Flying Boats Bridge between two Eras

Flying Boats, Aircrafts that Bridged Two Eras: the romantic age of commercial aviation, 1920's to 1945 Dragoljub Krakovic History 491 05/08/2014 "Some day a Clipper flight will be remembered as the most romantic voyage in history." (1) - Clare Boothe Luce, 1941 A ship was the only choice the first explorers had in crossing the Atlantic ocean and venturing to other places around the globe maintaining its supremacy without challenge for a few centuries in connecting continents enabling trade, cultural exchange, and colonization. The twentieth century witnessed birth of the aircraft and in the span of only three decades the first airliners made the crossings between Americas, Asia and Europe carrying passengers and mail. An era lasting several centuries was coming to a close and a new one fulfilling centuries old dream to fly like a bird over the ocean was dawning in which flying boat served as the bridge. The heydays of flying boats lasted less than a decade without making a significant impact on ocean liners in the number of passengers and cargo they carried however, their role and importance in proving that aircrafts can safely and efficiently cross the ocean much faster was enormous. World War Two similarly to World War One played a significant role in accelerating the development of a long range aircraft and the development of infrastructure to support land based aircrafts. Within a decade after the war ended airliners took over supremacy from ocean liners in connecting continents. 1. Barnaby Conrad III, Pan Am: An Aviation Legend (Emeryville: Woodford Press,1999), 14-15. A human desire to conquer the skies and bridge distances is as old as humankind. The technological development in the design of internal combustion engines in combination with advances in aerodynamics, constructions, and the manufacturing processes resulted in the first heavier-than-air self-propelled flight. On the cold misty morning of 17 December 1903 centuries old dream to take off and fly like a bird finally materialized. This historic event took place at Kitty Hawk field in North Carolina where brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright, with their creation called Flyer I made several short flights which signaled the beginning of the era of aviation. Initially, many skeptics forecasted a short life for these fragile aircrafts, as they did for automobiles, soon proved wrong once humans experienced what flying had to offer. In the early days aircrafts were fragile machines and due to experimentation various odd looking creations took to the air. Although the Wright brothers and the United States pioneered the first heavier than air self propelled flight, development shifted across the Atlantic ocean to Europe making France the center of aviation for the next two decades. Despite the fact that in the beginning they met with numerous obstacles, aircraft development went much further than infrastructure (airports, paved runways, navigation aids, etc.) necessary to support it, and constantly improving its reliability that often was cited as the main limitation triggering a bad reputation for land based aircrafts throughout the twenties. Aircraft coming to age In the first decade of its existence the aircraft had a slow start usually featured as an attraction for the curious onlookers with little purpose for the future use. World War One changed the fate of the flying machine with modest utilization in the reconnaissance role, later expanded and used as fighters and bombers during the second half of the War. When the war ended there was a surplus, making aircrafts cheap and easy to procure thus creating the fertile conditions for entrepreneurs and enthusiasts to venture into the flying business. The first recorded use of a aircraft to transport paying passengers occurred in 1914 between St Petersburg and Tampa, Florida but increased air service activity had to wait until the end of the war when numerous new airlines were established, primarily in Europe and United States. With the appearance of new companies on both continents, air service slowly spread across the globe. The first passenger aircrafts were converted bombers, an example was the Vickers Vimy (Figure 1) or military flying boats similar to Felixstowe F.2. Quickly the outdated military aircrafts were replaced with aircrafts designed and built for passengers. However, it took another decade before passenger aircrafts became airliners capable of safe and profitable service in connecting major cities thanks to advances in technical development, design, manufacturing processes, and airline demand. Throughout the 1920's and 1930's land based aircrafts were small and light, suitable for a short intercity transport and only a few had enough range to travel distances longer than 500 miles. Although considered long range aircraft the Imperial Airways Handley Page H.P.42 took a week from London to reach South Africa and Australia. Figure 1. Vickers Vimy During the twenties Europe had the edge over the United States in air travel due to government subsidies in promoting intercity travel and for some like the United Kingdom and France, to connect with overseas colonial possessions. In the United States where distances between major cities were much greater unreliable aircrafts had no appeal for business people who preferred to take a train ride which offered scheduled and on time arrival to their destination. As mentioned above, there were different outlooks on emerging airlines between Europe and US. Airlines in Europe were subsidized by their governments while in the United States mail service kept airlines afloat springing four major airlines: American, Eastern, United, and TWA. Their survival and further expansion were guaranteed by the lucrative government mail contracts awarded by the Postmaster General. Airlines earned very well with profits soaring despite cut in rates for mail chiefly due to the premiums the government compensated for the weight carried. It is a little known fact that the Postmaster General Brown played a crucial role in encouraging creation of the larger and stronger airlines by way of compensating them for transporting mail. His formula was to pay contractors not by pounds of mail per mile rather, by the amount of space available for mail. Naturally airlines with larger capacity aircrafts would survive while smaller ones had the option either to be absorbed or disappear. American airlines concentrated on the domestic market and initially were owned by aircraft and engine manufacturers, while European airlines due to close geographic proximity between the capitals and their colonial and oversees territories expanded towards Africa, Asia, and South America promoting international passenger services. Most prominent airlines from the "Old Continent" were Deutsche Lufthansa, British Imperial Airways, Air France, and Italian Air Littoria. Establishing and keeping air routes operational were met with numerous challenges and obstacles imposing limited passenger traffic and mail delivery. A typical flight connecting UK with the Orient lasted several days and Imperial Airways premier aircraft Handley Page HP.42 had to make multiple stops along the way, risking further delays in the event that weather or local political conditions worsened. The alternative for land based aircrafts were seaplanes capable of operating from water surfaces and soon became the choice for the few airlines determined to push the limits and try to establish intercontinental air traffic. One of the earliest airlines to utilize flying boats for its service was Aeromarine Airways in the United States followed with Deutsche Lufthansa, Imperial Airways, Aer Littoria, from Europe and the most significant of all, Pan American Airways. It is important to recognize the contribution airlines mentioned earlier played in the development of civil aviation due to their close cooperation with aircraft manufacturers in designing and building airliners. Although, flying boats exclusively operated on routes between Europe and South America, US and South America and Asia carrying a limited number of passengers and load with a high cost of fares it was clear the new era in intercontinental service was on the way. The domination of ocean liners was dangerously threatened with the possibilities of faster aircraft. However, scheduled passenger shipping service continued until the sixties when the modern jet made international service fast and economical closing the chapter on an era. Despite its slow speeds, flying boats offered luxurious and romantic travel, serving as a bridge to fill the gap in intercontinental service between grand passenger ships and modern days airliners throughout the thirties. The flying boats golden days are long gone. Their glory were recorded in the archives of aviation but we should not forget the immense role they played in pioneering commercial aviation and the contribution in the expansion of air travel bridging continents and altering forever the landscape of intercontinental travel. What is a flying boat? Seeing a flying boat in contemporary times is a rarity and often when it appears it is used to battle fires along the Mediterranean coastal regions in the summer months during the peak of a tourist season or seldom in military operations for reconnaissance or rescue. In contrast numerous floatplanes are still in active service around Alaska, Canada, and Caribbean islands as well the Maldives serving the small communities or transporting tourists to remote luxury resorts. In aviation terminology and dictionaries readers often may be confused about definitions of seaplane and flying boat. Reputable Jane's Aerospace Dictionary offers the following: seaplane 1. Float seaplane, marine aircraft having one, two or (rarely) more separate floats and conventional fuselage (UK). 2. Marine aircraft of any fixed-wing type (US). flying boat Seaplane whose main body is a hull with planing bottom.(2) Perhaps, the explanation can still be puzzling but focusing on the US definition can provide more clarity since seaplanes can be divided into subcategories of flying boats and floatplanes. When comparing these two it is fairly easy to notice distinction between flying boat and floatplane. The flying boat as the name suggests is a combination that 2. Bill Gunston, Jane's Aerospace Dictionary. (Coulsdon: Butler & Tanner Ltd, 1988), 435. includes design features of an aircraft and a boat. It is specifically designed and made to take off and land on water surfaces thus incorporating a fuselage with seaworthy characteristics. Such features greatly penalize an aircraft performance in relation to speed. Every major commercial and military flying boat was high winged driven by necessity to mount engines high above the water surface for clearing propeller blades and ingestion of water which could cause the engine to shutdown. In addition some type of stabilizing device had to be mounted to prevent tipping and damage to the wings while the flying boat was at low speeds moving thru water. The solution was found with the installation of small floats either on the wings or thru the complicated geometry of rigging links around the mid section of the wings resulting in a decrease of the flying boat speed. In the mid-thirties Pan American Airways took delivery of a revolutionary Martin M-130 which used sponsons, additional short "wings" mounted on the fuselage above the waterline, first used by Dornier Do J Wal. Sponsons had multiple usage, providing additional fuel storage and serving as lift devices resulting in a considerable cleaner aerodynamic shape with an increased flight performance. Boeing installed sponsons in model 314 delivered to Pan Am Airways in 1939, the largest and most advanced commercial flying boat with increased capacity and range to satisfy the newly opened European routes. The most widely used and recognized commercial flying boats were the Sikorsky S-42, Martin M-130, Boeing 314, Short Empire, and Latecoere 521, A floatplane is a land based fix-wing aircraft with pontoons installed under the fuselage to enable takeoff and landing from water surfaces. They are still actively used by bush pilots in Alaska, Northern Canada and other places around the world and it is usually four to six seats airplanes like the Cessna 180, Caravan, De Havilland D.H.2, and similar. Conversion is easy, consisting in removal of un-retractable landing gear and installing pontoons that are shaped as a hull with a small rudder on its end and often with small wheels to accommodate beaching. Despite conversion of a several large land based aircrafts to floatplanes in the thirties to fulfill requirements of Deutsche Lufthansa like, Blohm und Voss B.V 139 for airmail service to South America, Imperial Airways Short Maio for routes to Australia, and Ala Littoria Cant Z 506 for the Mediterranean service these aircrafts never found wide usage in the passenger service. Another design modification for flying boats were the installation of retractable landing gears where the nose gear retracted inside the hull while the main gear was stowed on the side of the hull. The idea was to make flying boats more versatile and Sikorsky S.42 was initially equipped with such a configuration for testing however, due to the additional weight that further penalized the operational performances for air routes the installation was abandoned. Some military flying boats primarily the Consolidated PBY-5A Catalina during World War Two successfully used advantages of modification to utilize both landing mediums in combating the enemy. Modified aircrafts were named amphibians and every modern post war flying boat is designed and equipped with a set of landing gears enabling use of dual landing surfaces. The most prominent modern amphibian aircrafts are Canadair CL-415, Shin Meiwa US-1A, and Beriev Be-200. Development of Seaplanes and Flying Boats On 28 March 1910, Frenchman Henri Fabre made history with his creation called Le Canard, an hydroplane. The machine took off and landed on the water surface in channels Martigues near Marseilles, France. Although this was not a flying boat since it had three floats it created the opportunity for the designers to experiment with waterborne aircrafts. Not long after the first hydroplane flight across the Atlantic an American Thomas Benoist, designer and manufacturer, constructed the first flying boat financed by Mr. Fansler named Benoist XIV. The first commercial scheduled airline service occurred on 1st January 1914 between St. Petersburg and Tampa, Florida. The new air company St. Petersburg - Tampa Airboat Line used three flying boats of this type to service the route for over three months transporting a total of 1,204 passengers without incident and losing only four days of service due to mechanical problems. Local newspaper St. Petersburg Times reported that the first passenger Mr. Abram C. Pheil, mayor of St. Petersburg won on auction ticket paying $400 for a 23 minute flight to travel 18 miles and landing at Tampa Bay. All subsequent passengers paid $5 for the one-way ticket. In 1919, a year after the conclusion of World War One, Boeing company designed and manufactured a flying boat for commercial service named B-1, capable of carrying two passengers and cargo. During the same year in Italy, the famous aircraft manufacturer Caproni produced a monster flying boat capable of carrying 100 passengers with aspiration to establish cross-Atlantic service. However, an odd design during the second flight crashed in lake Maggiore permanently shelving the project. Curtiss Aircraft Company became the leader in flying boat design and manufacturing and one of their creations the F-5L became the flagship for the newly formed Aeromarine West Indies Airways that connected US mainland with Cuba and the Bahamas in the 1920. The airline lasted four years combining scheduled, charter and sightseeing flights using Aeromarine 50 and 75 models. Aeromarine Airways inaugurated the first international passenger flight in United States between Key West, Florida and Havana, Cuba featuring an in-flight movie and beverage service, offering a glimpse of what was in store for future passengers on a long range flights. In the meantime, land-based aircrafts made progress with newly built models to satisfy the needs of new airlines in serving destinations between major cities in Europe and U.S. The most prominent passenger aircraft appeared in the late twenties was Handley Page Hercules and in the mid-thirties Boeing 247, Lockheed Model 10 Electra, and Douglas DC-3 (Figure 2). These aircrafts had operational service with major airlines such as United, Lufthansa, American Airlines, KLM, Eastern Airlines, Delta, Imperial Airways, and many more worldwide. The seating capacities were between ten to just over thirty passengers (DC-3) with ranges averaging 500 miles (Boeing 247 and Handley Page HP.42), the exception was the DC-3, able to fly up to 2000 miles. The Boeing 247, Lockheed Model 10 Electra, and DC-3 were fine aircrafts carrying between ten and twenty passengers in the single row configuration and worked well within US and major cities in Europe. However, modern airliners of the thirties did not have the range and payload to support intercontinental passenger service. Figure 2. DC-3 Flying boats initiated commercial passenger service and throughout the twenties offered several models that could carry reasonable loads, passengers and cargo to distances making a profit. In the early twenties Aeromarine type 75 had the capacity to carry up to fourteen passengers to distances of over eight hundred miles. By the end of the decade German Dornier Do.J Wal reached distances of over 1000 miles with fourteen passengers aboard. The same company made a daring proposal with the construction of Do.X for the intercontinental service, a large flying boat powered with twelve engines. Only two prototypes were made and the aircraft set record for carrying 150 passengers in 1929. Dornier's initial target was to establish a route between Germany, taking off from Friedrichshafen and landing in New York carrying 66 passengers in a ocean liner luxury style interior. Indeed, the entire design of the flying boat reminded passengers of a mini version of an ocean liner. Its windows were round, the upper structure where the flight deck was located resembled the control room of an ocean liner. Unfortunately, numerous mechanical problems plagued the aircraft and the first intercontinental proving run around the world ended unceremoniously taking nineteen months to complete, scrapping its operational future. The new decade offered larger aircrafts capable of reliable service and by the mid thirties a full intercontinental service was established using flying boats. Several prominent models marked this era which will always be remembered as the "Golden Age" of aviation. U.S. based manufacturers led the way with designs by the Russian émigré Igor Sikorsky's S-42, Glen Martin's M-130, and Boeing 314 (Figure 3). When comparisons were made with the contemporary land based aircrafts, flying boats greatly exceeded their carrying capabilities. Sikorsky S-42 seated thirty passengers and served the Caribbean and South American destinations, while Martin M-130 had a range Figure 3. Sikorsky S-42, Martin M-130, Boeing 314 of over 3000 miles and carried forty passengers establishing service between San Francisco and Manila, via Honolulu, Midway, Wake island, and Guam. The crown jewel was Boeing's 314, exceeding the capabilities of all previous models featuring modern interior and offering numerous amenities for its seventy passengers with capabilities of a range over 4000 miles. Besides the obvious advantages flying boats offered, it was clear that leading intercontinental companies had in mind rich clientele able to afford the enormous fare. The important part o the development for commercial aviation were the government sponsored mail contracts that infused new stimulus in establishing long range routes. Airlines were part of the geo-strategic battle between the leading powers in securing their long term political interest and at the same time opening routes enabling access to a new resources of raw materials and future economic markets. Many important business centers were located along the shores of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian subcontinent and it was logically due to the lack of infrastructure for a larger land based aircrafts for airlines to insist on flying boats development. The flying boats provided unmatched luxury in air service and aviation historians pointed out that many features within them resembled ocean liners not only to attract the elite since travel was very expensive, but to provide familiarity with grand ships and put passengers to ease with a sense of safety. The latter was indeed a very important characteristic of flying boats and passenger service overall. Tireless work of designers, engineers, and manufacturers paid off handsomely resulting in total domination of air transport earning the reputation as the safest mean of travel in the second half of the twentieth century and beyond. The important design feature of a flying boat was the combination of the boat's hull and the aircraft's fuselage in one enabling landing on water and floating while rescue arrived in the event of an emergency. Early Crossings of the Atlantic, and Pacific The idea to cross the Atlantic and connect the Old with New World and vice versa dates back to World War One and as early as 1913 when a few daring constructors believed in designing and manufacturing flying boats capable of crossing the Atlantic with few stop-overs. However, due to technical difficulties and unsuitable engines the Atlantic crossing had to wait for the conclusion of the Great war. In 1919 enthusiasm was high gearing up towards the future with several attempts made to cross the Atlantic sponsored by the news media magnates and industrialists. The first successful crossing of the Atlantic occurred in May, when the US Navy prepared three flying boats, Curtiss NC-1, NC-3, and NC-4 for the event. During the crossing NC-1 and NC-3 had to land on water due to bad weather and poor visibility and the only flying boat originating its flight from New York on 8 May continued. The fleet starting point for the Atlantic crossing and competition was St. Johns, Newfoundland. The remaining NC-4 landed in Lisbon fifteen days later, after stopping over in the Azores for few days, eventually reaching it's final destination Plymouth, England. The Daily Mirror prize of 10,000 sterling pounds went to British aviators Alcock and Brown who flew Vickers Vimy from St. Johns to Clifden, Ireland on 14-15 June crossing the Northern Atlantic in 16 hours and 27 minutes. During this time aircraft manufacturers, airline's executives, and entrepreneurs followed with great interest any attempt to set new records or cross oceans due to the possibilities of opening new routes. The US Navy despite lean financial times in the twenties decided to put to test the new Curtiss flying boat designated PN-9 for a nonstop flight from California to Hawaii. On August 31 1925, two flying boats ventured to test a new design. Unfortunately, one PN-9 developed a oil leak and had to make an emergency landing but the other continued. Due to excessive fuel consumption, aviator Rodgers and crew fell short of reaching Hawaii. The flying boat's seaworthiness and the crew's skill enabled to reach Kaua'i. Their effort did not go unnoticed. In January of 1926, the Spanish pilot Ramon Franco, the brother future Spanish dictator Francisco Franco, made the first crossing of South Atlantic from Huelva, Spain via Gran Canaria, Cape Verde, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, and Montevideo to its final destination Buenos Aires with an Dornier Do J Wal named Plus Ultra. Another significant event was staged by the Italian government for propaganda purposes to bolster successes and advances of Fascism. On 13 February 1927, the Italian aviator Francesco de Pinedo crossed the Southern Atlantic taking off from Dakar, Senegal and landed in Pernambuco, Brazil using a Savoia-Marchetti S.M. 55 (Figure 4). Encouraged by this successful flight the Italians had even greater aspirations. Air Marshall Italo Balbo assembled fleet of twenty- four Savoia-Marchetti S.M. 55's and on 1st July 1933 flew in formation from Rome via Amsterdam, New York, with landing in Chicago 48 hours later for the Century of Progress International Exposition. The fleet returned back to Rome and received a grand welcome hosted by Mussolini. Savoia-Marchetti S.M. 55 started its operational service in 1924 and had an unusual configuration. It was a double-hulled flying boat which evolved into several versions reaching the pinnacle of evolution with model X who served versatile roles as a bomber, reconnaissance, and passenger aircraft. Figure 4. Savoia - Marchetti S.M. 55 In 1929, German's famous aircraft designer Dornier unveiled his grandest passenger plane, scheduled to tour the world with plans to establish service between Germany and New York and become a competitor to Zeppelin flying ships. Dornier Do- X was a large flying boat capable of carrying seventy passengers and crew. The dimensions alone exceeded all aircrafts built in the twenties with the idea to offer scheduled flights to U.S. and destinations worldwide with Deutsche Lufthansa. The Dornier Do X was equipped with 12 engines and a 157-foot wingspan with a lavish interior offering its passengers dinning rooms, sleeping quarters and a central saloon carpeted with Oriental rugs. Germans pioneered and spearheaded idea of the Atlantic crossings using the northern route as early as 1911. It started with one man's vision to offer a faster crossing between Europe and North America and beat ocean liners. Ferdinand von Zeppelin was manufacturer of numerous flying ships that were light in construction, filled with hydrogen, enormous in size offering seating for 22 to 36 passengers in luxury quarters located on the bottom of the sphere complimented with 40 to 61 crew members to cater to the passengers needs and maintain the enormous vessel throughout the flight. Flying ships like Hindenburg frequented the North Atlantic and carried passengers across the Atlantic for almost two years prior to the disaster that took place during landing at Lakehurst Naval Air Station, New Jersey on 6 May 1937. The roaring twenties ended in a financial crisis which extended into the early thirties. It was a bleak time for airlines but a few visionaries like Juan Trippe saw opportunity to develop intercontinental transport choosing flying boats for a long range service. As Pan American's Chief Engineer, Andre Priester, astutely observed, "A seaplane carries its own airport on its bottom."(3). He was not alone, the European airlines Deutsche Lufthansa and Air France had similar goals in mind to establish mail service between Europe and South America followed by passenger service but, there were no aircrafts capable of long range to achieve this goal. Pan American Airways ordered several Sikorsky S-40's to carry passengers between Florida and the Caribbean. Juan Trippe hired famous aviator, Charles Lindberg to conduct reconnaissance flights to 3. Richard C. Knott, The American Flying Boat, an Illustrated History. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1979), 118. South America and Europe. He provided feedback for Pan American chairman, his flight and technical staff which helped in planning new routes. The World War One ace Colonel O'Neill founded NYRBA, (New York, Rio, Buenos Aires) and pioneered the effort to connect two Americas using flying boats. He hired experienced US Navy pilots who already made flights circumnavigating the south continent. The aircraft of choice was the Consolidated Commodore and service lasted until 1930 when his competitor Pan American Airways acquired the company. Pan Am not only maintained existing routes but expanded its service to other destinations across South America.. During this period Juan Trippe gained experience to formulate and crystallize his ambitions to establish passenger service between United States and Europe. However due to politics, Pan American Airways could not obtain permits to fly between New York and Europe since Imperial Airways exercised its influence with the British government preventing such a move. Besides no adequate airliner existed since Pan Am's Sikorsky 42 had the range but no passenger capacity while the Imperial's Short had the opposite disadvantage. The German expansion to South America began in the early twenties when they offered technical support and knowledge to the Columbians and in 1921 established a new airline SCADTA followed by the introduction of two flying boats Dornier Do J Wal's named Atlantico and Pacifico in 1925 to demonstrate to the American government the possibilities for air service between two continents and advances of German technology. A year later the Atlantico was transferred to Brazil where the Germans helped in founding a national airline VARIG. In order to make a connection with the South American offspring Deutsche Lufthansa focused on opening a direct airmail run between Europe and Rio De Janeiro and sought to shorten the mail run to four days as compared to ocean liners week long journey. Ingenuity was at work due to a shortage of aircrafts with a long range capability in the late twenties and early thirties. The German airline launched a Dornier Do J Wal named Monsun from a cargo ship once the South American continent was within range. A similar idea in connecting France with South America via colonial possessions in Africa was in Bouilloux - Lafont's mind, a businessman who purchased the famous French airline Lignes Latecoere and renamed it, Aeropostale. He hired the most famous French aviator Jean Mermoz to lead the epic flight. In 1935, the French premier aircraft manufacturer Latecoere tested type 521 named 'Lieutenant de Vasseau Paris', a six engines flying boat with a range of over 2500 miles intended for service between Europe and America. The maiden flight commemorating 300 years of French presence in America took place in January 1935. On the return leg, the aircraft was damaged by a hurricane while in Pensacola, Florida postponing its entry in Air France's passenger service. Eventually, type 521 made four round trips to New York in 1939, and at outbreak of World War Two was assigned to the French Navy. In the early 1930's Deutsche Lufthansa crossed the Atlantic via the northern route several times to launch the first airmail service between Germany and U.S using a similar method to carry mail to South America. Initially Do J Wal, serviced the route followed by another flying boat Do 18, eventually replaced by the sleek floatplane Blohm und Voss Ha 139 in the mid-1930's. The race to provide the first transatlantic service spurred up with Pan American trial flight in 1937, the stage for the revolution in intercontinental traffic was set. The development and use of flying boats to serve intercontinental routes had several reasons primarily a short range of land based aircrafts, non adequate infrastructure around the world to support large and heavy aircrafts, safety, and luxurious interiors resembling ocean liners for wealthy passengers. Therefore, these factors need to be discussed in details. Domination of Ocean Liners in Intercontinental Travel Intercontinental passenger service from the end of the nineteenth century throughout the first half of the twentieth century was exclusively reserved for ocean liners. The rapid development of the United States attracted immigrants from less fortunate places in Europe and Asia who were seeking new opportunities and a better life. Ships were the sole transportation for centuries and the only mean for connecting distant places carrying cargo and passengers. Ships played a major role and was a tool used by rulers of the Old World to trade, explore, and colonize far corners of the globe. Without any doubt, ships projected power which shaped political and economic relations across the world leaving an indelible mark on the future. As passenger service steadily increased, so did the capacity of ports where ocean liners originated and terminated their ocean voyages in the Mediterranean, (Marseille, Livorno) along the North European coast (Liverpool, Southampton, Hamburg) as well the Far East (Hong Kong). Major ports for the arriving passengers in North America, were New York and San Francisco, while in South America, Rio de Janeiro and Buenos Aires. Ocean liners offered accommodations for the wealthy passengers by placing them on the upper and to the poor on the lower decks depending on the size of the ship. Over a period of a hundred years, circa 1830 until mid 1950's the time it took to cross the Atlantic decreased from eighteen days to four as technology, primarily new design and propulsion advanced (Figure 5). During this time four distinctive periods can be recognized starting with Figure 5 Note: Liverpool / New York. Source: data from P.J. Hugill (1993) World Trade since 1431, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, p.128. Stopford, M. (2009) Maritime Economics, Third Edition, London: Routledge. the early liners powered by sails, carrying on average of about 200 passengers in a wooden hulls. From the 1860's, maritime crossing of the Atlantic further decreased and traffic on other oceans increased chiefly due to the introduction of iron hulls, steam engines, and screw propulsion. As a result of constant technological improvements passengers and cargo capacity of ocean liners drastically increased (carrying up to 1500 passengers) and at the same time transatlantic crossing was cut in half. The period from the turn of the twentieth century until the late thirties was remembered as the "Golden Age" of ocean liners, when the most majestic and glamorous ships were built and transverse across the oceans. During this period the highest speeds were attained and RMS Mauritania held the speed record for three decades, crossing Atlantic between Liverpool and New York in four and a half days. Luxury and speed were the driving factors also, increased immigration from Europe to the United States dictated higher capacities for ocean liners to accommodate lower paying passengers. The average ocean liners carried between 1,000 to 2,000 passengers and were powered by steam turbines and quadruple screws. Perhaps the most glorious ocean liner of all times was RMS Titanic famed by its size, speed, and claim of invincibility. However, the majestic ship never completed her maiden trip and on 14 April 1912, sunk when she collided with an iceberg. After World War Two ended, the first airliners capable of non-stop service between US and Europe arrived challenging ocean liner supremacy. In 1956, as statistics showed more passengers crossed the Atlantic by air than sea. By the 1960, jet engine powered airliners, Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8, conquered the skies further reducing travel between Europe and the United States to eight hours. Despite Cunard Line advertisement claiming "Getting there is half the fun!" the era of ocean liners was coming to an end mostly due to business people and travelers need for a faster and more frequent service between the continents something the ocean liners could not provide. From 1830 up to the first two decades of the twentieth century ocean liner frequency between Europe and North America constantly increased as Cunard Line, White Star Line, Hapag - Lloyd, and other fleets grew. At its peak ocean liners departed New York three to four times a week to several destinations in Europe, primarily to Southampton, Glasgow, Plymouth, Cherbourg, Hamburg, etc. The major companies competed for the glory with grandiose liners, in the constant quest to surpass competitors. The ocean liners left a legacy that influenced commercial aviation is still found in many procedures, uniforms, nomenclatures, even definition and distinction between airfields and airports. In the early 1920's Instone Air Lines introduced a new uniform resembling a maritime officers, smartly dressed in dark blue uniforms, standard for commercial flight officers all over the world that remained until the present days. Pan American Airways went one step further with uniforms, adding four golden stripes on the coat's sleeve and named the pilot-in-charge a captain. Despite the passing times the terminology remained the same, as an example, the aircraft flight control for a yaw is called rudder, the same as the ship control for stirring left and right , terminology for sides mirroring those used in the maritime world, left is port, right starboard, etc. Airfield versus Flying Boat Base The early airfields were unsophisticated places which suitability was determined by the openness and relative flatness of the land as well as the vicinity to major cities. During the early days of aviation the major cities had relatively ample of cheap land and setting an airfield was easy, giving the city a prestige over others. Germany led the way with Delag, a passenger service company operating Zeppelin airships and setting up the a network of airfields across the country prior to World War One. An airfield of the twenties consisted of a simple building for checking in air travelers and their bags with a few other rudimentary services. Due to the light weight of aircrafts and the number of passengers they carried, airfields and early airports did not have a need for paved surfaces and associated runway equipment. Most aerodromes had two right-angle runways up to 2,500 feet in length. The prominent aerodromes/ airports were located near a large economic centers across Europe and United States like Le Bourget near Paris, Croydon south west of London, Tempelhof in Berlin, La Guardia, in New York. Modern day passengers could hardly imagine that the pilot's duties back then included baggage handling, ticketing services, and much more. The aircraft was still considered a novelty and curious masses were attracted to watch take off and landings making airfield/ airports the social gathering places where the number of observers outnumbered actual travelers. Airfields and aerodromes in Europe and United States steadily developed to accommodate the growing number of air travelers. The European nations built an impressive air route network while in the US scheduled airmail service became the driving force requiring sophisticated airports. An important factor in forcing construction of fixed runways, was the capability of aircrafts equipped with more powerful engines to take off in crosswinds. The first fixed runways were initially marked and mowed grass strips aligned with the direction of the wind. As airports grew more complex, air terminals appeared usually styled after railway stations in the Art deco style. Airports well into the 1930's had no navigational equipment, adequate lights, and a few basic support services . Ironically, the airport authorities sought to develop commercial activities adding restaurants, shops and built hotels nearby before investing in control towers, navigational equipment, communication, and lightning systems to improve air travel safety. Croydon, the first civil airport in London introduced a large rotating 'searchlight' beacon and wireless communication, very essentials of to the air traffic control system. A little known fact about the name change from airfield to airport was an administrative move. Since the first international service took place between United Kingdom and France arriving passengers were required to clear the customs which played a detrimental role in the transition from air-FIELD to air-PORT, the evidence that maritime laws and terminology played important role in commercial aviation. As the number of passengers increased new terminals were built adding control towers, maintenance facilities and hangars for aircrafts, paved and lighted runways and taxiways, airports started to take familiar look. The lack of paved runways until the mid-thirties, presented the greatest problem for the development of larger airliners (Figure 6). During heavy rains the grassy/soil runways became soft, making take off and landings unsafe, almost impossible. Besides, the dirt created dangerous conditions (grooving) when subjected to the pressures from larger aircrafts resulting in limiting their gross weight and size. New York's Newark airport claimed to have the worlds first hard paved runway. Stockholm's Bromma airport constructed concrete runway, followed by other Northern European countries due to a problem with standing water in the late spring months caused by thawing of snow. Further improvements followed with the installation of more powerful beacons, mobile and fixed landing flood lights, a wind direction indicator together with clear boundaries and obstruction lighting allowing for night-flying. Le Bourget near Paris where Charles Lindberg landed after non-stop flight over the Atlantic, had these equipment. Figure 6. Croydon Airport 1936 To counteract the shortcomings of land-based aircrafts and airports several airlines, primarily Pan American Airways and Imperial Airways ordered flying boats as their primary aircrafts for establishing air service between continents. Besides, building airports in remote parts of the world would be prohibitively expensive in comparison to flying boat bases. Any larger water surface like the sea, lake, and river could be used for landing and take off with minimum modifications to docks in existing harbors/ naval bases that already provided amenities flying boats passengers could use. Pan American Airways led the way with its Marine Air Terminals in New York and Miami (Figure 7) while in UK Southampton Water became the principal entry/exit port. Figure 7. Pan American’s Marine Terminal at Miami Flying Boat Revolution Pan American Airways founder and long time president Juan Trippe had a vision to connect the world using flying boats. He differentiated from the competition, instead of focusing on the development of domestic air routes, Trippe directed his efforts in building network of international and intercontinental routes. His vision made a great impact and left a long lasting positive consequence on the airline industry overall. Pan American Airways was founded in 1927, serving government sponsored contract delivering mail on the route between Key West, Florida and Havana Cuba. Trippe soon acquired numerous small ailing companies in Central and South America paving the way for his grand plan to establish service between New York and Miami with the major cities along the east coast of South America. The take over of NYRBA (New York, Rio, Buenos Aires Line) equipped with a fleet of Consolidated Commodore flying boats was his most significant acquisition. Juan Trippe soon hired the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh, to tour South America and explore possibilities for new routes. Pan American soon became the symbol for American aviation in the world. The fleet steadily grew with arrivals of new aircraft and soon became premier airline, not only in US but abroad as well. After dominating the South American market, Trippe turned towards Europe and the Pacific. He was determined to open air routes to UK and France but due to bilateral agreements between these countries and technical issues Pan Am had to wait until the late 1930's to materialize this plan. Similar conflict influenced change in the Pacific route where Trippe had to settle for service to Manila, Philippines instead of Hong Kong, which was firmly in the hands of British Imperial Airways. Pan American's influence on future airlines cannot be overstated and as early as 1928, the company hired the most experienced pilots like Edward Musick, who was chief pilot with Aeromarine Airways in the early twenties, Charles Lindberg, the most famous aviator in the world to conduct reconnaissance flights to South America and Europe, Dutch engineer Andre Priester, a wizard of air operations, and RCA engineer Hugo Leuteritz, who introduced radio navigation, followed by scheduled Trans-Pacific service, and much more. Perhaps the most significant component in his success was his ability to enlist financiers and leading figures in aviation to work towards the common goal and realization of his vision. Cooperation with Igor Sikorsky, Glen Martin, and William Allen of Boeing resulted in designs and development of new aircrafts that suited the needs for new routes. The American aircraft industry, after lagging behind Europe for two decades, took back the lead with models made for Pan American routes such as Sikorsky S-42, Martin M- 130, and Boeing 314, becoming the best passenger aircrafts setting standards for future airliners. At the same time knowledge learned from this operation led to further improvements and enhancement of aircraft systems and performances. Juan Trippe will be forever remembered in aviation and beyond as "the man who shrank the world." Pan American spent weeks of preparation for the survey flight to Hawai'i and on April 16, 1936, Sikorsky S-42 named the Pan American Clipper commanded by Captain Musick gently lifted off from San Francisco Bay flying across the Pacific toward Honolulu. Some 18 hours and nine minutes later the world learned that flying across large water surfaces became reality - the Pacific route was feasible. Several months later, on 22 November Pan Am equipped with a state-of-the-art aircraft Martin M-130, named the China Clipper would carry mail from San Francisco to Manila with plans to follow with passenger service. Once again, legendary aviator Captain Musick was in charge of aircraft attracting a crowd of over 25,000 people gather to witness history in the making. The aircraft arrived in Honolulu 17 hours later and upon rest continued the trip to Midway atoll with fourteen passengers all Pan Am employees, a relief crew for Wake. The third stage was the flight to Wake atoll followed by segment to Guam. The China Clipper landed in Manila on 29 November, greeted by several hundred thousand residents lined up on the waterfront. The entire trip lasted 59 hours 48 minutes and crossed 8,210 miles in less than a week, only a third of a time businesspeople and tourists usually spent while traveling by ocean liner. The first scheduled passenger service began on October 21 - 27, 1936, followed by weekly flights and expanding its network to Hong Kong, Macau, and Singapore in 1941. Besides three M-130's, a new Boeing 314 operated on the South Pacific routes bi-weekly. Trippe's dream to establish scheduled service to Europe materialized on May 20, 1939, when the first scheduled airmail flight took place between New York and Marseille it was soon followed on June 28 with the first passenger service between the New and 'Old World'. Leading European airlines focused their efforts to procure efficient aircrafts capable of crossing the ocean and carrying profitable payloads. British Imperial Airways and German Lufthansa already maintained long distance flights over land but the challenge remained in crossing the Atlantic. The French national carrier Air France soon entered the arena with the same goal in bridging Europe with South America via Africa using Latecoere 521. Several fine aircrafts were developed and introduced into service on routes to former colonies and overseas territories. The British aircraft manufacturer Short from Belfast, supplied Imperial Airways with Calcutta, Empire, and G Class. The German aircraft industry geared towards a new war used the civilian design to gain experience for the military aircrafts. Deutsche Lufthansa introduced Dornier Do J Wal, "the first great flying boat", to carry mail and survey routes to South America. The Italian national carrier Ala Littoria flew Savoia-Marchetti S.66 and later Macchi M.C. 100 on the Mediterranean routes. The flying boat services, both with Pan American and European airlines had a positive impact on the regions they flew, many South American countries and Australia/ Far East benefited from it and with their help opened local airlines and built supporting infrastructure. Within two decades the design of aircrafts significantly improved, in both land and sea based machines. New designs were accompanied with the development of engines, steadily increasing their power and reliability. The age of the open cockpit on commercial aircrafts was nearing its end due to increasing speeds. Sleek passenger aircrafts with clean lines and all metal construction appeared in the early thirties with increased capabilities and range. The number of passengers grew and so did the enthusiasm and hopes of airlines, forcing aircraft manufacturers to resort to new engineering solutions and improvements. The wheel of progress towards constant improvements in reliability and safety, still propels aircraft industry. There were several reasons for the development and domination of flying boats in intercontinental service. Safety was the primary reason and ultimate goal especially, for flights over large water surfaces. When U.S. Navy Captain Rodgers and the crew landed their PN-9 near Hawai'i, they floated in the water for a few days and after surviving the ordeal until rescue arrived, it confirmed that flying boats were the right aircraft for early intercontinental flights. The second reason was the infrastructure was still in its infancy and unable to support heavy passenger aircrafts. Almost at the same time when the first aircrafts took to the skies human imagination devised a new flying machine that combined a boat and an aircraft, thus creating a flying boat. Soon, it proved to be a worthy design, entering into history on 1st January 1914, when Benoist XIV made the first commercial flight with paying passenger between St. Petersburg and Tampa, Florida. From there, the conquest began with the first airlines appearing and bridging the major cities within Europe and across North America, soon connecting continents using flying boats by the mid-1930's. Pan American Airways was the forerunner of modern day airlines, setting new standards and developing new procedures which became an essential part for safe and efficient air operation. Flying boats flourished in the so-called "Golden Era of Aviation" from the mid-1920's until the end of the 1930's. Flying in those days was an event evoking adventure and romantic times traveling in luxury to a distant exotic places. The privileged passengers who boarded flying boats experienced travel like no other, enjoying unsurpassed service in the air and while resting along the route. Perhaps such an experience could be only matched by traveling in a private jets. Majestic flying machines had widespread utilization in the military, especially during the Second World War. The leading airlines recognized and maximized the flying boat potential but knew that it was only a matter of time before land based airliners would take over and dominate commercial aviation. Despite the decision of four major airlines in the early 1930's, to use flying boats for transoceanic service to carry mail and passengers, seven years later the realization came that the demise of these great aircrafts was on the horizon and it would happen sooner than expected. In 1938, Deutsche Lufthansa non-stop flight from Berlin to New York by an Focke Wolf FW 200 Condor in under 24 hours and arrival of pressurized airliner Boeing 307 in 1939, capable of flying above weather left no doubt that the end was near. Conclusion Flying boats will always be remembered as majestic flying machines that conquered the skies in the early days of aviation, evoking memories of romance and exploration. Early on, flying boats spearheaded the first commercial flight and served as passenger transport until the end of World War Two. Since two-third of the Earth is covered with water it seemed natural for seaplanes to become the primary vehicle in connecting distant places. The evolution of intercontinental transport began with ocean liners, lasting a century and directly influencing air transport in developing flying machines capable of operating on water . Commercial aviation owes much to maritime tradition, it assumed navy blue for the crew uniforms, terminology, as well as procedures. Three main reasons influenced airlines in choosing the flying boat to bridge continents. Land based aircrafts had short range, carried a few passengers and cargo resulting in long travel times over land to reach places like South Africa or Australia from Europe or cities across the United States. Constant reliability issues dissuaded business people in utilizing aircrafts, instead they opted to ride a train for sure and on time transport. Light aircrafts did not require sophisticated infrastructure and the authorities responded accordingly. First airfields as the name suggested were just that, consisting of a grass landing strip without navigation equipment or communication. It took two decades for airports to take shape so familiar to present day travelers. The flying boat enjoyed abundance of existing ports to commence and terminate it's flight. The aviation magazine The Aeroplane predicted the use of flying boats in civil service because: 'As aircraft grow larger the question of landing space will become more and more prominent. The flying-boat can be increased in size to any limit commensurate with efficiency, and there will always be room in which to alight without laying waste land possessing other and greater uses'.(4) The success of an airline depended on a good safety record that put passengers at ease in knowing that in an event of an emergency flying boat could land on water and float until rescue arrived. However, the flying boat had limitations and shortcomings leading to it's early demise as passenger transport. With the increased demand for air travel, what once was an advantage became a serious hindrance as more inland cities developed airports. The flying boats were slow due to a compromise in achieving sound design and construction for a safe flight and capability for floating, take off and landing on water. World War Two was a catalyst in accelerating technological development of aircrafts and infrastructure, the long-range bombers demanded reliability and concrete runways, immensely helping commercial transport. From the early ninetieth until mid-twentieth century, ocean liners were the only mean of transport carrying passengers and cargo between the continents. The flying boats changed the perception about flying and opened up possibilities to safely carry passengers between the continents with considerable reduction in travel times. Flying commercially during the "Golden Era" of aviation was a distant dream for the majority especially, traveling by flying boats. The flight from San Francisco to Hawai'i lasted over seventeen hours costing over $1500, a fortune in those days, possible only for a small number of wealthy passengers. Nevertheless, aviation visionaries like Trippe sensed the 4. John W.R. Taylor and Kenneth Munson, ed. History of Aviation, (New York: Crown Publishers, 1972), 236. opportunity aircrafts offered for the future. Introduction of the flying boats on routes over water built the foundation for a revolution in air travel that started after World War Two and still continues. Although flying boats did not impacted ocean liners and their routes with numbers of passengers and cargo they carried, aircrafts showed great technical achievements in the span of three decades from the first flight, indicating capability in providing safe and reliable transport over long distances. The ocean liner's monopoly was over and by 1956, more passengers crossed the Atlantic by air, signaling the birth of a new era in travel. In only two decades from the time it took Boeing 314 twenty four hours to fly between New York and Europe with stop-over, a modern jet airliner reduced the crossing to only seven hours. The arrival of Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8 signaled the new era that opened doors for mass travel and cheap tickets allowing unprecedented economic, cultural, and technical exchange worldwide. It all started with the majestic aircrafts called flying boats that once connected the continents, perfectly summarized in the following quote: "Quickly outmoded, they understandably remain a focus of nostalgic fascination for many modern air passengers who, trapped in the cramped blandness of a contemporary airline interior, like to imagine a time when a journey by air was an experience to be savored and an adventure to be remembered for a lifetime." (5) 5. R.G.Grant, Flight 100 Years of Aviation, (New York: DK Publishing, 2007), 163. Bibliography Allen, Oliver E. The Airline Builders. Alexandria: Time-Life Books, 1986. Allen, Roy. The Pan Am Clipper, the History of Pan American's Flying-Boats 1931 to 1946. New York: Barnes & Noble, 2000. Allward, Maurice. 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