Psychology & Marketing

DOI: 10.1002/mar.21310 RESEARCH ARTICLE Intrasexual female competition and female trust in gay male sales associates’ recommendations Eric M. Russell1 | Hannah K. Bradshaw2 Rebekah Russell‐Bennett | Mark S. Rosenbaum3 | Sarah E. Hill2 | 4 1 Department of Psychology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas 2 Department of Psychology, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas 3 Department of Retailing, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 4 Advertising, Marketing, and Public Relations Department, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia Correspondence Mark S. Rosenbaum, Graham School of Management, Saint Xavier University, 3825 W 103rd St, Chicago, IL 60655. Email: [email protected] Abstract These studies draw on evolutionary psychology and intrasexual female competition to examine why female shoppers often prefer working with gay male (GM) sales associates over heterosexual female (HF) sales associates. Study 1 finds that female shoppers often attribute trustworthiness to GM sales associates. Study 2 draws on theories of intrasexual competition and shows that female shoppers are more likely to trust product recommendations from a GM sales associate than an HF sales associate when they feel a sense of competitiveness with the female associate. Study 3 reveals that female shoppers’ trust in GM sales associates is limited to situations in which they are intending to purchase products that are meant to enhance their physical appearance. Study 4 extends these findings by showing that women are more likely to trust GM sales associates (vs. HF sales associates) when the objective of their purchase is to attract a desirable mate. The findings suggest that retailers should hire a diverse workforce and consider the role of e‐commerce in helping some female shoppers avoid potentially uncomfortable situations. KEYWORDS evolutionary psychology, gay employees, gay–straight relationships, intrasexual female competition, retailing, social influence 1 | INTRODUCTION require assistance with merchandise selections and are uncomfortable working with more physically attractive or younger female Popular culture and television often depict the presence of gay men associates (Peretz, 1995). in the fashion industry and as sales associates in retail settings. Although research showing positive interactions between GM sales Indeed, recent retailing investigations reveal that gay male (GM) associates and female customers in some retail contexts contributes to sales associates tend to work well with female customers, particu- the well‐established relationship marketing paradigm (Gummesson, larly in high‐end retail or service establishments, such as boutiques 2002), the field lacks a clear theoretical understanding of why these and hair salons (Lawson, 1999; Rosenbaum, Russell‐Bennett, & relationships transpire in some retailing locales. Evolutionary theory Drennan, 2015). Research further suggests that female shoppers may help shed some light on the causes and contexts that influence show a preference for working with GM sales associates over female female shoppers to prefer working with GM sales associates over their sales associates when they believe they are less attractive or are female counterparts in some retail settings. Emerging research considerably older than the female sales associates (Rosenbaum, suggests that human friendships, the way human beings build and Russell, & Russell‐Bennett, 2017). These findings imply that in certain maintain alliances with others, and the extent to which they enhance consumption situations, female customers may put more credibility in personal happiness through social interactions with others are all the advice from GM sales associates—most notably when they innately driven (Lewis, Al‐Shawaf, Russell, & Buss, 2015). Psychology & Marketing. 2019;1–17. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/mar © 2019 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. | 1 2 | RUSSELL ET AL. Evolutionary theory on female intrasexual competition suggests direct competition for romantic partners (Fisher & Cox, 2011), that women are innately driven to perceive highly attractive and research suggests that intrasexual rivalry stemming from physical feminine women as competition in their efforts to attract or retain a attractiveness can spill over into other life domains. For example, male mate (Buss, 1988; Fink, Klappauf, Brewer, & Shackelford, 2014). women are harsher on attractive (vs. unattractive) female offenders As a result, women often perceive mating advice from gay men as (Phillips & Hranek, 2012) and are less likely to hire more attractive more trustworthy than that from either heterosexual men or women women (Luxen & Van De Vijver, 2006). This research suggests that (Russell, DelPriore, Butterfield, & Hill, 2013; Russell, Ta, Lewis, women’s social interactions with other women are often laden with Babcock, & Ickes, 2017). Intrasexual competition in service‐intensive underlying competitive rivalry, leading women to often distrust retail environments may encourage some female shoppers to refrain same‐sex others (Fisher, 2017). from obtaining, to discount, or to reject advice from female sales Given that women’s interactions with attractive same‐sex others associates, particularly when they are considering purchasing specific are often characterized by an underlying thread of competitiveness, merchandise to attract or retain a heterosexual man (Prendergast, Li, how might this affect women’s interactions with female sales & Li, 2014). associates? Research examining this topic has found that female This investigation draws on evolutionary models of intrasexual consumers often feel uncomfortable interacting with some female competition to understand why female shoppers often demonstrate a sales associates in retail settings (Wan & Wyer, 2015). For example, preference for GM sales associates in retail settings. The article research shows that female cosmetic shoppers, in Hong Kong, consists of four studies. Study 1 provides descriptive insights into express a stronger purchase intention when working with male sales how heterosexual female (HF) shoppers discern GM sales associates associates over their female counterparts because they believe that in retail settings and uncovers their feelings of comfort and male sales associates will value their opinions and work harder trustworthiness toward working with them. than female sales associates to enhance their facial appearance Study 2 expands on the first study by exploring the extent to (Prendergast et al., 2014). That research suggests that in a cosmetic which intra‐female competition, in consumption settings, encourages selling context, female customers may perceive a male sales HF shoppers to view advice from GM sales associates as more associate’s advice as being more credible than a female counterpart trustworthy compared to the same advice provided by HF sales because from a “Darwinian view of reproduction” males are better associates. Study 3 builds upon the second study by showing that HF attuned than females to provide useful judgments about female shoppers’ preference for a GM sales associate manifests when beauty (Prendergast et al., 2014). selecting merchandise meant to enhance their physical appearance. Extant research supports the idea that women may feel most Last, Study 4 builds upon the previous by clarifying the types of comfortable with GM sales associates when purchasing certain consumption situations and interpersonal characteristics that en- product classifications, including cosmetics, accessories, apparel, and courage women to seek the advice of GM sales associates. That is, shoes. Rosenbaum et al. (2017) show that women prefer working this study reveals that women perceive more positive intent from with GM sales associates over female sales associates whom they and are more likely to trust GM sales associates (vs. HF sales perceive as being more attractive than themselves when they need associates) when purchasing apparel to attract or to retain a assistance with purchasing apparel and accessories; however, this romantic partner in contrast to attending a family (i.e., nonromantic) preference diminishes for assistance with other products, such as event. Overall, by drawing on the tenets of evolution theory, these housewares. four studies provide academics and practitioners with a clearer While this retailing research is insightful, research chasms still understanding regarding the contexts and conditions that foster exist in the understanding of the GM sales associate–HF shopper “commercial friendships” between GM sales associates and their HF relationship. First, although research shows that heterosexual customers. women may prefer working with GM sales associates in certain situations (Peretz, 1995) or for specific products, such as apparel and accessories (Rosenbaum et al., 2017), how do female shoppers 2 | B ACK GR O UN D L IT E RA T UR E identify GM associates in retail settings? That is, to date, marketing researchers exploring commercial friendships and relationships Because men put high importance on physical attractiveness in their between heterosexual women and GM sales associates have failed mates (Smith, Waldorf, & Trembath, 1990), mating competition to discern how these relationships often begin or how female among women tends to occur in the domain of physical attractive- customers discern GM associates on a retail sales floor. ness. Women tend to fixate on potential female rivals who possess Although psychological studies in experimental settings show physical qualities desired by men, such as facial attractiveness and an that women discern gay men from available facial, verbal, and ideal waist‐to‐hip ratio (Fink et al., 2014). When women are in the nonverbal behavioral cues (Tabak & Zayas, 2012; Valentova & presence of more attractive same‐sex others (Massar & Buunk, Havlíček, 2013), knowledge of how this transpires in retail settings is 2010), they may feel competitiveness, distress (Buss, Shackelford, somewhat lacking. Peretz (1995) discussed how GM sales associates Choe, Buunk, & Dijkstra, 2000), and jealousy. Although evolutionary working in a Paris‐based boutique may be discernable because they theorists generally focus on intrasexual competition as it pertains to tend to wear cosmetics or to accessorize with feminine scarves. | RUSSELL ET AL. 3 Along these lines, Lawson (1999) noted how female beauty salon Australian city that has a large gay population. The shopping district customers often discern gay men by the way they walk. Thus, a is an open‐air, upscale lifestyle center, and contains several high‐end comprehensive, in‐depth analysis of how heterosexual women retailers and luxury boutiques (e.g., Louis Vuitton, Chanel, Gucci) and discern GM sales associates in retail and service settings instead of popular eateries. Interviews were conducted with a mall‐intercept, laboratory settings is well warranted. Second, research lacks an convenience sample (Bush & Hair, 1985) of 23 self‐identified understanding of the causal conditions and consequences that heterosexual women who recalled interacting with at least one support working relationships between GM sales associates and presumably GM sales associate in a retail setting within the past 90 their HF customers in retail settings. days. Informants ranged in age from 19 to 56 years (Table 1). Note that the informants’ recall of working with a GM sales associate was not corroborated further. 3 | ST UD Y 1 This study required the collection of information, that is, not normally available or regularly discussed and that may be greatly Study 1 achieves three objectives. First, although descriptive studies influenced by political and societal sensitivities, which were allude to how women attempt to deduce a male sales associate’s heightened in the sample site from the pending gay marriage sexual orientation by analyzing physical characteristics, voice tone, or legislation in the country. Given these environmental conditions, clothing in retail settings (Lawson, 1999; Peretz, 1995), no study, to two of the authors trained a female graduate student on how to date, has explored this phenomenon in depth. Given that prior conduct semi‐structured interviews with female consumers. This data research suggests that judgments of sexual orientation can derive collection strategy has two advantages. First, informants may feel from relatively limited cues, Study 1 aims to uncover the precise more comfortable speaking truthfully to a younger female graduate signals that enable heterosexual women to guess a male sales student than with university‐affiliated, older researchers, who may associate’s homosexuality, thus, buttressing the existence of “mar- trigger a social desirability bias. Second, because the graduate kers of queer identities” (Clarke & Turner, 2007, p.271), albeit, in student identified herself as a heterosexual woman who regularly retail settings. shops in the community, insider knowledge facilitates expressions of Second, the humanistic data reveal specific attributes that female shared experiences, yielding rich, descriptive insights. customers assign to GM sales associates. On the one hand, many of these attributes, such as honesty, friendliness, and helpfulness, represent the bedrock of friendships and thus provide GM sales T A B L E 1 Demographic profile Age Country of birth Ethnicity Citizenship 19 Australia Caucasian Australia 20 Australia Caucasian Australia 20 UK Caucasian Britain subgroup stereotypes into which gay men are often classified into by 20 Australia Caucasian Australia heterosexuals (McCutecheon & Morrson, 2019), suggesting that 20 Australia Caucasian Australia certain stereotypes about gay men remain pervasive in society. associates with a foundation to build meaningful “commercial friendships” (Garzaniti, Pearce, & Stanton, 2011; Price & Arnould, 1999) with their female customers. On the other, some of the attributes, such as feminine and flamboyant, represent two common 20 Australia Caucasian Australia Research shows that customer comfort positively affects the 20 Australia Caucasian Australia success of service delivery as people disclose more information about 21 Australia Caucasian Australia themselves when they feel comfortable, and a high level of comfort 21 Australia Ingenious/Black Australia 22 Australia Caucasian Australia 22 Australia Asian Australia 23 New Zealand Caucasian New Zealand 24 Australia Caucasian Australia little empirical or humanistic research examining this in retail and 27 Australia Caucasian Australian service contexts. As such, the third objective of this study is to 33 Australia Caucasian Australia explicate the attributes that female shoppers assign to GM associates 39 Australia Caucasian Australia and examine how these attributes influence their sense of comfort 41 Australia Caucasian Australia and trust in working with them. 42 Australia Caucasian Australia 44 Australia Caucasian Australia 46 Australia Caucasian Australia 55 England Caucasian Australia/UK 56 Scotland Caucasian New Zealand 56 Australia Caucasian Australia helps customers reduce anxiety and realize enhanced self‐esteem during service encounters (Spake, Beatty, Brockman, & Crutchfield, 2003). Although retailing researchers have conceptually proposed that female shoppers may sense empathy, trust, and comfort when working with GM sales associates (Rosenbaum et al., 2015), there is 3.1 | Sample and procedures The data for this study came from female informants who were present in a shopping district located in a large metropolitan 4 | RUSSELL ET AL. The interviews followed McCracken’s (1988, p.34) procedures for 3.2 | Attributes related to GM sales associates conducting long interviews. The interview questions were sufficiently broad enough to allow the informants to “tell their own story in their 3.2.1 | Honesty terms.” To probe the study’s two research objectives, prompts were also used when necessary to guide the interview. The informants The data reveal that 15 (65%) of the 23 female informants noted that were asked to recall one of their experiences with an apparent or they attributed feelings of honesty to GM sales associates. A theme confirmed GM sales associate. Informants were then asked to discuss that arose in many of the interviews is that a GM sales associate is how they discerned that the sales associate was gay and to describe more likely than either a female or a heterosexual male sales the sales associate in their own words. Last, each informant was associate to “tell it like it is.” Other informants noted the word asked to discuss how the sales associate made her feel during that “genuine,” when discussing their perceptions of gay sales associates. service experience. A 23‐year‐old informant highlighted the honesty and genuineness First, the interviews were audiotaped and then transcribed into that nearly two‐thirds of the informants also attributed to gay sales documents for exporting into NVivo 11 software. Second, the data associates as follows: “He was honest. There was one piece that I were coded by means of Strauss and Corbin (1990) axial coding selected, and he said, “um, no.” He could understand my insecurities method, which builds a causal‐consequential pathway around a and what I wanted to get out of a dress. He gave his honest opinion, phenomenon of interest. In this study, the main interest was which I appreciated.” understanding the drives that encourage positive working relationships between GM sales associates and HF customers. The causal conditions were the attributes of GM associates that female 3.2.2 | Feminine customers expressed, and the consequences were sensations related to how they felt during and after the service experience. The action Eight (35%) informants used the term “feminine” to describe their strategies that constitute axial coding were the tactics women GM sales associates. A 39‐year‐old informant noted that her gay employ to discern a male sales associate’s sexual orientation in a sales associate was wearing makeup; thus, she perceived him as being “a feminine male sort of thing” (a “thing” being a new gender retail setting. Figure 1 presents the theoretical framework. This framework classification); however, she then remarked that “the thing” was “a illustrates the causes, consequences, and actions surrounding the lovely person, just yeah, he was gay.” The feminization of the gay relationship between GM sales associates and HF customers in retail sales associate is not necessarily a hostile response, but rather an settings. The following subsections delineate the frameworks’ endearing response that allows a sense of comfort to ensue between conceptual categories. the gay associate and his female client. The same customer later FIGURE 1 Conceptual framework: gay male sales associates and heterosexual female customer relationships in retail settings | RUSSELL ET AL. 5 noted, “I was very secure and comfortable, and I did trust him.” The seems to be a win‐win for the sales associate, as the customer said, classification of gay men into a unique gender category, separate “So the guy made me feel really … important. Like it wasn’t busy but from their heterosexual counterparts, seems to encourage female often in those kinds of environments, you feel a bit pushed around customers to feel comfort and trust when working with gay sales like they don’t really care about you but no he … genuinely wanted to associates. make me look nice.” Thus, women may perceive the talkative gay man as an indication of his nonsexual, genuine interest. 3.2.3 | Flamboyant 3.2.5 | Helpful Five (22%) informants described their GM sales associate as flamboyant, and four (17%) used the term “excited” to describe their Two informants described their gay sales associate as “helpful,” and sales associate. Although “flamboyant” maybe have a negative two other informants used the term “articulate.” A 22‐year‐old connotation, GM flamboyancy, and excitedness again seem to trigger woman remarked that her sales associate “was incredibly helpful.” a sensation in female customers that separates gay men from She went on to say, “I could tell that he was very sales motivated but heterosexual men in a positive manner. A 20‐year‐old female I was very, very comfortable with him. I thought … he knew the described her gay sales associate as follows: “He was very product very well actually.” Thus, responsiveness yields feelings of flamboyant, very over the top, and his knowledge in fashion at times comfort and, ultimately, sales. exceeded my own. I would expect a heterosexual male to act a lot Two women described their sales associates as being articulate in more subdued.” The same informant later noted, “I definitely trusted terms of physical demeanor or vocabulary. These informants noted his advice and felt very comfortable in what he was choosing.” Thus, that heterosexual men lack the same articulation as gay men. A by acting in a manner that is opposite that of a heterosexual man, the 41‐year‐old informant stated, “He sort of spoke quite articulately and GM sales associate is able to engender trust, comfort, and credibility that doesn’t always obviously mean it [that he is gay] …but it’s just when working with female customers. different than what I would expect from a heterosexual male.” This The display of ebullience seems to set the gay man apart difference seems to serve both the GM sales associate and the from his heterosexual counterpart. A 55‐year‐old informant noted customer, as she further said, “I definitely didn’t think he was sales that her gay sales associate was excited about her dress: “I’d motivated or pushy. I actually found him quite comfortable to deal expect a gay male to be excited about fashion and not a with, he was very down to earth and very … informative and I kind of [heterosexual] male, who would not be excited.” Again, when trusted his judgment a lot on the types of things he was showing me.” heterosexual women are able to surmise that a male sales associate is homosexual, a sense of trust between them and the employee emerges. Indeed, the same client remarked, “Yeah, I think he was 3.3 | Discerning GM sales associates definitely more interested in what I was purchasing rather than um … just taking your money, which is good.” Thus, female clients tend to 3.3.1 | Gestures perceive gay sales associates who display “zing” on the sales floor as trustworthy. When asked how they recognize or discern GM sales associates, 13 (57%) of the 23 informants noted that they judge the way these men gesture with their hands. A 56‐year‐old informant discussed how she 3.2.4 | Friendly honed in on hand gestures to guess homosexuality: “Oh, the way he moved his hands and the way he stood and the way he laughed and Three (13%) informants described their GM associate as being um … yes he was definitely gay. He wasn’t trying to hide it either and friendly, and two (9%) used the term “chatty” to describe their he wasn’t trying to flaunt it, he just was [himself].” associate. Friendliness seems to evoke feelings of service quality in female customers, which helps the gay associate “close the sale.” A 44‐year‐old woman purchasing cosmetics noted, “The experience 3.3.2 | Physical was great, so the person [gay associate] was very knowledgeable about the products; very friendly; knew what he was talking about.” Eleven (48%) informants noted that they appraise a male sales The sales associate’s friendly demeanor served to assure the associate’s physical appearance, apparel selection, and personal customer, as she said, “I just found it would be odd because I wasn’t grooming to judge his homosexuality. Another 56‐year‐old informant expecting a male to be behind that counter.” said, “His appearance was very neat … yeah very well dressed, very Another informant described her gay sales associate at a neat. Not in the manner of a heterosexual male.” Similarly, a 39‐year‐ cosmetic counter as “chatty.” The informant remarked that the sales old woman noted how she discerned that her sales associate was gay: associate “was asking me about what fake tan I use, telling me that “He was quite slim, very neatly dressed, very short sort of manicured his sister gets that fake tan in Australia rah, rah.” Yet this banter hair and very clean.” Thus, qualities such as being neatly dressed, 6 | RUSSELL ET AL. tidy, manicured, and clean seem to be identifying characteristics that confidence, the way he walked; the way he presented himself; his help women feel at ease with GM sales associates. dress, his tone of voice even, it just fit the fact that he was a gay person pretty much.” 3.3.3 | Voice 3.3.6 | Conclusion Eight (35%) informants noted that they determine a male sales associate’s sexual orientation from listening to his tone of voice. A On the one hand, the findings suggest that heterosexual women 21‐year‐old informant noted that she uses several signals to discern GM sales associates primarily by looking for attributes that determine an associate’s homosexuality: “I don’t know how to are part and parcel of existing gay stereotypes, which often result in explain this … but you know how they [gay men] talk sort of like in gay men being viewed by others as less masculine than heterosexual a higher pitch and it’s … like just his voice in general and just like the men (Blashill & Powlishta, 2009). On the other hand, this study manner in which he was like talking. It was like the language he was provides a first attempt in the retailing domain to thoroughly classify using and the tone but also physical characteristics.” characteristics that heterosexual women use to discern, whether correctly or incorrectly, GM sale associates in retail contexts, thereby buttressing key works in the relationship marketing paradigm 3.3.4 | Cosmetics (Peretz, 1995; Rosenbaum et al., 2015, 2017). Four (17%) informants deduced their male sales associate’s homosexuality from his use of cosmetics. A 20‐year‐old woman discussed 3.4 | Reactions how she noted hand gestures, voice, and the presence of cosmetics to surmise her male sales associate’s homosexuality: “Because of his 3.4.1 | Comfort hand mannerisms, his voice; he was wearing makeup himself, not over‐the‐top makeup, but you could see that he had foundation on Fourteen (61%) of the 23 informants used the term “comfortable” to and obviously a bit of blush and some kind of lipstick.” Similarly, describe how they felt when working with a presumably GM another 20‐year‐old informant paid attention to body language, associate. Several informants discussed that they felt more comfor- appearance, voice, and makeup to guess a male sales associate sexual table working with gay sales associates, especially if they felt orientation; she said, “[I] suppose just general body language; how he stigmatized by working with a younger or more attractive female looked; he already had makeup on.” associate. A 24‐year‐old informant said, “If I’m trying on clothing, it makes me feel insecure [if] it looks better on the female sales associate, it’s that sort of thing…. Gay men are easier to work with.” 3.3.5 | Working with fashion/cosmetics The results suggest that when HF customers feel intimidated, they will purposefully seek out GM sales associates, who seem to be more Two (9%) informants judged the male sales associate’s knowledge honest with them and, perhaps, more empathetic to understanding about fashion as an indicator of his possible homosexuality, while one the personal complexities and insecurities that many women have (4%) informant surmised that a male sales associate working in a regarding their physical appearance. department store’s cosmetic department was gay. A 23‐year‐old woman discussed how she used several signals to determine a male sales associate’s sexual orientation: “I guess his over‐the‐top sort of 3.4.2 | Interest arm gestures, [his] higher pitch voice, you know, you don’t really get that with heterosexual guys … and just his knowledge of fashion.” Six (26%) informants remarked that they believed that their GM sales Similarly, a 20‐year‐old informant said, “It’s hard to really pick how associate was genuinely interested in helping them or were attentive. someone is gay but as much as a stereotype as it was … he was very, A 39‐year‐old woman noted her sense of comfort with working with very stylishly dressed and he was very flamboyant, very over the top, a gay sales associate, saying, “I would return to the store because I’d and his knowledge in fashion at times exceeded my own. So, feel comfortable with him and knowing if I saw him there again I’d obviously he didn’t say he was gay, but there were hints, and it was say, ‘oh, yeah, I had a good experience with that assistant.’” She later sort of clear.” noted that her sales associate seemed more interested in the job A 20‐year‐old informant also remarked that she determined her than the heterosexual associates: “I think that a lot of sales assistants male sales associate’s homosexuality by his employment in a do get into a bit of a rut in that they’re sort of…. A heterosexual sales cosmetic department. However, she also used other signals to guess assistant would be working their normal hours, it’s hard to sort of put the associate’s homosexuality; she said, “First of all, the fact that he into words, but he [gay male sales associate] just seemed more was a male working in a cosmetics section of a department store kind attentive and I find that … I don’t know perhaps gay people are just [of] fits the stereotype [of being gay]. Second, just his demeanor; his more attentive in retail stores than others, I don’t know.” | RUSSELL ET AL. 7 A common finding is that GM sales associates seem to display informed research finds that women put greater trust in gay greater knowledge and more positive attitudes in retail settings than men’s (vs. heterosexual women’s) advice because of the lack of their heterosexual counterparts. Still, other informants noted that intrasexual rivalry (Russell et al., 2013, 2017); thus, trust is the they often feel more comfortable asking a gay man for assistance foundation of these close and meaningful relationships between gay because of their fear of judgment from other women. Thus, the men and heterosexual women. In a similar vein, trust and commit- genuineness that heterosexual women attribute to GM sales ment represent “the twin foundations of [relationship marketing]” associates may have less to do with the associates’ actions and more (Sheth, 2017, p.7), and Price and Arnould (1999), p.44) consider trust to do with their own inferiority complex. “the central feature of effective business relationships” and the bedrock of commercial friendships between service providers and their customers. 3.4.3 | Trustworthiness Although trust is often the impetus behind customer‐service provider relationships and friendships, the retailing discipline Four (17%) informants noted that they viewed their gay sales lacks empirical understanding of how trust ensues between GM associate as trustworthy. A 20‐year‐old informant noted the role of sales associates and HF customers in retail contexts. Study 2 attractiveness: “The more attractive the gay male employee is, the addresses this research chasm by exploring why women’s trust in more likely I am to trust his opinion; but it’s the opposite effect with GM sales associates may emerge in retail settings, with a further a female; the more attractive means less product knowledge.” goal of understanding the role of female intrasexual competition. Similarly, a 39‐year‐old informant based her trustworthiness in the gay sales associate on the “coming‐out” process. She remarked, “I’m not gay, but I think obviously being gay, it takes a lot to come 4 | STUDY 2 out and openly be gay and that person is obviously true to themselves so then they would be living that through every other As previously discussed, the evolutionary theory posits that area of their life you know … they wouldn’t sort of hold back competitive rivalry sometimes present in women’s same‐sex social anything. They may sugarcoat something but they wouldn’t hold interactions can lead women to distrust their same‐sex peers (Fisher, back in giving you an honest answer.” In other words, this customer 2017). As such, the lack of intrasexual rivalry between gay men and believes that women are wary of other sales associates’ honesty, as heterosexual women encourages many women to put more trust in compared with gay men. gay men’s advice, especially when they perceive increased competi- One (4%) 20‐year‐old informant noted that her gay sales tion from same‐sex others, such as in dating contexts (Russell et al., associate made her feel important. Although only one informant 2017). The humanistic evidence obtained in Study 1 reveals that used the term “important,” a theme that emerged in the findings is female consumers often perceive advice from GM sales associates as that the informants tended to believe that GM sales associates are trustworthy; however, empirical evidence for this relationship is more likely than female associates to spend time with them to help absent. them feel good about themselves. Indeed, the informants used terms The purpose of Study 2 is to empirically investigate the such as “less judgmental” and “more honest” to compare GM sales extent to which perceived intrasexual competition influences associates with HF sales associates. The findings also suggest that heterosexual women’s perceptions of trust in advice from HF and many female customers have difficulty accepting advice from a more GM attractive female; thus, GM sales associates may have an upper hand evolutionarily‐informed research (Russell et al., 2017), this study in retail settings simply because they are not female. sales associates in retail contexts. Drawing on past predicts that HF shoppers who perceive high appearance‐related competitiveness with HF sales associates will perceive GM sales associates as more trustworthy. 3.5 | Discussion Study 1 reveals that HF shoppers experience feelings of comfort, 4.1 | Sample and procedures genuineness, trustworthiness, and importance during their interactions with GM sales associates. According to prior research The final sample consisted of 365 undergraduate HF students (Rosenbaum et al., 2017), these positive feelings arise from the lack (Mage = 20.45; standard deviation [SD]age = 3.44) from a mid‐sized of intrasexual female competition and sexual interest between GM university located in a metropolitan city in the United States who sales associates and HF customers, especially given the need for agreed to participate in the study through the university’s closeness or touch when working with apparel, cosmetics, or participant pool recruitment system. In terms of ethnicity, accessories in retailing contexts. 280 (77%) participants reported being Caucasian, 49 (13%) The descriptive data further reveal that HF shoppers may Hispanic, 13 (4%) African American, 13 (4%) Asian, and 10 (2%) perceive the advice from GM sales associates as more trustworthy “other” ethnicity. All participants received partial course credit for than advice from their HF counterparts. Indeed, evolutionarily‐ their participation. 8 | RUSSELL ET AL. To assess women’s trust in both a HF and a GM sales associate, Pairwise comparisons revealed that women who scored higher participants indicated their level of agreement with three items, (vs. lower) on intrasexual competition were less likely to trust assessed on 7‐point Likert scales: (a) “I could see myself trusting an recommendations from HF sales associates (F(1, 363) = 4.47; p = .04; HF sales associate’s recommendations,” (b) “I could count on an HF ηp2 = 0.01). In addition, women’s likelihood to trust GM sales sales associate to give me an unbiased opinion on what looks good on associates over HF sales associates was evident in the high my body,” and (c) “I believe that an HF sales associate would have my intrasexual competition cluster (F(1, 363) = 21.65; p < .001; ηp2 = best interests in mind.” Participants then indicated their agreement 0.06), which represents a medium effect (Sullivan & Feinn, 2012). The with the same items about GM sales associates. A reliability analysis results showed no significant difference in trust between the two indicated that these three items were valid (Nunnally, 1978) for both sales associates in the low intrasexual competition cluster (F(1, types of sales associates (trust in GM sales associates: α = .81; trust in 363) = 3.13; p = .08). Thus, the intrasexual competition encourages HF sales associates: α = .78). female shoppers to view advice from GM sales associates as more To prevent order effects, the HF and GM trust items appeared in random order. To explore intrasexual female competition, participants trustworthy than advice from HF sales associates. Figure 2 reports the mean results. indicated their level of agreement with four items (7‐point Likert scale) that measured their concern about appearance‐related competitiveness with an HF sales associate: (a) feeling “in competition” with the sales 5 | STUDY 3 associate, (b) the sales associate being more attractive than they are, (c) what their body looked like compared with the sales associates, and Study 2 found evidence that women’s concerns about being in (d) feeling a sense of appearance‐related rivalry with the sales associate. appearance‐related competition with heterosexual women lead them Another reliability analysis of these four items revealed that together to trust GM sales associates’ product suggestions more than female these items were a valid measure of perceived appearance‐related sales associates’ suggestions. However, if women’s distrust of female competitiveness (α = .90; Nunnally, 1978). sales associates is driven by feelings of intrasexual competitiveness, Participants completed the study online. Before beginning the the findings should show that women’s trust in GM sales associates’ study, they were told that they would be taking part in a study suggestions is limited to appearance‐enhancing products (e.g., examining how they perceive themselves compared with different apparel), as these products can play an important role in mate individuals in consumer settings. Then, participants completed the competition. For products that do not play such a role; however, series of measures in the order specified previously. women should trust GM sales associates no more or less than HF sales associates. Study 3 tests this hypothesis using an experimental design. The 4.2 | Results prediction was that female shoppers’ increased trust in gay men (vs. heterosexual women) would be evident when they received The data were first screened for acquiescent response bias (i.e., suggestions on products that function to potentially enhance their participants who consistently provided the same response across physical appearance, but not when they received suggestions on both positively and negatively scored items; Watson, 1992). Cases products that do not serve this function. Although it is plausible whose data exhibited this pattern (n = 33) were removed from the that female dataset, which left data from 365 participants for analyses. recommendations to the same degree as gay men’s recommendations buyers may trust heterosexual men’s product A two‐step cluster analysis analyzed the data for the four items assessing concern about being in intrasexual competition with an HF sales associate. An optimum number of clusters, a log‐likelihood 7 distance measure, and Schwarz’s Bayesian information criterion were 6.5 quality. The first cluster comprised 58.6% of the cases and was associated with lower levels of intrasexual competition (four‐item average = 1.97). The second cluster comprised 41.4% of the cases and was associated with higher levels of intrasexual competition (four‐ item average = 4.67). Next, a 2 × 2 mixed‐model analysis of variance (ANOVA) Trust in sales associate employed. The analysis revealed two clusters with good cluster Heterosexual female sales associate 5.5 5 4.5 4 examined women’s level of perceived trust in each sales associate 3.5 (within‐subject variable) depending on each participant’s predicted 3 cluster membership (between‐subjects variable). As predicted, the ANOVA showed a two‐way interaction between the type of sales associate (HF vs. GM) and the cluster membership (low vs. high intrasexual competition; F(1, 363) = 5.88; p = .02). Gay male sales associate 6 Low perceptions High perceptions Intra-sexual competition cluster F I G U R E 2 Women’s trust in heterosexual female versus gay male sales associates when perceiving intrasexual competition | RUSSELL ET AL. 9 (as heterosexual men are not in intrasexual competition with unattractive, 7 = very attractive). Three paired‐sample t tests then women), the prediction was that they would not, given previous compared the ratings of the two targets. The analysis revealed that research revealing women’s decreased comfort in interacting the male and female targets did not vary in perceived age (Mmale = with straight (vs. gay) men (Russell, Ta, & Ickes, 2018b) and their 28.65, Mfemale = 28.27; p = .58), perceived professionalism (Mmale = reduced preference for working with straight men in such sales 5.81, Mfemale = 5.84; p = .91), or perceived physical attractiveness interactions (Mmale = 5.22, Mfemale = 5.05; p = .57), though the mean attractiveness due to potential sexual concerns (Rosenbaum et al., 2017). of the sales associates was well above the midpoint of the scale (i.e., above‐average attractiveness). In terms of product stimuli, six different product photographs 5.1 | Sample and procedures served as the sales associate’s recommended products.2 Three products were chosen for their potential to positively affect the Two hundred and forty‐three women (Mage = 24.49; SDage = 4.48) physical appearance of a female buyer (i.e., a woman’s dress, a pair of took part in this study, 84 from the participant pool recruitment women’s high‐heeled shoes, and a tube of lipstick). These items system at a mid‐sized university located in a metropolitan city in the served as the “appearance‐enhancing” products. The other three United States and 160 from Amazon Mechanical Turk. Of the product stimuli (i.e., kitchen blender, suitcase, and vacuum cleaner) participants, 141 (58%) reported their ethnicity as Caucasian, 28 were unlikely to positively affect a female shopper's physical (12%) as Hispanic, 32 (13%) as Asian, 15 (6%) as African American, 16 appearance but were products also easily found in retail department (7%) as Indian, and 11 (4%) as another ethnicity or missing. The stores. These items served as the “nonappearance‐enhancing” participants recruited from the university received course credit, and (control) items. Finally, regardless of product type, all the photo- those recruited from Mechanical Turk received $0.50 for their graphs were converted to black‐and‐white images to minimize the participation.1 potential role of color in participants’ evaluations. Three different conditions were generated using two target sales associate photographs; each photograph was embedded in a fictitious, computer‐generated LinkedIn profile.2 Participants viewed 5.2 | Design their assigned target’s LinkedIn profile, which contained (a) a photographic image of the target; (b) the target’s employment This experiment was a 3 (sales associate target: HF vs. heterosexual information (e.g., “works at Macy’s”); and (c) a professional organiza- male vs. GM) × 2 (product: appearance‐enhancing vs. control) tion to which the target belonged. However, the target’s sex and between‐subjects factorial design. Participants completed the study sexual orientation varied across three conditions: one profile online and were told that they would be participating in belonged to an HF sales associate, one to a heterosexual male sales an experiment examining their expected buyer behavior in retail associate, and one to a GM sales associate. To manipulate the gender stores. of the target, a professional headshot photograph of a man and a When the participants logged in to complete the experiment, woman was used, and the professional organization on each profile they were informed that they would be viewing the LinkedIn profile provided an indication of the target’s sexual orientation. For example, of a sales associate who resides in the Dallas/Fort Worth area. To the gay man’s LinkedIn profile indicated that he was a member of bolster the believability of this cover story, the participants were “Dallas Gay Business Professionals,” and the profiles of the instructed to wait for 10–20 s until a sales associate’s LinkedIn heterosexual man and woman indicated that he and she were profile was “pulled at random” from the Internet. Unbeknownst to members of “Dallas Business Professionals.” the participants; however, they were randomly assigned to view one For the two photographs selected, both individuals appeared to of the two target stimuli conditions. After the participants viewed be the same age, looked professional, and were equally attractive. their assigned target’s profile, they were asked to imagine that they However, to ensure that the male and female stimuli did not vary on were in a department store to buy the three appearance‐enhancing these dimensions, an independent sample of judges (n = 37) rated the items (i.e., a dress, shoes, and lipstick) or the three control items (i.e., targets on (a) their perceived age; (b) their perceived professionalism, a blender, suitcase, and vacuum). Then, they were asked to imagine a on a Likert‐type scale (1 = very unprofessional, 7 = very professional); situation in which they were being assisted by their assigned sales and (c) their attractiveness, on a Likert‐type scale (1 = very associate. Participants were then presented with a scenario in which they were instructed to imagine picking out store items. As part of the 1 While this compensation was well within the norms for Mechanical Turk workers (Dupuis, Endicott‐Popovsky, & Crossler, 2013), it is nevertheless under the minimum wage standards in the United States. Low payment for Mechanical Turk workers is a growing ethical concern. 2 In accordance with international copyright law, the present article contains only figures, tables, and other content that is owned or controlled by the authors, or content for which permission to reproduce in this article has been sought and obtained from those who legally own or control such rights. Readers wishing to view referenced figures, tables, or related content not published herein, are urged to consult the referenced publication. procedure, participants viewed three different sets of four similar products from which to choose. For example, participants assigned to view the appearance‐enhancing products were presented with four different dresses and instructed to select the dress that they would like to add to their shopping cart. The participants in this condition repeated this task by also selecting from four different high‐heeled 10 | RUSSELL ET AL. shoes and four different lipstick tubes. Participants assigned to the enhance their physical appearance; there was no significant effect of control product condition viewed three sets of control products (i.e., the control product type on women's differential likelihood to trust four kitchen blenders, four suitcases, and four vacuum cleaners) and the sales associates (F(2, 213) = 2.67, ns). Together, these results then were instructed to select one item from each set. show that women are more likely to trust product recommendations After participants selected an item from each product set, they made by GM sales associates (vs. their HF or male counterparts) were presented with another scenario in which they were asked to when choosing merchandise that serves an appearance‐enhancement imagine that the sales associate from the LinkedIn profile (“Taylor”) function. evaluated their options and provided feedback. For example, the scenario read: “Imagine that Taylor examines the items that you have just selected. Then, imagine that Taylor says: ‘Your choices seem 6 | STUDY 4 great, but I have some suggestions that you should consider buying instead. I have them in the back.’” The results of Study 3 provide support for the hypothesis that Participants were then presented with each of the three women are more likely to trust appearance‐enhancement product appearance‐enhancing or control products with a recommendation recommendations from GM sales associates than from either from Taylor. For example, the participants who viewed the image of heterosexual male or female sales associates. Moreover, these the dress also saw Taylor’s endorsement of the product (e.g., “I think findings are consistent with past research showing that women that you should buy this dress instead. It has a similar price to the perceive gay men to provide more trustworthy mating advice than item that you chose originally, and it would look great on you”). straight men and women (Russell et al., 2013). However, the Participants then rated how likely they would be (1 = very unlikely, reasoning behind women’s increased likelihood to trust recommen- 7 = very likely) to trust Taylor’s recommendation instead of the dations from GM sales associates can be extended further to a original dress choice they had selected previously. nuanced set of predictions about the contexts in which the observed Last, the participants were asked to report the sexual orientation effect is most likely to occur on the sales floor. of the sales associate that they imagined interacting with, which Previous research indicates that in mating‐relevant contexts, served as the manipulation check for the study. Data from women, especially those who are highly attractive and desirable, are participants who failed to correctly report the sexual orientation of likely to be competitively targeted by other envious heterosexual their assigned sales associate were excluded from the analysis women (Krems, Neuberg, Filip‐Crawford, & Kenrick, 2015; Leenaars, (n = 25), resulting in a sample of 219 heterosexual women. Dane, & Marini, 2008; Russell, Babcock, Lewis, Ta, & Ickes, 2018a). As such, women—particularly those who are more physically attractive than other women—may be sensitive to the quality of 5.3 | Results advice provided by an HF sales associate when they are looking to purchase products to attract a desirable partner. For example, female Two composite scores for the participants’ likelihood to trust the customers may experience discomfort consulting with a female sales sales associates’ control product suggestions (α = .81) and the associate in such a context because they may perceive themselves to appearance‐enhancing product suggestions (α = .71) were computed be in rivalry with the sales associate. By contrast, because GM sales by averaging their responses to the three items in each category. associates are not in competition with women for the same mates Then, a 2 × 3 between‐subjects factorial ANOVA assessed whether (Russell et al., 2017), attractive female customers should perceive gay participants’ trust varied as a function of (a) the type of product (control vs. appearance‐enhancing) and (b) the sales associate (heterosexual woman vs. heterosexual man vs. gay man). As 7 Figure 3. To probe this interaction, the simple effect of the sales associate target within each product type was examined. The results revealed a significant difference in participants’ likelihood to trust the three sales associates’ appearance‐enhancing product suggestions (F(2, 213) = 8.36; p < .001; ηp2 = 0.07); the participants were more likely to trust the GM sales associate’s suggestions (M = 4.74; standard error [SE] = 0.22) than the heterosexual male (M = 3.50; SE = 0.22) or HF (M = 4.05; SE = 0.21) sales associate’s suggestions. By contrast, participants did not differ in their perceived likelihood to trust a gay man or heterosexual woman when they received recommendations for products that did not function to Trust in sales associate's recommendations expected, the results of the ANOVA revealed a significant two‐way interaction (F(2, 213) = 4.43; p = .013; ηp2 = 0.04), as shown in Heterosexual female sales associate Heterosexual male sales associate Gay male sales associate 6 5 4 3 2 1 Control Apperance-Enhancing Product Type F I G U R E 3 Women’s trust in heterosexual female versus heterosexual male versus gay male sales associates when buying appearance‐enhancing versus control items | RUSSELL ET AL. 11 men as more benevolent in these contexts and therefore be more two buyer objectives in Study 4, certain appearance‐enhancing likely to trust their product suggestions. Consistent with this products (e.g., a dress) may be more appropriate to wear for one reasoning, past research finds that more attractive women place occasion than another. For example, female buyers may be less likely greater value on gay men’s mating‐relevant advice (Russell et al., to purchase and wear a “more revealing” outfit when they intend to 2018a). go to a party with family members than when they intend to go When female customers consult with sales associates in buying downtown to attract a potential mate. Thus, the product stimuli products for nonmating‐related occasions; however, there are no needed not only to be average in perceived desirability but also to be apparent reasons they should feel less comfortable working with HF versatile across different occasions. An independent group of female than GM sales associates. For example, a female shopper who is judges (n = 18) rated the appearance‐enhancing products on two searching for an outfit to wear to a family event—regardless of how statements as they viewed each product: (a) “This item could be worn attractive she is—would have equal reason to trust the opinion of a to go out” and (b) This item could be worn to a family party.” A gay man and a heterosexual woman because of the absence of mating paired‐sample t test revealed that the products did not significantly motives that may elicit feelings of intrasexual rivalry over physical differ on these measures (t(16) = 0.74; p = .47), indicating that the appearance. product stimuli were functionally versatile across contexts. Finally, The predictions for Study 4 were as follows: women would be more likely to (a) perceive good intent on the part of the GM sales Study 4 also used the same target sales associate stimuli as in Study 3. associate and (b) trust a GM sales associate’s appearance‐enhancing product recommendations more than a HF sales associate’s recommendations, especially when intending to use the product for 6.2 | Design a mating‐related objective (i.e., to look nice for potential mates) but not for a nonmating‐related objective (i.e., to look nice for relatives). The experiment was a 2 (buyer objective: mating vs. nonmating) × 2 In addition, this effect was predicted to be driven by attractive (target sales associate: straight female vs. GM) between‐subjects women (who are at risk for facing intrasexual rivalry from other factorial design. Participants completed the study online. When they women; Krems et al., 2015; Leenaars et al., 2008; Russell et al., logged online to complete the experiment, they read the same cover 2018a), such that more attractive women who were assigned to the story as in Study 3. After providing their consent to participate, mating‐related objective condition would be more likely to perceive participants were randomly assigned to one of the two target stimuli the GM sales associate as having good intent, which in turn would conditions that depicted the target’s LinkedIn profile. lead to increased trust in his product recommendations. After participants viewed the target’s LinkedIn profile, the computer randomly assigned them to one of the two buying‐ objective conditions. Participants were instructed to imagine that 6.1 | Sample and procedure they either (a) needed to buy a new outfit to wear to a party downtown with single attractive men in attendance (mating‐related One hundred seventy‐one undergraduate HF students (Mage = 20.39; objective) or (b) needed a new outfit to wear to a party at their SDage = 4.22) recruited from a mid‐sized university’s psychology parents’ house with their family and relatives in attendance participant pool took part in the study. All participants received (nonmating‐related objective). To further prime the buyer objective, partial course credit for taking part in the study. The sample was 28% participants were asked to write down their thoughts and feelings Caucasian, 30% Hispanic, 20% African American, 15% Asian, and 7% about the upcoming party for 3 min. “other” ethnicity. Two priming vignettes served as the two buying‐objective Next, participants were asked to imagine being in a Macy’s department store with their assigned sales associate (i.e., Taylor) to conditions for the study. The first buying‐objective vignette buy the three appearance‐enhancing products to complete their asked participants to imagine themselves in a situation in which outfit for the party. Participants then rated three items designed to they needed to purchase an outfit to wear to a public party assess their perception of whether or not Taylor had good intentions downtown where attractive single men would be in attendance. This in their sales interaction on a 7‐point Likert scale (1 = strongly priming vignette served as the mating‐related objective. The second disagree, 7 = strongly agree). The three items were (a) “I think that buying‐objective vignette, which introduced the nonmating‐related Taylor would want me to look my best for those at the party,” (b) “I objective, asked participants to imagine themselves in a situation in believe Taylor would make me feel good as he/she helps me try which they needed to purchase an outfit to wear to a party at their different items,” and (c) “I think that Taylor would have the best parents’ house where their parents and relatives would be in intentions for me.” attendance. The Appendix provides the full texts of the priming vignettes. Participants then read a scenario that instructed them to imagine picking out items they wanted to purchase and adding them to their The study used the same categories of appearance‐enhancing shopping cart. Similar to Study 3’s procedure, the participants saw products (i.e., a dress, high‐heeled shoes, and a tube of lipstick) for three different sets of four similar products: four dresses, four high‐ the product stimuli as in Study 3. However, given the salience of the heeled shoes, and four tubes of lipstick. Participants were instructed 12 | RUSSELL ET AL. to select the item from each set that they would like to add to their on (a) participants’ perceived intent of the sales associates and (b) shopping cart for purchase. their reported likelihood to trust the sales associate’s product Next, participants read another scenario that asked them to recommendations. imagine that the sales associate from the LinkedIn profile (“Taylor”) The results revealed a multivariate, two‐way interaction between had evaluated their options and told them that they should consider the sales associate and the participant’s buyer objective (Λ = 0.95, his or her recommendations (“Your options seem great, but I have mult. F(2, 155) = 4.22; p = .016; ηp2 = 0.05). This two‐way interaction some suggestions that you should consider buying for the party was evident for participants’ perceived intent of the sales associate instead”). On the next screen, participants saw the product (F(1, 156) = 7.24; p = .008; ηp2 = 0.04) and trust in the sales associate’s stimuli and read instructions that they should imagine Taylor recommendations (F(1, 156) = 5.29; p = .023; ηp2 = 0.03). Participants endorsing the product (e.g., “I think that you should buy this dress assigned to the mating‐related objective condition perceived higher instead for the party. It would look great on you”). After reading this positive intent on the part of the GM sales associate (M = 5.38; prompt for each of the three products recommended by Taylor, SE = 0.18) than the HF associate (M = 4.82; SE = 0.17; F(1, 156) = 5.23; participants indicated how likely they would be to trust Taylor’s p = .024; ηp2 = 0.03) and were more likely to trust the GM sales product recommendations on 7‐point Likert‐type scales (1 = very associate (M = 4.97; SE = 0.21) than the HF associate (M = 3.82; unlikely, 7 = very likely). SE = 0.20; F(1, 156) = 16.09; p < .001; ηp2 = 0.09). There were no At the end of the experiment, participants reported on (a) their own perceived attractiveness on a 7‐point scale (“Relative to my peer differences in these two measures for participants assigned to the nonmating‐related condition (ps > .13; see Figure 4). group, I consider myself ____.” 1 = Much less attractive, 7 = much more For the next set of predictions, a moderated mediation analysis attractive) and (b) the sexual orientation of the sales associate they (5,000 bootstrap samples, Model 12 of PROCESS Macro; Hayes, imagined interacting with to serve as the manipulation check. 2018) tested for a three‐way interaction among the sales associate Participants who failed to correctly report the sexual orientation of condition (HF vs. GM), the buyer objective condition (mating vs. their assigned sales associate were excluded from the analysis nonmating), and the female buyer’s perceived attractiveness to (n = 11), resulting in a sample of 160 heterosexual women. predict her perception of the sales associate’s positive intent. Then, the analysis tested whether the perceived intent of the sales associate predicted female buyers’ trust in the sales associate’s 6.3 | Results product recommendations. Before the analysis, as the composite variable, participants’ trust in participants’ likelihood to trust the sales associate (R2 = 0.31; F(2, The model accounted for a significant proportion of variance in the sales associate’s recommendations for each of the three 157) = 35.24; p < .001). As predicted, the model revealed the appearance‐enhancing products was averaged (α = .78). Then, a predicted three‐way interaction (b = 0.78; SE = 0.29; t(152) = 2.68; 2 × 2 between‐subjects factorial multivariate ANOVA tested the p = .008). To probe this interaction, the authors tested for the effects of the sexual orientation of the sales associate (straight presence of the two‐way interaction between the buyer objective woman vs. gay man) and the buyer objective (nonmating vs. mating) and sales associate condition at both low (−1 SD) and high (+1 SD) F I G U R E 4 Women’s perceived intent of the heterosexual female versus gay male sales associate and their likelihood to trust her or his appearance‐enhancing product recommendations under either a mating‐ or nonmating‐related buyer objective | RUSSELL ET AL. 13 Next, as expected, the model showed that the more female buyers perceived positive intent on the part of the sales associate, the more they trusted their product recommendations (b = 0.58; SE = 0.09; t(157) = 6.60; p < .001). Thus, the analysis revealed a significant index of moderated mediation (b = 0.46; SE = 0.21; 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.05, 0.88]) at high levels of attractiveness in the mating‐related objective condition only. There was also a significant indirect effect of sales associate condition on trust through the perceived intent of the sales associate (b = 0.70; SE = 0.21; 95% CI = [0.28, 1.08]). In other words, female buyers who perceived themselves as more attractive in the mating‐related objective condition were more likely to trust the GM than the HF sales associate’s product recommendations because they perceived him as having more positive intentions in their sales interaction. Importantly, women’s increased trust in the GM than the HF F I G U R E 5 Women’s perceived intent of the heterosexual female versus gay male sales associate as a function of the women’s perceived physical attractiveness sales associate was fully mediated by their perceived positive intent of the associate. There was no direct effect after controlling for the effect of this mediator and the buyer objective and attractiveness moderators in the model (p = .10). The results of the moderated levels of women’s self‐perceived attractiveness. The results mediation model are shown in Figure 6. revealed no significant two‐way interaction at low levels of women’s perceived attractiveness (p = .87); however, there was a significant two‐way interaction at higher levels of attractiveness 7 | D I S C U SS I O N (b = 1.47; F(1, 152) = 13.26; p < .001). Further probing of this interaction at each buyer objective condition (mating vs. nonmating) This research offers an evolutionarily‐informed perspective on recent showed that attractive women in the mating‐related objective findings that suggest that female shoppers often prefer working with condition were more likely to perceive positive intent on part of GM sales associates for assistance with certain merchandise the GM sales associate than the HF sales associate (b = 1.17; selections (Rosenbaum et al., 2015, 2017). Study 1 extends SE = 0.28, t(152) = 4.12; p < .001). There was no such effect among evolutionary studies that show that women have an innate ability the attractive women in the nonmating‐related condition (p = .30), to recognize gay men from their heterosexual counterparts in the see Figure 5. marketplace (Tabak & Zayas, 2012; Valentova & Havlíček, 2013). F I G U R E 6 Moderated mediation model from Study 4 illustrating the indirect effect of the sales associate condition (heterosexual female vs. gay male) on women’s trust in the product recommendation, as mediated by the perceived intent of the sales associate, which was a significant function of the interaction among women’s attractiveness, the buyer objective, and the sales associate condition. CI, confidence interval; SD, standard deviation; SE, standard error 14 | RUSSELL ET AL. More specifically, the data reveal that female shoppers discern a and GM sales associates. Past qualitative research finds that women male sales associate’s sexual orientation from five different types of exhibit a heightened preference for working with GM sales associates physical cues. Several female shoppers also revealed that after when they are older or heavier than a female sales associate recognizing and working with GM associates, they sensed feelings of (Rosenbaum et al., 2017). Consistent with this past work, Study 2 comfort, and many perceived them as being attentive and trust- demonstrates that women who perceive high appearance‐related worthy. Study 2 draws on theories of female intrasexual competition competition with HF sales associates report placing greater trust in (Buss, 1988; Fink et al., 2014) and demonstrates that female the advice of GM sales associates. However, Study 4 reveals that shoppers are more likely to trust recommendations from a GM sales highly attractive female shoppers may also prefer working with GM associate when they believe they are in appearance‐related rivalry associates, albeit for a different reason. Given that highly attractive with an HF sales associate. This finding extends the work of Russell women face the risk of being competitively targeted by envious same‐ et al. (2013, 2017), which shows that women perceive dating advice sex others (Leenaars et al., 2008; Russell et al., 2018b), these women from gay men as more trustworthy and sincerer than advice from are more likely to value mating‐relevant advice from gay men and heterosexual women. That is, when female shoppers feel threatened prefer GM friends (Russell et al., 2018b). In line with this reasoning, by a female sales associate’s physical traits, they may view advice Study 4 demonstrated that, in a mating‐objective context, highly from gay men on items that serve to attract or retain a mating attractive women were more likely to trust the product recommenda- partner (e.g., apparel) more favorably than advice from the female tions of a GM (vs. HF) sales associate because they perceived him as sales associate. Study 3 helps buttress the case of the presence of having more positive intentions in their sales interaction. Taken intrasexual female competition in retailing. That is, the study clarifies together, this work illustrates that women’s preference for and trust in that female shoppers’ preference for GM sales associates’ advice is GM sales associates (as compared to their female counterparts) is limited to appearance‐enhancing product selections (e.g., apparel, likely to be heightened in women who are concerned about negative cosmetics) versus selections of other products (e.g., vacuum) that do appearance comparison with female sales associates or likely to not elicit feelings of appearance‐related competitiveness between experience intrasexual rivalry from other women. female sales associates and their less attractive female customers. This research also suggests that pioneering theoretical and Consistent with prior research showing that attractive women are empirical opportunities abound for researchers to investigate more at risk for intrasexual rivalry and place greater value on gay women’s feelings when working with metrosexual sales associates men’s mating‐relevant advice (Russell et al., 2018a), Study 4 shows in retail settings. Aldrich (2004, p.1733) conceptualizes a metrosex- that attractive women are more likely to trust GM (vs. HF) sales ual male as a heterosexual male who “is nevertheless in touch with associates when purchasing products to attract a romantic partner. his feminine side”; however, other researchers typically label This effect is mediated by increased perceptions of the positive metrosexuals as either gay or bisexual (Coad, 2008). Metrosexuality intent on the part of GM sales associates. is often associated with trendiness, a concern with one’s appearance, the use of grooming practices, and feminine proclivities (Mitchell & Lodhia, 2017). Therefore, in marketplace situations in which they feel 7.1 | Theoretical implications uncomfortable working with a more attractive or younger female sales associate, female shoppers will likely show a preference for These studies contribute to an evolutionary paradigm in marketing working with a metrosexual‐appearing male sales associate, if one is regarding the role of intrasexual competition between heterosexual available on the sales floor. men (Otterbring, Ringler, Sirianni, & Gustafsson, 2018) and women (Prendergast et al., 2014) in retail settings, as well as its influence on merchandise selection and sales associate preference. More specifi- 7.2 | Managerial implications cally, this research shows that intrasexual competition may encourage female shoppers to select a GM sales associate when they Given that gay men living in the United States face discrimination in discern the presence of one on a sales floor. As such, future research the hiring process (Tilcsik, 2011), the managerial implications of the should explore the extent to which intrasexual competition motivates findings suggest that retail organizations should work to increase female shoppers to purchase items via e‐commerce, catalogs, or diversity and not discriminate against gay men in the hiring process. home shopping to escape feelings of rivalry or to retaliate against To be clear, the authors are not suggesting recruitment preferences more attractive female associates with complaints or low customer based on sexual orientation, as this would be discriminatory; rather, satisfaction scores. Furthermore, given the existence of intrasexual the findings reveal that some female shoppers may be inclined to competition in the business‐to‐consumer marketplace, the rivalry is avoid retail settings in which they sense rivalry or a disrupted self‐ also likely to arise in business‐to‐business professional and sales concept. At the same time, heterosexual men may also feel relationships, which may cause women to react negatively to sales intimidated when working with a younger and more attractive male overtures from same‐sex others. sales associates (Otterbring et al., 2018). This work helps further clarify the contexts and interpersonal This research suggests that physical retailers, particularly high‐ factors that might foster commercial friendships among HF shoppers end specialty stores and luxury boutiques, may benefit from hiring a | RUSSELL ET AL. 15 diverse workforce. This is because customers may be intimated by that our findings from Study 4 point to women trusting GM sales sales associates for reasons beyond their control, and thus diversity associates because they perceive greater positive intentionality on offers customers the option to work with preferable associates. The their part, it is not highly likely that perceived expertise is influencing lack of a diverse workforce may be a reason for consumers who feel this process versus intrasexual female competition. Nonetheless, stigmatized in retail settings (e.g., overweight, aging) to patronize future research should explore this possibility. online retailers (Scaraboto & Fischer, 2013). The findings also offer provocative insights for GM retail Third, future research should explore women’s sales transactions and perceived trust in other gay–straight sales associate combina- employees. Gay retail employees who learn subcultural “campy” tions. For example, would HF shoppers trust appearance‐enhancing signals of flamboyance (Kates, 2002) and display them in retail product recommendations provided from lesbian female sales settings may realize monetary benefits by attracting female associates? We have reason to believe they would not, considering customers. Yet these same employees may experience backlash that—like from other customers who misinterpret these signals or find women might be perceived as being sexually attracted to their them too explicit in nature (Oakenfull & Greenlee, 2005). Further- female shopper clientele, which might cause discomfort and less more, as an increasing number of countries permit homosexuals to trusting sales interactions. We, therefore, suspect that the increased sales interactions with heterosexual men—lesbian marry and more people are accepting of homosexuality in trust that women place in GM sales associates’ appearance‐ general (Brown, 2017), “market‐manifested stereotypes of gayness” enhancement product recommendations may be unique to the (Ginder & Byun, 2015, p.835) might prevail or dissipate as gay commercial relationships between heterosexual women and gay identity becomes increasingly mainstream and accepted in these men, which could be an interesting prediction to test in future countries. research. Further, data for these studies came from participants who resided in metropolitan areas in either Australia or the United States. 7.3 | Research limitations and future directions In both countries, GM sales associates are commonly employed in retail settings, and same‐sex marriage is legal; in addition, these Although the present findings make a case for the role intrasexual metropolitan areas have large gay populations. Thus, the participants female competition plays in female shoppers’ trust in GM sales were likely to have an awareness of gay men and perhaps associates, more research remains to be done. One limitation to hold a favorable or tolerant opinion of gay men in general. The inherent in the current experimental studies is their reliance on a research findings are likely to generalize to other countries that hold relatively young, college‐aged sample of women. It will be important favorable attitudes toward lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and to determine whether the findings from our experimental studies are intersex (LGBTI) people and have legal protections (e.g., human specific to college‐aged heterosexual women or are generalizable to rights, same‐sex marriage) but not to countries that criminalize same‐ other age groups of women. Given that female intrasexual competi- sex relations or marginalize LGBTI people from participating in tion decreases with age (Fernandez, Muñoz‐Reyes, & Dufey, 2014), it general society (for specific country details, see Human Rights is possible that older generations of women who are married or Watch, 2017). approaching the end of their reproductive years would be less In addition, in Study 1, participants discussed the experience with concerned with attracting and competing for a mate (relative to a confirmed GM sales associate; however, the study did not probe younger women). Rather these women may have other reasons for the extent to which an informant had a long‐term “commercial avoiding younger female sales employees—for example, body image friendship” (Price & Arnould, 1999) with the associate. Although self‐consciousness. Indeed, previous qualitative research shows that researchers have found that feelings of trustworthiness may ensue women who are older with heavier body types (i.e., correlates of quickly between customers and employees in retail settings unattractiveness) are more comfortable consulting with gay men so (Rosenbaum, Massiah, & Wozniak, 2013), it is possible that some that they are not directly compared to younger and thinner female informants had long relationships with GM sales associates. Thus, the sales associates. (Rosenbaum et al., 2017). Thus, future experimental findings do not serve to diminish the likelihood that relationship research should explore whether these implicit social comparisons duration between any customer and service provider helps facilitate operate to steer older and less attractive female shoppers away from feelings of trustworthiness between the parties. working with younger, thinner saleswomen and toward working with gay salesmen. In a similar vein, although intrasexual female competition generalizes across the globe, its impact in retail settings in which Second, although we received evidence that women trust GM GM sales associates are not overtly present (e.g., Persian Gulf, North sales associates’ appearance‐enhancing product recommendations Africa) will differ. For example, intrasexual competition may when they are intending to use the product for a mating‐related encourage some women to retaliate against attractive female sales purpose (which we attributed to intrasexual competition), it will be associates by treating them in an inferior manner or by spending informative to explore whether perceived expertise is somehow large sums of money to show superiority. involved in women’s perceived trust in GM sales associates when An underlying assumption of the studies presented herein is that women are trying to use products to attract a mate. However, given heterosexual women can accurately discern the sexual orientation of 16 | a GM sales associate from his physical appearance or participation in a gay professional organization or have knowledge of his sexual orientation before engaging in marketplace exchanges. Undoubtedly, heterosexual women could also mistakenly surmise an incorrect sexual orientation from physical appearance or membership in certain organizations. Furthermore, in Study 1, heterosexual women discussed how they discern homosexual men in retail settings, and many of the clues they mentioned follow long‐standing stereotypes that attribute feminine characteristics to gay men. To be clear, the goal of this article is not to promote gay stereotyping, and not all GM associates display feminine characteristics. Furthermore, in all the studies, heterosexual women assumed, albeit accurately or incorrectly, that they were interacting with a gay man, and they were given no reason to doubt their assumption. Thus, from a theoretical perspective, this article advances an understanding of the marketplace relationship between heterosexual women and gay men. 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Psychology & Marketing. 2019;1–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar.21310 Appendix A Buying Objectives: Study 4 Mating‐Related Objective Vignette 1: • Imagine that you are single and you’ve received an invitation to attend a public party downtown. You received word that a couple of attractive guys that you know will be attending this party, so you are looking forward to the evening and hoping to look nice. • Please take a couple of minutes to write about your ideal expectations for the evening (e.g., How would you be feeling? What could you see yourself saying? What could you see yourself doing?) Vignette 2: • Imagine that you let Taylor know that you are looking for a dress, a pair of shoes, and lipstick. When Taylor asks you what the occasion is for these items, you tell Taylor that you are attending a party downtown, and you are hoping to look nice for some good‐looking single men. Non‐Mating‐Related Objective Vignette 1: • Imagine that you’ve received an invitation to attend a party at your parents’ house. You know that your parents and a few of your older relatives will be there, so you are looking forward to the evening and hoping to look nice for your family. • Please take a couple of minutes to write about your ideal expectations for the evening (e.g., How would you be feeling? What could you see yourself saying? What could you see yourself doing?) Vignette 2: • Imagine that you let Taylor know that you are looking for a dress, a pair of shoes, and lipstick. When Taylor asks you what the occasion is for these items, you tell Taylor that you are attending a party at your parents’ house, and you are hoping to look nice for your parents and older relatives.