THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF NONPROFIT COMMUNICATION

THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF NONPROFIT COMMUNICATION This handbook brings together multidisciplinary and internationally diverse contributors to provide an overview of theory, research, and practice in the nonprofit and nongovernmental organization (NGO) communication field. It is structured in four main parts: the first introduces metatheoretical and multidisciplinary approaches to the nonprofit sector; the second offers distinctive structural approaches to communication and their models of reputation, marketing, and communication management; the third focuses on nonprofit organizations’ strategic communications, strategies, and discourses; and the fourth assembles campaigns and case studies of different areas of practice, causes, and geographies. The handbook is essential reading for scholars, educators, and advanced students in nonprofit and NGO communication within public relations and strategic communication, organizational communication, sociology, management, economics, marketing, and political science, as well as a useful reference for leaders and communication professionals in the nonprofit sector. Gisela Gonçalves is a professor and director of the Masters in Strategic Communication program at the University of Beira Interior and associated researcher at LabCom, Portugal. Evandro Oliveira is a Serra Húnter professor at the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), Spain and researcher at LabCom, Portugal. ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOKS IN COMMUNICATION STUDIES THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF POSITIVE COMMUNICATION Edited by José Antonio Muñiz Velázquez and Cristina M. Pulido THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF MASS MEDIA ETHICS Edited By Lee Wilkins and Clifford G. Christians THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF COMPARATIVE WORLD RHETORICS Studies in the History, Application, and Teaching of Rhetoric Beyond Traditional Greco-Roman Contexts Edited By Keith Lloyd THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF MEDIA USE AND WELL-BEING International Perspectives on Theory and Research on Positive Media Effects Edited By Leonard Reinecke and Mary Beth Oliver THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF QUEER RHETORIC Edited by Jonathan Alexander and Jacqueline Rhodes THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF NONPROFIT COMMUNICATION Edited by Gisela Gonçalves and Evandro Oliveira THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF INTERCULTURAL MEDIATION Edited by Dominic Busch THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY COMMUNICATION Edited by Amy O’Connor THE ROUTLEDGE INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON WRITING, SECOND EDITION Edited by Rosalind Horowitz For a full list of titles in this series, please visit www.routledge.com/series/RHCS THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF NONPROFIT COMMUNICATION Edited by Gisela Gonçalves and Evandro Oliveira Cover image: XH4D/Getty Images First published 2023 by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 and by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2023 selection and editorial matter, Gisela Marques Pererira Gonçalves and Evandro Samuel Ribeiro dos Santos Oliveira; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Gisela Marques Pererira Gonçalves and Evandro Samuel Ribeiro dos Santos Oliveira to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Gisela Marques Pererira Gonçalves, editor. | Evandro Samuel Ribeiro dos Santos Oliveira, editor. Title: The Routledge handbook of nonprofit communication / edited by Gisela Marques Pererira Gonçalves and Evandro Samuel Ribeiro dos Santos Oliveira. Description: 1 Edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2022015704 (print) | LCCN 2022015705 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Communication in organizations. | Non-governmental organizations. | Public relations. Classification: LCC HD30.3 .R683 2023 (print) | LCC HD30.3 (ebook) | DDC 658.4/5—dc23/eng/20220421 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022015704 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022015705 ISBN: 978-0-367-77177-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-77272-7 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-17056-3 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003170563 Typeset in Bembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC CONTENTS List of figures List of tables List of contributors ix xi xii Introducing nonprofit communication and mapping the research field Gisela Gonçalves and Evandro Oliveira 1 PART I Democracy and civil society 13 1.1 Histories of the nonprofit and philanthropic sector Thomas Davies 15 1.2 Communication for development and social change Jan Servaes 23 1.3 NGO-ization of civil society Sabine Lang 32 1.4 NGO-ization of solidarity in the digital age Víctor Manuel Marí Sáez 39 1.5 Civic relations: socio-communicative collective action Evandro Oliveira 46 1.6 Public interest communication: a pragmatic approach Jane Johnston 55 v Contents 1.7 Humanitarian communication Valérie Gorin 66 PART II Communication, organizations and publics 75 2.1 A constitutive approach to nonprofit communication Matthew Koschmann and Matthew Isbell 77 2.2 Organizational listening and the nonprofit sector Jim Macnamara 85 2.3 Integrated marketing communication management for nonprofit organizations Manfred Bruhn and Anja Zimmermann 94 2.4 Communication monitoring and evaluation in the nonprofit sector Glenn O’Neil 104 2.5 Fundraising and relationship cultivation Richard D. Waters 115 2.6 Granting organizations Giselle A. Auger 125 2.7 Communicating organizational change to nonprofit stakeholders Laurie Lewis 133 2.8 Nonprofit and government relations Bruno Ferreira Costa and Hugo Ferrinho Lopes 142 2.9 Companies and human right activists’ engagement Naíde Müller 150 PART III Strategic communication, strategies and discourses 161 3.1 A conceptual approach for strategic communication: the ITNC Evandro Oliveira 165 3.2 Internal branding in the nonprofit sector Gordon Liu 174 3.3 Narratives and emotion in social entrepreneurship communication Philip T. Roundy 182 vi Contents 3.4 Storytelling and memes: new media trends for small civil society organizations Ioli Campos 195 3.5 Lobbying and the nonprofit sector Ana Almansa-Martínez and Antonio Castillo-Esparcia 203 3.6 Open justice and court communication Jane Johnston 215 3.7 Semiotic analysis of environmental communication campaigns Andrea Catellani 224 3.8 Eco-art as discourse driver Franzisca Weder and Denise Voci 235 3.9 Positive communication and public relations in the nonprofit sector José Antonio Muñiz-Velázquez and Alejandro José Tapia Frade 246 PART IV Nonprofit communication, campaigns and case studies 255 4.1 Balancing collective action and connective action in new food cooperatives: fertile ground for transformative change? Korien van Vuuren-Verkerk, Noelle Aarts and Jan Van der Stoep 259 4.2 Local NGO e-communication on environmental issues Valentina Burkšienė and Jaroslav Dvorak 269 4.3 The grassroots women water collective in India Ram Awtar Yadav and Kanshan Malik 279 4.4 The role of communication within a domestic violence context during a lockdown Sónia de Sá 286 4.5 Fundraising strategies during pandemic challenges Laura Visan 300 4.6 Communication and activist literacy for social change in feminist movements Alessandra Farné, Carla Cerqueira and Eloísa Nos-Aldás 307 4.7 Value-informed communication in nonprofit campaigns Birgit Breninger and Thomas Kaltenbacher 317 vii Contents 4.8 Identifying and classifying stakeholders in Spanish nonprofit organizations María Pallarés-Renau, Lorena López-Font and Susana Miquel-Segarra 327 4.9 Activism and social media: case studies from Greece’s economic crisis Michael Nevradakis 337 Index 347 viii FIGURES 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 2.3.4 2.3.5 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.9.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.2.1 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.5.5 3.5.6 3.5.7 3.7.1 3.7.2 3.8.1 3.8.2 3.9.1 Manifestations of communication in nonprofit organizations. Overview of the different forms of integration. Key elements of the strategic concept of integrated communication. Concept paper of integrated communication. Vertical and horizontal order within the system of integrated communication. An integrated model of evaluation for strategic communication. The World Bank’s communication M&E framework. The fundraising life cycle. Traditional donor pyramid highlighting communication tactics and relationship cultivation strategies by donor levels. Updated fundraising risk ladder modified from Rosso (1991) Connections between respondents and response categories. NGO dual management dynamic. Conceptual model of the instigatory theory of NGO communication (ITNC). Operational model – a cybernetic approach. A conceptual map of internal branding research in the nonprofit-sector context. The structure of social venture narratives research. A micro-foundations agenda for social venture narratives research. Phases of the communication process. Levels of impact in communication evaluation. NGO evolution in Transparency Register. Category of registration. Fields of interest. Evolution of the top five fields of interest. Activities. Example of a semiotic square. Screenshot from the website of Greenpeace. “Die ungebrochene Anziehungskraft der Natur”/”The unending attraction of nature”, Max Peintner, 1970/1971. For Forest, Klagenfurt/Austria. Scheme and workflow of the proposed organizational signature strengths model for nonprofit organizations. ix 95 98 99 100 100 106 109 116 119 121 156 169 169 171 175 188 189 206 208 210 210 211 211 212 227 228 240 240 251 Figures 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.7.5 Stimulus 22 receptionist. Stimulus 22 receptionist. Stimulus 22 receptionist. Stimulus 11 UNICEF. Stimulus 11 UNICEF. 322 322 323 324 324 x TABLES 1.2.1 2.2.1 2.4.1 2.4.2 3.1.1 3.7.1 3.8.1 3.9.1 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 4.6.1 4.8.1 4.8.2 4.8.3 Major communication for development and social change approaches Formal and informal methods and tools for organizational listening Matrix of suggested focuses and indicators for nonprofit communication M&E Nonprofit communication M&E matrix Ontological principles of the ITNC A visualization of the different layers of the generative scheme of meaning A third way of nonprofit communication: communicatively performed problematization The six virtues and 24 character strengths, with short descriptions Types of bottom-up communication Elements of research content Differences between Salmon Diary and other NGOs Differences in communication management Criteria of cultural efficacy of transgressive communication Groups detected in the reports (2018) and order of appearance of the items covered Other groups mentioned in the reports (2018) Proposed stakeholder reputational evaluators for the social action third sector (SATS) xi 29 89 108 110 167 229 238 249 270 273 274 275 309 329 331 333 CONTRIBUTORS Noelle Aarts is a professor of socio-ecological interactions and director of the Institute for Science in Society (ISiS) at the Radboud University in Nijmegen. Her research focuses on interactional processes for creating space for change towards socio-ecological transformations, developing insights into the interplay between everyday conversations, and the wider structures and developments in society. Ana Almansa-Martínez is a professor at the Department of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising, University of Málaga. She is a teacher and researcher in political communication and public relations. She holds a degree in communication from the Autonomous University of Barcelona and a PhD from the University of Malaga. She is a visiting professor at European and American universities, where she has participated in postgraduate courses and given conferences. She is the editor of the International Journal of Public Relations, coordinator of the Official Master’s Degree in Strategic Management and Innovation in Communication and secretary of the Academic Commission in Malaga of the Interuniversity Doctorate in Communication. Giselle A. Auger (PhD, APR) is an associate professor and chair of the Department of Communication at Rhode Island College, with a teaching specialty in public relations. She received her PhD in mass communication from the University of Florida and holds an MA in international relations and strategic studies from the University of Lancaster in England and a BA in political communication from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Her research interests include strategic communication of nonprofit organizations, the use of rhetoric and message structure in social media communication, and academic dishonesty. Birgit Breninger is an associate professor at the Department of Communication Sciences at the Paris-Lodron University Salzburg. She is acting president of the InterCultural Center (ICC), a research organization at Salzburg College. In 2005 she co-founded the Intercultural College at the University of Salzburg and has led the executive graduate programs for over ten years. Dr. Breninger is chairwoman of the International Board of ICC Experts and author of the book A Perceptual Architecture of Intercultural Competence (2021). Her main areas of research and teaching include communication and perception, intercultural leadership, ethical decisions in multicultural contexts, and building cultural expertise. Manfred Bruhn (Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. mult.) spent his academic education at the University of Münster. He first had a professorship in marketing and commerce from 1983 to 1995 at the EBS University of xii Contributors Economics and Law. Various calls to universities in Cologne, Jena, and Munich were rejected. Since 1995, he has held the chair of Marketing and Corporate Management at the University of Basel and is an honorary professor at the Technical University of Munich. He has received honorary doctorates from the Universities of Hohenheim and Rostock. He is the founder and partner of the strategy and marketing consultancy Prof. Bruhn & Partner AG (Basel). His main research and consulting topics are strategic marketing management, services and relationship marketing, integrated communication, sponsoring, and nonprofit marketing. Valentina Burkšienė (Valentina Burksiene), born in 1963, received a PhD in management and administration in 2012 and a master’s in recreation and tourism in 2006. She is a member of the editorial board of various scientific journals. Her scientific interests include sustainable development, sustainable organizations, strategic management, tourism and recreation, public administration, and regional development. Practical competences include private hospitality business (since 1993); head civil servant at Neringa municipality administration (2002–2011); coordinator and administration of projects funded by EU programs (since 2004); Neringa municipality council member (2015–2019); and head of a charity fund (since 2008). Ioli Campos is a guest assistant professor at the Catholic University of Portugal and at the Nova University of Lisbon. She has a PhD in digital media from the University of Texas at AustinPortugal Colab Program and a MA in journalism from Nova University of Lisbon. As a researcher, Campos has been focusing on journalism, media literacy, children, and media. She has also been working as a consultant in those areas for international institutions, such as OSCE and the Council of Europe (NSC). Before that, Campos worked as a journalist for 15 years for the national and foreign press. Antonio Castillo-Esparcia is a professor at the Faculty of Communication Sciences, University of Málaga. He teaches the theory and history of public relations, political communication, communication in nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and social movements. He holds a bachelor’s and doctoral degrees from the Autonomous University of Barcelona. He is a coordinator of the master’s degree in “Strategic Management and Innovation in Communication.” He is a visiting professor at European and American universities, where he participates in conferences, postgraduate courses, and professional study programs. He is director of the Department of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising of the University of Malaga and president of the Association of Public Relations Researchers. Andrea Catellani is a tenured professor of communication at the Catholic University of Louvain (UCLouvain, Belgium). He is president of the jury of the master program in communication. He leads the study and research group “Communication, Environment, Science and Society” of the French Society of Information and Communication Sciences (SFSIC). He has published various scientific articles and books, notably on environmental communication and rhetoric, discourses on the societal responsibility of organizations, the semiotic approach to organizations, ethics in communication, and the relationship between religion and communication, particularly in the digital world. Carla Cerqueira is an assistant professor at Lusófona University and a researcher at CICANT – The Centre for Research in Applied Communication, Culture, and New Technologies. She has a PhD in communication sciences with a specialization in communication Psychology from the University of Minho, Portugal (2012). Her research interests include gender, feminisms, intersectionality, NGOs, and media studies. She is principal investigator of the project “FEMglocal – Glocal Feminist Movements: Interactions and Contradictions” and the project “Network Voices: Women’s Participation in Development Processes.” xiii Contributors Bruno Ferreira Costa is an assistant professor at the University of Beira Interior, a researcher at Praxis – Centre of Philosophy, Politics and Culture, has a PhD in political science (University of Lisbon), and is the author of several books and articles on political science. His research interests comprise comparative politics, political participation, political systems, the European Union, and democracy. He is a member of the MPSA, APCP, and SOPCOM organizations. Thomas Davies is a senior lecturer in international politics at City, University of London. He specializes in the history and politics of NGOs, and his publications include NGOs: A New History of Transnational Civil Society (2014) and the edited Routledge Handbook of NGOs and International Relations (2021), which was awarded the 2021 ARNOVA Award for Outstanding Book in Nonprofit and Voluntary Action Research. He is an associate editor of Voluntaristics Review and a fellow of the Royal Historical Society. He was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, and his DPhil thesis was awarded the British International History Group Thesis Prize. Sónia de Sá has a PhD in communication sciences in the inclusive television subarea. She is an assistant professor at the Department of Communication, Philosophy and Politics of the University of Beira Interior, where she teaches strategic communication at the graduate and postgraduate level. Her main research interests are gender studies; queer studies; and representations of minorities, especially Roma communities, black women and the LGBTQ+ community. She is co-author of three books and the author of several articles. In her civic action, she is a volunteer for nonprofit organizations and publishes monthly articles in the printed press on gender equality, unequal treatment of the interior of the country, and social inequalities of minorities in Portugal. Jaroslav Dvorak, born in 1974, received a PhD in political science in 2011. He was a visiting researcher at Uppsala University (2017), Institute of Russian and Eurasian Studies, Sweden, and a visiting professor at Bialystok Technical University (2017), Poland. Jaroslav Dvorak is involved in the editorial board of international scientific journals. From December 2021 he has been chair of Council of Klaipeda nongovernmental organization. Alessandra Farné is a lecturer of the Department of Translation and Communication of the University Jaume I (UJI) in Spain; a researcher of the Interuniversity Institute of Social Development and Peace (IUDESP) and the University Institute of Feminist and Gender Studies (IF) of the UJI; and has a PhD and MA in international studies in peace, conflict, and development and BA in public relations. Her research activity is related to social communication; equality; and information, media, and digital literacy. Hugo Ferrinho Lopes is a PhD candidate in comparative politics at the Institute of Social Sciences, University of Lisbon (ICS-ULisboa), with a grant from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology. He is also an invited teaching assistant at the University of Beira Interior (UBI), researcher at the Observatory of the Quality of Democracy (ICS-ULisboa), associate researcher at the Political Observatory (ISCSP-ULisboa), and research collaborator at the Permanent Youth Observatory (ICS-ULisboa) and PRAXIS-UBI. His research interests comprise political parties, political representation, political attitudes and behavior, and youth in politics. Lorena López Font is a professor and contracted doctor. She currently holds the position of academic secretary of the Department of Communication Sciences at Universitat Jaume I. Her research focuses mainly on the competencies of the professional profiles of advertising and corporate communication, as well as the application of the theory of advertising and intangible assets in the film industry. She is currently a professor of theory of advertising and brand management in the degrees programs for Advertising and Public Relations and Audiovisual Communication and teaches corporate reputation in the official postgraduate course of New Trends in Communication. xiv Contributors Alejandro José Tapia Frade has a PhD in marketing and works as associate lecturer and researcher at Universidad Loyola Andalucía. He is also editor-in-chief of MLS Communication Journal and a member of scientific committees of other journals of Mexico and Portugal. His research work joins technology and advertising in several ways, such as video games, web, and social networks. Gisela Gonçalves is a professor at the Department of Communication, Philosophy and Politics at the University of Beira Interior (UBI – Covilhã, Portugal), where she coordinates the research group Media and Communication of LabCom – a communication research center. Currently, at UBI she is vice-president of the Faculty of Arts and director of the Master’s in Strategic Communication program. She has focused her research interests on communication ethics, public relations theory, strategic communication, and political communication. Recently, she has published on topics such as government communication ethics and crises communication in the pandemic context. She is a former chair of the ECREA Strategic and Organizational Communication Section and vicepresident of Sopcom, the Portuguese Association of Communication Sciences. Valérie Gorin is a senior lecturer and researcher at the Geneva Center of Humanitarian Studies (University of Geneva and Graduate Institute) and also acts as the head of learning for the master program. A historian and media scholar, she has published extensively on humanitarian history, visual culture, and digital communication for a decade. Her most recent publications include Making Humanitarian Crises: Emotions and Images in History (co-edited with B. Lynn Edgar and D. Martin Moruno), Palgrave Macmillan (2022), and the special issue on “Humanitarian Action in the Age of Global Media: Visual Histories (1920s–2000s),” Journal of Humanitarian Affairs 3(2), 2021 (co-edited with S. Künkel). Matthew Isbell is a professor of organizational communication at Boise State. He received a PhD from the University of Texas at Austin. His research interests are in collaboration, nonprofit organizations, and program implementation/change. As an applied scholar, Dr. Isbell works with at-risk populations around many of the intractable problems in our communities. Dr. Isbell’s work is published in many top journals, including Communication Theory, Communication Monographs, Management Communication Quarterly, and the American Journal of Public Health. He is also the co-author of the award-winning book Interorganizational Collaboration: Complexity, Ethics, and Communication. Jane Johnston is an associate professor of communication and PR at the University of Queensland. Her two chapters in this book represent her two key fields of scholarship: court communication and open justice and public interest communication. She has written and edited 12 books, over 70 journal articles and chapters, and many reports for Australian and international government bodies and NGOs (including the UN and law reform commissions). Her public interest research began in 2013 as a solo venture, later becoming an international collaboration with communication scholars worldwide. Her thirteenth book, on open justice and strategic communication with Cambridge, is underway. Thomas Kaltenbacher is a senior scientist for applied linguistics at the Department of Linguistics of the Paris-Lodron University of Salzburg, Austria. He is director of the Salzburg Speech Clinic (SSC) and the Salzburg Institute for Reading Research (SIRR). Dr. Kaltenbacher specializes in psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics and clinical linguistics and works with the following methods and tools: ultrasound, lingwaves, Computerised Speech Lab (CSL – Kay-Pentax), audiometry, fMRI and eye tracking. Since 2014 he has been the acting chairman of the Austrian Clinical Linguists’ Association (KLÖ). Matthew Koschmann is an associate professor of organizational communication at the University of Colorado Boulder. He received a PhD from the University of Texas at Austin. His research focuses on nonprofit organizations and civil society collaboration. Professor Koschmann’s research xv Contributors has been published in many top journals, including Communication Monographs, Journal of Communication, Academy of Management Review, and Management Communication Quarterly. He is co-author of Understanding Nonprofit Work: A Communication Perspective. Professor Koschmann is also a Fulbright scholar and worked as a visiting research professor at Ateneo de Manila University in the Philippines. Sabine Lang is a professor of international and European politics at the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies of the University of Washington. She directs the Center for West European Studies and the EU/Jean Monnet Center of Excellence and holds the Jean Monnet Chair for Civil Society, Inclusion, and Diversity. Her research focuses on the dynamics of inclusivity and politicization in civil society. Her publications include NGOs, Civil Society, and the Public Sphere (Cambridge University Press 2013) and Gendered Mobilizations and Intersectional Challenges (co-edited with Jill Irvine and Celeste Montoya, ECPR Press/Rowman & Littlefield 2019). Laurie Lewis completed her PhD at the University of California at Santa Barbara. She is a professor of communication at the University of Texas at San Antonio. Her scholarly work investigates organizational collaboration, stakeholder engagement, input solicitation, and participative processes. She is author of the award-winning books Organizational Change: Creating Change Through Strategic Communication and The Power of Strategic Listening in Contemporary Organizations. She is co-editor of the International Encyclopedia of Organizational Communication as well as numerous academic publications on topics related to organizational change, collaboration, interorganizational communication, volunteers and nonprofits, and stakeholder communication. Gordon Liu is a professor of marketing strategy at the Open University Business School. His work is situated at the intersection of marketing, strategy, and entrepreneurship. He has a particular interest in cause-related marketing, product innovation/new product development, strategic orientation/ capabilities, and networks/strategic alliance. His work has appeared in leading academic journals, including Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Strategic Entrepreneurial Journal, Journal of Product Innovation Management, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, Journal of World Business, Journal of Business Research, Journal of Business Ethics, Group & Organization Management, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, European Journal of Marketing, and others. Jim Macnamara, PhD, is a distinguished professor in the School of Communication at the University of Technology Sydney (UTS). He is also a visiting professor at the London School of Economics and Political Science and the London College of Communication. He is the author of a number of books, including Organizational Listening: The Missing Essential in Public Communication (Peter Lang, New York, 2016) and Evaluating Public Communication (Routledge, UK, 2018). Kanshan Malik is a professor at the Department of Communication, University of Hyderabad, India. She is a faculty fellow with the UNESCO Chair on Community Media and editor of the newsletter CR News. She obtained her PhD from the University of Hyderabad. She worked as a journalist with The Economic Times before pursuing a career in academics. She is co-author (with Prof. Vinod Pavarala) of the much-cited book Other Voices: The Struggle for Community Radio in India (Sage: 2007). Her recent co-edited book is titled Community Radio in South Asia: Reclaiming the Airwaves (Routledge: 2020). Naíde Müller is a PhD candidate in communication sciences and researcher at the Center for Communication and Culture Studies at the Faculty of Human Sciences, UCP, where she also teaches in the master and degree programs in communication sciences. She was a visiting scholar at the College of Communication & Information, Kent State University (Ohio, USA). She graduated in business communication and public relations from ESCS and received a master’s in integrated communication from INP. She has more than ten years of professional experience as a communication xvi Contributors consultant and public relations advisor in corporate, nonprofit, and political projects. She investigates in the area of strategic communication, human rights activism, and media relations. José Antonio Muñiz-Velázquez is an assistant professor and head of the Department of Communication and Education at Universidad Loyola Andalucía. He has a PhD in communication studies, a degree in advertising and public relations, and a degree in psychology, as well as an European master in relationship marketing. He is the author of multiple international publications about positive communication, persuasion, new technologies, and their relationships with happiness, human flourishing, and well-being and is the editor of The Routledge Handbook of Positive Communication (2019). Michael Nevradakis (PhD, media studies, The University of Texas, 2018) is a communication instructor at Hellenic American University and at College Year in Athens, in Athens, Greece. His research interests include the public sphere and civil society, alternative media, media policy, and the media industry – primarily focusing on Greek media. His dissertation, “From the Polis to Facebook: Social Media and the Development of a New Greek Public Sphere,” based on research conducted in Greece between 2012 and 2017, is being developed into a book. Dr. Nevradakis formerly produced/ hosted Dialogos Radio and has provided journalistic content for several print and online outlets. Eloísa Nos-Aldás is a senior professor in the area of audiovisual communication and advertising in the Department of Communication Sciences at the Universitat Jaume I of Castellón (UJI) and researcher at the Interuniversity Institute for Social Development and Peace (IUDESP at UJI) between UJI and the University of Alicante and coordinator of the research group DESPAZ (UJI). Her research deals with communication, civil society, and social change, specifically from the perspective of transformation and cultural efficacy. She has led UJI research projects in addition to national and regional ones and has participated in some others, including European ones with NGOs. Evandro Oliveira (Dr.rer.pol, phil) is a Serra Húnter professor at the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB), Spain and researcher at LabCom, Portugal. His research focuses on civil society strategic communication, diversity, and intercultural communication. He has been a guest professor of nonprofit communication at various universities like the University of Mannheim, the Free University of Berlin, the University of Jena, the University of Beira Interior, and the University of Münster. He researched at the University of Leipzig with Günter Bentele and Ansgar Zerfass in Germany; and at CECS – Uminho, Portugal. He is the elected chair of the Organisational and Strategic Communication section at the European Communication Research and Education Association (ECREA). He wrote The Instigatory Theory of NGO Communication (Springer, 2019); has received awards from the European Public Relations Education and Research Association (EUPRERA), Public Relations and Communications Association (PRCA), and International Communications Consultancy Organisation (ICCO); and worked for over 20 years in strategic communication management, including work for NGOs like Greenpeace, Amnesty International, Salvation Army, and Doctors Without Borders. Glenn O’Neil, PhD, is a lecturer in the Media and Communications Department at Webster University Geneva and is founder of Owl RE, an evaluation and research consultancy in Switzerland. He has been involved in some 100 reviews and evaluations in over 50 countries with a specialization in communications and advocacy for nonprofit organizations, including UN agencies, NGOs, and foundations. His research is focused on communication monitoring and evaluation, with his work published in journals such as Evaluation and Program Planning, PR Review, and PRism. María Pallarés-Renau is graduated in advertising and public relations (2014) and received a PhD in communication (2021) from the Jaume I University, after obtaining the master’s degree in new trends and innovation processes in communication, specializing in strategic communication management (2015). Since 2016, she has been an associate professor at the Department of Communication xvii Contributors Sciences at this university, and her research deals fundamentally with the evolution of the main intangibles, specifically corporate reputation (metrics, rankings, and command squares). Philip T. Roundy is the UC Foundation associate professor of entrepreneurship at the University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. He earned his PhD in strategic management and organization theory at the University of Texas at Austin. His research focuses on the role of entrepreneurship in economic and community revitalization. He is particularly interested in entrepreneurship in struggling regions, “dying” industries, and displaced technologies. His work has appeared in Strategic Organization, Journal of Management Studies, Journal of Business Venturing Insights, Academy of Management Perspectives, and others. He serves on the editorial boards of Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, Strategic Organization, Small Business Economics, and Entrepreneurship Research Journal. Víctor Manuel Marí Sáez holds a PhD in journalism from the University of Seville (Spain). He is an associate professor at the University of Cadiz (Spain). Besides leading the research group Comunicación y Ciudadanía Digital (Communication and Digital Citizenship), he has published several books and papers on communication, ICTs, social movements, and social change in international journals. Susana Miquel-Segarra is an associate professor in the Department of Communication of the Universitat Jaume I de Castellón (UJI). Since 2016, she has coordinated the Strategic Management strand of the official master’s degree in “New Trends and Innovation Processes in Communication” (UJI). Her research work focuses on strategic communication, public relations, internal communication, and social media. She belongs to the Spanish Association of Communication Researchers and is an active member of the Strategic Communication Section. She maintains close ties with professional associations and is a member of the board of directors of the Valencia and Murcia branch of the Association of Communication Professionals (DIRCOM). Jan Servaes was UNESCO chair in communication for sustainable social change at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. He taught international communication in Australia, Belgium, China, Hong Kong, the United States, the Netherlands, and Thailand, in addition to short-term projects at about 120 universities in 55 countries. He is editor of the 2020 Handbook on Communication for Development and Social Change. Jan van der Stoep (1968) is an endowed professor of Christian philosophy at Wageningen University & Research and the Theological University Kampen. He studied biology in Wageningen and philosophy at VU University Amsterdam, where he also did a PhD in political philosophy. Between 2008 and 2020, he was a professor of journalism and communication at the Ede Christian University of Applied Sciences. He is especially interested in food ethics, stewardship ethics, communication theory, political philosophy, and the philosophy of religion. Korien van Vuuren-Verkerk (1977) is a senior lecturer in change communication at Ede University of Applied Sciences. Furthermore, she is a PhD candidate at the Institute for Science in Society of Radboud University Nijmegen. Korien is fascinated by conversational processes in (polarized) multistakeholder discussions and the transformative power of social innovations. Her research focus is on the interactional behavior that may or may not lead to constructive cooperation between people who think differently. Therefore, the central question of her PhD research is: Which interaction behavior leads to fruitful, trust-nurturing conversations and a collective approach or co-production? Laura Visan is an adjunct faculty member of the Department of Arts, Culture and Media (ACM) at the University of Toronto Scarborough. She holds a PhD in communication and culture (York University). She researched the process of social capital formation through civic participation and networking in the case of Romanian immigrants from Toronto and co-authored an ethnographic xviii Contributors study on Ţara Făgăraşului diaspora engagement in civic and philanthropic activities. Having grown up in Romania, Visan has also written about the adaptive reuse of Bucharest’s socialist architecture landmarks after the 1990s and about the popular culture artifacts of the 1970s and 1980s. Denise Voci, PhD, is senior scientist at the Department of Media and Communications of the University of Klagenfurt, Austria. She received her PhD in the field of media and communication studies with a focus on media economics and cross-border media management. Currently, besides investigating media industries, media responsibility, and sustainability, her research interests focus on environmental and sustainability communication, especially related to water scarcity issues, individual consumption choices, and institutional formal changes, as well as media sustainability, framing, and rhetoric analysis. Richard D. Waters (PhD, University of Florida) is an associate professor in the School of Management at the University of San Francisco where he teaches strategic communication courses in the graduate programs of business, nonprofit, and public administration. His research interests include nonprofit communication, particularly in the fundraising context, and he has published more than 100 peer-reviewed journal articles and book chapters. Currently, he is the editor of Case Studies in Strategic Communication and serves on seven other journals’ editorial review boards, including Journal of Public Relations Research, Public Relations Review, and Journal of Philanthropy and Marketing. Franzisca Weder, Dr. habil, is an associate professor at the Department of Media and Communications at the University of Klagenfurt, Austria (on leave) and senior lecturer at the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. She researches and teaches organizational communication and public relations specializing in sustainability communication, media ethics, and corporate social responsibility, with milestone publications like The Sustainability Communication Reader (Springer, 2021). She has been a guest professor and fellow at the University of Alabama, United States; University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Germany; University of Waikato, New Zealand; the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia; and University of Ilmenau, Germany. Weder is chair of the International Environmental Communication Association (IECA). Ram Awtar Yadav is an assistant professor at the Jagran School of Journalism and Communication, Faculty of Journalism and Creative Studies, Jagran Lakecity University, Bhopal, India. He has obtained a PhD from the Department of Communication, University of Hyderabad, India. He did his master’s in electronic media from Makhanlal Chaturvedi National University of Journalism and Communication, Bhopal, in 2011, after which he worked as a journalist with the The Hitavada, an English daily of Bhopal, for four years. He also worked as an assistant professor at the Department of Journalism and Mass Communication, Guru Ghasidas University, Bilaspur, Chhattisgarh, India, for one year. Anja Zimmermann is a lecturer at the Lucerne School of Business and head of the Competence Center for Service and Operations Management. She studied economics and business administration at the European Business School (EBS), Germany; Regents College of Business (UK); and Universidad Argentina de la Empresa, Argentina. She worked as an academic researcher with Manfred Bruhn for several years at the University of Basel, Switzerland. Her primary areas of teaching and research focus on services marketing and integrated market communications. She is head of the Master of Advanced Studies Program Services Marketing and Management and works as a consultant and trainer for different for-profit and nonprofit organizations. xix INTRODUCING NONPROFIT COMMUNICATION AND MAPPING THE RESEARCH FIELD Gisela Gonçalves and Evandro Oliveira In the famous book Bowling Alone (2000), Robert D. Putnam explained the disintegration of civic tradition in modern society because of a diminishing sense of community. He observed that despite technological developments – or because of them – people have fewer interpersonal relationships, which renders collaboration difficult to establish and maintain. As people have become isolated, they do not participate in clubs and associations, but instead, they bowl alone. The declining informal collaboration corresponds to less civic engagement, political equity, solidarity, trust, and tolerance as well as associational life (Putnam, 2000). The NGO-ization of society (Lang, 2013), visible in the increasing number of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) at the national and transnational level, tend to somewhat contradict Putnam’s thesis. On the other hand, the number of NGOs is not per se revealing of the quality of citizen participation in those organizations. In the course of history, NGOs have been involved in different issues, namely humanitarianism, environment, gender equality, human rights, and peace (Davies, 2019). NGOs are growing faster than any other type of organization in the world, and their economy represents from 7 to 12 percent of the total workforce in some regions. The estimated number of NGOs in the world is 10 million, with India and the United States the countries with the largest numbers (Ferguson, 2018). The Yearbook of International Organizations estimates that there are more than 30,000 NGOs worldwide.1 According to the Urban Institute report in 2019, the number of nonprofit organizations (NPOs) formally registered rose up to 1.54 million in 2016 just in the USA alone. These comprise a diverse range of sectors, including art, health, education, and advocacy; labor unions; and business and professional associations.2 Furthermore, we can also consider foundations, aid organizations, charities, and social economy actors, like mutual and cooperatives as nonprofits – the aggregator of the typology is in fact the nonprofit-driven distinction. However, it might be useful to pursue a differentiation between civil society organizations that search for the common good and other organizations with private interests, even if they strive for the benefit of the collective. The terms NGOS and nonprofit can be applied to the same organizational forms – some authors tend to consider the former as a type of nonprofit. Interestingly enough, in the diversity of approaches, and even definitions of this object, there is a common use of the excluding element to classify it: nongovernmental and nonprofit. This implies they are not part of the market, nor of government entities. Or, at least, they shouldn’t be – NGOs that are state-controlled or that serve hidden interests, or that even defend causes that oppose human rights or democracy, should not be framed as such. How can we consider a radical group with ideologies like the Ku Klux Klan to be a DOI: 10.4324/9781003170563-1 1 Gisela Gonçalves and Evandro Oliveira nonprofit within the common understanding of it? Still, when we applied the criteria proposed by Salamon et al. (1999, p. 3), they would be considered as such. This might be the hardest angle on the way of having a consensual definition without charging the term with normative dimensions and certain values a priori. Or, we can assume the politically charged definition, especially for NGOs, as proposed before by some authors (Alvarez, 1999; Alvim & Teodósio, 2004; Aristizábel et al., 1997; Landim, 2002; Menescal, 1996; Oliveira, 2019). These authors refer to democratic values and human rights principles as a precondition for those specific organizational forms, including even internal democratic governance dynamics. The reflection is open, and we hope the discussion will go on along this book and with further research. Some approaches, either in theory or in practice, do treat nonprofits similarly to profit organizations in a marketplace. Initially, criticisms were raised in the first research with impact on the marketization (Eikenberry & Kluver, 2004), concluding that this management approach outcome “is the potential deterioration of the distinctive contributions that nonprofit organizations make to creating and maintaining a strong civil society” (p. 138). In 2020, a case study of two NPOs revealed that one was adopting a strong entrepreneurial orientation, while the other integrated the traditional community orientation with more professionalization, confirming to partial marketization tendencies (Sandberg et al., 2020). Also, historically, the need for raising funds has been left in the hands of marketing agencies, due to the fact that activists and other volunteers were not succeeding or wanting to engage in such activities (Oliveira, 2017). That created a significant gap between the communication on advocacy and the scope of operations – with the communication within the fundraising campaigns being run by the same organization. That imprint can still be felt nowadays (Oliveira, 2017). It is not our aim in this handbook to be prescriptive or normative, but rather to mirror the diversity that exists in nonprofit communication research and to include visions from distinct academic traditions. Nonprofit communication is a field situated at the crossroads of communication, management, marketing, organizational, and public relations studies. Furthermore, without sociological, economic, political, and other social sciences contributions, the study of communication within a nonprofit setting could be reduced to a very closed vision of these entities and of their communicative processes and dynamics. Introducing the field What is involved in the field of the nonprofit sector, also known as the civil society sector? Civil society has been defined as the “space of uncoerced human association and also the set of relational networks – formed for the sake of family, faith, interest and ideology – that fill this space” (Walzer, 1995, p. 7). The concept of civil society requires the precondition of the existence of public and organizational life beyond the state’s administration, allowing the voluntary sector to act and intervene in the public sphere. Deeply intertwined within civil society, NGOs provide “a practical response to problems where both the corporate, thus profit centered, and the institutional structures are absent or have failed” (Oliveira et al., 2016, p. 6). They can be considered to form a subset of the larger category of NPOs, as the latter can include a wider range of organizations such as museums, schools, or universities. One main difference between NGOs and other NPOs is the significant dedication of the former to the advocacy of public interest issues (Tkalac & Pavicic, 2009). On the other hand, NPOs are the fabric of civil society – they can have different sizes and scopes, but all “serve some public purpose and contribute to the public good” (Salamon, 1999, pp. 10–11). To systemize the heterogeneous nature of nonprofits that operate in different countries, Salamon et al. (1999, p. 3) developed a “structural-operational definition” that includes five criteria that these organizations must share: (i) organized – institutional presence and internal structure; (ii) private – institutionally separate from government; (iii) self-governing – independent from external 2 Introducing nonprofit communication government or corporate influences; (iv) nonprofit-distributing – do not return profits to managers or owners; and (v) voluntary – this criteria implies that participation/membership is not compulsory, but a matter of choice. The nonprofit sector has been strongly scrutinized in the management literature. According to Maier et al. (2016), NPOs have experienced notable changes from the 1980s onwards, rendering them more similar to profit-marketing firms. Whether or not NPOs should be more “businesslike” is indeed a strong area of discussion (Dart, 2004). Often in this context, communication is approached as one more variable in the marketing mix, mainly seen as instrumental to message transmission and information sharing, contributing to the economic sustainability of the organization by securing volunteers, donors, resources, or funds. However, as NPO communication operates in a multilayered and organizationally diverse environment, it requires “looking at communication as more than a tool to achieve effectiveness” (Koschmann, 2015, p. 215). NPO communication involves considerable complexity in terms of goals, audiences, and resources when compared to the business sector. In relation to goal setting, NPOs often have to juggle what appear to be conflicting objectives set by management needs. Communication goals related to transparency, for instance, have been considered problematic by scholars that look to NPO needs of balancing audiences’ skepticism (Dethier et al., 2021). In regard to the public, nonprofit communication operates on a multilayered level, considering a diverse group of stakeholders, including donors, volunteers, minority groups, activist groups, regulatory bodies, other NPOs, and the like. At the operational level, the lack of human and material resources can have consequences on the daily life of these organizations. But it is at the social level that NPOs’ legitimacy is strongly dependent on their communicative efforts to maintain high ethical standards as “servants of society” (Jeavons, 2016). Exploring the field When searching for journal names related to the nonprofit sector, five journals stand out – VOLUNTAS, The Journal of Nonprofit and Public Sector Marketing, Nonprofit Management and Leadership Journal, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, and The International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing. None of these journals, however, is categorized in the Web of Science (WOS) communication database category, but rather in the business category. Does this mean that research on nonprofit communication is not relevant to scholars within the field of communication? Clearly not. It means instead that nonprofit research, as an interdisciplinary field, has been addressed from diverse theoretical traditions, mainly business and organizational studies but also public relations and communication management. Research in nonprofits can be considered an interdisciplinary field that had sociology, history, and political science as its main contributions (Hall, 1999). An analysis of knowledge production noticed an intensive advance since the 1980s, but the study of volunteering is the only core theme that could be identified (Ma & Konrath, 2018). The same analysis pointed to the main subjects and thematic clusters on network analysis, and none of them were focused on communication. Another study, which analyzed over 3,000 dissertations and 390 articles in nonprofit journals, has no mention of communication in any of the topics, despite the use of the stakeholder’s theory to study NPOs, but rather within a management perspective that is not specifically communicative (Schubert et al., 2022). Notwithstanding, over the past decade, there has been a growing interest in studying communications in the context of the nonprofit sector. A WOS search with the keywords “communication” and “nonprofit” (and similar terms3) in the specialized nonprofit communication literature shows a 50 percent increase in published articles, with 28 in 2012 and 56 in 2020.4 In this period, the top five journals publishing research on nonprofit communication were the following: (i) Public Relations 3 Gisela Gonçalves and Evandro Oliveira Review, (ii) Voluntas, (iii) Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, (iv) International Journal of Communication Sustainability, and (v) Management Communication Quarterly.5 Nevertheless, and according to Koschmann et al. (2015), despite the importance of communication to the nonprofit sector, communication theory has had relatively little impact on the interdisciplinary field of nonprofit studies. A decade before, Lewis’s (2005) article on the civil society sector corroborated this idea by “forwarding the claim that organizational communication scholars have not paid significant theoretical attention to nonprofit organizations” (p. 241). This means that research in this field has most often left unexamined and untested theories relating to the specific unique features of NPOs, namely social capital; mission, effectiveness, and accountability; governance and decision making; and volunteer relationships (Lewis, 2005). In spite of that, applied research contemplates the study of an organization–public relationship, mainly in the literature on nonprofit public relations (PR) (Waters, 2015). The effective management and cultivation of complex relationships with specific stakeholders is at the core of nonprofit mission organizations. Therefore, it is not surprising that one of the most spread areas of theory-based research in nonprofit PR has been the donor–organization relationship (Sisson, 2017; Wiggill, 2014) or the organization–volunteer relationship (Bortree & Waters, 2014; Hyde et al., 2016). Another important theme in organization–public relationships research has been the role of technology in general, and social media in particular, in engaging different audiences (Auger, 2015; Cho et al., 2014; Saxton & Waters, 2014; Xu & Saxton, 2019). The public relations dialogic theory has also been instrumental to research how charitable foundations use social media to build relationships with publics (e.g. Qu, 2020). Additionally, the diversity in fundraising roles (Waters et al., 2012; Tindall et al., 2014) and the response of NPOs to the crises that affect their reputation and relationships with key stakeholders, based on situational crisis communication theory (e.g. Sisco, 2012; Janssen et al., 2021), can be found in the literature. Single communication issues have also been researched, including areas like trust (e.g. Gaskin, 1999; Lee et al., 2012; Sargeant & Lee, 2002; Viertmann, 2016), reputation (e.g. Liao, 1999; Sarstedt & Schloderer, 2010; Zatepilina-Monacell, 2012), social media (e.g. Buckholz, 1972; Bull & Schmitz, 1976; Callow, 2004; Dailey, 1986; Einolf & Chambré, 2011; Rodriguez, 2016; Naudé et al., 2004), branding (e.g. Abreu, 2006; Dixon, 1997; Grounds & Harkness, 1998; Hankinson, 2000; Hankinson & Rochester, 2005; Liu et al., 2014; Stride & Lee, 2007), internal communication (e.g. Liu et al., 2015; Hume & Leonard, 2014), identity (e.g. Holtzhausen, 2014), engagement and civil engagement (e.g. Jones, 2006; Shiau, 2011; Wollebæk & Strømsnes, 2008), crisis (e.g. Dixon, 1997; Frangonikolopoulos & Poulakidakos, 2015), evaluation of communication (e.g. O’Neil, 2013), media relations (e.g. Thrall et al., 2014; Powers, 2014), and volunteer communication (e.g. Hess, 2015). Besides the issues mentioned earlier, case studies have also been carried out, including the challenges facing NGOs that work in human rights in post-Soviet states (Tsetsura, 2013); relationship building and the use of the internet for PR and advocacy in Chinese NGOs (Yang & Taylor, 2010); the study of Lynas public sentiment in Malaysia on an activist campaign (Kaur, 2015); a model for NGO media diplomacy in the internet age based on a case study of Washington Profile (Zhang & Swartz, 2009); a comparative study of NPOs’ websites in Germany and Switzerland as dialogic tools (Ingenhoff & Koelling, 2010); the difference between reputation and trustworthiness in NPOs’ online campaigns (Wiencierz et al., 2015); and the application of “evidence” in NGO strategic communication on war and armed conflict (Fröhlich & Jungblut, 2017). Other research proposals include a semiotic analysis of environmental NGOs’ online campaigns from a business communication perspective (Catellani, 2011). This proposed exploration of the field can serve to gather some impressions of the journal publications but has two main drawbacks. First, as an interdisciplinary area with literature 4 Introducing nonprofit communication coming from humanities and communication, research is typically published in a book, as already noticed by other studies (e.g. Ma & Konrath, 2018). One reason can be the format of the theoretical proposals; another the publication processes and available journals. Then, there is research published in other languages and regions that is not mirrored in WOS journals. A systematic review of NGO performance research published between 1996 and 2008 concluded that despite the large body of NGO publications and 14,469 citations identified, most of it is in gray literature and only a small number in peer-reviewed journals (Kareithi & Lund, 2012). This can be also due to the bias towards publishing only positive results for fear of losing funding or even the difficulties of performing studies in low-resourced NGO settings (Kareithi & Lund, 2012, p. 5). Consequently, without aiming for an extensive and systematic review, we would like to mention some work that has been published on nonprofit and NGO communication in single issues, books, or chapters and in other languages or regions in order to connect dots that can add up to lines in the field map. Recently, we can register two main works that go beyond the functionalist approach to NGO and nonprofit communication from an organizational perspective. One is the Instigatory Theory of NGO Communication, or ITNC (Oliveira, 2017, 2019) and the other is the book Understanding Nonprofit Work: A Communication Perspective (Koschmann & Sandres, 2020). Furthermore, a proposal by Jane Johnston relates public interest communication with civil society from a macro approach to PR (Johnston, 2016). Moreover, Franzisca Weder (2021) proposes reframing dissent in strategic communication with a critical perspective. Regarding theoretical insights from other languages and countries on NPO communication, Thierry Libaert, in the French-speaking academia, has looked into distinctive elements of communication at associations, pointing to the singularity of the relationship with the publics in different conditions and concludes that “the supporter will never be a shareholder. The cause will never be a product. The recipient will never be a customer. Volunteers will never be employers” (Libaert & Pierlot, 2009, p. 6), mirroring the complexity of those relationships and the implications for communication, especially the one of transparency to promote trust and legitimation. Among Germanspeaking scholars, Thomas Pleil made a list of the challenges of NGO communication, highlighting its central role, as well as the fact that communication can be well-established and the central organizational goal (2005); Günter Bentele, Thobias Libert, and Michael Vogt (2001) described the bottomup communication dynamic as “PR from under” and presented case studies from German civil society organizations and movements. In South American academic literature, Sylvia Meneghetti has proposed that communication can be considered a management approach for NPOs and describes nine dimensions: organizational, institutional, humanizing, cultural, fundraising, membership capturing, accountability, lobbying, and political (9) (Meneghetti, 2001, p. 27). Katrin Voss (2007) has researched the excellence theory by James Grunig at German and US environmental NGOs, concluding that this PR theory is only partially applicable. Voss recommends doing further research on a combined PR and NGO approach, looking at the different communicative working fields, which she identifies as PR, media relations, lobbying, and fundraising. Additionally, she discusses the issue of the participation and civil society function that is expected from NGOs (p. 291). Along the same lines, other studies have researched Steyn and Puth’s normative model, which combines excellence and relationship management theories in South African NPOs (Wiggill, 2011). The model heavily focuses on communication strategy development by the communication strategist, and the research compared the original proposal with the practices of five NPOs. It was concluded that due to constraints like, for example, the nonexistence of a person dedicated to communication, a simplified model could be applied, focusing on skills training rather than on the role of the professional. 5 Gisela Gonçalves and Evandro Oliveira Defining NPO communication Despite being a fruitful area of study, research based on stakeholder relationships presents a narrow managerial and functionalist perspective on communication (Koschmann et al., 2015; Koschmann, 2012), underestimating the importance of a more holistic view of NPO communication. Framing NPO communication can be relevant to reaching a working definition. First, the context indicates that interactions between civil society organizations in postmodern environments become less physical and more symbolic toward “strategy, communication and consensus” (Pérez, 2001, p. 536). That is even more expressive when considering virtualization in online interaction. This ongoing sense-making process (Weick, 1995) from the individuals in a scaling-up6 contributes to the ongoing constitution of the organizations in a nondirectly managed communication, but also as a conversation in the public sphere. Therefore, we can set the main communication pillars in nonprofits as the constitutive role of communication at the macro and meso levels in the interplay of modern times (Oliveira, 2017) – it comprehends the macro societal-level approach to communicative action and social change in a constitutive way and the constitutive role of communication in creating the organization. It also includes the strategic role of communication at the macro level, considering the nonprofit discourse and conversations in the public sphere. At the meso level, there is the managed communication from an organizational center perspective; and lastly, the legitimation dynamics from inside-out, setting also the primary locus of the communicative legitimation from a neo-institutionalist perspective with the citizens who are the members of the organization and, therefore, the first group that legitimizes the management and all the organization (Oliveira & Wiesenberg, 2016). The discipline of strategic communication can also be of help, not only on their foundations and aims but also on the update of the recent reflections that call for the inclusion of the Communicative Constitution of Organizations (CCO) perspective (Oliveira, 2017; Heide et al., 2018). The discipline of strategic communication is based on five foundational assumptions (Holtzhausen & Zerfass, 2015; Frandsen & Johansen, 2018): (i) strategic communication is the “purposeful use of communication by an organization to fulfill its mission”; (ii) all types of organizations communicate to gain influence; (ii) the communicative activities of an organization can best be viewed from an integrative perspective; (iv) all communication disciplines address the same five basic issues: identification and segmentation of stakeholders, selection of media channels, behavioral outcomes, reputation management, and the agency of communication professionals; and (5) strategy is a multidimensional concept that offers alternative understandings to strategic communication, including critical and postmodern, and is not only understood as a rational decision-making process. Trying to read NPO communication in light of strategic communication assumptions, we may underline that NPOs, like any organization, have the need to make strategic decisions and communicate strategically to attract attention, create a good reputation and trust among their stakeholders, and communicate about the subject they campaign and maintain relationships. For that, NPOs can focus on communication activities across different fields of practice such as PR, marketing communication, social marketing campaigns, or even political communication. This means that NPOs’ strategic communication should look beyond disciplinary differences, searching for integration in all their strategies. The NPOs’ purpose is to gain legitimacy by fulfilling their communicative role in the public sphere. To capture the full range of possibilities of NPOs, we suggest the following working definition, based on the literature on strategic communication, PR, organizational communication, and communication management: Nonprofit communication is all the communicative processes enacted by an actor on behalf of a communicative entity in the public sphere and inside the collective, framed and governed polyphonically and according to formal and informal strategies. 6 Introducing nonprofit communication In this definition, the communicative processes carried out by an actor include the aforementioned four pillars of communication. The actor is communicating on behalf of an entity, which can be a formal organization, a movement, or other collective entity. The communication is framed and governed polyphonically as it includes different perspectives and opinions within the group, framed within the main purpose of the collective. The formal strategy includes the set goals, purposes, and fulfillment of the mission set forth by management. Complementarily, the informal strategies refer to goals, purposes, and messages decided by ad hoc groups participating in the ongoing process in the public sphere and within the act of organizing. Outline of the book This handbook provides a thorough account of the theories, concepts, problems, and challenges that converge in nonprofit research in a changing and complex environment. The volume features four parts, which cover different aspects of the nonprofit communication sector. The first part introduces metatheoretical and multidisciplinary approaches to the nonprofit sector, including the intersection of the definitions of democracy, civil society, and their dynamics. The second part offers distinctive structural approaches to communication and their models of reputation, marketing, and communication management. The third part focuses on strategy, communication, and discourses and on the relation between these organizations and their stakeholders and publics. Subsequently, the last part has a more applied focus and looks at campaigns and case studies. We believe the handbook to have four main strengths. First, it is very diverse in terms of perspectives and theories. Second, it contains works from different continents and different schools of thought. Additionally, it covers ontogenesis, an understanding from a structural and strategic perspective, as well as new challenges in a networked society and case studies. The Routledge Handbook of Nonprofit Communication aims to provide an overview of the multiple and complex approaches at micro, meso, and macro levels. NPO and communication studies, especially the applied field of communication sciences, can benefit from a handbook that brings together multiple and interdisciplinary perspectives and provides an outline of critical, structural, and strategic approaches, besides debating the new challenges, case studies, and recent trends on this social and communicational phenomenon. It is now up to you, dear reader, to see if it rises to the occasion. An edited volume like this one only becomes as interesting and important as the contributors make it. As editors, we thus want to express our gratitude, first and foremost, to the 48 contributors who dedicated their valuable time and energy to making this book possible. Your perseverance amid a pandemic was inspiring. It has been a great pleasure to get to know and work together with you, and we are sincerely grateful for all the high-quality and original chapters. We would also like to thank Felisa Salvago-Keyes and the staff at Routledge. We are grateful for all the consistent support we received during the process of conceiving, editing, and publishing the book. As the chapters in this volume attest, NPO communication has become one of the most dynamic and diverse fields of study today. Although there is a rich and varied body of literature on the subject, it is hoped that this handbook will help to shed light on the many further avenues for research in this domain. Notes 1 https://uia.org/yearbook 2 https://nccs.urban.org/publication/nonprofit-sector-brief-2019#the-nonprofit-sector-in-brief-2019 3 We searched for keywords and phrases, including “communication,” “non-profit,” and related words and spellings, such as “NGO,” “NPO,” “non-governmental,” “not-for-profit,” “third sector,” or “voluntary sector,” in the titles, abstract, and keywords of published works between 2012 and 2022. We then examined 7 Gisela Gonçalves and Evandro Oliveira each article of a sum of 389 to determine whether it had a close link with the topic of NPO communication from theoretical or empirical perspectives. 4 Defining what particular literature is or is not within the field of nonprofit communication can be problematic. For the sake of argument, we checked the nonprofit literature in terms of recognizable nonprofit journals indexed in WOS. 5 Other journals that publish on nonprofit communication in the last ten years, in descending order of the number of articles published, are the following: Management Communication Quarterly, Journal of Nonprofit Education and Leadership, Corporate Communication, Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, Environmental Communication, and Journal of Communication Management. 6 The scaling-up process is central in Communication Constitutes Organization research (e.g. Cooren & Fairhurst, 2009). References Abreu, M. (2006). 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Dethier, F., Delcourt, C., & Willems, J. (2021). Transparency of nonprofit organizations: An integrative framework and research agenda. Journal of Philanthropy and Marketing, e1725. https://doi.org/10.1002/nvsm.1725 Dixon, M. (1997). Small and medium-sized charities need a strong brand too: Crisis’ experience. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 2(1), 52–57. Eikenberry, A. M., & Kluver, J. D. (2004). The marketization of the nonprofit sector: Civil society at risk? Public Administration Review, 64, 132–140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2004.00355.x Einolf, C., & Chambré, S. M. (2011). Who volunteers? Constructing a hybrid theory. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 16(4), 298–310. Ferguson, D. (2018). Nongovernmental organization (NGO) communication. 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Developing a brand from within: Involving employees and volunteers when developing a new brand position. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 3(2), 179–184. Hall, P. D. (1999). The work of many hands: A response to Stanley N. Katz on the origins of the “serious study” of philanthropy. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 28(4), 522–534. doi:10.1177/0899764099284013 Hankinson, P. (2000). Brand orientation in charity organisations: Qualitative research into key charity sectors. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 5(3), 207–219. Hankinson, P., & Rochester, C. (2005). The face and voice of volunteering: A suitable case for branding? International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 10(2), 93–105. Heide, M., Platen, S., Simonsson, C., & Falkheimer, J. (2018). Expanding the scope of strategic communication: Towards a holistic understanding of organizational complexity. 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The International Encyclopedia of Strategic Communication. doi:10.1002/9781119010722.iesc0172 Frangonikolopoulos, C. A. , & Poulakidakos, S. (2015). Revisiting the public profile and communication of Greek NGOs in times of crisis. International Journal of Media & Cultural Politics, 11(1), 119–127. Fröhlich, R. , & Jungblut, M. (2017). Between factoids and facts: The application of ‘evidence’ in NGO strategic communication on war and armed conflict. Media, War and Conflict, 11(1), 86–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750635217727308 Gaskin, K. (1999). Blurred vision: Public trust in charities. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 4(2), 163–178. Grounds, J. , & Harkness, J. (1998). Developing a brand from within: Involving employees and volunteers when developing a new brand position. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 3(2), 179–184. Hall, P. D. (1999). The work of many hands: A response to Stanley N. Katz on the origins of the “serious study” of philanthropy. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 28(4), 522–534. doi:10.1177/0899764099284013 Hankinson, P. (2000). Brand orientation in charity organisations: Qualitative research into key charity sectors. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 5(3), 207–219. Hankinson, P. , & Rochester, C. (2005). The face and voice of volunteering: A suitable case for branding? International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 10(2), 93–105. Heide, M. , Platen, S. , Simonsson, C. , & Falkheimer, J. (2018). Expanding the scope of strategic communication: Towards a holistic understanding of organizational complexity. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 12(4), 452–468. doi:10.1080/1553118X.2018.1456434 Hess, A. (2015, December 3–4). Strategic communication of non-governmental organizations: The role of volunteers as communicators and multipliers. 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Social media creating digital environmental publics: Case of Lynas Malaysia. Public Relations Review, 41(2), 311–314. Koschmann, M. A. (2012). Developing a communicative theory of the nonprofit. Management Communication Quarterly, 26(1), 139–146. doi:10.1177/0893318911423640 Koschmann, M. A. , Isbell, M. G. , & Sanders, M. L. (2015). Connecting nonprofit and communication scholarship: A review of key issues and a meta-theoretical framework for future research. Review of Communication, 15(3), 200–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/15358593.2015.1058411 Koschmann, M. A. , & Sandres, M. (2020). Understanding nonprofit work: A communication perspective. WileyBlackwell. Landim, L. (2002). Múltiplas Identidades das ONGs. In S. Haddad (Ed.), ONGs e universidades: desafios para a cooperação na América Latina (pp. 17–50). Editora Fundação Peirópolis. Lang, S. (2013). NGOs, civil society, and the public sphere. Cambridge University Press. Lee, T. , Johnson, E. , & Prakash, A. (2012). Media independence and trust in NGOs: The case of postcommunist countries. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 41(1), 8–35. Lewis, L. (2005). The civil society sector. A review of critical issues and research agenda for organizational communication scholars. Management Communication Quarterly, 19(2), 238–267. doi:10.1177/0893318905279190 Liao, M.-N. (1999). Managing reputation and dealing with public scrutiny: Issues for voluntary sector organisations. International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 4(4), 378–381. Libaert, T. , & Pierlot, J. M. (2009). Communication des associations. Dunod. Liu, G. , Chapleo, C. , Ko, W. W. , & Ngugi, I. K. (2015). The role of internal branding in nonprofit brand management: An empirical investigation. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 44(2), 319–339. Liu, G. , Eng, T.-Y. , & Sekhon, Y. K. (2014). Managing branding and legitimacy: A study of charity retail sector. 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