professor of Javanese in Leiden Javanese who live in Indonesia (such as Surinam in South America where (1983a). Javanese form a large proportion of the population), Indonesian IS now indispensable for serious study. The latter is more of a disadvantage. Other ｳｾｨｯｬ｡ｲ＠ who have contributed, each within their own theoretical framework, to Javanese morphology and syntax are G. Poedjosoedarmo (1977, Linguistic studies of Modern Javanese are still limited in number, and I do not 1986a), Bintoro (for example 1980), Suhamo (1982), and Herrfurtb (for example know of a reliable English introduction providing basic information for the 1983). Recently Sudaryanto has addressed various question of affective value in general reader. Both Koentjaraningrat's account in his synthesis of Javanese the use of Javanese morphemes (1989). He discusses, inter alia, iconic forms and ethnography (1985:12-20) and Home's recent encyclopaedia article (1992) are polite and impolite words from the viewpoint of their articulation. Since marred by inaccuracies and errors. Sudaryanto is a native speaker of Javanese with an 'open ear' (coupled, of course, Nevertheless in all main fields of linguistics at least some research been carried with a well-articulated linguistic position) his book contains very important out. Yallop (1982), Fagin (1988), and Hayward and Muljono (1991) have observations. Articles by other Indonesian linguists on aspects of grammar are to contributed to phonology and phonetics. G. Poedjosoedarmo's studies of voice be found in several journals, for instance a recent special issue of Widyaparwa quality (l986b, 1988) are notewortby for their attention to sociocultural factors. (Dirgo and others, 1988:23-49). Longer research reports are published by the The main figure in the field of Javanese morphology is Uhlenbeck. A Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa (e.g. Sugono, 1985, Gina and others, collection of earlier articles, translated into English, was published in 1978. 1987). Some of these works are concernea with other dialects than the 'standard' Though less extensively, Uhlenbeck has also contributed to the study of syntax one of southern Central Java. Finally, mention should be made of the volume , 118 SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE 119 edited by Sudaryanto (1991), published on the occasion of the first post- Sociolinguistic studies of Javanese outside the part of Central Java where the independence Javanese language congress in July 1991, and intended as a 'standard' dialect is spoken are rare. In recent years, Smith-Hefner has published a standard reference grammar. It is primarily concerned with syntax. number of articles based on her fieldwork in the Tengger highlands of eastern Next to nothing has been done on the structuring of connected speech. Exceptions are the booklets by Wedhawati and others, (1979) and G. Poedjosoedarmo and others (1981:41-55) (both written by the same team of linguists, the latter in fact before the former). Java (1988a, 1988b, 1988c, 1989b). Interesting too is the work done on the Javanese spoken in Surinam (including Wolfowitz, 1984, Vruggink, 1985). Dialect geography has been taken up vigorously by the Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengernbangan Bahasa, which has issued a series of reports on various regions, One of the features for which Javanese is (in)famous, the 'speech levels', were including Soetoko and others, 1981 and Dirgo and others, 1985. Unfortunately already a major focus of interest before 1964 (Uhlenbeck, 1964:57-8, 69-70). some of the research appears to have been carried out within too limited a period These speech styles expressive of relative status and politeness have continued to and without sufficient theoretical background knowledge, while the reports have attract attention. This is now further stimulated by the growth of interest in lingual often been inadequately edited. The German linguist Nothofer has also politeness phenomena and anthropological linguistics generally. Soepomo's contributed to dialect geography (i.a., 1981). These studies mainly use the article of 1968 outlines a highly normative traditional classification of speech geographical spread of individual lexical items as data. Since there is a tendency levels. On the other hand, the article by Bax (1975), the research report by Wolff to disregard the fact that in anyone region synonyms and near-synonyms are in and Soepomo (1982), and Errington's monographs (1985, 1988) are grounded in use, so that the choice of one particular lexical item as the focus of attention actual discourse. appears fortuitous, the result is a distorted picture. A series of articles with brief The sociolinguistic situation in Indonesia provides a wealth of phenomena of characterizations of dialects was published in Soedarsono, 1986c (pp. 201--404). both scl;lOlarly and practical interest, which iu recent years has begun to be tapped. The morphology and syntax of colloquial Javanese differ to a certain extent Soeseno (1981), Wolff and Soepomo (1982), and Soepomo (1982) address the from the kinds of language one usually finds discussed in linguistic studies. In interference of Indonesian and Javanese in speech, as do various articles in rounding off this part of the survey, Robson's steps to redress the balance should Indonesian such as those ｩｾ＠ Dirgo and others, 1988 (pp. 50-71). Some attention be mentioned. They consist of transcriptions of spoken language use from a has been directed to discourse communities of Chinese descent in Java, in which village near Magelang in Central Java, accompanied by 'explication de texte' both Malay and Javanese have long been spoken (Rafferty, 1982, 1984, Oetomo, (Robson 1985), and a discussion of individual colloquial forms (Robson, 1991). 1987a). Bonneff's article of 1981 looks into a political movement in the early twentieth century/which strove-unsuccessfully-to abolish the 'polite' speech Conclusion level. In the course of a century and a half the study of Javanese has yielded a 120 SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE 121 substautial body of information. Yet it is difficult to gain access to all this the 'standard' dialect of Central Java. One way of countering this bias is by giving material. Older studies as well as many of those published in Indonesia are serious attention to other dialects. Inasmuch as the aim is to identify and locate available in only a few libraries world-wide, while the languages in which they such' dialects, more than just lexical data should be utilized. Intonation in are written are not generally known in the international scholarly community. In particular promises to be an enlightening source of information. A survey of view of the historical as well as contemporary importance of the language, this dialects would be a further step. inaccessibility is to be regretted. But more interesting, in my view, and also a more solid basis for the mapping There is clearly a need for introductory material, preferably in English. of lingual varieties, would be 'ethnographies of speaking' in different Providing such material should be a priority for scholars of Javanese. (As regards communities in Java. These could at the same time contribute to the development more advanced study, it is evident that knowledge of Dutch, Indonesian, and of of the discourse-centred approach to culture which is coming to the fore in course Javanese itself, including the Javanese and Perso-Arabic scripts in which it anthropology, especially in the United States. is sometimes written, remains indispensable.) The introductory material should Other sociolinguistic subjects of great potential interest and importance include include a simple language course to provide prospective field researchers with a the influence of Indonesian on contemporary spoken and written Javanese, and basic command of Javanese as actually spoken, which means especially the government attitudes and policies regarding Javanese, including the use and colloquial variants. There is also a need for a really comprehensive and up-to-date teaching of Javanese in schools. Such research might even extend to West Java, Javanese-English dictionary and a reference grammar of spoken Javanese. The Madura, and especially Bali and Lombok, where forms of Javanese remain existing linguistic studies are fragmented and based on various schools, which authoritative media in the fields of religion, philosophy, and the performing arts. often renders them obscure to the uninitiated. Turning to older forms of Javanese, Finally, the older forms of Javanese commonly referred to by the cover terms English-language textbooks and reference grammars of Old and Middle Javanese Middle and Old Javanese demand more extensive research. Beyond the barest are still lacking. However, an excellent dictionary (Zoetmulder, and Robson 1982) outline, the historical rela,tions between the archaic variants of Javanese are is available in this case. obscure. Since they are primarily known in written form (apart from some . As to more advanced study of the structure of the language, attention needs to theatrical contexts, especially in Bali), an inquiry into this matter will interlock be paid to syntax in relation to discourse patterning and intonation, while with literary research. Factors such as the provenances of the texts (many of colloquial language use requires further exploration. Such studies could not only which are known only from manuscripts postdating their composition by several contribute to the discipline of linguistics but would also provide data for the centuries), their subject-matter. and their literary forms cannot be circumvented in introductory ｣ｯｵｲｾ･ｳ＠ such an investigation. referred to above. There is, in Indonesia as well as abroad, a tendency to identify Javanese with 122 SOm1J-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE 123 Literary studies Reference works Up to 1964 two approaches to Javanese texts predominated. The first and most Javanese literature has attracted the attention of Western scholars from the late fundamental one was philology, a term used here to refer to the editing of texts eighteenth century onwards. A major task with which these Javanists saw based on one or several manuscripts. The second was 'utilitarian': texts were used themselves confronted was the outlining of the extant literary corpus. This work as sources of data on history, religion and philosophy, politics, and culture proceeded in piecemeal fashion until the late nineteenth and early twentieth generally. A number of changes have occurred since. On the one hand there has centuries, when the first more or less comprehensive surveys were published. been a tendency for research into Javanese culture to disregard written sources. These were catalogues of parts of the manuscript collections in Leiden University Such studies are now based first of all on fieldwork. On the other hand, while Library and the library of the Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences (now neither approach to Javanese texts has been abandoned, their theoretical housed in the National Library, Jakarta). This spade-work is still far from foundations, indeed their validity as scholarly enterprises have come under attack. completed. In the past three decades several major collections have been made They have been defended as well, and have changed in the process. Other ways of accessible, in the Netherlands (Pigeaud, 1967, 1968, 1970, 1980), Germany looking at Javanese literature have emerged, most importantly in studies of (Pigeaud, 1975, Pigeaud and Voorhoeve, 1985), the United Kingdom (Ricklefs intertextual relations and in studies of the sociocultural environments in which and Voorhoeve, 1977, 1982), and Indonesia (Lindsay, 1984, Behrend, 1990). Van texts were and are used. der Molen's 'catalogue of .catalogues' (1984) is a useful guide to older Prominent publishers of studies on Javanese literature are the Royal Institute of inventories, including those of small collections in various parts of the world. Anthropology and Linguistics (KITLV) in Leiden and the Pusat Pembinaan dan Pigeaud's catalogues of the manuscripts in the Netherlands and Behrend's of Pengembangan Bahasa in Jakarta. The first publishes the Verhandelingen those in the Sonobudoyo Museum in Yogyakarta (1990) are particularly (Transactions) and the Bibliotheca Indonesica series, in which monographs and important. Pigeaud's first volume (1967) contains a survey of the texts by genre, critical editions have appeared, and the journal Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en while its index (1970) lists all manner of personal names, toponyms, and titles. VoZkenkunde. The Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, while primarily Behrend's catalogue stands out because of the detailed attention given to contents, engaged in linguistics, has' published a number of research reports on facets of provenance, copyists, and dating, and some information on interre1ations between Javanese literature. The journal Widyaparwa, managed by the Yogyakarta branch different works treating the same topic. Its value is somewhat reduced by the fact of the same institution, frequently includes relevant articles written by that its index is incomplete and by the omission of several manuscripts in the Indonesians. collection, mostly those of Balinese provenance. In a number of projects carried out in Surakarta and Yogyakarta in the late 1970s and the 1980s, the public and court collections of manuscripts were microfilmed and catalogued. Lindsay, 1984 L 124 JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND 1HEATRE SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES 125 and Behrend, 1990 grew from this work. The other data compiled in these projects the background of Islam. General surveys of contemporary literature are provided have not yet appeared in print. Meanwhile, Girardet's unreliable inventory (1983) by Suripan (published in 1975), Ras (1979:1-31), and Quinn (1992:1-39). They will have to do. Recently the artistic aspects of Javanese manuscript production are already superseded by recent developments. Ras, 1979 and Suripan, 1985 are received some attention in Arps, 1991b. among the few readers of Javanese literature published in the past decades, No comparable effort has gone into the thousands of Javanese texts published since the mid-nineteenth century in Javanese, Perso-Arabic, and Roman respectively containing mainly prose and poetry. ｳ｣ｲｩｰｴｾ＠ Mochtar 1985/6-86/7 contains summaries of 1,000 books, but Poerwasoewignja Old Javanese literature and "':'irawangsa's bibliography published in 1920-21 retains its usefulness. A number of scholars have carried on the venerable tradition of providing editions Besides providing summaries, it quotes numbers of stanzas and first lines of of Old Javanese kakawin and kidung, with the difference that translations are now cantos of verse texts. (The great majority of Javanese writing before the present in English rather than Dutch (kakawin: Teeuw and others, 1969, Supomo, 1977, century was versified.) If this kind of information were a standard component of Teeuw and Robson, 1981, Soewito Santoso, 1975, Schoterrnan and Teeuw, 1985; manuscript catalogues the work of researchers would be greatly lightened. Only kidung: Robson, 1971, Drewes, 1975). A few translations into Indonesian have Behrend (1990) occasionally provides such data. A list of recent Balinese also appeared, one of which is of a text not previously published (Partini, 1986). publications of and about Old and Middle Javanese texts is to be found in Stuart- However, van der Molen (1983) and Vickers (1986) have challenged the Fox, 1992:435-67. established philological tradition. Van der MoIen drew attention to hitherto For lack of a dedicated literary history, Pigeaud, 1967, may serve as an neglected features of manuscript writing and presented three texts of the same introduction to writing up to A.D. 1900. The only work fully worthy of the work in a novel way, while Vickers rejected the feasibility of philological edition designation is Zoetmulder's monumental study, Kalangwan (1974), which of the text he studied. Robson reacted to both in his statement of the principles of contains an authoritative discussion of Old Javanese poetics (see also Robson, philology (1988). The issue is still far from resolved. 1983) and extensive summaries of Old Javanese works. It is mainly concerned De Casparis has continued his important work on Old Javanese inscriptions for with parwa and kakawin,.' Kidung receives less attention, and works which the description of aspects of ancient Javanese culture (including de Casparis, Zoetmulder did not regard as belles-lettres are passed over. In this connection de 1986). Some of his former students, including Barrett Jones (1984) have followed Casparis's introduction to the development of Javanese script up to c. A.D. 1500 in his tracks. should also be mentioned (de Casparis, 1975). It is not yet matched by studies of later developments! Day (1988) discusses a number of prominent traditional Javanese works against The oldest and one of the most remarkable kakawin, the RiimiiyaQa, retains its appeal for scholars (Aichele, 1969; Uhlenbeck, 1975b, 1989). A romanization and English translation were prepared by Soewito Santoso (1980). This is far from 126 SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES definitive, however. JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE 127 serat Kalatidha (1964). The same author also worked on other texts ascribed to The editions of Old Javanese texts mentioned above are generally accompanied Ranggawarsita (1985). With Mardiwarsito's publication of the serat Jayengbaya by extensive discussions of form and content. Separate studies on various aspects (1980) this edition is among the more dependable ones in the Proyek Penerbitan include Ensink, 1967 and Aichele, 1967. The cultural environment in which series. Simuh (1988) has transliterated, translated, and discussed a mystical prose kidung literature was produced is the subject of a series of articles by Robson text. It is doubtful whether all these works were indeed composed by (1979, 1981a, 1981b). Ranggawarsita: certain features of his literary style were much imitated in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Traditional literature in Modern Javanese Albeit sporadically, traditional literature in Modern Javanese is now being Editions of texts in Modern Javanese far outnumber Old Javanese ones. Because made available to a wider reading public through translation into English. A of its range, mention should first be made of the Proyek Penerbitan Buku Sastra number of books in this category provide the Javanese text in a critical edition Indonesia dawDaerah (Project for the publication of books of Indonesian and based on a single or several manuscripts. Johns (1965; see also Ricklefs, 1973, regional literature), initially administered by the Department of Education and and Carey, 1975) and Drewes (1969, 1977:52-87, 1978) have edited and Culture, in which pre-war books and manuscripts of various origins are issued, translated works containing Islamic teachings. Soebardi' s edition of the serat supplied with Indonesian translations or summaties. About two hundred Javanese Cabolek (1975), dated by him to the late eighteenth century, is highly interesting texts have appeared since 1978. The series was rightly criticized for its low from the viewpoint of contents. However, the text he presents is hybrid. Soebardi scholarly standards. Misprints abound, the provenance of the exemplars is only put together a new work from various versions, thus demonstrating one of the rarely made explicit, and the translations are frequently unreliable. Moreover the excesses to which philology can lead if applied without proper attention to the fact books are distributed only to libraries and interested scholars are and not for sale. that transmission in the Javanese manuscript tradition often involves Nevertheless this series provides texts in an accessible format and this by itself recomposition. Historians Ricklefs (1978) and Carey (1981) have edited and makes it useful. Feinstein (1987, 1989) has traced the antecedents of a number of translated verse babad (chronicles), and Oetomo has given a transliteration with texts published in this serie{ In 1989 its management was taken over by the Pusat translation of a short text with Chinese antecedents (l987b). Errington's Pembinaan qan Pengembangan Bahasa, Which has led to improvement of its translation of the serat Kalatidha (1989) and Robson's translation of the serat standards. Wedhatama (1990) should also be mentioned. The latter work, attributed to More reliable texts and translations were also published in Indonesia. Works Mangkunagara IV of Surakarta (r. 1853-81) is regarded as one of the attributed to the s,6rakarta court poet Ranggawarsita (1803-73) received most masterpieces of traditional Javanese literature in Central Java, alongside the serat attention. An example is Kamadjaja's edition with Indonesian translation of the Wulangreh atttibuted to the other famous ruler, Paku Buwana IV (r. 1788-1820). 128 SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE 129 The Wedhatama had been translated into Dutch, Indonesian, and English on two such studies, one on the serat Darmagandhul (Drewes, 1966), often named in earlier occasions, but Robson' s interpretation is the most accurate one. It is also the same breath as the serat Gatholoco and likewise prohibited in Indonesia, the pleasant to read. The Wulangreh has not yet been translated. Finally, Anderson other on a group of works by Ranggawarsita containing legendary history (1974). (1981-82) has rendered the serat Gatholoco in English, using a text published and McDonald (1981) has discussed reflections of cultural change in one of the central furnished with a Dutch translation earlier. The Gatholoco receives much anention Javanese classics, the serat Rama. In an essay in his recently published collection in Indonesia in J avanistic-mystical circles, although it is officially banned. (1990), Anderson addresses the political climate reflected in some scenes of the because its rather ribald contents are considered offensive to orthodox Muslims. serat Centhini. He also gives attention to the Gatholoco. Finally Sudewa's study English translations without accompanying Javanese text, such as Ricklefs and of several early nineteenth-century versions of the kakawin Nitisastra must be Soepomo's extract from a Surakarta babad (1967), remain scarce. Editions of mentioned (1991). It contains critical editions of two versions provided with Javanese texts not furnished with translations are more numerous. Some are based Indonesian translations. on single manuscripts or older published books, others are critical editions The study of babad, begun at an early stage, has continued to occupy a number . utilizing several manuscripts. Important are Winarsih's edition of a late of scholars. For obvious reasons these works of history too are studied for the eighteenth-century babad from east Java (1980), Darusuprapta's transliteration of information they can provide on sociocultural circumstances. Ricklefs's the serat Wulangreh (1982), the serat Kandha (1985-8), which contains 14,000 monograph on the times of the first ruler of Yogyakarta (1974) contains stanzas, and the even more voluminous serat Centhini. Publication of the latter discussions of the contents and political import of a number of works, and Day's began in 1985 (after a false start a decade earlier) and was concluded with the dissertation addresses the social significance of poetic writing in the nineteenth twelfth volume in 1991. A number of verse texts in Javanese but of Sundanese century (Day, 1981). In babad studies special attention is now directed to the provenance were made available by Sunarto and Sukanda-Tessier (1983) and by interrelations between, on the one hand, accounts of the same historical episode or Rosidi (1989:477-92). Carey's transliterations of letters and decrees carried away figures in different works, and on the other hand different versions of the same from the Yogyakarta court by the British in 1812 is of great importance not only work. The first has been the topic of studies by Kumar (1976) and Suhardi (1982; for the historical informatioil , it contains but also for its language and textual although concerned with an episode in Sundanese history, some of the sources are conventions (Carey, 1980). More recently the same scholar has edited and in Javanese). Scholars who contributed to a debate about the second issue were discussed a babad written by a courtier about contemporaneous events in Ricklefs (1972,1979), Day (1978), Kumar (1984), and Ras (1986). Access to the Yogyakarta (Carey, 1992). so-called 'Major Babad Tanah Jawi', an integral history of the rulers of Java that Studies have als<;lbeen made of single or related works with a focus on the took its present shape in early nineteenth-century Surakarta, has been facilitated sociocultural surroundings in which they were conceived. Drewes has contributed by Ras's collation between it and a closely related prose version (1987). This I 130 SOUTIJ-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES book also reproduces a Dutch translation of tbe prose text. JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEA1RE 131 source of infonnation on lingual and literary history and cultural history The topic of intertextual relations against the backgrounds of transmission, generally. It has by now become clear, however, tbat tbere is no imperative for recomposition. and social context has also been addressed for various other tbis to be 'the original' form, as conceived by 'the' autbor. In many cases this aim genres. In 1968 Drewes reviewed works attributed to Sunan Bonang, one of the is unattainable anyway in view of the forces at work in literary transmission. saints who, according to legend, disseminated Islam in Java. Drewes and Brakel Purely oral transmission, oral perfonnance of written texts, and scribal activity (1986:226-77) compared the Javanese translations of two treatises by the which is not merely copying but often involves recomposition and adaptation, all sixteenth-century Sumatran mystic Harnzah Fansuri with tbeir Malay originals. tend to play a part. Salmon has provided a brief survey of Javanese poems derived from Chinese So far limited attention has been devoted to the works that grew witbin and literature (1987), and Abdul Rahman Kaeh (1989) has discussed a poem about contributed to the transition from traditional into more strongly Western- Prince Panji against tbe background of other texts in the same genre. In her influenced literature in the late nineteenth and early twentieth cerituries. hitherto unpublished dissertation McDonald (1983) investigated how Old Noteworthy is Bonneff's study (1986). Indonesian scholars have discussed Javanese kakawin were recast in more modern language and poetic form in late aspects of some of these works. A number of articles are found in Dirgo and eighteentb- and early nineteenth-century Snrakarta court circles. Witb Behrend's others, 1988 (pp.126-38, 205-16). (1987) and Kuntara's (1990) dissertations, this study has provided new insight into tbe nature of traditional literary activity. The performance of traditional literature But the most substantial contribution to this line of enquiry is Behrend's The fact tbat traditional Javanese literature is read aloud as song, often in the dissertation on tbe serat latiswara (1987). Through a meticulous comparison of context of ritual celebrations, was noted from tbe beginnings of Javanese stndies different versions of the work, the autbor attempted to trace their interrelations in in the nineteenth century. Only recently, however, has it attracted scholarly historical perspective. Kuntara demonstrated in his study of the Arjunawiwiiha attention in its own right. It is in particular Balinese performance of kakawin and that recomposition of kakawin in eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century kidung tbat has been described (Robson, 1972, Wallis, 1980, Zurbnchen, 1987, Surakarta made use of exi,sting manuscripts containing paraphrases in more Schumacher, 1987). Until recently much less was known of traditional reading modern fonns of Javanese. For the works that were recomposed in the course of practices in Java in spite of a number of studies from a predominantly their transmission-a large proportion of traditional writing in Modern etbnomusicological perspective (inclnding Kartomi, 1973, Hatch 1980, 1985). Javanese-approache.s such as Behrend's and Kuntara's must complement the Smitb-Hefner's article (l989a) contains a number of relevant observations on tbe more orthodox ｰｨｩｾ｢ｬｯｧ｣｡＠ ones. They do not replace textual criticism. The Tengger area from a sociolinguistic point of view. The present antbor has recently definite form of a text at a particular point in time and space remains an important published a description of a nightly singing session of one of the most popular 132 SOU11J-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE 133 poems in Javanese literary history, the story of the Islamic prophet Yusup (Arps, comprehensive picture is to emerge, printed texts should not be overlooked, not 1990a), an account of the performance of traditional literature in Y ogyakarta only because in the late nineteenth century printing and manuscript writing came (1991a), and a more detailed analysis of the techniques of composition, to performance, and interpretation of traditional literature in present-day Java manuscript form. (1992). be entwined in various ways, but also because many works are not known in Ultimately, however, the listing of works and the sortiug out of literary traditions are means rather than ends. This information helps one to understand Contemporary Javanese literature more fully the forms and contents of the works themselves and the people, past The main non-Indonesian scholar active in the field of contemporary writing is and present, who create, reshape, perform, and interpret them. There is a need for George Quinn. His revised thesis on Javanese novels, which for the most part general, sociologically oriented accounts of Javanese literary life in various appear not in book form but in periodicals, has now been published (1992). In periods and centres of activity. They should encompass the roles of authors, Indonesia, articles and book-length studies have grown markedly in number in the copyists and illustrators, patrons, publishers and editors in the case of published past decade. The former have appeared mainly in Widyaparwa (including a works, as well as readers, and of course performers and listeners in the case of number in a special anniversary number, Dirgo and others, 1988) as well as a few traditional literature. For modern genres such studies could be based on field compilations of critical essays (e.g., Poer Adhie Prawoto, 1989). The latter research. For traditional literature, this line of enquiry could start from the include research reports such as Sri Widati and others, 1985, Sri Widati and tradition for which most manuscript material is available and other information others, 1988, and Ratua Indtiani and others, 1989. exists: the Surakarta court of the second half of the eighteenth century and later. With the possible exception of Old Javanese kakawin, this is also likely to be Conclusions the earliest place and period to allow fruitful study of the output of particular Taken as a whole, the manuscript catalogues reflect a perplexing range of authors. While this can hardly be called a novel approach to literature, it has been traditional literature produced and reproduced during the past two centuries. In little pursued in the Javanese field. It is probably fruitless with regard to most view of the interest in ｩｨｴ･ｲｾｸｵ｡ｬ＠ relations in historical perspective, strengthened older works, the authorship of which will simply remain untraceable. Even and put on a firm methodological footing by Behrend (1987, 1990), the extant Drewes's examination of Sunan Bonang's works (1968) and Soebardi's survey of information needs to be collated. Eventually this would allow identification of the those ascribed to Yasadipura I (1975:20-26) probably include many texts that are major Javanese writi\1g traditions, a point about which little is known beyond the either older or more recent than the authors to whom they are attributed. This bare outlines. approach could no doubt be applied with a greater chance of success to authors But Javanese literature should not be, equated with manuscript writing. If a who were in contact with Western scholars. They include Ranggawarsita, I .L 134 JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES 135 pole and written literature read silently at the other. Mangkunagara IV, and other authors of the late nineteenth century, as well as those of the twentieth century. Ranggawarsita would be an obvious first choice. Meanwhile the groundwork in which the philologists are engaged is far from The mystical aura which surrounds him in Indonesia and the great number of completed; they still face a great deal of labour. Many texts, old as well as more works that are probably erroneously ascribed to him cry out for a more balanced recent, have not yet been made available in print. Editions and in particular perspective, while historical documentation about him and his activities can be English translations from various genres could make Javanese literature more traced in Dutch and Indonesian libraries. internationally known. And it deserves this wider attention. An intriguing issue which has received some attention in recent years is the displacement of traditional by Western-derived models of writing, not only in Language in theatre and dance Javanese but also in Indonesian (Anderson, 1990: 194-237; Quinn, 1992, esp. pp. In his 1964 survey, Uhlenbeck only discussed written outlines and scripts of 1-39,251-81). The explanations that have been brought forward seem too limited wayang kulit (shadow theatre) plays (pp. 135-36). Indeed, studies of the language in scope. I suspect, for instance, that deliberate government effort in the colonial dimension of Javanese theatre up to then were largely restricted to shadow theatre period played a more important role than has been acceded. This links up with the and almost exclusively based on written materials. The conviction has grown question of government policy in the field of Javanese language, identified earlier since that language use in Javanese theatre cannot be fruitfully considered in as a topic for research. Another important factor was the rise of the mass media in isolation from other dimensions of performance. Attention has shifted to the past century and a half. This has been pointed out by Anderson and Quinn, but performance practice. Moreover, genres other than shadow theatre have been little research has been done into the contents and sociocultural roles of studied, A useful survey of publications on wayang, including forms performed by newspapers and magazines. The same applies to radio, television, and the cassette human actors, is the result of Clara van Groenendael's efforts (1987). It includes tape in more recent years. Oral poetry and story-telling in several parts of the world have come to stndies published up to the end of 1983. Here I shall only draw attention to the burgeon as a topic of anthropological-linguistic stndy. In view of the fact that in most important recent contributions to Javanese theatre studies, and only as far as Java tbese genres seem to ,be disappearing rapidly, there is an urgent need for language use is central to them. I refer to Clara van Groenendael's bibliography research. Javanese can contribute to questions relating to orality and literacy (not for fuller coverage of the field. Since 1983 various new studies have appeared, a merely in literature, but with regard to cultnre generally). In particular the fact that number of which are listed in Arps, I 990b. traditional Javanese verse is written yet performed as song, for an audience or for personal entertainm'ent, needs to be examined against the background of similar Shadow theatre phenomena in other cultures, and in comparison with exclusively oral art at one A fundamental endeavour is the publication of translated performance texts. l 136 SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE 137 Brandon's three shadow plays (1970) are adaptations for an American public. characters, he sings the mood songs, and c1irects the gamelan orchestra. He also They depart in several ways from the Javanese originals. Ras has translated a play stands central in a network of social relations, both within and without the into Dutch (l976b). Both works are preceded by general introductions to shadow perfotmance. In two recent anthropological studies such relations are analysed. theatre in Java. Neither contains the original texts, which were written scripts, not Keeler, 1987, is at the same time an ethnography of village Java, while Clara van performances. The first transcription of an actual performance was provided by Groenendael, 1985, focuses on the puppeteer's kinship and training. Pink in 1977. It is accompanied by a translation into Germau. Feinstein and. The texts spoken by the puppeteer in Balinese shadow theatre are partly in others, 1986, contains transcriptions of performances by several puppeteers, Balinese, partly in forms of Old Javanese, while many of the texts he sings derive without translations. Keeler has transcribed and translated into English an excerpt from kakawin. Hinzler, 1981, contains a detailed transcription of a performance from a performance by the popular Surakarta puppeteer Ki Anom Suroto (1989). with translation and commentary. It is nicely complemented by Zurbuchen's A few studies focus on particular performance elements and techniques. (1987) examination of the language varieties used in Balinese shadow theatre, Schumacher (1980), for instance, has described the texts and melodies of the which explains the sociolinguistic backgrounds to performance practice. It is various 'mood songs' (suluk) sung by the puppeteer to create or consolidate an useful to read these two studies in conjunction. Hooykaas, 1973, contains editions atmosphere at particular junctures. The texts are often quotations from Old of theoretical writings pertaining to Balinese wayang, some of which are in Javanese kakawin or later adaptations of these poems. Unlike other scholars, Javanese. Schumacher does not limit his discussion to the Surakarta style of wayang, but The history of the wayang was one of the focal points of late nineteenth- and also includes the Yogyakarta style. To be sure, the former style is most popular early twentieth-century studies by Dutch Javanists. It has now receded into the and now practised all over Java, but the tradition of Yogyakarta remains popular background, but this does not mean that its problems have been resolved or that it in this P¥ITt of southern Central Java and does to some extent influence other is no longer of interest. Ras has written a survey of the wayang' s origins (which styles. Becker has written an article on the scenic structuring of shadow play he locates in India) and development up to the recent past (Ras, 1976a; also in performance (1979). This essay has proven very influential, not so much because Ras, 1992:58-88). See also Arps, 1985, on recent developments in training and of its account of performanFe structure (which is somewhat idealized), but rather performance standards of Central Java. because of the theoretical ideas about the study of language use set out in it. The dhalang or puppeteer is the central agent in wayang performance. His art Other kinds of theatre; dance requires considerabIe, physical, lingual, and musical skills; he moves the puppets Other forms of theatre too have begun to attract scholarly attention. In these cases against the screen: often in intricate ways,' co-ordinated with the musical the emphasis falls on Yogyakarta. Wayang wong, in which the characters are accompaniment, he speaks the descriptions of scenes and the parts of the different enacted by dancers, has been studied by Soedarsono. He has published two 138 SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES lA VANESE LANGUAGE. LITERATURE AND THEATRE 139 volumes containing the Javanese texts to be spoken in one play by the narrator includes such well-known genres as tayuban and gandrung, have hardly been (1986a) and the actors (l986b). These scripts are companions to his study of analysed. A few texts sung to accompany traditionalist Muslim dances, which are wayang wong as it used to function in the Y ogyakarta sultanate (1990). Langen in Malay, Javanese, and Arabic and sometimes combine these languages, are mandrawanara, a dance theatre in which the dialogues are sung by the dancers, is given in Kuntowijoyo and others, 198617. the subject of Suharto, 1978/9, and Vetter, 1984. They discuss the librettos and the structuring of performance. Kuntowijoyo and others 198617 (pp. 134-63) Conclusions gives the libretto of a traditional Muslim theatre genre from the Yogyakarta area Theatre is very popular in Java and less restricted in its appeal than written which is now rarely performed. Language use in the most popular kind of theatre literature. It has often been observed that wayang functions as a source of norms in Yogyakarta, kethoprak, has received little attention. Handung (1989) describes for the judgement and enactment of social conduct (see especially Anderson, the history of kethoprak, and Quinn (1987) writes about repertoire of Chinese 1965). While in practice this applies more to Central Java than to other parts of origin. the island, official Indonesian representations of Javanese culture tend to highlight Finally I should draw attention to a kind of theatre that gives an impression of Central Javanese patterns, in which wayang plays a leading role. The study of this being most ancient. In wayang beber the dhalang narrates a story while referring and related performing arts thus deserves an important place on the agenda of to scenes painted on paper scrolls unrolled during the performance. This genre is those who strive to understand modern Indonesia and its historical antecedents. extremely rare. It has recently been examined by a team of German scholars (Kant-Achilles and others, 1990). There is only a thin dividing line between traditional human theatre and dance. The appeal of these performance genres has led to m\lch work being done, and useful surveys and general introductions are available. But the field still suffers from a number of shortcomings and there remain gaps in its coverage. Dance is often narrative, depicting episodes also found in wayang and in written Descriptions of wayang traditions other thap the Central Javanese ones, for and oral literature, while traditional theatre with human actors invariably involves instance, are still limited in number. Such work must be done urgently because stylized body movement and musical accompaniment. In one category of dance, these traditions are under threat from the popular Surakarta style. Multi-media which mayor may not be I}ilrrative, the actors themselves do not speak or sing, research, truly comprehensive in the sense of covering all the media and while in another the texts, sung by the dancers or by others, are lyrical, or if they techniques that are involved in wayang and other forms, has not yet been carried are narrative or dialogical, bear no relation to the dance. Brakel,Papenhuijzen, out. This is in spite of the fact that the material demands such an approach. The 1992, is about a genr, of court dance in Surakarta and Yogyakarta that oscillates, extant studies of performance tend to view certain techniques in relati ve isolation in different instanq.es, between these two categories. It includes translation and because of the disciplinary difficulties that this kind of research entails. It is best discussion of the songs. The texts used in the second dance category, which carried out by teams of specialists in different disciplines. 140 SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE Studies of theatrical repertoire are still meagre; only the wayang repertoire has 141 need to be asked if we are to situate them among similar kinds of human been investigated extensively. But even here there are shortcomings. Older studies expression. proceeded from written synopses and scripts rather than from the living repertoire reflected in real performances. Consequently their data were not representative. Outlook There is a tendency, especially in introductory writings, to equate the wayang It was reported in a recent note on the state of Indonesian studies in Australia that, repertoire with the Sanskrit epics RiimiiyaQa and MaMbhiirata rather than the as a consequence of 'a massive reorganization of the tertiary education sector in different versions of this material and the many stories only loosely connected the name of efficiency and rationality', 'smaller more esoteric courses such as with it, which are the actual sources of performance in Java and Bali. Feinstein Javanese at the Australian National University are under threat' (Robert Cribb in and others, 1986, which focuses on so-called branch plays, is a first step in the Indonesia Circle, 53, 1990, 2-3). The label 'esoteric' here seems to be applied to direction of mending this situation. a particular curriculum rather than to Javanese studies as a field of scholarly To make Javanese theatre more accessible to the general reader, more editions activity. But at the same time its use reflects the fact that certain corners of this and translations of performances are called for. Preferably these should utilize field appear accessible only to a relatively small number of specialists. methods of presentation that bring out performance aspects. Partly because they Javanese studies should not be inaccessible. They are too important for that. tend to be based on written scripts, the existing translations focus on text and They pertain to social, cultural, and political conditions in a major South-east gloss over puppet manipulation, music, the shaping of the performance in Asian state, at present and in the past. They can contribute to such general interaction with the audience, and the relations of perfonnance to social context. disciplines as linguistics, literary theory, theatre studies, and anthropology. It Attractive ways of visually presenting oral language use have been developed in should be clear even from this admittedly idiosyncratic survey that the problem is the study. of story-telling and oral poetry. These could be adapted to Javanese and not a lack of scholarly interest. Rather, those who have been initiated tend to Balinese theatre. become engrossed in their personal specialities. There is undoubtedly a close historical connection between Javanese and In several areas within Javanese language, literature, and theatre studies the Balinese shadow play, and ji is to be hoped that the descriptions of Javanese and time has arrived where a renewed stocktaking would be feasible and fruitful. If, in Balinese performance now available will stimulate renewed scrutiny of the history addition, better and more up-to-date introductory materials were available, a ofwayang. larger number of students could be drawn into this fascinating field of enquiry. In conclusion I should like to draw attention to the lack of typological studies The subject is far from exhausted, and will not be as long as Javanese culture of wayang and other genres. In what respects do they conform to general patterns remains as vigorous as it is. in theatre world-wide, and what features make them distinctive? Such questions i iL ' JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES 142 143 teknologi modern pada pembacaan puisi Jawa tradisional di Yogyakarta. Seni 5.1 References Pertunjukan Indonesia, Jurnal Masyarakat Musikologi Indonesia, 2 (2), 69118. Abbreviation KITLV Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde _ 1991b. Java and Madura: Jawa dan Madura. 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Teeuw, A., Robson, S.O., Galestin, T.P., Worsley, P.J.,Zoetmulder, P.J. 1969. Siwaratrikalpa, of Mpu Tanakun: an Old Javanese poem, its Indian source and Balinese illustratio."s, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. (KITLV. Bibliotheca Indonesica, 3.) ｅ｣ｨｯｬｾＮ＠ _ 1983a. Javanese linguistics: a retrospect and some prospects. Dordrecht and Cinnaininson: Foris. 1983b. Two mechanisms of Javanese syntax: the construction with sing (kang, ingkang) and with olehe (enggone, anggenipun). (In Halim, A, Teselkin, A. S. 1972. Old Javanese (kawiJ. Translated and edited with a preface by J. M. (KITLV. Translation Series, 19.) Ithaca, N.Y.: Modern Indonesia Project, Southeast Asia Program, ComplI University. Uhlenbeck, E. M. 1964. A critical survey of studies on the languages of Java and Carrington, 1.., Wurm, S.A. (ed.). Papers from the third International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. 4. Thematic variation. Canberra: Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 9-20. (Pacific Linguistics, C-77.)). 162 SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES __ 1985 The concept of proportionality, Old Javanese morphology and the Darusuprapta, Sudaryanto (ed.). Bahasa-sastra-budaya: ratna manikam Wallis, R. H. 1980. The voice as a mode of cultural expression in Bali. [Ph.D. 1986. Clitic, suffix, and particle: some indispensable distinctions in Old Javanese grammar. (In Hellwig, C.M.S., and Robson, S.O. (ed.). A man of Indonesian letters: essays in honour of Professor A. Teeuw. Dordrecht and Cinnaminson: Foris, 334-41. (Verbandelingen van het KITLV. Verhandelingen 121.)) 1987. Sentence patterns in the Old Javanese of the parwa literature. (In Laycock, D.C., and Winter, W. (ed.). A world of language: papers presented _ [Ph.D. thesis, University of Sydney, 1986.] Vruggink, H. D. 1985, Het Surinaams Javaans: een introduktie. Oso, 4, 53-62. Mada University Press, 66-82.) _ 163 structure of the Old Javanese word kakawin. (In Sulastin Sutrisno, untaian persembahan kepada Proj Dr. P. J. Zoetmulder. Yogyakarta: Gadjah _ JAVANESE LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND THEATRE thesis, University of Michigan, 1980.] Wedhawati, Gloria Soepomo, Laginem. 1979. Wacana bahasa Jawa. Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. Widyaparwa. 1968-. Widyaparwa. [Published in Yogyakarta by the Balai Penelitian Bahasa.] Winarsih Arifin (ed.) 1980. Babad Wilis. Naskah dan dokumen Nusantara: Textes et documents nousantariens, 1. Jakarta: Lembaga Penelitian Perancis untuk Timur Jauh; Bandung: Ecole ｆｲ｡ｮｾｩｳ･＠ d'Extreme-Orient. to Professor S. A. Wurm on his 65th birthday. Canberra: Department of . Winter, C. F., and Ranggawarsita. 1987. Kamus Kawi-Jawa, menurut Kawi- Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National Javaansch woordenboek. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press. [First University, 695-708. (Pacific Linguistics, C-IOO.)) published 1879.] 1989. The problem of interpolation in the Old Javanese Ramayana kakawin. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 145 (2-3), 324-35. '_ 1991. Nouns, nominal groups and substitutional processes in Old Javanese. (In Har1ow, R. (ed.). VICAL 2; Western Austranesian and contact languages: papers from the fifth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics. Auckland: Linguistic Sp'ciety of New Zealand, 349-66.) Wolff, J. U., and Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo. 1982. Communicative codes in Central Java. IIhaca, N.Y.: Southeast Asia Program, Department of Asian Studies, Cornell University. (Linguistic Series, 8, Data Paper 116.) Wolfowitz, C. S. 1984. Styles of speech in Suriname-Javanese. [Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University, 1984.] Yallop, C. 1982. The phonology of Javanese vowels. (In Halim, A., Carrington, Vetter, R. 1984. Poetic, musical and dramatic structures in a langen mandra L., Wurm, S.A. (ed.). Papers from the third International Conference on wanara perfonnance. (In Morgan, S., and Sears, L.J. (ed.). Aesthetic tradition Austranesian Linguistics. 2. Tracking the travellers. Canberra: Departtnent of and cultural transition in Java and Bali. Madison: Center for Southeast Asian Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National Studies, ｕｮｩｶ･ｲｾｴｹ＠ University, 299-319. (Pacific Linguistics, C-75.) of Wisconsin, 163-208. (Monograph, 2.) Vickers, A. H. 1986. The desiring prince: a study of the kidung Malat as text. Zoetmulder, P. J. 1974. Kalangwan: a survey of Old Javanese literature. The 164 SOUTH·EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. (KITLV. Translation Series, 16.) __ 1983. De taal van het Adiparwa: een grammaticale studie van het Oudjavaans. Dordrecht and Cinnaminson: Foris. [First published 1950.] Zoetmulder, P. J., and Robson, S.O. 1982. Old Javanese-English dictionary. s'· Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff. Zurbuchen, M. S. 1987. The language of Balinese shadow theater. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1 I L TRANSLATIONS OF SOlITH-EAST ASIAN TEXTS 419 Cambodian Chandler, David P. 1976. Two friends who tried to empty the sea: eleven Cambodian folktales. Victoria: Monash University Centre for Southeast Asian Studies. (Working Papers, 8.) Chi gas, George. (ed. and trl.). 1991. Cambodia's lament: a selection of Cambodian poetry. Massachusetts: George Chigas. lacob, ludith M. (ed. & trl.). 1986. Reamker (Ramakerti): the Cambodian Version of the Ramayana. London: Royal Asiatic Society. Milne, Anthony. 1972. Mr Basket-knife and other Khmer folktales. London: Allen and Unwin. Javanese D-..ｏＢｾｬ＠ le) ,Cl '55 1 lJ Abdul Rahman Kaeh. 1989. Panji Narawangsa. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. [Translation into Malay.] Anderson, Benedict R. O'G. 1965. [Translation of stanzas 3-6 of the serat Tripama.]. (In Anderson, Benedict R. O'G.Mythology and the tolerance of the Javanese. Ithaca, N.Y.: Modern Indonesia Project, Southeast Asia Program, Department of Asian Studies, Comell University, 16, 18. [Four stanzas of a famous work consisting of seven stanzas, by Prince Mangkunagara IV of Surakarta (r. 1853-81). The work describes three characters from the shadow theatre repertoire to exemplify virtuous qualities.]) Anderson, Benedict R. O'G. 1974. The last picture show: wayang beber. (In Conference on modem Indonesian literature, Madison, Wisconsin, 28-29 June 1974: Proceedings. Madison, Wisconsin: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Wisconsin, 33-81.) SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES 420 Anderson, Benedict R. O'G. introduction. Indonesia, 32 ＱＹＸｾＲＮ＠ TRANSLATIONS OF SOUTH-EAST ASIAN TEXTS ＨＱＰＹｾＵＩ＠ The Suluk Gatoloco; translated with an and 33 421 Branch, Royal Asiatic Society. (Monographs of the Malaysian Branch, Royal ＨＳＱｾＸＩＮ＠ Asiatic Society, 9.) Arps, Bernard. (tr!.)1994. Kalatidha:'Een duistere tijd', een 1ge eeuws Javaaus Drewes; G. W. J. 1954. Een Javaanse primbon uit de zestiende eeuw; opnieuw gedicht. (In Arps, Bernard, Koolhof, Sirtjo, and Maier, Henk (ed.). uitgegeven en vertaald. Leiden: E. J. Brill. (Uitgaven van de stichting De Traditionele en moderne paezie van Indonesie. Leiden: Instituut Indonesische Goeje,15.) Cursussen, ＱＷｾＲｬＮＩ＠ 1969. The admonitions of Seh Bari: a 16th century Javanese Muslim text Becker, Alton. 1982. The poetics and noetics of a Javanese poem. (In Tannen, D. attributed to the Saint of Bonari, re-edited. and translated with an (ed.). Spoken and written language: exploring orality and literacy. Norwood, introduction. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. (Bibliotheca Indonesica KITL V, N.J.: Ablex, ＲＱＷｾＳＸＮ＠ (Advances in discourse processes, 9) ) 4.) Berg, C. C. 1927. Kidung Sunda: inleiding, tekst, vertaling en aanteekeningen. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indiii, 83, _ ｉｾ＠ 16l. Martinus Nijhoff. (Bibliotheca Indonesica KITLV, Il.) _ Berg, E. J. van den. (ed. and tr!.). 1939. De val van Sora: 's-Gravenhage: Palembang manuscripts and authors. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Bonneff, Marce!. 1986. Peregrinations Javanaises: les voyages de R. M. A. Editions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme. (Etudes insulindiennes I Archipel,7.) Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. [Introduction to central Javanese wayang kulit p'urwa and three plays in English. These are adaptations for an American audience, rather than translations.] Carey, P. B. R. 1981. Babad Dipanagara: an account of the outbreak of the Java ＨｬＸＲＵｾＳＰＩ［＠ (Verhandelingen KITL V, 8l.) . _ 1978. An early Javanese code of Muslim ethics; edited and translated. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. (KITLV. Bibliotheca Indonesica, 18.) Ensink, J. 1967. On the Old-Javanese Cantakaparwa and its tale ofSutasoma. 's- Brandon, James R. 1970. On thrones of gold: three Javanese shadow plays. War 1977. Directions for travellers on the mystic path: Zakariyya's al-Ansari's Kitab Fatb al-Rabman and its Indonesian adaptations; with an appendix on Martinus Nijhoff. (Verhandelingen KITLV, 2.) Purwa Lelana: une vision de Java au XIXe siecle (c. I860-1875). Paris: 1975. The romance of king AriIiri Darma in Javanese literature. The Hague: Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff. (Verhandelingen KITLV, 54.) [Contains a translation of a section from the prose work Cantakaparwa.] Errington, J. Joseph. 1989. To know oneself the troubled times: Ronggawarsita's serat Kala Tidha. (In Becker, A. L. (ed.). Writing on the tongue. Ann Arbor: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, ＹＵｾ＠ the Surakarta court version of the Babad Dipanagara with 138. (Michigan Papers on South and Southeast Asia, 33) [A translation of a translations into English and Indonesian Malay. Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian short work of social criticism by one of the most famous 19th-century Surakarta court poets, Ranggawarsita ＨｬＸＰＲｾＷＳＩＮ｝＠ ) 422 TRANSLATIONS OF SOD11l-EAST ASIAN TEXTS SOUT1J-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LI1ERATURES 423 (pp. 107-57) derives from another publication, dated 1924.] Florida, Nancy K. Writing the past, inscribing the future: exile and prophecy in an Hinzler, H. 1. R. 1981. Bima Swarga in Balinese wayang. The Hague: Martinus historical text of nineteenth-century Java. lthaca, N.Y., Cornell University, Nijhoff. (Verhandelingen KITLV, 90.) 1990. [Contains a translation of the Babad Jaka Tingkir, a historical text of Hoadley, M. C., and Hooker, M. B. (tr!.). 1981. An introduction to Javanese law: early nineteenth-century Surakarta.] Gonda, J. 1935. The Javanese version of the Bhagavadgitil. Tijdschrift van het a translation of and commentary on the Agama. Tucson, Arizona: The Koninklijk Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen, 75, 36- University of Arizona Press. (Monographs of the Association for Asian 82. [A translation of part of the Bhismaparwa.] Studies, 37.) [Text and translation of an Old Javanese legal treatise, possibly written in the sixteenth century, with an extensive introduction. Based on Graaf, H. J. de, and Pigeaud, Th G. Th. (Tr!. and ann.). 1984. Chinese Muslims in Jonker 1885, butwith elaborate comparative introduction.] Java in the 15th and 16th centuries: the Malay annals of Semarang and Hooykaas, C. 1958. From Uilkil to Ayodhyil by Ceribon. Clayton, Victoria: Monash University. (Monash Papers on Southeast ｐｵｾ｡ｫＺ＠ being the Old Javanese RamayaiIa, sarga XXV mainly. Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Asia, 12.) Volkenkunde, 114,359-83. Hatch, Martin Fellows. Lagu, laras, layang: rethinking melody in Javanese music. [Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University, 1980. [Includes a translation of the _ 1958. The Old-Javanese Ramayatia-an exemplary kakawin as to form and Wedhatama, a famous philosophical poem attributed to Prince Mangkunagara content. Amsterdam: N. V. Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers Maatschappij. IV of Surakarta (r. 1853-81). See Robson 1990 for another translation of the· (Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, same work.] Afd. Letterkunde, Nieuwe Reeks, LXV .1.) Henry, Patricia B. 1985. Mpu Kanwa's Arjuna Wiwilha, sargas i-xiii: text, _ 1958. The paradise on earth in Lenkil (OJR XXIV.87-126). Bijdragen tot de transl'ltion, and commentary. The South East Asian Review, 10 (1-2), i-vi, 1- Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 114,265-91. [Contains text and translation of 161. [The first half of the famous Old Javanese narrative poem Arjunawiwaha part of the Old Javanese poem RiimiiyaQa, which is probably to be dated to the CArjuna's marriage'), which can be dated to c. 1030 a.d., with an introduction mid 9th century.] and annotations. This ｪｯｾ｡ｬ＠ _ published in Gaya, Bihar, India.] Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers Maatschappij. (Verhandelingen der Koninklijke Hieu, H. A. van. 1994. Wali sanga: de Javaanse geheime leer, samengesteld door de Negen Wali's van Java, indusief de formulieren voor de stille kracht & 93 1964. Agama tirtha: five studies in Hindu-Balinese religion. Amsterdam: ) I Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afd. Letterkunde, Nieuwe Javaanse duivels,,24 Javaanse spoken en 34 Javaanse geesten van mensen. Reeks, 70.4.) [Contains translations of a number of Balinese hymns, Breda: Warung Bambu. [A reprint of the second, revised edition of 1932, with incantations, spells, etc., which are in a form of Old Javanese.] modernized spelling. The part mentioned in the title following "inclusief ... " _ 1968. Bagus Umbara: prince of Koripan; the story of a prince of Bali and a j: ii 11 li I !I :j i! 424 SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATIJRES 425 TRANSLATIONS OF SOUl1l-EAST ASIAN TEXTS ＱＴＷｾ＠ princess of Java, illustrated on palm leaves by a Balinese artist, with Balinese Modern Indonesia Project, Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, text and English translation. London: The Trustees of the British Museum. 50. (Monograph Series, 43) [First edition 1968.] [A translation of a famous 1973. Kama and Kala: materials for the study of shadow theatre in Bali. didactic passage from the serat Rama, a poem based on the Old Javanese Amsterdam and London: North-Holland. (Verhande1ingen der Koninklijke Ramayana and ascribed to the famous Surakarta court poet Yasadipura I Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afd. Letterkunde, Nieuwe ＨｬＷＲＹｾＱＸＰＳＩＮ｝＠ ) Molen, Willem van der. 1983. Javaanse tekstkritiek: een overzicht en een nieuwe Reeks, 79.) benadering geiUustreerd aan de Kunjarakama. Dordrecht and Cinnarninson: _ (ed. and trl.). 1978. The Balinese poem Basur: an introduction to magic. The Foris. (Verhandelingen KITLV, 102.) Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. (Bibliotheca Indonesica KlTLV, 17.) Johns, A. H. 1965. The gift addressed to the spirit of the Prophet. Canberra: Oetomo, 000". 1987. Serat Ang Dok: a Confucian treatise in Javanese. Archipel, 34, Australian National University. (Oriental Monograph Series, I.) ＱＸｾＹＷＮ＠ Keeler, Ward. 1989. On Javanese interpretation: a scene from a wayang. (In Phalgunadi, I. Gusti Putu. (trl.). 1990. The Indonesian Mahiibhiir ata. Becker, A. L. (ed.). Writing on the tongue. Ann Arbor: Center for South and Virii;aparva-The first book. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian (Michigan Papers Culture and Aditya Prakashan. (Sata-pitaka Series, Indo-Asian Literatures, on South and Southeast Asia, 33) [Includes an English translation of a 360.) [Text and translation of the Old Javanese narrative prose work dialogue from a central Javanese shadow-play performance.] ) Adiparwa, which is an adaptation of a Sanskrit text and can be dated to c. Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, ＱＳＹｾＸＮ＠ 1000 a.d. The introduction is not entirely reliable.] Klokke, Marijke J. 1991. The tortoise and the geese: a comparison of a number of Indian and Javanese literary and sculptural versions of the story. (In Chandra, _ (trl.). 1992. The Indonesian Mahiibhiirata. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan. Lokesh (ed.). The art and culture of South-East Asia. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, (Sata-pitaka Series, Indo-Asian Literatures, 367.) ＱＸｾＹＮ＠ (Sata-pitaka Series, Indo-Asian Literatures, 364) ) Pigeaud, Theodore G. Th. 1924. De Tantu Panggelaran: een Oud-Javaansch prozageschrift, uitgegeven, vertaald en toegelicht. ' s-Gravenhage: H. L. Lys10ff, Rene T. A. Srikand!){ dances lengger: a performance of music and shadow Smits. theater in Banyumas (west central Java). [PhD' dissertation, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, 1990.] Viriitaparva-The fourth book. _ 1960-63. Java in the 14th century: a study in cultural history; the Nagara- Moertono, Soemarsaid. 1981. Asta brata (The eight statesman's virtues). (In kertagama by rakawi Prapanca of Majapahit, 1365 A.D. The Hague: Moertono, Soemarsaid State and statecraft in old Java: a study of the later Martinus Nijhoff. 5 volumes. [Volume 3 contains a translation of the Old Mataram period, 16th to 19th century. revised edition. Ithaca, N.Y.:. Cornell Javanese poem Nagarakr/iigama (describing the situation at tbe court of 426 SOUTH-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES 427 Majapahit and a number of royal tours to other districts of Java) aud a number Sastrowardoyo, Subagio, Djoko Damono, Sapardi, and Kasim Achmad, A. (ed.). of connected Old Javanese writings. The translations are radically literal. 1985. Anthology of ASEAN literatures: oral literature of Indonesia. Jakarta: Volnmes 2 and 4 contain commentaries.] The ASEAN Committee on Culture aud Information, 279-309. (Anthology of Prijono. 1938. Sri Tafijung: een oud lavaansch verlwal. Leiden: Burgersdijk en Niermans-Templum Salomonis. Raffles, Th S. 1978. The history of lava. With an introduction by lohn Bastin. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. 2 volumes. [First edition 1817, ASEAN Literatures, la.) [Contains texts in the original languages and English translations. There is also an Indonesian version, which appears to have formed the basis of the English trauslations.] Schoterman, J. A., and A. Teeuw. 1985. Jinarthipra!q-ti: a monk's ABC. (In Contains a partial translation of the Old Javanese Bharatayuddha , which is Sulastin Sutrisno, Darusuprapta, and Sudaryanto (ed.). Bahasa-sastra- defective but nevertheless interesting.] budaya: ralna manikam unto ion persembahan kepada Pro! Dr. P. I. Ricklefs, M. C. 1972. A consideration of three versions of the Babad Tanah Djawi, with excerpts on the fall of Madjapahit. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 35, 285-315. _ TRANSLATIONS OF SOUTH-EAST ASIAN TEXTS Zoetmulder. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press, 202-39.) Smith-Hefner, N. J. 1992. Pembaron: an East Javanese rite of priestly rebirth. lournal of Southeast Asian Studies, 23, 237-75. 1978. Modem Javanese historical tradition: a study of an original Kartasura Soebadio, Haryati. 1971. lfianasiddhiinra. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. chronicle and related materials. London: School of Oriental and Africau (Bibliotheca Indonesica KITLV, 7.) [Trauslation of a Shivaite treatise in Old Stndies, University of London. Javauese with mauy Sauskrit quotations.] Ricklefs, M. C., and Soepomo Poedjosoedarmo. 1967. The establishment of Surakarta, a trauslation from the Babad Giauti. Indonesia, 4,88-109. Soebardi, S. 1975. The book of Cabolek: a critical edition with introduction, translation and notes; a contribution to the study of the Javanese mystical Robson, S. O. 1971. Waqbaq Wideya: a lavanese Pafiji romance. The Hague: tradition. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. (Bibliotheca Indonesica KITLV, 10.) Martinus Nijhoff. (Bibliotheca Indonesica KITLV, 6.) [An excellent Soewito Santoso. (ed. aud trl.). 1975. Sutasoma: a study in lavanese Wajrayana. trauslation of a belletristic work about the adventures of Prince Panji.] _ 1990. The Wedhatama: aji English translation. Leiden: KITLV Press. (KITLV Working Papers, 4.) [A famous philosophical poem attributed to Prince Mangkunagara IV of Surakarta (r. 1853-81).] New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture. (Sata-pitaka Series, Indo-Asiau Literatures, 213.) _ (trl.). 1980. Ramayana kakawin. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Cnltnre. 3 volumes. (Sata-pitaka Series, Indo-Asian Literatnres, 251.) Roorda, T. 1841. Proeve van lavaansche poi!zie uit het lavaansche heldendicht _ (ed. and trl.). 1986.Kn'$1)ayana: the Kre$l)a legend in Indonesia. New Delhi: de Brata-joedaiJf de strijdder Bhardtas: een voorlezing. Leeuwarden: G. T. International Academy of Indian Culture. (Sata-pitaka Series, Indo-Asiau N. Suringar. Literatures, 345.) 428 SOUTIl-EAST ASIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES Supomo, S. 1977. Arjunawijaya: a kakawin of Mpu Tantular. The Hague: TRANSLATIONS OF SOUTH-EAST ASIAN TEXTS 429 Zurbuchen, Mary Sabina. 1989. Internal translation in Balinese poetry. (In Becker, A. L. (ed.). Writing on the tongue. Ann Arbor: Center for South and Martinus Nijhoff. (Bibliotheca Indonesica KITLV, 14.) [2 volumes.] Suranto Atmosaputro, and Hatch, Martin F. 1972. Serat Wed5atama: a Soull'1east Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 215-79. (Michigan Papers translation. Indonesia, 14, 157-82. on South and Southeast Asia, 33) ) Teeuw, A., and Robson, S. O. 1981. 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