3.1 Individual Development and Problem-Solving Skills

MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEMSOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani 1 1 EMPOWERED AND SELF DETERMINED STUDENTS Traditionally, students have taken passive roles in educational settings. They have followed a set of rules and norms handed down by authority figures and embedded in the culture of society. Students follow schedules which have been created for them, they complete tasks and tests developed by teachers or educational boards and they move through a system in which they are given little choice (Zacarian & Silverstone, 2020). These traditional teaching techniques most especially those based on rote memorization often reduce student curiosity to the elemental what do I need to pass this exam? Moreover, what is expected to be learnt is generally not demanding of higher-order thinking skills and career path, leading to a lack of motivation and frustration (McCombs, 2000). Expectations like these date from the early days of a universal public education, the point of which was to help all students acquire the skills and dispositions necessary to promote the acquisition of knowledge and involved citizenry. Underlying the foundation of a universal education was the assumption that children were empty vessels who would receive the knowledge, attitudes, and moral leanings presented to them by teachers, who acted as stand-ins for their parents and religious authorities. (Zacarian & Silverstone, 2020, p. 9) 1 Recommended Citation: Hummel, S., Sheehan, B., Munro, A., & Neranjani, S. (2021). Learner-Centered Primary Education. Enhancing Co-Created Learning Processes: Individual Development and Problem-Solving Skills. In: S. Hummel, ed. CONTESSA: Contemporary Teaching Skills for South-East Asia (pp. 148-161). University of Graz. https://doi.org/10.25364/401.2021.CONTESSA.3.1 148 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani This traditional education system, in which students are viewed as empty containers into which educators place knowledge, was coined the banking model of education by Paulo Freire, an educator and philosopher who critiqued traditional education. While the students in this model are labeled empty containers, teachers are expected to be authority figures who deposit the knowledge into their passive students (i.e., into a bank), ignoring any previous knowledge or experiences they may already have (Freire, 1970).2 to whom techniques are applied, students can be disconnected from their learning. This approach can end up disempowering, rather than empowering, students, particularly as the behavior that is usually rewarded homework, learning class content, and completing work on time. This focus squash (Broom, 2015, p. 80) There has, however, been a revolution in thinking amongst educationalists compliant, submissive and passive, now students are expected to be creative, The banking model of education states that instead of communicating the teacher issues communiqués (statements) and makes deposits which the students patiently receive, memorize, and repeat. This is the "banking" concept of education, in which the scope of action allowed to students extends only as far as receiving, filing, and storing the deposits. (Freire, 1970, p. 72) confident, insightful and collaborative. Figure 1 below illustrates the changing ideals of positive student characteristics over time. 2 Picture source: Open source from pixabay.com 149 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani Positive Student Characteristics Traditional Classrooms (Before the 19th Century) Contemporary Classrooms (Mid 20th Century - Today) Compliant - Passive - Unquestioning - Submissive - Dutiful Adaptable - Collaborative Confident - Honest - Industrious Outspoken - Problem Solver Resilient Figure 1: Positive Student Characteristics3 This growing importance of student empowerment is a concept that Zacarian & Silverstone (2020) argue is rooted in two major factors: personal action and own learning experience by making choices both big and small. The more students are able to exercise their own choice and agency in academic situations, the more empowered they will become (Zacarian & Silverstone, 2020). Broom (2015) views empowerment as closey linked to self-efficacy, or the belief that Empowered students can consider various perspectives, make their own thoughtful decisions and engage in problem solving. When students become empowered, there are benefits for both the individual and the society (Broom, 2015). atmosphere in which individual students are supported by the classroom community to take responsibility for their lives in trying to meet their needs (p. 2). Therefore, student empowerment should be focused on working with and not over others. The sharing of power, from both teacher to student and student to student, is essential. 3 Adapted from Zacarian & Silverstone (2020). 150 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani Students who are involved in power-with relations are more likely to feel a sense of belonging than if they are involved in power-over relations. Furthermore, if students satisfy their need for belonging in the classroom and there is a sense of community, then it seems reasonable to expect that they are more likely to achieve a sense of power-with. Additionally, gaining a sense of power-to would contribute to students satisfying their need for power because students would be more likely to be able to pursue and realize their social goals. (Sullivan, 2002, p. 2) In all of these definitions, the importance of both autonomy (thinking and highlighted. While these terms autonomy and collaboration may sound paradoxical, the small classroom example below shows the subtle ways in which an empowered student uses one to support the other: Andrew is struggling with a math exercise. Emily understands the exercise but notices her partner is having trouble. Without being prompted by the teacher or Andrew, Emily asks Andrew if he wants to complete the exercise together. Andrew admits that he does not understand the exercise and would like to work on it together with Emily. Their teacher hears them talking quietly while doing the exercise and gives them a thumbs up.2 In this example, Emily feels confident she knows the answer and that she has the capacity to help. She is also empathic towards her classmate and wants to collaborate with him. Andrew is accepting of help and secure enough in his environment and with his classmate to admit he needs help. Their teacher is willing to share her power with Emily and is happy to see her students There are three conceptions of power that are useful for examining empowerment - Power-over can be considered a negative force of power in the form of domination as the effect on the individual(s) over which the power is wielded is likely to be a position of powerlessness. - Power-with can be considered as a positive force of power because it is about equal power relationships rather than domination. - Power-to exists when a person perceives that they have the ability or capability to act and thus can be considered a positive force of power. (Sullivan, 2002, p. 1) working together. It should be stated that student empowerment does not ask educators to completely abandon the norms or systems of the past. Teachers should continue 151 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani to instill the importance of respect and compliance with important rules (e.g., following protocol when the fire alarm rings or listening when someone is speaking), but in order for students to thrive in any environment (classroom and beyond), they must feel empowered in contributing to an interdependent community. THE IMPORTANCE OF BECOMING AN EMPOWERED AND SELF DETERMINED STUDENT Teachers are trained as professionals and experts in their field and should be respected as such, but this does not mean that students should not harness power in the classroom as well. When teachers listen to their students and honor their voices, students are more likely to display initiative, commitment and confidence. Teachers, even those who believe student empowerment is important, may be hesitant to abandon the traditional system in which the their students disem (Broom, 2015, p. 81). When teachers share power with their students, it does not mean that they have less. If instead of micromanaging their students, teachers can learn how to empower them, teachers will make their own lives easier, avoid burnout, and help students take responsibility for guiding their own learning. They will thus benefit their students, themselves, and our society overall. It seems counter-intuitive, but by giving students power, teachers gain power and better classroom control. (Broom, 2015, p. 82) Below are some ways empowering students will support positive outcomes in their learning. 152 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani 2.1 Empowered Students Are Lifelong Learners Empowered students are equipped with the ability to act on their own behalf or on behalf of their community to accomplish a goal or establish an outcome. Ultimately this extends outside of the classroom and encourages them to be developing society. The development of information and computer technologies has led to a dramatic change in the expectations of what students should be capable of doing as adults. The shift from basic manufacturing to the often highly automated production of more sophisticated goods together with the rapid development of the knowledge-based service sector and the pace of technological developments has led to an increase in the need for critical thinking, problem-solving and collabrative communication skills. In recognition of this seismic shift in the social environment, lifelong learning has become increasingly important. Figure 2 below outlines the core attributes of effective lifelong learners (Murdoch & Wilson, 2008). They think critically, logically and reflectively about others, about themselves and about the world. They are flexible, adaptable, creative, technologically literate, openminded and selfaware. They can problem solve, cooperate, consider possibilities and consequences, use a range of reources, research and communicate. Effective Lifelong Learners Figure 2: The Core Attributes of Life-Long Learners4 153 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani Learning is something students do their whole lives in various different forms, therefore it is necessary to encourage students to be architects of their own learning from an early age. When teachers instill the trust in students to take great ownership of their own learning (i.e., empowerment), they develop more independent and self-directed learners. 2.2 Empowered Students Are Confident When teachers give their students greater control and choice over their learning, students gain more confidence in their abilities. Confident students become more independent and begin directing their own learning inside and outside of the classroom; confidence develops optimism, which leads to action (Broom, 2015). Confidence is synonymous with self-efficacy and they are both correlated with achievement-related behaviours, including cognitive processing, achievement performance, motivation, self-worth and choice of activities (Seifert, 2004, p. 137). Students who are confident are more inclined to be self-starters, strategic thinkers and adaptive in various situations, whereas students who are less confident may avoid difficult or challenging tasks and refrain from asking questions (Seifert, 2004). 2.3 Empowered Students Develop Empathy Empowered learners are able to see the difference they can make and how their education and learning can impact those around them. Just as was displayed in the example of Andrew and Emily in part 1 of the text, empathy encouraged her to help her classmate solve a problem. When students are encouraged to create safe and empathetic communities in the classroom, they will make the connection between social responsibility in the greater community to serve a greater good. To take such actions, students must have a good deal of awareness and the capacity to pick up the verbal and nonverbal messages others are sending. It is fair to say that practicing social responsibility begins with awareness 4 Adapted from Murdoch and Wilson (2008). 154 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani with paying careful attention to others. These skills do not come naturally to all students and may need to be encouraged or explicitly taught and practiced. Teachers can model such skills by being empathetic with students and seeking to identify personally with the situations they face. (Zacarian & Silverstone, 2020, p. 15) Community solidarity can be cultivated in the classroom by letting students know they are seen and heard and giving them the opportunity to experience, build and nurture relationships. 2.4 Empowered Students Are Not Afraid of Failure Failure is unavoidable an growth. Empowered students understand that failure is a part of life and a natural part of learning (e.g., because they have been introduced to the work of intellectual greats who have failed before reaching success or they have been allowed to fail in the classroom). Failure can be seen as something that does not end the learning process, but instead as a form of feedback for continued growth. This will also contribute to their path to become lifelong learners, as knowledge itself is changing quickly and continuously based on new information (Broom, 2015). Teachers can see knowledge as living and something acquired by students as they actively engage with their experiences. That is, teachers do not their interactions with others in what Dewey can help students make sense of their experiences through reflection, or discussion. In short, teachers can empower their students through studentfocused lessons that engage them in inquiry and reflection and that are nurtured in and through relationships. (Broom, 2015, p. 83) John Dewey was an educational scholar and reformer who advocated for a revolutionary model of education, proposing that a public school enterprise should be a place of vision, discovery, 155 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani THE IMPORTANCE OF LIFE-SKILLS IN BECOMING AN EMPOWERED STUDENT There are certain abilities and behaviors (or life skills) that enable students to meet the demands and challenges of everyday life to become empowered students, lead self-determined lives and be productive members of society. Some students will acquire these life skills naturally, while others will have to work harder to perfect their skills. Life skills can be modelled and taught by parents, guardians, loved ones and, in the educational setting, teachers. Schools provide an ideal setting for students to acquire these skills. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there is a core set of life intellectual challenge, adventure, and excitement a place where all individuals have the opportunity to contribute something, and in which the activities in which all participate are the chief carrier of control. (Zacarian & Silverstone, 2020, p. 10) skills that promote the health and well-being of young people. These are outlined in table 1. Table 1: Core Life Skills5 CORE SKILL Decision-Making Problem-Solving Critical Thinking Creative Thinking Communication Interpersonal Relationships Self Awareness Empathy 5 DEFINITION Helps us to deal constructively with decisions about our lives. Enables us to deal constructively with problems in our lives. Significant problems that are left unresolved can cause mental stress and give rise to accompanying physical strain. Our ability to analyze information and experiences in an objective manner. Contributes both to decision-making and problem-solving by enabling us to explore the available alternatives and various consequences of our actions or inaction. Means that we are able to express ourselves, both verbally and nonverbally, in ways that are appropriate to our culture and situations. Help us to relate in positive ways with the people we interact with. Includes our recognition of ourselves, of our character, of our strengths and weaknesses, of our desires and dislikes. The ability to imagine what life is like for another person, even in a situation that we might not be familiar with. Adapted from World Health Organization (2020, p. 18). 156 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani Coping with Stress Coping with Emotions Recognizing the sources of stresses in our lives, recognizing how this affects us, and acting in ways that help to control our levels of stress. Involves recognizing emotions in ourselves and others, being aware of how emotions influence behavior and being able to respond to emotions appropriately. The life skills outlined in table 1 are essential because they can guide young people to improve their lives, help them gain a better understanding of themselves and others, make better choices and learn to cope with changing events in the world they inhabit. More specifically, life skills learning can help students become more in tune with: (i) what they are doing; (ii) how they are doing things; (iii) how they obtain information; and (iv) other people and how they think, feel and behave (World Health Organization, 2020, p. 19). In addition to the life skills mentioned above, the American Psychological Association (APA) focuses on 14 psychological factors that are under the control of the student and deal holistically with real-world learning situations. This list of 14 research-validated Learner Centered Psychological Principles processes that occur when the conditions and context of learning are supportive of individual learner needs, capacities, experiences, and interests. foundation [This] is essential to designing technology-supported practices that (McCombs, 2000, p. 5). It applies to all learners, regardless of age and the learning environment. The list includes: metacognitive and cognitive factors; affective and motivational factors; developmental and social factors; and individual difference factors. Focusing on learner-centeredness is important because it begins with a full understanding of how students see their world and it approaches the process of learning both inside and outside the classroom. Focusing on what is learned and how learning takes place with individual learner needs, interests, and 157 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani capacities can help teachers understand how to help students direct their own learning. The fourteen core Learner-Centered Psychological Principles identified by the APA (1997, adapted from McCombs, 2000) are outlined in table 2. Table 2: The Fourteen Core Learner-Centered Psychological Principles6 Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors 1 Nature of the learning process 2 Goals of the learning process 3 Construction of knowledge 4 Strategic thinking 5 Thinking about thinking 6 Context of learning Learning of complex material is based on a desire to learn it, based on information reinforced by past experience. The learner should be able to create meaningful, coherent representations of new, personally relevant knowledge over time with support and instructional guidance. The learner is able to relate new information to their existing knowledge in meaningful ways. The learner is able to adopt and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. Students can learn how to learn better through analysing their higher order strategies and how these have helped them to already facilitate their creative and critical thinking. Teachers and students need to recognize that learning is influenced by environmental factors including culture, existing perceptions of teacherstudent relations and other variables such as access to the appropriate technologies. Motivational and Affective Factors 6 7 Motivational and emotional influences on learning 8 Intrinsic motivation to learn 9 Effects of motivation on effort Adapted from McCombs (2000). Students need to actively want to learn for the best outcomes: this will depend on their individual interests and goals, habits of thinking and beliefs, as well as their emotional state. This depends on the the encouraging of their creative drive through the further development of higher-order thinking skills. Students are motivated by tasks designed to be relevant to their personal interests and which are both novel and challenging; however, guidance 158 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani (rather than coercion) is needed to maintain the initial momentum. Developmental and Social Factors External factors play an important role, based on different opportunities that individuals encounter Developmental and the different constraints for learning which 10 influences on learning they experience; teachers need to take this into account when considering the class as a whole. Learning is influenced by social interactions, Social influences on interpersonal relations, and communication with 11 learning others. Individual Differences Factors 12 Individual differences in learning 13 Learning and diversity 14 Standards and assessment Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account. Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner and learning progress including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment are integral parts of the learning process. Being aware of and embracing the principles and core skills in tables 1 and 2, can help teachers understand how to include learners in decision making (e.g., how they will learn, what they will learn, and how the learning will be assessed), how to value an interests and abilities and how to treat students as co-creators and partners in the teaching and learning process. All of this understanding will lead students to be empowered and self-determined students who take increased responsibility for their own lives. KEY POINTS In traditional educational settings, students are considered to be empty containers into which educators place knowledge. This kind of education has become known as the banking model of education. 159 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani In this traditional understanding of education, students are passive receivers of knowledge, which might lead to a disconnection between the learner and their learning process and thus disempower students. In contemporary classrooms, students are empowered to guide their own learning experience by making choices both big and small. In the 21st century classroom, students should be involved in power-with relations, i.e. the collaboration and cooperation between students and between the teacher and students, where everyone is considered to be equal. They should thus gain a sense of power-to, i.e. the perception that they have the ability or capability to act autonomously. Empowered students are life-long learners who know that they are the architects of their own learning processes, which makes them independent and self-directed. Empowered students are confident and thus self-efficient in developing and adapting strategies in various situations. Empowered students develop empathy to see the difference they can make and how their education and learning can impact those around them. Empowered students are not afraid of failure but understand that it is a part of life and a natural part of learning. REFERENCES APA Work Group of the Board of Educational Affairs (1997). LearnerCentered Psychological Principles: A Framework for School Reform and Redesign. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Broom, C. (2015). Empowering Students: Pedagogy That Benefits Educators and Learners. Citizenship, Social and Economics Education, 14(2), 79 86. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: Continuum. McCombs, B.L. (2000). Assessing the Role of Educational Technology in the Teaching and Learning Process: A Learner-Centered Perspective. The Secretary's Conference on Educational Technology. 160 MODULE 3. LEARNER-CENTERED PRIMARY EDUCATION 3.1 INDIVIDUAL DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS Sandra Hummel, Bridget Sheehan, Angus Munro, Sulochana Neranjani Murdoch, K. & Wilson, J. (2008). Creating a Learner-Centred Primary Classroom: Learner-Centered Strategic Teaching. Routledge. Seifert, T. (2004). Understanding Student Motivation. Educational Research, 46(2), 137 149. Sullivan, A.M. (2002). The Nature of Student Empowerment. Self-Concept Research: Driving International Research Agendas. World Health Organization (2020). Life Skills Education School Handbook: Prevention of Noncommunicable Diseases. Introduction. Geneva. Retrieved from: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/331948 [2021, May 19]. Zacarian, D. & Silverstone, M. (2020). Teaching to Empower: Taking Action to Foster Student Agency, Self-Confidence, and Collaboration. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. 161