Grazer Linguistische Studien

G ra z e r L in g u istisch e S tud ien 71 (F rü h jah r 2009), S. 99-113 T o ta l re d u p lic a tio n : s y n d e tic v s a s y n d e t i c p a t t e r n s in E u r o p e 1 T h o m a s S to lz U n iversity o f B rem en A b s tr a c t. T h e p a p e r re v ie w s th e d istrib u tio n o f s y n d e tic an d as y n d e tic re d u p lic a tiv e p a tte r n s in th e la n g u a g e s o f E uro p e. It is arg u ed th a t th e re is an areal logic b e h in d th e d is trib u tio n as la n g u a g e s in th e so u th an d w e s t b e h a v e d iffe re n tly fro m th e la n g u a g e s in t h e n o rth an d ea st o f th e co n tin e n t. S y nd etic an d a sy n d e tic red u p lic ativ e p a tte rn s are show n to be la rg e ly fu n c tio n a lly e q u iv a le n t alth o u g h sy n d esis is fa r less g ra m m a tic a lis e d th a n asy n d e sis. The d a ta are d ra w n from tw o large p arallel lite ra ry co rp o ra. T h e e v a lu a tio n p ro c e d u re is b ase d o n statistics. K e y w o rd s . A rea l ling u istics, asy n d esis, E uro p e, fu n c tio n a l eq u iv ale n ce , p a ralle l co rp o ra, sy n d esis 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n F or tw o ce n tu ries, th e te rm red u p lic atio n h a s b een u sed in g e n e ra l-c o m p a ra tiv e lin g u istics an d m an y o th e r p h ilo lo g ical d iscip lin e s w ith o u t e v e r b e in g d efin e d e x p lic itly in su ch a w a y th a t th e a d h e re n ts to d iffe re n t sc h o o ls-o f-th o u g h t ag ree w ith th e d e fin itio n w h o le h e a rte d ly . In p o in t o f fact, th e re la tiv e ly re cen t a tte n tio n p aid to re d u p lic atio n p h e n o m e n a by lin g u ists o f all k in d s o f scien tific co n v ictio n s h a s re v e a ­ led th a t th ere still is a g re a t deal o f u n c e rta in ty a n d d isag re em en t as to w h a t p h e n o m e n a c o u n t as in sta n ce s o f re d u p lic atio n an d w h a t o th e rs fail to q u a lify fo r th e s ta tu s o f re d u p lic atio n . T h is in ce rtitu d e is am p ly d o cu m en te d by th e m any c o n trib u tio n s to th e co llectio n o f articles ed ited b y H u rch (2005)z. T h e p ro b le m a tic 12 1 T h is stu d y fo rm s p a rt o f th e p ro jec t o n “T o ta le R e d u p lik a tio n - d ie A re a llin g u is tik ein es U n iv e rs a le s ” (“T o ta l red u p lica tio n - th e area l lin g u is tic s o f a u n iv e rs a l”) fin an c ed b y th e D e u ts c h e F o rsc h u n g sg em ein s c h aft (DFG ) at th e u n iv e rs ity o f B rem en . I am g ra te fu l to th e o rg a n is e rs o f th e 2 nd C o n fe re n ce o n R ed u p licatio n in G ra z to su g g e st to m e th e p u b lic a tio n o f m y p a p e r in G ra z e r L in g u istisc h e S tu d ien . 1 also feel in g ra tia te d to m y d is c u ss a n ts w h o m ad e m e re c o n s id e r a n u m b e r o f iss u es o f m y o rig in al p re s e n ta tio n . T h e m e m b ers o f m y p ro je c tte a m -A n d re a s A m m ann, T am ar K hizan ish v ili, N a ta liy a L ev k o v y ch , A in a U rd ze, a n d E lis a b e th V erh o ev en - h elp ed m e c o u n t th e in s ta n c e s o f sy n d e sis a n d as y n d e s is in o u r p ara llel c o rp u s - a te d io u s ta sk fo r w h ic h th e y d eserv e a w o rd o f th a n k s, to o . N e v e rth e le ss , th e c o n te n ts o f th e fin al v e rsio n o f m y p a p e r are e n tir e ly m y o w n res p o n sib ility . 2 T h e v a rio u s h y p o th e s e s a re ta k e n u p in S to lz (2007a) w h e re I rev ie w th e m c ritic a lly a n d s u g g e s t th a t a p ro to ty p e d efin itio n o f re d u p lica tio n is th e b es t so lu tio n . 100 T h o m a s S to lz p o in ts are a m o n g o th e rs th e p ro p e r w a y o f d is tin g u is h in g re d u p lic a tio n fro m re p e titio n a n d th e m in im al d eg ree o f (p h o n o lo g ical a n d /o r sem an tic) s im ila rity th a t is re q u ired o f seg m en tal ch a in s to ju s tif y th e ir b ein g classified a s re d u p lic a tiv e p a tte r n s (Stolz 2007a). T otal re d u p lic atio n p oses th e a d d itio n a l p ro b lem o f w h e th e r th e co n s tru c tio n is a (m o rp h o lo g ica lly com p lex, co m p o u n d -lik e) w o rd o r a s y n ta g m o f so rts. In th is co n trib u tio n , I h ig h lig h t an in te re s tin g b u t h ith e rto la rg e ly n eg lec ted asp ect asso cia ted w ith to tal re d u p lic atio n , n a m e ly th e co -ex is te n ce o f tw o d iffe re n t co n s tru c tio n ty p e s w h ic h , fo r co n v e n ien ce, are lab elled a s y n d e tic a n d s y n d e tic p a t­ te rn s (th e ir d efin itio n s are g iv e n in section 2 belo w ). T h e tw o c o n s tru c tio n s d iffe r su ch th a t a s y n d e tic p a tte rn s are g en e ra lly m o re in lin e w ith th e p ro to ty p e o f re d u p lic a tio n w h e re a s s y n d e tic p a tte rn s d e v ia te fro m th is y a r d s tic k es p e c ia lly a s to th e fo rm a l c rite ria ap p ly in g to th e ex p ressio n side. A s a ru le o f th u m b , I a s s u m e th a t as y n d e tic p a tte rn s in s ta n tia te re d u p lic atio n w h ile th e p ro p e r p lac e o f s y n d e tic p a tte rn s in th e p h e n o m e n o lo g y o f re d u p lic atio n re m a in s d o u b tfu l. S y n d etic p a tte r n s b e h a v e like b o rd e rlin e rs, in a m a n n e r o f sp ea k in g . In w h a t fo llo w s, I lo o k a t th e d ifferen ce s an d sim ilarities o f th e tw o p a tte rn s a n d d iscu ss th e ir im p lic a tio n s fo r th e th e o ry o f re d u p lic atio n . W ith a v ie w to h a v e a h a n d y em p iric al b as is fo r m y lin e o f a rg u m e n ta tio n , I re strict m y s tu d y to th e la n g u a g e s o f E u ro p e a n d d ra w m y ex a m p le s fro m a larg e (literary ) p ara llel te x t co rp u s3. 2. A s y n d e s is v s s y n d e s is Be as y n d e s is th e label used to id en tify th o s e p u ta tiv e ly re d u p lic a tiv e c o n s tru c tio n s w h ic h co n s ist id ea lly o f • tw o s y n ta c tic a lly a d ja c e n t p h o n o lo g ically , m o rp h o lo g ic ally a n d s e m a n tic a lly • each o f w h ic h is a fu lly accep tab le w o rd -fo rm o r s y n ta g m w h e n u se d in • b e tw e e n w h ich th e re is n o (m ajo r) s y n ta c tic b o u n d a ry an d id en tical ch a in s o f seg m en ts iso la tio n an d • th e ir c o m b in atio n is ass ig n ed a m e a n in g w h ic h is n ot a b s o lu te ly id en tica l w ith th e o n e as so cia ted w ith th e in d iv id u a l c o m p o n e n ts o f th is c o m b in a tio n E x am p le ( 1 ) illu stra te s th e u se o f a n a s y n d e tic p a tte r n in M a lte s e 4, th e A fro -A siatic la n g u a g e o f M a lta 5 (M altese [Ba 81]): ’ T h e re le v a n t in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e p arallel co rp u s is p ro v id ed in S to lz (2007b). 4 M y M a lte se co llea g u es R ay F ab ri an d A n n a Z am m it co n firm e d t h a t m y r e a d in g o f the M alte se e x a m p le is co rrect. 5 In th e s e n te n tia l ex a m p le s, b o ld fac e m a rk s th e re le v a n t p a r ts w h ic h r e p r e s e n t s y n d e tic or a s y n d e tic p a tte rn s . T h ro u g h o u t th e ex e m p lific atio n 1 u se th e s p e llin g c o n v e n tio n s o f my so u r ce s o r th e co m m o n ly accep ted sy stem s o f tr a n s lite ra tio n fo r la n g u a g e s w r i tte n w ith a no nL atin -b a se d a lp h ab e t. T h e a b b re v ia tio n s u se d in th e tr a n s m o rp h e m is a tio n s a r e sp elle d o u t in th e ap p e n d ix . T h e s q u a re b rac k ets co n ta in th e id e n tific a tio n o f th e lite r a r y te x t fro m w h ic h the e x a m p le is d ra w n . 101 T o ta l r e d u p lic a tio n (1 ) K ien e t q ieg h d a tirra k k u n ta lu d ak li be.Perf:3.S.F Prog:F 3.S.F:tell.Im perf:10.3.S.M D em .M .D Rel k ien g h ad d a m in n g h a lih a g h o d u g h o d u b e .P e rf pass.PA from for:3.S.F m o r n in g m o r n in g 'S h e w a s te llin g h im w h a t he w e n t th ro u g h on h e r b e h a lf th e v e r y e a r ly in m o r n in g . T h e c o n s tru c tio n g h o d u g h o d u co n sists o f tw o sy n ta c tic a lly ad jac en t p h o n o lo g ically , m o rp h o lo g ic a lly a n d sem an tica lly id en tical ch a in s o f seg m en ts. In iso latio n , g h o d u is a fu lly ac ce p ta b le w o rd -fo rm w ith th e m ea n in g ‘m o rn in g ’. B etw een g h o d u gh odu, th e re is n o (m a jo r) sy n tactic b o u n d ary . T o g eth e r, th e tw o in stan ce s o f g h o d u c o n s titu te an a d ju n c t p h ra se w ith th e fu n c tio n o f a tim e ad v erb ial. T h e co m b in atio n g h o d u g h o d u is as sig n ed a m ea n in g (A q u ilin a 1990: 1002 ) w h ic h is n o t ab so lu te ly id en tica l w ith th e o n e asso c iated w ith th e in d iv id u a l c o m p o n en ts o f th is co m b in atio n (‘v e ry early in th e m o rn in g ’ v s ‘m o rn in g ’). Be s y n d e s is th e label u sed to id en tify th o se p u ta tiv e ly re d u p lic ativ e c o n ­ s tru c tio n s w h ic h co n sis t id ea lly o f • tw o p h o n o lo g ic a lly , m o rp h o lo g ically an d se m a n tic a lly id en tical ch a in s o f • each o f w h ic h is a fu lly accep tab le w o rd -fo rm w h e n u sed in iso latio n an d se g m e n ts • w h ic h a re co n n e cted to each o th e r b y a d d itio n al p h o n o lo g ica l m aterial to fo rm a b ip a rtite sy n tactic u n it an d • th e ir c o m b in a tio n is assig n ed a m e a n in g /c o n n o ta tio n w h ic h is n o t ab so lu te ly id e n tic a l w ith th e o n e asso cia ted w ith th e in d iv id u a l co m p o n en ts o f th is co m b in a tio n . T h e L atv ia n e x a m p le ( 2 ) c o n ta in s a co n stru c tio n o f th e s y n d etic k in d 6 (L atv ian [H P I L atv ian , 81]): (2 ) J a u n a is p a z ip a v in a m p a tik a a rv ie n n e w :N O M .M .D E F a c q u a in ta n c e :N O M h e:D A T ap p ea l:P R E T .3 a lw a y s m a z-ak un m a z -a k l it tle - C O M P and little -C O M P ‘H e lik ed h is n e w ac q u a in ta n c e l e s s a n d l e s s . ’ T h e c o m b in a tio n m a z a k un m a z a k co m p rises tw o p h o n o lo g ica lly , m o rp h o lo g ica lly an d s e m a n tic a lly id en tica l ch a in s o f seg m en ts ( m a z a k an d m a z a k ) w h ic h are co n n e cted to e a c h o th e r b y ad d itio n a l p h o n o lo g ica l m a te ria l (un) to form a b ip a rtite sy n ta c tic u n it (a n a d ju n c t p h ra se w ith th e fu n c tio n o f a m a n n e r adv erb ial). T h e tw o ite m s m a z a k a n d un are each fu lly accep tab le w o rd -fo rm s w h e n used in is o la tio n (m a z a k = ‘le s s ’; un = ‘a n d ’). T h e co m b in atio n m a z a k un m a z a k is assig n ed a 6 A in a U rd ze - a n a tiv e -s p e a k e r lin g u ist o f L atv ia n - k in d ly d isc u ss ed m y in te rp re ta tio n o f th is ex a m p le w ith m e w h e r e b y she c o rro b o ra te d m y in tu itio n . T h o m a s S to lz 10 2 m e a n in g w h ic h is n o t ab so lu te ly identical w ith th e one as so c ia te d w ith th e in d iv id u a l c o m p o n en ts o f th is co m b in atio n (‘ev e r less ’ v s ‘les s’). T h e tw o ex am p les d iffer fro m o n e a n o th e r in th e fo llo w in g w a y s: In th e M a lte s e ex am p le (1), it is n o t p ossib le to use o n ly o n e c o m p o n e n t o f th e a s y n d e tic re d u p lic atio n alo ne: *g h o d u on its o w n w o u ld p ro d u ce an u n g ra m m a tic a l s e n te n c e - fil- g h o d u ‘in th e m o rn in g ’ w o u ld be th e co rrec t form w h ic h th e n in v ite s a s lig h tly d iffe re n t rea d in g . In th e L a tv ia n ex am p le (2), th e c o n ju n c tio n a n d th e sec o n d co ­ o rd in a te d c o m p arativ e form a re o p tio n al i.e. o n e m a z a k alo n e w o u ld n o t a lte r th e m e a n in g o f th e sen te n c e b ecau se o f th e p re sen ce o f a rv ie n ‘a lw a y s ’; w ith o u t a r v ie n h o w e v e r, m a z a k c a n n o t be u sed on its o w n - o n ly m a z a k un m a z a k m ak es s en se in th e ab se n ce o f arvien. T h ese o b s e rv a tio n s suffice to h elp m e d ev e lo p a w o rk in g h y p o th e s is . A s y n d e tic a n d s y n d e tic re d u p lic ativ e p a tte r n s d iffer fro m each o th e r a s to th e ir a f fin ity to stric tly ru le -d e p e n d e n t p h e n o m e n a an d sty listic d evices, re sp ec tiv ely . A s y n d e tic re d u p lic ativ e p a tte rn s as so c ia te m o re d ire c tly w ith g ram m ar w h e reas s y n d e tic re d u p lic ativ e p a tte rn s h a v e m o re in co m m on w ith fig u re s o f sp eech . T h e tw o p a tte r n s fu lfil th e p a ra m e te rs o f g ra m m a tic a lis a tio n d iffe ren tly , to o . A s to th e ir d e g re e o f b o n ­ d ed n ess, as y n d e tic p a tte rn s are m o re closely b o n d ed w h e r e a s s y n d e tic p a tte r n s te n d to be o n ly lo o sely b o n d ed , if a t all. T h u s, in term s o f W a lc h li’s ty p o lo g y (2005 [dev elo p ed fo r “c o -co m p o u n d s”]), asy n d es is re p re se n ts tig h t re d u p lic a tio n w h e r e a s sy n d e sis is an in s ta n c e o f loose red u p licatio n . T h e q u e s tio n a ris e s w h e th e r o r n o t s y n d etic p a tte rn s can be su b s u m ed u n d e r th e h e a d in g re d u p lic a tio n . If tr e a tin g th e m as (p e rh ap s o n ly aty p ica l o r “b a d ”) re d u p lic atio n m ak es sense, it re m a in s to be see n w h e th e r o r n o t all k in d s o f s y n d e tic p a tte rn s b e h a v e th e sam e. W ith a v ie w to c o n trib u tin g to th e cla rific atio n o f th e s e q u e s tio n s , I h a v e a clo se r loo k a t th e re la tio n o f as y n d e sis an d sy n d es is in E u ro p e in s e c tio n 3. 3. E u r o p e - p a r a d i s e o f s y n d e s is A c co rd in g to R u b in o (2005a-b), E u ro p e is th e o n ly re d u p lic a tio n -fre e a r e a o n th e w o rld m ap. H o w e v er, to tal re d u p lic atio n o f th e as y n d e tic ty p e is c o m m o n es p ec ially in s o u th e rn E u ro p e an d te n d s to be em p lo y ed fo r g ra m m a tic a l p u rp o s e s th e re (Stolz 2002, 2004). M o rav csik (1978) co n sid ers as y n d e tic to ta l re d u p lic a tio n a u n iv e rs a l p h e n o m e n o n - an d R u bino (2005a-b) co rro b o ra te s th e n e a r - u b iq u ity o f a s y n d e tic to ta l re d u p lic atio n w ith o u t sp ec ify in g w h e th e r as y n d e tic to ta l re d u p lic a tio n is p a r t o f g ra m m a r o r o f sty le. In th is co n trib u tio n , I c a n n o t m ak e th e n e c e s s a ry a d ju s tm e n ts fo r all la n g u a g e s o f th e w o rld . W h a t I can ask n e v e rth e le s s is th e fo llo w in g p a ir o f q u estio n s: W h a t h a p p e n s in th o se p arts o f E u ro p e w h e re a s y n d e tic to ta l re d u p lic a tio n is in d ee d ra re? D o es s y n d e tic red u p lic atio n ta k e o v er th e re ? If it can be s h o w n th a t th e re is a d iv isio n o f la b o u r a m o n g th e tw o p a tte rn s a lo n g th e lin e s o f E u ro p e a n sub areas , ch an ces are th a t as y n d e sis and sy n d esis are tw o fu n c tio n a lly e q u iv a le n t w a y s o f ex p res sin g a g iv en con cept. T o ta l r e d u p lic a tio n 103 3.1. A p r o v i s i o n a l t e s t c a s e T h e ab o v e q u e s tio n s call fo r a s tu d y b ased on a p arallel co rp u s b ecau se a sy n d e tic an d s y n d e tic p a tte r n s a re o fte n left u n m e n tio n e d in th e e x ta n t d esc rip tiv e m ate ria l an d . in ad d itio n , w o rk in g w ith q u e s tio n n a ire s d e a lin g w ith red u p lic atio n h as been to o fr u stra tin g . A t th e u n iv e rs ity o f B rem en, w e u su ally w o rk w ith a co llectio n o f tex ts co m p rised o f th e o rig in al a n d th e tra n s la tio n s o f A n to in e de S a in t-E x u p é ry ’s Le Petit Prince. F or th e p re s e n t p u rp o se , I rely on a E u ro p e an sam p le o f 82 lan g u ag e s and re g io n a l v a r ie tie s fo r w h ic h v ersio n s o f Le Petit Prince w e re h an d y . N o te th a t m y “in te r p r e ta tio n ” o f E u ro p e in clu d es th e e n tire n a tio n al te rrito ry o f T u rk ey , th e T ra n s c a u c a s u s a n d th e w e s te rn m o s t p a rt o f K azak h stan . A s s ta r tin g p o in t, I h a v e ch o s en a s en te n c e from th e F rench o rig in al in w h ic h a ty p ical case o f s y n d e s is is em p lo y ed . T h e E n g lish tra n s la tio n o f (3) fo llo w s th e F rench lead in so f a r as th e F ren ch s y n d e tic p a tte r n is tra n s la te d by an E n g lish sy n d etic p a tte r n (F ren ch [LPP F ren c h , V I.2]): (3) P e tit p rin c e j’ ai co m p ris peu à peu L ittle P rin ce I h av e:lS G u n d ersta n d :P P little to little ain si ta p e tite vie m élan c o liq u e, th u s younF little:F life m ela n c h o ly ‘L ittle P rin ce , b i t b y b i t I cam e to u n d e rs ta n d th e secrets o f y o u r sad little life .’ F ren ch p e u à p e u a n d E n g lis h b it b y b it a re c a n d id a te s fo r b ein g classified as in s ta n c e s o f s y n d e tic re d u p lic a tio n as th e c o n stru c tio n s fulfil th e b asic criteria: th ey co n sist each o f tw o p h o n o lo g ic a lly , m o rp h o lo g ically an d s e m an tica lly id en tical ch ain s o f se g m e n ts w h ic h a re co n n e cted to each o th e r b y a d d itio n al p h o n o lo g ical m ate ria l to fo rm a b ip a rtite s y n ta c tic u n it; each o f th e c o m p o n en ts is a fu lly accep ta b le w o rd fo rm w h e n u s e d in iso la tio n a n d th e ir co m b in a tio n is ass ig n ed a m e a n in g w h ic h is n o t a b s o lu te ly id e n tic a l w ith th e o n e as so cia ted w ith th e in d iv id u a l co m p o n en ts o f th is co m b in atio n . W ith th e s e o b s e rv a tio n s as b ac k g ro u n d in fo rm atio n , I can tack le th e fo llo w in g em p iric al q u e s tio n : D o th e la n g u a g e s o f E u ro p e tra n s la te F rench p e u à p e u by (a) sim ila rly s y n d e tic c o n s tru c tio n s o r (b) a s y n d e tic red u p lic ativ e p a tte rn s o r (c) u n its w h ic h esc ap e b e in g classified as re d u p lic atio n s (ev en in th e m ost to le ra n t re ad in g o f th e term )? 3.2. T h e d a t a I b eg in w ith th e d o c u m e n ta tio n o f th o s e la n g u a g e s w h ich d ev ia te fro m th e sy n d e tic p a tte r n ex e m p lified b y F ren c h in (3) ab ov e. F o r th e sak e o f b re v ity , I re fra in from illu s tra tin g th o s e ca ses w h e re n e ith e r sy n d esis n o r as y n d e sis app lies as th e so lu tio n s a re to o v a r ie g a te d to a llo w a c le a r-c u t d efin itio n o f th e class itself. T ab le I su rv ey s th e la n g u a g e s o f m y sam p le w h ic h opt fo r as y n d e tic p a tte rn s in th e ir tra n s la tio n s o f F ren c h peu à peu. T h e la n g u a g e s are p re sen ted in alp h ab e tic order. T he re le v an t 104 T h o m a s S to lz co n s tru c tio n is g iv en in th e ce n tre co lum n . In th e rig h tm o s t co lu m n , th e g e n e tic a ffilia tio n o f th e sam p le la n g u a g e is specified. T h e th re e sta rs *** in d ica te w h e re th e cla ssifica tio n o f a la n g u a g e is co n tro v e rs ia l in te rm s o f th e s y n d e s is -a sy n d e s is o p p o sitio n . T ab le I: A sy n d etic p a tte rn s tr a n s la tin g p eu à peu la n g u a g e co n s tru c tio n p h y lu m A b k h az xdyc 'y-xayc ’(-la) hedí hedí k ic -k ’ic ' yava§ yava§ poliki poliki a poc apoc (d)in man in man malo-pomalo zim -zim (-a) piano-pianu malo-pomalo nel-nel(a) sigá-sigá egy-egy a poco a poco hin hi hin bi jek-jek (b)il-mod il-mod trepat-trepat abellu abellu plang plang yava$ yavaf N o rth w e s t C a u ca sia n A ra m a ic (T u rk e y ) (E a st) A rm e n ia n A zeri B asq u e B erg am as co B o lo g n ese B osnian*** C h e ch e n C o rs ic an C ro atian * * * G eo rg ia n (M o d e rn ) G reek H u n g a ria n Ita lian K u rd ish L o vari M a ltese M o ld a v ia n S ard in ia n S u rm e ir a n T u rk ish A fro -A siatic/S em itic In d o -E u ro p e a n /A rm e n ia n T u rk ic Iso late In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u r o p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p e a n /S la v ic N o rth e a s t C a u ca sia n In d o -E u r o p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p ea n /S la v ic S o u th C a u ca sia n In d o -E u ro p ea n /G re ek U ralic/U g ric In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p e a n /I ra n ia n In d o -E u ro p e a n /In d ic A fro -A siatic/S em itic In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce T u rk ic 7 m a jo r p h y l a + 1 is o la te 22 l a n g u a g e s In t a b l e II, I p r e s e n t t h e d a t a f r o m t h o s e l a n g u a g e s w h o s e s t r u c t u r a l s o l u t i o n s a r e in lin e w ith th e F re n c h p a tte rn as th e y in s ta n tia te s y n d e s is . S in g le u n d e rlin in g h i g h l i g h t s t h e e l e m e n t w h i c h s e r v e s a s c o n n e c t o r o f t h e t w o s e g m e n t a l l y id e n tic a l p a rts o f th e c o n s tru c tio n . T a b l e II: S y n d e t i c p a t t e r n s t r a n s l a t i n g p e u a p e u la n g u a g e c o n s tru c tio n p h y lu m A lb a n ia n (G h eg) pak nga pak pak nga pak poga poc pasu ente pasu tamm-ha-tamm de mica en mica kousek po kousku lidt efter lidt bit by bit pocu a pocu peu a peu In d o -E u ro p e a n /A lb a n ia n A lb a n ia n (Tosk) A ranese*** A s tu ria n B reto n C a ta la n C zech D an ish E n g lish E x tr e m a d u ra F ren ch In d o -E u ro p e a n /A lb a n ia n In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p e a n /C e ltie In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p ea n /S la v ic In d o -E u ro p e a n /G e rm a n ic In d o -E u ro p e a n /G e rm a n ic In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce T o ta l r e d u p lic a tio n G alego G ascon G erm a n (Sw iss) G erm a n (Berne)** G h erd e in a K ölsch L an g u e d o cien (S ou th ) L im b u rg h ian L etzeb u erg esh M a ce d o n ian N o rw e g ian P ro v en çal R u m an ia n S p anish S u rse lv an V allader 105 pouquino a poco chic a chic nach und nach naadisnaa do y do noh un noh pauc a pauc (zoe) mit en m it lues a lues malku po malku litt etter litt pau à cha pau pufin cite pupn poco g poco plan a plan plaun a plaun 27 l a n g u a g e s In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p e a n /G e rm a n ic In d o -E u ro p e a n /G e rm a n ic In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p e a n /G e rm a n ic In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p e a n /G e rm a n ic In d o -E u ro p e a n /G e rm a n ic In d o -E u ro p e a n /S la v ic In d o -E u ro p e a n /G e rm a n ic In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce In d o -E u ro p ea n /R o m a n ce 1 m a jo r p h y lu m T h e 33 l a n g u a g e s w i t h “a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s ” i.e. w h i c h e m p l o y n e i t h e r s y n d e s i s as y n d e sis are: • In d o -E u ro p ea n (= 26 lan g u ag e s) • G e rm an ic (= 9): A lsatian , (W est) F risian , D u tc h , F aroese, Iceland ic, • R o m an ce (= 4): A ra g o n ese , F ra n c o -P ro v en ça l, F riu lan , P o rtu g u es e (N o rth ) L im b u rg h ian , L ow G e rm an , S w ed ish, Y iddish • S lavic (= 10): B ielaru sian , B u lg a ria n , C ro a tia n (B u rg en lan d ), Polish, R u ssian , S erbian, Slovak, S lo v en ian , (U pper) S o rb ian , U k ra in ian • • B altic (= 2): L atv ian , L ith u a n ia n • C eltic (= 2): Irish , W elsh N o n -In d o -E u ro p e an (= 6 lan g u a g e s) • U ralic (= 4): E sto n ian , F in n ish , Saam i, U d m u rt • T u rk ic (= 2): K azakh. T a ta r T h e d istrib u tio n o f lan g u ag e s o v er ty p e s - w ith a ty p e b ein g d efin ed by th e kind o f co n stru c tio n th a t is em p lo y ed to tra n s la te F ren ch peu à peu - is such th a t asy n d es is o ccu rs in 27% o f th e sam p le lan g u ag es , sy n d esis ap p lies in 33% o f th e lan g u ag es w h e re a s 40% o f th e la n g u a g e s do n o t m ak e u se o f re d u p lic atio n -lik e co n stru c tio n s. T h is tra n s la te s in to a 60% m a jo rity o f re d u p lic atio n -lik e c o n stru c tio n s i.e. th e re is a ten d en c y fo r E u ro p e an lan g u ag e s to p re fe r sy n d e s is /a s y n d e s is o v er a lte rn a tiv e so lu tio n s. S yn d esis is th e m o re fre q u e n t o f th e tw o re d u p lic atio n -lik e o p tio n s a lth o u g h as y n d e sis is n u m e ric a lly ra th e r stro n g . T h e n ex t q u es tio n to be ad d re ssed is th e g en ea lo g ical co rre la tio n s o f th e abo v e statistics. In tab le III, I check w h ich co n stru c tio n ty p e o cc u rs w ith w h a t freq u e n c y in th e lan g u a g e s o f a g iv en p h y lu m . In th is w a y , it can be d ecid e d w h e th e r or n o t th e p re fe re n c e for a c o n stru c tio n ty p e is a p o te n tia l c a n d id a te fo r a h e rita g e from th e co m m o n past, in a m a n n e r o f sp eak in g. I u se bo ld face to m ark “in te re s tin g ” ab so lu te v alu es. T h o m a s S to lz 106 T a b le III: D is trib u tio n o f p a tte r n s o v er p h y la p h y lu m su b p h y lu m as y n d etic s y n d e tic o th e r sum In d o -E u ro p e a n R om ance 7 14 4 25 S lav ic G erm a n ic 2 to 14 0 2 8 9 17 A rm en ia n 1 0 0 1 G reek 1 0 0 1 C a u c a s ia n A fro -A s ia tic Indie 1 0 0 1 Ira n ia n 1 0 0 1 A lb a n ia n 0 2 0 2 C eltic 0 1 2 3 2 B altic 0 0 2 N o rth e a s t 1 0 0 1 N o rth w e s t 1 0 0 1 S o u th 1 0 0 1 S em itic 2 0 0 2 4 2 0 2 U gric 1 0 0 1 F inn ic 0 0 4 4 Iso la te 1 0 0 1 Sum 22 27 33 82 T u rk ic U ralic A s y n d e s is o ccu rs in th e larg e st n u m b e r o f g en etic g ro u p s (13 o u t o f 18), w h e re a s s y n d e s is (w ith 5) an d ab s en ce o f red u p lic atio n -lik e p a tte r n s (w ith 7) are m in o rity s o lu tio n s . A sy n d e sis o ccu rs in all C au ca sia n an d in all A fro -A sia tic la n g u a g e s o f th e sam p le. S y nd esis is atte s te d ex c lu siv e ly in m em b e rs o f th e In d o -E u ro p e a n p h y lu m . A b se n c e o f red u p lic atio n -lik e p a tte rn s is p re p o n d e ra n tly an In d o -E u ro p e a n affa ir b u t o c cu rs also q u ite o ften in U ra lic an d T urk ic la n g u ag e s. P h y la w ith m o re th a n tw o m e m b e rs m ay behave h e te ro g en eo u s ly : R o m an ce an d S lavic la n g u a g e s have re p re s e n ta tiv e s in all th re e categ o ries. G erm an ic, T u rk ic a n d U ralic d is trib u te th e ir m e m b e rs o v e r tw o categ o ries. A sy n d e sis is o v e rw h e lm in g ly as so cia ted w ith R o m an ce la n g u a g e s (asy n d es is is atte s te d fo r 56% o f all R o m an ce la n g u a g e s an d o f all la n g u a g e s a tte s tin g as y n d es is 51% b elo n g to th e R o m ance p h y lu m ). A b sen c e o f re d u ­ p lic a tio n -lik e p a tte rn s is ty p ica l o f S lavic (71% o f th e S lavic lan g u ag e s av o id re ­ d u p lic a tio n , Slavic la n g u a g e s a c co u n t fo r 30% o f all re d u p lic a tio n av o id in g lan g u ag e s) a n d to a lesser d eg ree also o f G e rm an ic lan g u ag e s (53% o f th e G e rm an ic lan g u ag es lack re d u p lic atio n , G e rm an ic la n g u a g e s h a v e a sh are o f 27% in th e ca te g o ry w ith o u t re d u p lic a tio n ), too. T h e h ig h e st score o f ab sen ce ca n be ascrib ed to F in n ic lan g u ag e s ( 1 0 0 % o f all F inn ic lan g u ag e s), th o u g h . T h u s , th e re is a ce rta in g en e tic co m p o n e n t to th e d is trib u tio n o f c o n s tru c tio n ty p e s o v e r lan g u ag es . H o w e v er, th e p h y la d o n o t a lw a y s b e h a v e h o m o g e n e o u sly as t h e y o fte n a tte s t splits, m e a n in g m em b ers o f o n e an d th e sam e p h y lu m m ay o pt fo r d iffe re n t so lu tio n s. If th es e d ifferen ces escap e e x p la n a tio n , areal facto rs are to be ta k en in to acco un t. an in te rn a l g en e alo g y -b a se d T o ta l r e d u p lic a tio n 107 3.3. G e o g r a p h y If o n e d iv id es th e E u ro p ea n m ap v ery su p e rficially in to fo u r q u a d ra n ts ac c o rd in g to th e m a jo r d irec tio n s, th e fo llo w in g p ictu re em erges: • • p ra ctically all lan g u ag e s eq u ip p ed w ith as y n d e sis are lo cated in th e so u th , th e v a st m a jo rity o f th e la n g u ag e s w h ich a tte s t sy n d es is are lo cated in th e w e st, w h e re a s • th e b ulk o f th e la n g u a g e s w ith o u t re d u p lic ativ e p a tte rn s is fo u n d in th e ea st an d th e n o rth . T h is g eo lin g u istic s itu atio n is ca p tu re d b y m ap I. A b b re v ia te d g lo sso n y m s7 p rin te d in b o ld face an d p o sitio n ed b etw e en th e d o tte d lin es in d ica te la n g u a g e s w h ic h em p lo y asy n d e sis. U n d e rlin in g m ark s lan g u ag e s w h ic h h a v e sy n d etic p atte rn s. T h e ir a r e a is a d d itio n a lly b o u n d e d by th e sim p le line. T h e re m a in in g la n g u a g e s are in ita lic s w i t h ­ o u t a d d itio n a l b o u n d a ry sy m b o ls b ecau se th e c o n stru c tio n s are to o h e te ro g e n e o u s to m ak e th e se lan g u ag e s fo rm a class. M ap I: G e o lin g u istic d istrib u tio n San Fir. Far s ' ' N Sw e Est LG I n 1 Dr XL Udm Lai Lit D #)> Sor Pol C :e st Bie te s i Fr a.;5/ G c‘ E G a: ; Lov , Burs B tm i M ol V r Pro FP Surm B e r g Friv. Slew ö ·’■ C or B ol B os BG Sar Ita G h e g M ac V M ai Gre G: V» E rr ' 1---- 1 G i r er Cro Sci :------ : ¡Bas L-i-iT L an k t C ar Chech A bk R i ti n ''- • S e t T osh Geo A nn A z e ri Tur Kur A ra m A real clu ste rin g is p o te n tia lly in d ica tiv e o f d iffusio n v ia la n g u a g e co n tac t o r c o n v e r­ g en ce. T h e p re feren ce fo r ce rta in co n stru c tio n ty p e s o r ex p re ssio n s is d ia c h ro n ic a lly ex p lica b le as th e resu lt o f th e c o n s ta n t in tera ctio n o f s p ea k ers o f d iffe ren t b u t g e o g r a ­ p h ic ally n e ig h b o u rin g la n g u a g e s in d ep en d e n t o f th e ir g en ea lo g ical an d ty p o lo g ic al b ack g ro u n d . E v e n closely rela ted la n g u ag e s o r reg io n al v a rie tie s m ay d iffe r as to th e ir p re feren ces. A c co rd in g to m y abo v e fin d in g s, th is ap p lies in te r alia to N o r th v s S o u th L im b u rg h ian , G e rm an a n d Low G e rm an , N o rw eg ian a n d S w edish, C zech a n d S lo v ak , C ro a tia n an d B u rg en lan d C ro a tian , C ro a tia n a n d S erb ian , B u lg a ria n a n d M ac ed o n ian , P o rtu g u e s e an d S panish, M o ld av ia n a n d R u m an ian , B reto n a n d W e lsh , etc. W h e re u n ex p e cte d d iv erg en ce o f th is k in d o ccu rs, it is v e ry o ften th e c a se th a t T h e g lo s so n y m s a re g iven in full in th e ap p e n d ix . T h o m a s S to lz 108 th e g e n e tic a lly re la te d la n g u a g e s w h ich are at o d d s w ith each o th e r ass o c ia te d w ith th e ir g e n e tic a lly less clo sely rela ted o r u n re la te d n e x t-d o o r n eig h b o u rs , fo r in s ta n c e : N o rth L im b u rg h ia n fits in w ith D u tch w h e re a s S o u th L im b u rg h ia n b e h a v es lik e th e R h en ish n e ig h b o u r K ö lsch . B re to n fo llo w s F ren ch (and th u s d ev ia te s fro m W e ls h ), C zech g o es a lo n g w ith G e rm a n b u t S lov ak is in line w ith P o lish, B u lg aria n a g re e s w ith S erb ia n w h e re a s M ac ed o n ian is sim ila r to th e tw o A lb a n ia n v arieties . T h u s, a r e a lity m a y be h eld resp o n sib le fo r th e d isag re em en t b e tw e e n la n g u a g e s w h ic h o th e rw is e s h a re a co m m o n g en e tic b ac k g ro u n d . 3.4. E q u i v a l e n c e T h e fact t h a t so m e la n g u a g e s em p lo y as y n d e tic p a tte rn s to tra n s la te w h a t in o th e r la n g u a g e s is ex p res se d b y sy n d etic p a tte r n s su g g ests th a t th e tw o ty p es o f re d u p li­ c a tio n -lik e c o n s tru c tio n s are p o te n tia lly fu n c tio n a l eq u iv a le n ts o f each o th e r a n d th u s b o th v a rie tie s b e lo n g to th e c o n tin u u m o f th e fo rm a l m ean s u se d to ex p ress a g iv en m e a n in g (in th e ab o v e case: ex te n sio n o v e r tim e o f a process w h ic h d ev e lo p s ste p w ise in re la tiv e ly sm all in terv als). D o es th is p o te n tia l eq u iv ale n ce tra n s la te in to sta tis tic a l eq u iv a le n c e ? A ch eck o f 38 E u ro p e a n la n g u a g e s fo r w h ich a v ersio n o f J o a n n e R o w lin g ’s H a rry - P o tte r vol. 1 (u su a lly so m e 225 p ag e s long ) w a s av a ila b le is m e a n t to re v ea l w h e th e r o r n o t as y n d e s is an d sy n d esis are j u s t tw o sides o f th e sam e coin. In ta b le 4, I p ro v id e th e a b s o lu te n u m b e r o f a tte s ta tio n s an d p erce n ta g e s o f sy n d esis a n d a s y n d e ­ sis in th e tr a n s la tio n s a n d th e o rig in al o f th e sam p le text. T h e la n g u a g e s are o rd e re d ac c o rd in g d e c re a s in g sy n d esis. W h e re th e p erce n ta g e s are id en tical, th e la n g u a g e w ith th e h ig h e r ab s o lu te n u m b e r o f a tte s ta tio n s p reced es th e lan g u ag e w ith th e c o r re s p o n d in g lo w e r on es. B oldface sin g les o u t th e lan g u ag e s w ith a p e rc e n ta g e fo r sy n d es is u p to 29%, italic s are u sed to id en tify lan g u ag e s w h o s e sh are o f s y n d e tic c o n s tru c tio n s is lo cated b etw e en 30%-59%. T ab le 4: S y n d es is v s as y n d e sis in H a rry P o tte r vol. sy n d e sis ab s o lu te rela tiv e a b s o lu te re la tiv e 100% E n g lis h 64 100% 0 0% 64 F aro ese 47 o o la n g u a g e 1 as y n d es is to tal 0 0% 47 N o rw e g ia n 38 100% 0 0% 38 D a n is h 37 100% 0 0% 37 S w e d is h 35 100% 0 0% 35 D u tc h 29 100% 0 0% 29 Ice lan d ic 23 100% 0 0% 23 P o rtu g u e s e 17 100% 0 0% 17 F in n ish 15 100% 0 0% 15 C ro a tia n 15 100% 0 0% 15 S lo v en ia n 15 100% 0 0% 15 S p a n is h 15 100% 0 0% 15 P o lish 7 100% 0 0% 7 G e rm a n 4 100% 0 0% 4 L o w G erm a n 71 98.61% 1 1.39% 72 T o ta l r e d u p lic a tio n 109 F re n c h 41 97.6% 1 2.4% 42 L atv ian 43 93.5% 3 6.5% 46 S erb ian 11 91.66% 1 8.34% 12 R u m an ia n 55 90.12% 6 9.88% 61 30 C zech 27 90% 3 10% E sto n ia n 9 90% 1 10% 10 G ale g o 34 83% 7 17% 41 B u lg aria n 8 80% 2 20% 10 A lb a n ia n 50 74.62% 17 25.38% 67 37 Irish 25 67.56% 12 32.44% M a ce d o n ia n 4 66.66% 2 33.34% 6 C a ta la n 53 61.27% 33 38.73% 86 Lithuanian Georgian Ukrainian Russian Italian Welsh Slovak 19 59 12 19 16 5 12 59.37% 53.63% 44.44% 44.18% 37.2% 31.25% 30.76% 13 51 15 24 27 11 27 41.63% 46.37% 55.56% 55.82% 62.80% 68.75% 69.10% 32 110 27 43 43 16 39 G re ek 7 29.1% 17 70,90% 24 H u n g a ria n 5 17.85% 23 81.15% 28 B asque 12 3.44% 337 96.56% 349 T u rk is h 1 1.13% 88 98.87% 89 T h es e v alu es can be u sed as th e in p u t fo r a n o th e r E u ro p e an m ap. M ap II re fle c ts th e a re a l d is trib u tio n o f th e th re e g ro u p s d istin g u ish e d ab o v e ac co rd in g to th e p e rc e n ta g e ca lcu lated fo r sy n d esis. T he th re e g ro u p s are h ig h -d e g re e sy n d es is (= 100%-60%), m id d le -d eg re e sy n d esis (= 59%-30%) an d lo w -d e g ree sy n d es is (= 29%-0%). T h e la n g u a ­ g es b elo n g in g to th e g ro u p c h a ra c te rised b y h ig h -d eg ree sy n d e sis are s u rro u n d e d by a lin e (“iso g lo ss”) o n th e m ap. T h e tw o o th e r g ro u p s are n o t se p a ra te d from e a c h o th e r b y lines. H o w e v e r, italics are u sed to m a rk m id d le -d e g ree sy n d es is an d b o ld fac e id e n ­ tifies lo w -d eg ree sy n d esis. M ap II: H igh (100%-67%), m id dle (66%-34%), lo w (33%-0%) sy n d esis Geo 110 T h o m a s S to lz M ap II c le a rly s h o w s th a t th e p erce n ta g e s do n o t d is trib u te ra n d o m ly o v er la n g u a g e s . T h e re is a p ro n o u n c e d d iffe re n c e w h ic h se p a ra te s la n g u a g e s lo cated on th e m a rg in s o f th e c o n tin e n t from th o se w h ic h are sp o k en in th e ce n tre. T h e 25 la n g u a g e s w ith h ig h -d e g r e e sy n d es is c lu ste r in th e ce n tre w h e re th e y co v er a large an d u n in te rru p te d a r e a w h ic h rea ch e s fro m th e E u ro p e a n n o rth d o w n to th e B alk an s in th e s o u th e a s t a n d to th e Ib e ria n p e n in s u la in th e so u th w e st. W ith th e ex cep tio n o f F in n is h a n d E s to n ia n , all o f th e la n g u a g e s w ith h ig h -d eg re e sy n d esis h ap p e n to be m em b ers o f th e In d o -E u ro p e a n m a c ro p h y lu m (G erm an ic, R om ance, Slavic, C eltic a n d B altic). T h e la n g u a g e s w ith h ig h -d e g re e sy n d es is are a lw a y s n e ig h b o u rs o f o th e r la n g u a g e s w ith th e sam e p ro p e rty w h e re a s so m e o f th e ir g en e alo g ical n e x t-o f-k in m ay b e lo n g to a d iffe re n t g ro u p (th is ap p lies to L a tv ia n a n d L ith u a n ia n , B u lg a ria n an d M ac ed o n ia n , C zech a n d Slovak, Irish an d W e lsh , for in stan ce). L a n g u a g e s w h ic h d is p la y m id d le o r lo w d eg rees o f sy n d e sis are fo u n d o n th e m a rg in s o f th e co n tin e n t. T h is d iv isio n in to a r a th e r larg e n u cle u s an d a re la tiv e ly tin y p e r ip h e ry is re m in is c e n t o f m a n y o th e r m ap s d ra w n b y s tu d e n ts o f E u ro p e a n a rea l lin g u is tic s (e.g. H a sp e lm a th 2001 , Stolz 2006). T h ere u s u a lly is an e x te n d e d are a in th e c e n tr e su rro u n d e d b y a v a ry in g n u m b e r o f sm allish su b -a re a s o r in d iv id u a l s o lu tio n s o n th e o u tsk irts. T h u s , th e ab o v e o b serv atio n s as to th e p re fe re n ce s an d d islik e s o f m y E u ro p e a n s am p le lan g u ag e s co rro b o ra te th e g en e ra l te n d e n c y fo r th e lin g u is tic la n d sca p e o f E u ro p e to sp lit in to v a rio u s su b -a re a s w ith a re la tiv e ly c o n s ta n t (b u t in te rn a lly v aria b le ) c o re-p e rip h e ry d ich o to m y . M u ta tis m u ta n d is , a h ig h d e g re e o f sy n d es is m ig h t tu rn o u t to be a ch a ra c te ristic fe a tu re o f S ta n d ard A v e ra g e E u ro p e a n la n g u a g e s an d th e ir im m e d ia te n eig h b o u rs. A p a r t from th e s e are a l-lin g u is tic a ssu m p tio n s , w h a t w e can see from th e ab o v e is th e fo llo w in g : • F o r all la n g u a g e s o f m y E u ro p e a n sam p le w h ic h in s ta n tia te asy n d es is, th e re • F o r all la n g u a g e s o f m y E u ro p e a n sam p le w h ic h av o id re d u p lic atio n - lik e is also ev id en ce fo r th e u se o f sy n desis. c o n s tru c tio n s in th e te s t case, th e re is also ev id en ce fo r th e u se o f sy n d e sis e ls e w h e re in th e co rp us. • T h e re v e rse o f th es e p a tte r n s d o es n o t h old, th u s: • T h e u se (or o cc asio n al av o id an ce ) o f sy n d e sis d o es n o t allo w us to co n c lu d e a n y th in g a b o u t th e p re sen ce o r ab se n ce o f asy n d e sis. • S y n d esis te n d s to be th e less restricted p h e n o m e n o n an d is th u s p e rh a p s e n title d to th e s ta tu s o f a p o te n tia l u n iv ersal. T h e s ta tu s o f p o te n tia l u n iv e rs a l o f sy n d e sis d o es n o t tell u s e x a ctly w h a t k in d of u n iv e rs a l w e are facing . O w in g to th e re p o rte d fu n c tio n a l eq u iv ale n ce o f sy n d esis a n d a sy n d e sis , it loo ks like b o th are e n title d to th e label o f g ra m m a tic a l co n stru c tio n . W h e th e r th is is v alid fo r each a n d e v e ry in sta n ce o f sy n d e sis/a sy n d e sis is a m a tte r to be d iscu ssed on a n o th e r o ccasio n . For th e p re se n t p u rp o se, it is im p o rta n t to n o te th at s y n d e s is seem s to be p a rtic u la rly ea sy to acco m m o d ate to a n y k in d o f m o rp h o s y n ta c tic stru ctu re . A t th e sa m e tim e, th e s y n ta g m a tic d im en sio n o f sy n d e s is e s p e c ia lly o f th o s e cases w h ic h o p e ra te on th e b asis o f a n d -c o n ju n c tio n - a llo w fo r a 111 T o ta l r e d u p lic a tio n c e rta in d eg ree o f d isp o s ab ility (at least o f p a rts o f th e w h o le co n stru c tio n ) a n d th u s m ak e sy n d esis sty listica lly em p lo yable. 4. O u tlo o k T h is p ap er h a s n o t solved th e p ro b lem s p o sed by th e p o te n tial fu n c tio n a l eq u iv a le n c e o f s y n d es is an d asy n d es is. R ed u p licatio n re sea rc h e rs are re q u ired to in v e s tig a te m o re clo s ely th e re la tio n sh ip , th e fu n c tio n a l d o m ain s an d th e d is trib u tio n p rofiles o f b o th p a tte rn s. F or th e p re sen ce o r ab sen ce o f as y n d es is fo r in stan ce , it is a d d itio n a lly im p o rta n t to see w h e th e r ju x ta p o s itio n is a le g itim a te m ean s o f “e n c o d in g ” g ra m m a tic a l re la tio n s at all in th e lan g u ag e s w h ich av o id asy n d e sis. M o re o v e r, th e c a rto g ra p h y o f th e fe a tu re s u n d e r re v ie w calls fo r tw o n ec ess ary fo llo w -u p stu d ies , n a m e ly o ne w h ic h re lates th e ab o v e fin d in g s d ire c tly to iso g lo sses p o s tu la te d in o th e r area lly -m in d e d p ro jects a n d th e o th e r d ed ica ted to th e d iac h ro n ic d ev e lo p m e n ts w h ic h h av e y ield ed th e p re sen t s itu a tio n . C learly , th e se an d o th e r re la te d in v e s tig a tio n s m u s t be b ase d on a q u a n tita tiv e ly m o re solid em p irical fo u n d a tio n . O n e sen ten c e s u re ly is n o t en o u g h to en a b le th e lin g u ist to b u ild an e n tire th e o ry u p o n . N e v erth ele ss, sec tio n 3 su g g ests th a t it m ak es sen se fo r areal lin g u ists , ty p o lo g is ts a n d re d u p lic atio n re sea rc h ers to co n tin u e th is kind o f s tu d y to g ain v a lu a b le in sig h ts in to th e n a tu re o f re d u p lic atio n as an areal an d as a u n iv e rs a l p h e n o m en o n . 5. S o u rc e s [B a] = P aw lu M ifsu d. 1998. Il-Bam bin ta S a n t‘ A n tn in . M alta: P u b lis h e rs E n te rp rise s G ro u p . [LPP F rench] = A n to in e d e S a in t-E x u p éry . 1946. Le Petit Prince. P aris: G a llim ard . 6. R e f e r e n c e s A q u ilin a , J. (1990). M altese-English dictionary. Volume Two: M -Z and addenda. M alta: M ID SEA . H a sp e lm a th , M. ( 2 0 0 1 ). T h e E u ro p e an lin g u istic area. S ta n d a rd A v erag e E u ro p e a n . In M . H a sp e lm a th , et al. (Eds.), Language typology and language universais. Vol. 2 (pp. 1492-1510). B erlin: d e G ru y te r. H u rc h , B. (Ed.) (2005). Studies on reduplication. B erlin: M o u to n de G ry u te r. M o ra v cs ik , E. (1978). R ed u p licativ e c o n stru c tio n s. In J. H. G re en b erg (Ed.), U niversais o f H um an Language, vol III: W ord structure (pp. 297-334). S tan fo rd : S ta n fo rd U n iv e rsity Press. R u b in o , C. (2005a). R ed u p licatio n : form , fu n c tio n an d d istrib u tio n . In B. H u rc h (Ed.), Studies on reduplication (pp. 11-30), B erlin : M o u to n d e G ry u te r. R u b in o , C. (2005b). R ed u p licatio n . In: M .H asp elm ath , et al. (Eds.), The world atlas o f language structures (pp. 114-117). O xford : O x fo rd U n iv e rs ity Press. T h o m a s S to lz 112 Stolz, T. (2002). C ro s s c u rre n ts - th e M e d ite rra n e a n reg io n as a p o te n tia l lin g u is tic area. In C. M asa la (Ed.), D er M ittelm eerraum - Brücke oder G renze?( pp. 53-74). B ad en -B ad en : N om os. Stolz, T. (2004). A n e w M ed iterran ea n ism : w o rd ite ra tio n in a n a re a l p ersp e c tiv e . A p ilo t-stu d y . M editerranean Language Review, 15, 1-47. Stolz, T. (2006). (W o rt-)-Ite ra tio n : (k)ein u n iv erse lle s P h ä n o m e n ? In K. F is c h e r & A. S te fa n o w its ch , (Eds.), K onstruktionsgram m atik. Theorie (pp. 105-132). T ü b in g en : S tau ffen berg . Von der A n w e n d u n g zu r Stolz, T. (2007a). D as ist d o ch k eine R ed up lik ation ! Ü ber falsc h e F re u n d e bei d er S u che n a ch rich tig en B eisp ielen . In A. A m m an n & A. U rdze (E ds.), W iederholung, Parallelismus, Reduplikation. Strategien der m ultiplen S tru ktu ra n w en d u n g (pp. 47-80). B o ch um : B rock m ey er. Stolz, T. (2007b). H a rry P o tte r m eets Le p etit p rince - on th e u s e fu ln e s s o f p a ralle l co rp o ra in c ro s slin g u is tic in v e stig atio n s . Sprachtypologie u n d U niversalien­ forschung, 60 (2), 100-117. W ä lch li, B. (2005). Co-com pounds and natural coordination. O x fo rd : O x fo rd U n iv e rsity Press. 7. A p p e n d ix 7.1. T r a n s m o r p h e m i s a t i o n C o m p = co m p a ra tiv e , D = d istal, D a t = d ativ e, D e f = d efin ite, D em = d e m o n s tra tiv e , F = fe m in in e, IO = in d ire ct ob ject, M = m ascu lin e, N om = n o m in a tiv e , P A = activ e p artic ip le, P e rf = p erfectiv e, P re t = p rete rit, Rel = rela tiv e, S = su b je ct 7.2. G lo s s o n y m s A b k = A b k h az, A lb = A lb a n ia n , A ls = A lsatian , A ra m = A ra m aic, A ra = A ra g o n e se , A ra n = A rá ñ e se, A rm = A rm e n ia n , A st = A stu rian , A zeri = A z e rb a id ja n i, B as = B asq u e, B erg = B ergam asco , B ern = B ern e G erm an , Bie = B ie la ru s ia n , Bol = B o log n ese, Bos = B o sn ian , B re = B reton , Bui = B u lg arian , B u rg = B u rg e n la n d C ro a tia n , C a t = C atalan , C h ech = C h ech en , C o r = C orsican , C ro = C ro a tia n , C z(e) = C zech, D an = D an ish , D u (t) = D utch , E n g = E ng lish, E st = E s to n ia n , E x t = E x tre m a d u ra n , F ar = F aro ese, Fin = F in n ish , FP = F ran c o -P ro v en c al, Fr = F ren ch , Fri = F risian. F riu = F riu lan , G al = G aleg o, G as = G asc o g n ian , G eo = G e o rg isch , G e r = G erm an . G h e g = G h e g A lb an ia n , G h e r = G h erd ein a, G r = G reek , H u n = H u n g a ria n , Ice = Icelan d ic, Ir = Irish, It(a) = Ita lia n , Kaz = K azak h , Köl = K ölsch, K u r = K u rd is h , Lan = L an g u ed o cie n , Lat = L atv ian , Letz = L e th eb u erg es h . LG = L ow G e rm a n . Lit = L ith u a n ia n , Lov = L ov ari, M ac = M ac ed o n ian , M ai = M altese, M ol = M o ld a v ia n , NL = N o rth L im b u rg h ian , N o r = N o rw eg ian , Pol = P o lish, P or « P o rtu g u e s e , P ro = P ro v en ca l, R um = R u m an ian , R us = R u ssian, S aa = S aam e, S ar = S a rd in ia n , Sel = Surselv an . S er = S erbian, SL = S o u th L im b u rg h ian , Slk = S lovak, S lo(v) = S lo v e n ia n , Sor - S o rb ían , Sp = S p an ish , Sur = S u rm eira n , S w e = S w edish , T at = T a ta r, T o s k = Tosk T o ta l r e d u p lic a tio n 113 A lb a n ia n , T u r = T u rk is h , U d m = U d m u rt, U k r = U k ra in ia n , Val = V allader, W = W elsh , Yid = Y idd ish