Teaching English as a Second Language = Theory + Methods + Creativity

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 10, October 2014 ISSN 2250-3153 1 Teaching English as a Second Language = Theory + Methods + Creativity Rohini Chandrica Widyalankara English Language Teaching Unit, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka Abstract- This study proposes that the pedagogical procedures within the genre of Teaching English as a Second Language should not only gain from the rich theoretical resources and the vast repertoire of methodological approaches available it should also tap the creative powers of the teaching practitioners. Merging tenets of Behaviorism with Innatism in the Interaction Theory and adapting theories on Second Language Acquisition the second language teaching/learning environment discussed aims to maximize acquisition and lower the affective filters of the learners. Principled Eclecticism provides the methodological foundation for cooperative learning and formative peer assessment with focused corrective feedback provide remedial support and an opportunity for the learners to reevaluate their work and engage in timely adjustments. The session aims at interpsychological cognitive development with peers/teacher and individual intrapsychological cognitive enhancement in language skills. Index Terms- Interaction Theory, principled eclecticism, cooperative peer assessment, focused corrective feedback I. INTRODUCTION T 1.1 The interactionist hypothesis he Interaction Theory of language development by Vygotsky (1978) is a compromise between the Innatist and the Behaviorist theories. While Skinner's theory of Behaviorism[2], states that children learn a language mainly through repetition, imitation and habit formation. Chomsky (1959)3 deviating from the tenets of Behaviorism introduces the Innate Hypothesis. Chomsky (1993: 519) 4 states that ‘Language learning is not really something that the child does; it is something that happens to the child placed in an appropriate environment, much as the child’s body grows and matures in a predetermined way when provided with appropriate nutrition and environmental stimulation’. He raises the argument that if children learn language by imitation ‘why do they say things they have never heard before’? Introducing the parameters Language Acquisition Device (LAD) or Universal Grammar (UG) Chomsky states that the LAD is the ability to discover the underlying rules of a language system. This device contains the main rules for all possible human languages and he called this set of common rules UG which is innate to a child’s biological endowment. Concurring Lightbown and Spada (2006: 16)[5] state that the LAD is like an imaginary ‘black box’ existing somewhere in the brain and thought to contain only the principles which are universal to all natural languages. Merging tenets of Behaviorism and Innatism the Interactionist theory recognizes that both environmental and biological factors are important in language development. For example interactionists believe that language is a byproduct of the children's social interactions with more knowledgeable people in their lives and the innate ability to acquire language as illustrated below. Figure 1: Combining Behaviorist and Innate hypotheses to illustrate how a language is acquired www.ijsrp.org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 10, October 2014 2 ISSN 2250-3153 Thus interactionism postulates that children acquire language through their innate language abilities to extract the rules of the language from their environment and construct the phonology, semantics, and syntax of their native language. This innate language ability is the ability to identify patterns in language, formulate rules about those patterns, and then apply them to new utterances (Rowe & Levine, 2006: 235)[6]. 1.2 Major themes in the Interactionist hypothesis i. According to Vygotsky (1978)[7] social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. ‘Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).’ ii. the adult enabled them to refine their thinking or their performance to make it more effective. Agreement comes from Shannon (2005)[9] who states that the basic concept in interactionism is that children have some innate knowledge of the structure of language, but also require meaningful interaction with others. 1.3 From first language acquisition to second language acquisition Applying the tenets of interactionism to second language learning Atherton (2013)[10] states that skill construction is based on three premises 1. Can do alone 2. Can do with help 3. Cannot do yet. The ZPD centers around can do with help. This is not a state where learners stagnate but a stage prior to Can do alone. The Interactionist theory was resourceful in revolutionizing the TESL classroom moving it from a locale where the teacher disseminated knowledge to a reciprocal knowledge constructing experience between the teacher and the learners. The learning contexts considered students to be equal stakeholders who perform an active part in the process of learning and take responsibility for achieving the objectives. The teacher and the learners collaborate in order to help facilitate meaning construction. The entry of Krashen’s (1981)[11] five hypotheses shed more light on how second language learners acquire a new language. At the interpsychological level the child interacts with a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO could be a teacher or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person. In the modern world technology especially computers too can become a MKO. 1.3.1 The Acquisition-Learning distinction Krashen (1982: 10) [12] states that adults have two iii. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) stretches distinct and independent ways of developing competence in the child’s ability at solving a problem independently a second language. and moves the child to perform a task under adult a) Language acquisition guidance and/or with peer collaboration. According i. This process is similar, if not identical, to the to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone. Within way children develop first language ability. the ZPD a child’s linguistic development progresses ii. It is a subconscious process as the language from the current to the unknown. For optimal acquirers are not usually aware of the fact that outcome the child should work within the ZPD in they are acquiring language but are only aware collaboration with a MKO. Thus much important of the fact that they are using the language for learning by the child occurs through social interaction communication. with a skillful tutor. Vygotsky refers to this as iii. Correct grammar feels right, and errors feel cooperative or collaborative dialogue. According to wrong, even if the learners do not consciously McLeod (2007)[8] ZPD is where the most sensitive know what rule was violated. instruction or guidance should be given allowing the iv. As it is subconscious acquisition error child to develop skills they will then use on their own correction has little or no effect. in the process of developing higher mental functions. v. The acquisition-learning hypothesis claims that Thus Vygotsky proposes that ZPD is where learners not only children but adults too can acquire construct the new language through socially mediated language by accessing the same natural LAD interaction. that children use. Thus Vygotsky’s observations proved that i. Children doing tasks on their own rarely did as well as when they were working in collaboration with a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO can be an adult, a teacher or the child's peers. ii. Even when the MKO was not teaching them how to perform the task, the process of engagement with b) Language Learning i. Conscious. ii. Error correction supposedly helps the learners to alter their conscious mental representation of a rule and learn the right form of the rule. www.ijsrp.org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 10, October 2014 3 ISSN 2250-3153 1.3.2 The Input Hypothesis Krashen (1982: 21)[13] makes the following claim on the input hypothesis: Acquisition occurs when one is exposed to language that is comprehensible and that contains i + 1. i stands for the acquirer's current level of proficiency. He is able to move to a higher stage by understanding language containing i + 1 (where "+1" stands for language which is Figure 2: Operation of the Affective Filter Krashen slightly beyond the acquirer's current level of competence). (1982: 32) A necessary condition to move from stage i to stage i + 1 is that the acquirer understands input that contains i + 1, where Identifying affective variables Krashen (1982: 32)[14] "understand" means that the acquirer is focused on the states ‘The Affective Filter hypothesis implies that our meaning and not the form of the message. pedagogical goals should not only comprise of supplying comprehensible input, but also creating a situation that i. The input hypothesis relates to acquisition, not encourages a low filter.’ He further states that three factors learning. regulate the Affective Filter during second language ii. We acquire by understanding language that acquisition. contains structure a beyond our current level of i. Motivation: Performers with high motivation competence (i + 1). This is done with the help of generally do better. context or extra-linguistic information. ii. Self-confidence: Performers with self-confidence iii. When communication is successful, when the input and a good self-image tend to do better is understood and there is enough of it, i + 1 will be iii. Anxiety: Low anxiety appears to be conducive, provided automatically. whether measured as personal or classroom anxiety. iv. Production ability emerges. It is not taught directly. Merging Krashen’s (1982)[15] Input Hypothesis with the 1.3.3 The Affective Filter Hypothesis Interactionist Theory this study identifies stage i as the Can The Affective Filter hypothesis states how affective do alone or current knowledge. The move from stage i to factors relate to the second language acquisition process. stage i + 1 is to enter the ZPD. At the ZPD the acquirer cognizes input that contains i + 1 under the guidance of a MKO. The following figure is an adaption from Atherton (2013)[16] and illustrates the progression of learning. Learning Figure 3: The progression of learning Combining the progression of learning above with the second language acquisition model by Krashen (1982) [17] this study visualizes a second language learner classroom which aims to teach the present continuous tense. Comprehensible input in this instance is a lesson plan to elaborate the present continuous tense. It anticipates creating a classroom environment based on the Affective Filter Hypothesis. Thus for optimal function at the ZPD a low filter is emphasized generating high motivation, enhancing self-confidence and lowering the anxiety level. At the ZPD the learners work with the guidance of More Knowledgeable Others. This guidance indoctrinates www.ijsrp.org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 10, October 2014 4 ISSN 2250-3153 Krashen’s (1982: 10)[18] Acquisition-Learning distinction and the interaction between the MKO/s and in the language acquirers is based on maximizing acquisition. Thus prioritizing Acquisition over Learning the classroom environment endeavors to make production ability emerge as ‘a subconscious process’. The language acquirers ‘are not usually aware of the fact that they are acquiring language, but are only aware of the fact that they are using the language for communication’ (ibid). But experience denotes that all learner populations in a language teaching environment consist of the dichotomy: Good and Weak learners. As the classroom gives priority to acquisition it is assumed that the Good learners would ideally be more on a knowledge acquisition mode and learnt knowledge will be less. On the other hand the Weak learners are expected to be more on a conscious learnt knowledge mode and will engage in extensive monitoring prior to producing output. This study constructs the following Figure to illustrate the suggested language teaching/learning environment where input is in the form of a lesson on present continuous tense and is diversely processed by Good and Weak learners. Figure 4: An adaptation of second language acquisition model by Krashen (1982) to illustrate a second language teaching/learning environment. Within this language teaching/learning environment to maximize acquisition the teaching methodology is Eclecticism but it utilizes methodological approaches available strictly in a principled manner. II. THE METHOD: PRINCIPLED ECLECTICISM Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) at present is based on an amalgamation of many diverse methods. Larsen-Freeman (2000)[19] recognizes that there is no single acceptable way to go about teaching language today. Introducing the term Principled Eclecticism she defines it as a desirable, coherent, pluralistic approach to language teaching. Eclecticism makes the lesson planner deviate from reliance upon a single approach to teaching where the planner is constricted within its limited number of techniques. Furthermore the students’ performance can become mechanical and as a result they cannot reap maximum benefits from the learning. By the inclusion of the term Principled Larsen-Freeman (ibid) cautions against the haphazard use of a random mix of multitude methods available within the genre of TESL. Within the field of TESL methodology traditional structural approaches such as Grammar Translation, and Audio-lingual Method; Communicative Methods as the Communicative Approach, Total Physical Response, Natural Approach and modern innovative approaches as the Silent Way and Suggestopedia all carry strengths as well as weaknesses (Larsen-Freeman, 2000[20]; Richards and Rodgers 2001[21]; Wesche and Skehan, 2002[22]) provide detailed descriptions of these methods and approaches). Thus principled eclecticism ideally is a mix of structural approaches with communicative use of language appropriate to the learner population. Guided by the tenets of Principled Eclecticism and scaffolding the relevant theory discussed this study creates a lesson plan where intuition and innovative ideas aim at developing an instrument appropriate to the target student population of this study. III. CREATIVITY: THE LESSON PLAN Armed with the theory and methodology as a TESL practitioner I seek to include creativity into a lesson plan with the aim of recreating real-life social and functional situations in the classroom to guide students toward communicative competence. 3.1 Aim and Objectives Graves (2000)[23] states that goals are general intentions of teaching and objectives are specific, aims at cognitive, www.ijsrp.org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 10, October 2014 5 ISSN 2250-3153 psychomotor and affective domains of learning and link observable behavior to teaching and assessment. Thus the 3.2 The learners aim of this session is to make learners use the present The target population consists of 20 low/intermediate continuous tense with minimum/no errors in tense or tense proficiency first year undergraduates. Each year contradiction. undergraduates place high priority on learning grammar in the pre-entry needs analysis. Objectives: At the end of this session students will be able to: 3.3 The lesson plan (Time frame: one hour) o Outline the form of the present continuous tense 3.3.1 Stage I: Recapping the structures of the present o Assemble sentence structures to describe continuous tense (05 minutes) an ongoing process and construct a peer The material: The form of present continuous as a grid composition using the present continuous and a short exercise. tense Exposition: The present continuous tense is sometimes o Analyze and evaluate peer performance in called the present progressive and is generally used to the present continuous tense explain an event that is in progress at the current moment. o Justify decisions on peer correction Here is how to form the present continuous tense in English. o Create a story line for an ongoing process Table 1: Grid depicting the structures of the present continuous tense Structure of present continuous Negative Positive I'm not thinking of her. I'm thinking of her. You're thinking of her. You're not thinking of her. not watching them. We're watching them. We're They're watching They're not watching them. them. not talking to her. He's talking to her. He's She's listening to him. She's not listening to him. It's interesting/ It's not / it isn't interesting/ irritating. irritating. Question Am I thinking of her? Are you thinking of her? Are we watching them? Are they watching them? Is he talking to her? Is she listening to him? Is it interesting/ irritating? Activity I: 3.3.1.1 Methodological approach: Stage I The session aims at utilizing the Principled Eclectic Method. Key concepts in the Audiolingual Method are employed to make students recap the rules of the present continuous tense formation. Drills help students to differentiate between structures and they are reinforced inductively. Then expressing the rule, questions are asked to guide the learners through a dialogue which introduces the lesson's sentence patterns. In this instance the MKO can be the teacher or might be cherry picked from among the learners. This is in www.ijsrp.org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 10, October 2014 6 ISSN 2250-3153 agreement with a fundamental methodological principle in Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) which favors of a focus on form approach. This approach to explicit grammar teaching emphasizes a form-meaning connection followed by elaborating the grammar form taught within contexts and through communicative tasks. Based on Grammar Translation Method difficult vocabulary (for example irritate) is presented with a translation equivalent as it accelerates comprehension. 3.3.2 Stage II (40 minutes) The material: This section uses a cartoon created to suit the target population for the purpose of exploration and elaboration. The instrument, Figure 5 below has 5 frames. Frame 1 Frame 2 Frame 4 Frame 3 Frame 5 Figure 5: Instrument for communicative activities Procedure: The cartoon frames are placed outside the classroom in five different spots which are easy the access. This creates an information gap. The learners form 4 heterogeneous groups of 5. Seating plan allows for easy to and fro movement and good eye contact between listeners and speakers during group work. Additionally the arrangement provides feasibility for eye contact with the teacher by slight alteration of the positioning of the chairs while remaining within the group. The procedure is based on even participation at the right language level. Thus the task is designed so that students can complete it successfully with the language that they have + one step higher with the help of a MKO who is a group member. Member domination in discussions is minimized by strategic task allocation. When necessary, the teacher may interfere to guarantee equal opportunities for students of different levels. Instructions: Each member of the group is given a number 15 which allots the respective cartoon frame. They are allotted roles. For example when group member 1 is the Runner cum Communicator of Information others (2-5) take the role of Interrogator, Writer, Editor and Presenter. The teacher introduces each of the command cards in Figure 6 to keep the time frame intact during the five cycles of activity and explains the physical response each card demands. At the end of each cycle a minimum of 5 sentences should be constructed using the present continuous tense for the respective frame. Learners could make other sentence structures which would help cohesion but they will not undergo assessment. The following command cards are explained and used as non-verbal forms of communication. www.ijsrp.org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 10, October 2014 7 ISSN 2250-3153 Figure 6: Command cards There are 5 cycles for the 5 cartoon frames. The first 4 cycles are of 5 minutes duration while the last cycle for frame 5 is allotted 10 minutes (total = 30 minutes). The first Command card states that the Runners cannot talk while running or observing. During the first cycle for example as the command states START RUNNING member 1 of each group becomes the Runner runs to Frame 1 observes the ongoing action gets back to the group and communicates information. The Runners try to find answers to questions such as ‘Who are the people / characters? What are they doing? What are they thinking? What are they saying to each other? What happens next?’ Second members of the groups become Interrogators. After/during discussion the third member who is the Writer writes the five sentences using the present continuous tense for the respective frame. Other sentence structures which would help cohesion too can be added but will not undergo assessment. The Editors of each group run to the Frame I and check whether editing/ additional information is required. Each of these actions is controlled by the Command cards which go up at one minute durations. But this stage is time flexible. For example the Editors can run and check the frames while the discussion is ongoing to clarify information if the Runner is in doubt. Awareness is created among the learners that time management, dynamism and soft skills are needed for optimal output as the activities within each of the first 4 frames end in 5 minutes. The last frame is given 10 minutes as the content is more complex. The learners are advised to use the time judiciously to reevaluate the sentences produced for the first 4 frames. At the end of the each cycle the presenter of each group reads the sentences to the class (0.5 minutes x 4 groups x 5 presenters = 10 minutes). Through the presenter the teacher gets an idea of global errors. During the 5 cycles where the 5 frames are covered the roles of Runner, Interrogator, Writer, Editor and Presenter move clockwise. At the end of this activity each group will have constructed 5 frame cards each with a minimum of 5 sentences containing a present continuous tense form. Furthermore each member of the group would have played the roles of Runner, Interrogator, Writer, Editor and Presenter. the first language the need for new words is kept minimal. Though emphasis is on learning to communicate through the target language the use of the first language is not prohibited if a student is struggling for a word. For accessing the English equivalent MKO aid can be sought. A key feature in the Total Physical Response approach: nonverbal aid for communication is used during Command card usage where students react to language in the present continuous subconsciously. This reduces student anxiety and stress. Furthermore they interact with props and learn to associate them with motor activity in the learning environment. The methodological approach in Stage II adheres to the principles of CLT too. One of the instructional practices promoted by CLT is that material should reflect real-life situations and demands. Thus inventiveness in material preparation is pedagogically necessary to create meaningful, comprehensible input. In communicative language classrooms the focus shifts from teacher-led to studentcentered language application and using a cooperative and collaborative learning mode is recognized as a strong facilitator of learning. Information gap creation in the activities result in each runner communicating information to the rest of the group who do not know the contents of the cartoon frame while the others listen, interrogate, discuss and take turns to write, edit and present. Thus during group activities the language focus encompasses all four skills: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing. Furthermore during cooperative activities Weimer (2002) [24] identifies the following as crucial: Positive interdependence among learners in respect to resources and task accomplishment; Face-to-face interaction in small groups; Individual accountability for participation or internalization of the relevant knowledge or skills. The methodological approach used during group activities in Stage II satisfies all three criteria. Cooperative problem-solving behavior is enhanced as peer performance is analyzed during intergroup work. If a problem surfaces during the course of communication solutions are found as a team. 3.3.3 Stage III: Cooperative peer assessment and focused corrective feedback The function of assessment is to check whether the aim and objectives of the session have been met. According to 3.3.2.1 Methodological approach: Stage II Stage II of this session too aims at utilizing a principled Biggs (2003)[25] assessment tasks tell us how well students eclectic method which facilitates the language learning have attained the intended learning outcomes as illustrated process. As too many unknown vocabulary items will raise below. the affective filter of the students and will tempt them to use www.ijsrp.org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 10, October 2014 8 ISSN 2250-3153 Figure 7: Assessment of intended learning outcomes Based on the above this session selects Formative Assessment procedures from within the repertoire of pedagogical evaluation practices. It offers the information needed and provides remedial support to the learners so that timely adjustments can be made. To assess learning outcomes of a session which aims to teach a grammar form Sheen (2007)[26] endorses the use of Focused corrective feedback where errors in the specific grammatical structure are targeted for identification and correction. Thus Cooperative peer assessment for this session is a Formative Assessment where corrective feedback is given by peers. 3.3.3.1 Procedure Activity (10 minutes): amongst the 4 groups two groups exchange the constructed 5 frame card sets. Each member gets one frame. The words Reject, Accept and Track changes are introduced. The markers assess the sentences mark Reject/Accept, suggest changes and return the card set to the owner group. The owner groups Track changes suggested for the Rejected sentences and Reject/Accept the changes. Table 2: A sample frame card after assessment and the grading scheme The Reject- Reject sentences are written on the board and each marker justifies the suggested change while the owners of the frames justify their decisions to Reject the Rejections. The teacher acts as the MKO and finalizes the correct version and reconsiders the smiley allotment. 3.3.4 Stage IV: Recapping session (05 minutes) 3.3.5 Stage V: Take-home individual task: Write the story in the cartoon. Give it a title. (10 marks) During this stage the learners create a storyline for the ongoing process in the cartoon frames as an individual Takehome task. This hones intrapsychological cognitive skills as the final output is a self-creation. As it is a mark allotting task the creativity in each learner will endeavor to couch the sentences constructed for each frame within a stylistic whole. This encourages learners to assess their understanding of the taught grammar form and fine tune abilities of elaboration. Furthermore an individual task provides the teacher an opportunity to evaluate each student’s understanding of the grammar form taught. IV. SUMMARY STATEMENT The global aim of the session is to make learners self discover that the process of learning is not only accumulating knowledge and skills. Solving communicative problems and monitoring their own work guide the students along a path of inquiry and generates new patterns of thinking where the final outcome is evolving knowledge through self-discovery. Thus the cognitive development is interpsychological as well as intrapsychological. One limitation of the session is the tightness of the time frame. This can be overcome by dividing the lesson plan into two sessions by moving the session from Stage III: Cooperative peer assessment and focused corrective feedback onwards to a followup second session. Such a follow-up lesson could include a song which is supposedly sung at frame 5. My target is ‘A Whole New World’ with lyrics given as a handout. The Aladdin or the Peabo Bryson and Regina Belle version provide opportunity for a listening task where the learners fill in the blank with continuous tenses. The Sing-along karaoke version can be downloaded from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=glLZIya_h_4 and used in the www.ijsrp.org International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 4, Issue 10, October 2014 ISSN 2250-3153 classroom. This makes the learners acquire additional vocabulary items: Soaring, tumbling, freewheeling, dreaming, thrilling etc. Furthermore though the lesson plan targets a tertiary level learner population it could be creatively adapted to any audience. AUTHORS First Author – Rohini Chandrica Widyalankara, B. A. (English), University of Colombo, Sri Lanka; M. Ed. (TESL), University of 9 Manchester, UK; M. Phil. (Linguistics), University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka; Diploma in TESP University of Manchester, UK; Certificate in TESOL Methods, University of Oregon, USA. Correspondence Author – Rohini Chandrica Widyalankara, Senior Lecturer, English Language Teaching Unit, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka, [email protected], 00940776615069/ 00940112697820  [7] [2] L. S. Vygotsky, Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978. B. F. Skinner, Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957. 3 N. Chomsky, Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior, Language, vol. 35, pp. 26–58, 1959. N. Chomsky, A minimalist program for linguistic theory, in K. Hale & S. J. Keyser, eds, `The view from Building 20', MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, pp. 1-52, 1993. [5] P. M. Lightbown and N. Spada, How Languages Are Learned. 3rd ed., New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. [6] B. M. Rowe, and D. P. Levine, A Concise Introduction to Linguistics. USA: Pearson Education, 2006. 4 [8] S. A. McLeod, Simply Psychology, 2007. Retrieved August 28, 2014 from: http://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html F. Shannon, Interactionist Theory in Second Langauge Acquisition, 2005. Retrieved on September 6, 2014 from: http://fredshannon.blogspot.com/ 2005/11/interactionist-theory-in-second-language-acquisition.html. [10] [16] J. S. Atherton, Learning and Teaching; Constructivism in learning, 2013. Retrieved 15 September 2014 from http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/constructivism.htm [11] [12] [13] [14] [15] [17] [18] S. Krashen, Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Pergamon Press Inc., 1982. [19] [20] D. Larson-Freeman, Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching Oxford University Press, 1986. [21] J. C. Richards and T. S. Rodgers, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, 2nd ed., Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001. [22] M. B. Wesche, and P. Skehan, Communicative, task-based, and content-based language instruction. In The Oxford handbook of Applied Linguistics, R. B. Kaplan, ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 207-228. [23] K. Graves, Designing Language Courses: A Guide for Teachers. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. 2000, pp. 75-79. [24] M. Weimer, Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice, Jossey-Bass, 2002. [25] J. B. Biggs, Teaching for quality learning at university, Buckingham: Open University Press/Society for Research into Higher Education, 2nd ed., 2003. [26] Y. Sheen, The effect of focused written corrective feedback and language aptitude on ESL learners’ acquisition of articles, TESOL Quarterly, vol. 41, pp. 255-283, 2007). [9] www.ijsrp.org