Dictionary of Linguistics

Dictionary of Language and Linguistics Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics Hadumod Bussmann translated and edited by Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzazi London and New York The dictionary is based on: Hadumod Bussmann Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft 2nd, completely revised edition in co-operation with and with contributions by colleagues Kröner Verlag, Stuttgart 1990. (Kröners Taschenausgabe, Vol. 452) ISBN 3-520-45202-2 Contributors to the German edition Gregorz Dogil, Bernd Gregor, Chistopher Habel, Theo Ickler, Manfred Krifka, Hartmut Lauffer, Katrin Lindner, Peter R.Lutzeier, Susan Olsen, Beatrice Primus, Hannes Scheutz, Wolfgang Sternefeld, Wolf Thümmel, Hans Uszoreit, Heinz Vater, Ulrich Wandruszka, Dietmar Zaefferer Translation and adaptation Lee Forester, Kerstin Kazzazi, Stephen Newton, Erin Thompson, Gregory Trauth First published 1996 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2006. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 First published in paperback 1998 © 1996 Routledge All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 0-203-98005-0 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-415-02225-8 (hbk) ISBN 0-415-20319-8 (pbk) Contents Preface vi Directory of participants ix User instructions xvi List of symbols used in the book xviii International Phonetic Alphabet xxi List of abbreviations in the text xxiii List of abbreviations in the bibliographies xxvi Entries 1-1034 Preface Twenty-five years ago, when the idea for this dictionary was first conceived, researchers of linguistics had virtually no terminological reference works that could provide them with an introduction to this fast-growing international science or with source material for conducting their own linguistic research. This situation has changed greatly over the years, especially in the English-speaking world, where David Crystal’s Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language and Frederick J.Newmeyer’s Cambridge Survey of Linguistics were published in 1987. They were followed, in 1992 and 1994 respectively, by two impressive encyclopedic works, namely W.Bright’s four-volume International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (Oxford University Press) and R.E.Asher’s ten-volume Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (Pergamon Press). About the development of this dictionary The present dictionary differs fundamentally from these monumental works. In its scope and format, it fills a gap which, in spite of David Crystal’s Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (Oxford 19852), has existed up until now: in a handy one-volume format, this dictionary provides a thorough overview of all areas of linguistics. Not restricted to specific theories, it encompasses descriptive and historical, comparative and typological linguistics, as well as the applied subdisciplines. Along with the traditional core areas (phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics), interdisciplinary fields (such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics and ethnolinguistics), as well as stylistics, rhetoric and philosophy of language are represented. In addition, the dictionary includes basic terminology from logic, mathematical and computational linguistics as well as applied linguistics; finally, descriptions of individual languages and language families are provided. With this broad range of content and its succinctly written articles, this dictionary is meant for both students and professional scholars in linguistics and allied fields. This book is the result of over twenty years of development, in which numerous scholars from Germany and other countries were involved. The first German edition appeared in 1983 as the result of this author’s ten-year efforts. Owing to the rapid development of linguistics, a second, completely revised edition became necessary. Seventeen scholars revised, corrected and extended the texts of the first edition. Their work was based on dozens of peer reviews and, no less importantly, on their own research. This second German edition provided the foundation for the present English edition, which was developed further by a team of translators along with numerous contributors and advisers, who checked the translation, made additions to the texts and bibliographies, and, in some cases, contributed new articles. In adapting the German edition, the difference in terminological usage and methodological approaches of Continental European linguists and of their British and North American colleagues became apparent. The task of ‘translating’ became, therefore, not a linear word-for-word rendering of German linguistic concepts into English, but rather an adaptation, in which terminology specific to German linguistics was eliminated and articles dealing with terminology specific to English were added. This adaptation is most apparent in the linguistic examples that illustrate many of the concepts and that were provided by the translators. contributors. and editors alike. Contributors Initially a one-woman project, the present dictionary is the collective work of some seventy European and North American linguists. The authors of the second German edition in many cases undertook revisions of their own work for this English edition. Since even the best linguists can never hope to become experts in all of the subdisciplines of linguistics, the American translators enlisted the assistance of more than two dozen North American linguists to review the translations and adaptation of the entries for accuracy and readability. All well versed and highly competent in their respective fields, the contributors to this English edition helped to adapt the translations by verifying the content, providing English-language examples, and rounding out the entries with additional bibliographical references. During the final revision of the manuscript, which took place in Munich, a second group of competent advisers provided additional editorial help with texts, bibliographies and the co-ordination of cross-references. Some of these new contributors even wrote new articles to supplement the already existing articles in their areas of specialization. Because so many people had a hand in developing, writing and revising the entries, individual names are not listed at the end of the articles. The author and editors accept responsibility for any errors. We are thankful for any corrections, additions, and other suggestions with which careful readers care to provide us. The co-ordination of these complex stages of work was for many years the exclusive domain of the translator and editor-in-chief, Gregory Trauth, who, in the face of numerous obstacles, pushed hard for the completion of the translation with unremitting patience and in constant close contact with the author. Over the years, both the author and the editor undertook many journeys across the Atlantic; indeed, the number of faxes dealing with the dictionary would probably reach across the ocean, too! Owing to professional obligations, Gregory Trauth could not, however, see the project to its end; the final version of the dictionary, therefore, was prepared in Munich by Kerstin Kazzazi. A native speaker of German and English, she undertook this task with competence and commitment in co-operation with the author, Hadumod Bussmann, and the Routledge editorial staff. Her job consisted of making the complete text uniform and consistent in style, revising content, translating a number of new articles, extending the system of cross-references, updating the bibliographies and researching all of the etymological notes from English sources. Acknowledgements The author and editors were the fortunate recipients of a great amount of support: financial, scholarly, technical and moral. Many thanks are due to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, who for two years subsidized the preparation of the expanded German edition, and to Inter Nationes, who sponsored the translation. To mention the names of all the people who contributed to this book would exceed the scope of this preface. Therefore, a list of participants and their contributions is appended to the preface. I wish to thank specifically all the German co-authors who checked, corrected and amended the adaptation of their special areas of specialization (list 1); the translators, critical readers and advisers, who, in different ways, contributed to the task of bringing the text, which was originally addressed to a German-speaking readership, into a form that meets Anglo-American expectations (list 2); the assistants in Munich, who, in the very last stages, made bibliographical emendations and/or gave (in some cases extensive) advice and made contributions in their areas of specialization (incorporated into list 3); the Routledge editorial staff, especially Jonathan Price, Wendy Morris, Alex Clark, Sarah M.Hall, Samantha Parkinson, and Jenny Potts; the editor-in-chief, Gregory Trauth, who over many years invested all of his spare time in the dictionary, and who, with competence, circumspection and organizational talent, co-ordinated the efforts of the translators and numerous contributors; and, last but not least, the co-editor Kerstin Kazzazi, who set aside her own research for the dictionary, and without whose perseverance, co-operative patience and pleasure in the work the final goal of this book would never have been attained. The motto of the German edition also applies to the present book: Such a work is actually never finished, one must call it finished when, after time and circumstances, one has done what one can. (J.W.Goethe, Journey to Italy, 16 March 1787) Hadumod Bussmann Munich, August 1995 Directory of participants 1 Contributors to the (second) German edition of the Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft Hadumod Bussmann Dr. phil., Lecturer in Germanic Linguistics; University of Munich Pertinent publications: Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft, Stuttgart, 1983 (2nd revised and completely updated version Stuttgart, 1990).—Das Genus, die Grammatik und—der Mensch: Geschlechterdifferenz in der Sprachwissenschaft. In H.Bussmann and R.Hof (eds), Genus: zur Geschlechterdifferenz in den Kulturwissenschaften, Stuttgart,1995. 114–60. Areas: basic terminology, grammar, linguistic schools, psycholinguistics, syntax. Grzegorz Dogil Professor of Experimental Phonetics; Institute of Computational Linguistics, University of Stuttgart Pertin ent publication: Autosegmental account of phonological emphasis, Edmonton, 1979. Area: phonology. Bernd Gregor Dr. phil., MBA, Vice President Interactive Services, Bertelsmann Distribution GmbH Pertinent publication: Computerfibel für Geisteswissenschaftler, ed. B.Gregor and M.Krifka, Munich, 1986. Area: computational linguistics. Christopher Habel Professor of Computer Science (Knowledge and Language Processing ); University of Hamburg Pertinent publications: Prinzipien der Referentialität, Berlin, 1986.—Stories: an artificial intelligence perspective. Poetics (1986), 15.111–25. Area: artificial intelligence. Theodor Ickler Professor of German Linguistics and German as a Foreign Language; University of Erlangen-Nuremberg Pertinent publications: Deutsch als Fremdsprache: eine Einführung in das Studium, Tübingen, 1984.—Die Disziplinierung der Sprache, Tübingen, 1996. Various articles on linguistics, language pedagogy, and language for special purposes. Areas: applied linguistics, second-language acquisition. (Also worked on the English edition with revisions and additions.) Manfred Krifka Associate Professor of Linguistics; University of Texas, Austin Pertinent publications: Zur semantischen und pragmatischen Motivation syntaktischer Regularitäten: eine Studie zu Wortstellung und Wortstellungsveränderung im Swahili, Munich, 1983.—Thematic relations as links between nominal reference and temporal constitution. In I.Sag and A.Szabolcsi (eds), Lexical Matters, Chicago, 1992. Areas: non-European languages, typology of languages. Hartmut Lauffer Dr. phil., Lecturer in Germanic Linguistics; University of Munich Areas: rhetoric, stylistics, text linguistics. (Also worked on the English edition with revisions, and additions.) Katrin Lindner Dr. phil., Lecturer in German Linguistics; University of Munich Pertinent publications: Sprachliches Handeln bei Vorschulkindern, Tübingen, 1983.— Various articles about German-learning children with specific language impairment. Areas: conversational analysis, discourse analysis, neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics. (Also worked on the English edition with translations, revisions, and additions.) Peter Rolf Lutzeier Chair in German; University of Surrey, Guildford, UK Pertinent publications: Modelltheorie für Linguisten, Tübingen, 1973.—Wort und Feld, Tübingen, 1981.—Linguistische Semantik, Stuttgart, 1985.—Major pillars of German syntax, Tübingen, 1991 (ed.)—Studies in Lexical Field Theory, Tübingen, 1993.—Lexikologie. Tübingen, 1995. Areas: semantics, logic. (Also worked on the English edition with revisions and additions.) Susan Olsen Professor of German Linguistics; University of Stuttgart Pertinent publications: Wortbildung im Deutschen, Stuttgart, 1986.—Various articles on word formation. Areas: morphology, word formation. (Also worked on the English edition with revisions and additions.) Beatrice Primus Dr. habil., Lecturer in German and Theoretical Linguistics; University of Munich Pertinent publications: Grammatische Hierarchien, München, 1987.—Syntactic relations. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook, Berlin, 1993. 686– 705. Word order and information structure. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), 880–96. Area: syntax (particularly, articles on aspect, diatheses, case, syntactic functions, models, markedness theory, relational typology, theme vs. rheme, word order). (Also worked on the English edition with revisions and additions.) Hannes Scheutz Dr. phil., Lecturer in German Linguistics; University of Salzburg Pertinent publication: Strukturen der Lautveränderung, Vienna, 1985. Areas: dialectology, language change, sociolinguistics. (Also worked on the English, edition with revisions and additions.) Wolfgang Sternefeld Associate Professor of Linguistics; University of Tübingen Pertinent publications: (In co-operation with A.von Stechow): Bausteine syntaktischen Wissens: ein Lehrbuch der generativen Grammatik, Opladen, 1988.—Syntaktische Grenzen: Chomskys Barrierentheorie und ihre Weiterentwicklungen. Opladen, 1991.— (In co-operation with G.Müller): Improper movement and unambiguous binding. Linguistic Inquiry 24 (1993), 461–507. Area: generative/transformational grammar. (Also worked on the English edition with revisions and additions.) Wolf Thümmel Professor of Linguistics; University of Osnabrück Areas: phonetics, graphemics, Slavic languages. (Also worked on the English edition with revisions and additions.) Hans Uszkoreit Professor of Computational Linguistics; University of Saarbrücken Pertinent publications: Word Order and Constituent Structure in German. (CSLI Lecture Notes 8.) Stanford, CA. 1986.—From feature bundles to abstract data types: new directions in the representation and processing of linguistic knowledge. In A.Blaser (ed.), Natural Language on the Computer, Berlin, 1988. Area: Unification Grammar. Heinz Vater Professor of Germanic Linguistics; University of Cologne Pertinent publications: Das System der Artikelformen im gegenwärtigen Deutsch, 2nd edn, Tübingen, 1979.—Dänische Subjekt-und Objektsätze, Tübingen, 1973.—Einführung in die Raumlinguistik, 2nd edn, Hürth, 1991.—Einführung in die Zeitlinguistik, 3rd edn, Hürth, 1994.—Einführung in die Textlinguistik, 2nd edn, Munich, 1994. Area: reference semantics. (Also worked on the English edition with revisions and additions.) Ulrich Wandruszka Professor of Romance Linguistics; University of Klag enfurt Pertinent publications: Probleme der neufranzösischen Wortbildung, Tübingen, 1976. Studien zur italienischen Wortstellung, Tübingen, 1982.—(With O.Gsell.) Der romanische Konjunktiv, Tübingen, 1986.—“Klassemisch” versus “Lexemisch”: zwei Grundtypen sprachlicher Strukturbildung. PzL 41 (1989), 77–100.—Zur Suffixpräferenz: Prolegomena zu einer Theorie der morphologischen Abgeschlossenheit. PzL 46 (1992), 3–27. Area: Romance languages. (Also worked on the English edition with revisions and additions.) Dietmar Zaefferer Associate Professor of German and Theoretical Linguistics; University of Munich Pertinent publications: The semantics of non/declaratives: investigating German exclamatories. In R.Bäuerle et al. (eds), Meaning, Use, and Interpretation of Language, Berlin, 1983. 466–80.—Frageausdrücke und Fragen im Deutschen: zu ihrer Syntax, Semantik und Pragmatik, Munich, 1984.—On the coding of sentential modality. In J.Bechert et al. (eds), Toward a Typology of European Languages, Berlin, 1990. 215–37. Areas: pragmatics, discourse semantics. (Also worked on the English edition with revisions and additions.) 2 Editors, contributors, translators, critical readers and advisers of the English text Hersilia Alvarez-Ruf, Ph.D. Professor of Spanish Languages; Hope College, Holland, MI Critical reader of Romance languages Helga Bister-Broosen, Ph.D. Professor of German; University of North Carolina Consultant for sociolinguistics Mary Bosker Bibliographical research William A.Corsaro, Ph.D. Professor of Sociology; Indiana University, Bloomington Critical reader and adviser for conversational analysis Lee Forester, Ph.D. Professor of German; Hope College, Holland, MI Translator: basic terminology, grammar, languages, syntax, typology of languages Judith R.Johnston, Ph.D. Professor and Director: School of Audiology and Speech Sciences, University of Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada Critical reader and adviser for neurolinguistics Kerstin Kazzazi, MA Indo-European Studies, English; Munich Editor, translator, contributor of articles, bibliographical research Tracy Holloway King, Ph.D. Visiting Research Associate Linguistics Department, Indiana University, Bloomington Critical reader and adviser for generative/transformational grammar Paul Listen, MA Bibliographical research John Nerbonne Professor of Computational Linguistics; Rijksuniversiteit Groningen Critical reader, contributor and adviser for mathematical and computational linguistics Stephen Newton, Ph.D. Lecturer of German; University of California, Berkeley Assistant editor and translator: basic terminology, Bay Area Grammar, generative/ transformational grammar, rhetoric and stylistics, text linguistics, Unification Grammar Timothy Radzykewycz, MA Critical reader and adviser for phonetics, phonology Lyon Rathbun, Ph.D. Critical reader and adviser for rhetoric, stylistics William Reynolds, Ph.D. Professor of English; Mesa State College, Grand Junction, CO Consultant for English Tom Shannon, Ph.D. Professor of Germanic Linguistics; University of California, Berkeley Critical reader and adviser for grammar, syntax H.Jay Siskin, Ph.D. Lecturer of French; Brandeis University Critical reader and adviser for applied linguistics, psycholinguistics Tiffany Stephens Bibliographical research Talbot J.Taylor, Ph.D. Professor of Linguistics; College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA Critical reader for linguistic schools Erin Thompson, BA Translator: linguistic schools, phonetics, phonology Michael Toolan, Ph.D. Professor of English; University of Washington, Seattle Critical reader for pragmatics Gregory Trauth, Ph.D. Editor-in-chief and translator: applied linguistics, artificial intelligence, computational linguistics, conversational analysis, discourse analysis, graphemics, language change, logic, morphology, neurolinguistics, phonetics, phonology, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, second-language acquisition, semantics, sociolinguistics Erwin Tschirner, Ph.D. Professor of German; University of Iowa Consultant for applied linguistics, second language acquisition Ann Von Pohl, Ph.D. Editorial assistant Roland Willemyns Universitet Brugge Consultant for sociolinguistics Adger Williams, Ph.D. Critical reader for Slavic languages Kirsten Windfuhr Editorial assistant, bibliographical research 3 Colleagues who at different times and stages of the project and to a different extent assisted and contributed to the German and/or English edition Karin Böhme-Dürr, Penny Boyes Braem, Vit Bubenik, Paola Cotticelli-Kurras, Rita Fejér, Helene Feulner, Winfried Fiedler, Hans Fromm, Monica Genesin, J.Th.M.Giesen, Heike Gläser, Wolfgang Hock, Joachim Jacobs, Corinna Jäger, MirKamaleddin Kazzazi, Suzanne Ulrich J.Lüders, Imke Mendoza, Peter-Arnold Mumm, Jochen Range, Marga Reis, Elke Ronneberger-Sibold, Wolfgang Schulze, Ariane von Seefranz, Klaus Strunk, Renate Syed, H.G.Wallbott, Stefan Weninger, Nora Wiedenmann. User instructions Basic structure of the entries The individual entries are based on the following structure: The square brackets immediately after the bold headword contain the following information: (a)Abbreviations used in linguistics for the respective term, e.g. IPA for International Phonetic Alphabet (b)Etymological remarks on loanwords. These are not to be understood as exact philological derivations; rather, they are meant to aid intuitive understanding of the formation of the respective term and are of mnemotechnical value. If several headwords are based on the same loanword, only the first receives the etymological remarks, e.g. Greek hómos ‘same’ for homogenetic, homography, homonymy, homophony, etc. Defining/explanatory text: different usages of a term are designated by 1, 2, 3; different aspects of description or structure of a certain usage are marked by (a), (b), (c) or (i), (ii), (iii); see e.g. transformational grammar and language change. Bibliographical material All references within the text of the entries are cited below the entry. In order to avoid too much repetition, some entries do not have any references, but instead a cross-reference to more general entries with comprehensive bibliographies. The bibliographies of central entries are structured into sections for general texts, bibliographies, and journals; in some, language articles, grammars, and dictionaries are also listed separately. Within the individual groups, the titles are listed in alphabetical order. The date in parentheses after the name is usually the date of first publication, with later editions following at the end of the reference. Abbreviations and symbols All rarely used abbreviations that are to be found in the text or in linguistic literature are listed on p. xxi. The list of symbols (p. xvii)—structured according to the areas linguistics, logic, and set theory—provides an overview of all symbols used in the text, as well as alternative symbolic conventions, examples and cross-references to the respective entries in which these symbols are explained or used. The abbreviations for journals used in the bibliographies are based mainly on the practice of the Bibliographie linguistique. Phonetic transcription The phonetic-phonological transcriptions of the examples are generally based on the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), as given on p. xix. Depending on the context, a ‘narrower’ or ‘broader’ transcription is used ( phonetic transcription). Historical examples are usually—if a more exact phonetic-phonological differentiation is not required—given in the (quasi-orthographical) way commonly used in historical grammars (e.g. Old High German consonant shift). List of symbols used in the book Linguistics ‹…› pointed brackets for orthographical representation, e.g. ‹top› […] square brackets for: 1 phonetic transcription, e.g. . 2 features, e.g. [+nasal] 3 domination (relation), e.g. [art+NP]NP ‘NP dominates Art+N’ ( 4 philological remarks on the headword tree diagram) /…/ slashes for phonological transcription {…} curly brackets for: morphemes, e.g. {s} for the plural in nouns 1 2 alternative rule application ( bracketing) 3 gathering of elements of a set, e.g. S={singular, plural, dual} (…) parentheses for optional elements, e.g. NP→ART+(ADJ)+N / alternative expressions: come here/soon/again + plus sign for: 1 word formation or morpheme boundaries, e.g. bed+room 2 sign for concatenation of elements, e.g. S→NP+VP 3 positive specifications in features, e.g. [+nasal] : colon for: 1 length in vowels, e.g. [a:] 2 designation of oppositions, e.g. [voiced]: [voiceless] * asterisk for: 1 an ungrammatical, inacceptable expression, e.g. *she sleep 2 a reconstructed, undocumented form, e.g. IE *ghabh-, IE root of Eng. give. → simple arrow: 1 ‘expression is decomposed into…’ ( 2 ‘implies’ ( implication) phrase structure rules) double arrow: 1 ‘expression is transformed into…’ ( transformation) 2 cross-reference to other entry in the dictionary, e.g. linguistics > pointed bracket to the right: 1 ‘becomes’, e.g. West Gmc *drankjan>Eng. drench ( 2 ‘greater than’ umlaut) < pointed bracket to the left: 1 ‘comes from’, e.g. Eng. drench<West Gmc *drankjan ( 2 ‘smaller than’ umlaut) # boundary symbol, e.g. # sentence # Logic Sign Alternative sign Designation To be read as Explanation notation Λ & conjunction ‘and’ conjunction (3) disjunction ‘or’ disjunction material implication ‘if, then’ implication (a) equivalence ‘exactly if, then’ equivalence ~, – negation ‘not’ negation (1) ╞ logical/strict implication ‘from…follows’ implication (b), (c) , (E…) existential operator ‘there is at least one element x, for which it is the case…’ operator (a) (…) universal operator ‘for all x it is the case that’ operator (b) iota operator ‘that element x, for which it is the case that’ operator (c) lambda operator ‘those xs, for which it is the case that’ operator (d) → ↔ ¬ ι ,≡ i λ □ under N necessity operator ‘it is necessary that’ implication (c) P possibility operator modal logic ‘it is possible that’ Set theory Sign Designation To be read as Explanation under {a1, a2} combination of the elements a1, a2 to a set S Ø empty set set ‘empty set’ set ε element relation ‘is an element of’ set (b) ‘is not an element of’ ∩ intersection set ‘intersects with’ set (h) \ difference set ‘minus’ set (i) subset ‘is contained in’ set (j) complement set ‘is complement of’ set (k) union set ‘united with’ set (g) P power set ‘set of all subsets’ set (l) X Cartesian product ‘set of all ordered pairs’ set (n) Card cardinal number ‘number of elements in a set’ cardinal number C The International Phonetic Alphabet List of abbreviations in the text AD after Christ (Anno Domini) BC before Christ ca circa cf. 1. compare 2. see (Author name+year) e.g. for example etc. etcetera i.e. that is mil. million vs. versus Amer. American Brit. British Bulg. Bulgarian Dan. Danish Eng. English Fr. French Ger. German Gmc. Germanic Grk Greek Heb. Hebrew IE Indo-European Ital. Italian Lat. Latin ME Middle English MFr. Middle French MHG Middle High German OCSlav Old Church Slavic OE Old English OFr. Old French OHG Old High German OInd. Old Indic PGmc. Proto-Germanic PIE Proto-Indo-European Rum. Rumanian Russ. Russian Serb. Serbo-Croatian Skt Sanskrit Slav. Slavic Span. Spanish Swed. Swedish 1. pers. 1st person 2. pers. 2nd person 3. pers. 3rd person abl. ablative acc. accusative Adj. adjective Adv. adverb approx. approximately Aux. auxiliary C consonant dat. dative DO direct object fem. feminine fut. future gen. genitive indic. indicative ins. instrumental IO indirect object irreg. irregular loc. locative masc. masculine N, NP noun, noun phrase neut. neuter nom. nominative O object Part. participle perf. perfect pl. plural Prep., PP preposition, prepositional phrase pres. present reg. regular S 1. sentence 2. subject sg. singular st. strong subj. subjunctive V vowel V, VP verb, verb phrase vcd. voiced vcls. voiceless voc. vocative wk. weak List of abbreviations in the bibliographies AA American Anthropologist ACiL Amsterdam Studies in the Theory and History of Linguistic Science AfL Afroasiatic Linguistics AI Artificial Intelligence AJCL American Journal of Computational Linguistics ALASH Acta Linguistica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae ALLC Bulletin of the Association for Literary and Linguistic Computing AmP American Psychologist AnL Anthropological Linguistics APhF Acta Philosophica Fennica AppLing Applied Linguistics APsy Applied Psycholinguistics ARAL Annual Review of Applied Linguistics ArchL Archivum Linguisticum AS American Speech ASNS Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Literaturen AÜ Afrika und Übersee B&L Brain and Language BSci Behavioral Science BSLP Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris CCrit Comparative Criticism CD Child Development CdL Cahiers de Lexicologie CJL Canadian Journal of Linguistics CL Computational Linguistics ClassQ The Classical Quarterly CLS Chicago Linguistics Society CLTT Child Language Teaching and Therapy CMLR Canadian Modern Language Review COLING Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational Linguistics CPsy Cognitive Psychology CSc Cognitive Science CTL Current Trends in Linguistics DaF Deutsch als Fremdsprache DAI Dissertation Abstracts International DPr Discourse Processes DRLAV Documentation et Recherche en Linguistique Allemande Contemporaine Vincennes DSp Deutsche Sprache ELT English Literature in Transition ES English Studies FL Foundations of Language FolH Folia Linguistica Historia FoLi Folia Linguistica GAGL Groninger Arbeiten zur Germanistischen Linguistik GJP German Journal of Psychology GQ German Quarterly GRM Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift GURT Georgetown University Roundtable on Language and Linguistics HS Historische Sprachforschung/Historical Linguistics (formerly ZVS) IC Information and Control IF Indogermanische Forschungen IJAL International Journal of American Linguistics IJDL International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics IJSL International Journal of the Sociology of Language IndLing Indian Linguistics IRAL International Review of Applied Linguistics IULC Indiana University Linguistics Club JanL Janua linguarum JIdS Jahrbuch des Instituts für Deutsche Sprache JC Journal of Communications JChL Journal of Child Language JEngL Journal of English Linguistics JeP Journal of Experimental Psychology JL Journal of Linguistics JLS Journal of Literary Semantics JLSP Journal of Language and Social Psychology JMemL Journal of Memory and Language JP Journal of Philosophy JPhon Journal of Phonetics JPL Journal of Philosophical Logic JPrag Journal of Pragmatics JPSP Journal of Personality and Social Psychology JPsyR Journal of Psycholinguistic Research JSem Journal of Semantics JSHD Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders JSL Journal of Symbolic Logic JVLVB Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior LALIES Actes des Sessions de Linguistiques et de Littérature L&P Literature and Psychology L&S Language and Speech LangR Language Research LangS Language Sciences LB Leuvense Bijdragen LDDS Linguistic Data on Diskette Service (Lincom Europa, Munich) LeS Lingua e Stile Lg Language LI Lettere Italiane Ling Linguistica Ling&P Linguistics and Philosophy LingA Linguistic Analysis LingB Linguistische Berichte LingI Linguistic Inquiry LIS Linguisticae Investigationes LRev The Linguistic Review LSoc Language in Society LSt Linguistische Studien MLJ The Modern Language Journal MPh Modern Philology MRCD Monographs of the Society for the Research in Child Development MSS Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft Nku Naamkunde NL&LT Natural Language & Linguistic Theory NLH New Literary History NLing Notes on Linguistics NRun Nyttom runer OcL Oceanic Linguistics PAPS Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society PBB (H) Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur (Halle) PBB (T) Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur (Tübingen) PBLS Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society PCLS Papers from the Regional Meeting of the Chicago Linguistics Society PhQ The Philosophical Quarterly PhR Philosophical Review PhS Philosophical Studies PICHOLS Proceedings of the International Conference on the History of the Language Sciences PICHL Proceedings from the International Congress on Historical Linguistics PICL Proceedings of the International Congress of Linguists PIL Papers in Linguistics PJL Philippine Journal of Linguistics PL Pacific Linguistics PMS Perceptual and Motor Skills PPR Philosophy and Phenomenological Research PSCL Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics PsyB Psychological Bulletin PsychologR Psychological Review PY Phonology Yearbook PzL Papiere zur Linguistik RLiR Revue de Linguistique Romane S&S Syntax and Semantics SAL Studies in African Linguistics SAQ South African Quarterly SBL Salzburger Beiträge zur Linguistik SFQ Southern Folklore Quarterly SiL Studies in Linguistics SLang Studies in Language SLSc Studies in the Linguistic Sciences SPh Studia Phonetica Sprache Die Sprache Sprachwiss Sprachwissenschaft Stgr Studia Grammatica StL Studium Linguistik TCLC Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague TCLP Travaux du Cercle Linguistique de Prague TL Theoretical Linguistics TLP Travaux Linguistiques de Prague (Continuation of TCLP) TPS Transactions of the Philological Society UCCPh University of California Publications in Philosophy UCPL University of California Papers in Linguistics WZUG Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Ernst Moritz ArndtUniversität Greifswald ZFSL Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur ZG Zeitschrift für Germanistik ZGL Zeitschrift für Germanistische Linguistik ZM Zeitschrift für (Hoch) deutsche Mundarten ZMF Zeitschrift für Mundartforschung ZPhK Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik ZPSK Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung ZS Zeitschrift für Sprachwissenschaft ZSem Zeitschrift für Semiotik ZVS Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft (now: HS= Historische Sprachforschung/ Historical Linguistics) A Abaza North-West Caucasian abbreviation [Lat. brevis ‘short’] 1 (also acronym) In the broad sense of the word, the process and result of word formation in which the first letters or syllables of word groups are written and pronounced as words. Abbreviations can be categorized as follows: (a) those pronounced as individual letters, for example USA (‘U—S—A’), VW (‘V—W’), e.g. (‘E—G’); (b) those pronounced as syllable groups, for example, NATO (‘NA—TO’=North Atlantic Treaty Organization), ENIAC (‘EN—I—AC’= electronic numerical integrator and computer), ASCII (‘AS—CII’=American standard code for information interchange); and (c) those whose initials virtually create a new word, for example, AIDS (=acquired immune deficiency syndrome), RAM (=random access memory). Abbreviations are a very productive source of new vocabulary ( neologism, nonce word), as seen almost daily in the media by the coining of new words, for example, dink (=double income/no kids) and nimby (=not in my backyard); some abbreviations are themselves based in part on already existing abbreviations, for example, ACT-UP (= AIDS coalition to unleash power); yuppie (= young urban professional)>buppie (=black urban professional) and>guppie (=gay urban professional). 2 In the narrow sense of the word, a short form which may or may not become lexicalized (e.g. prof<professor, telly<television). ( also clipping) References Geisler, H. 1994. ‘Che fine fanno i BOT?’ Anmerkungen zur Akronymenbildung im Italienischen. In A.Sabban and C.Schmitt (eds), Sprachlicher Alltag: Linguistik-Rhetorik-Literaturwissenschaft. Festschrift für Wolf-Dieter Stempel. Tübingen. 97–120. Jung, U.O.H. 1987. ‘Nemini parcetur’. Morphological aspects of acronyms in English and German: a contrastive analysis. In Perspectives on language performance: studies in linguistics, literary criticism and language teaching and learning. To honour W.Hüllen on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday. Tübingen. 148–58. Dictionary of language and linguistics 2 Kilani-Schoch, M. 1995. Syllable and foot in French clipping. In B.Hurch and R.Rhodes (eds), Natural phonology: the state of the art. Berlin. 135–52. Kobler-Trill, R. 1994. Das Kurzwort im Deutschen. Tübingen. Marchand, H. 1960. The categories and types of present-day English word-formation. Munich. (2nd edn 1969.) McCully, C.B. and M.Holmes. 1988. Some notes on the structure of acronyms. Lingua 4. 27–43. Menzel, H.B. 1983. Abkürzungen im heutigen Französisch. Rheinfelden. Ronneberger-Sibold, E. 1995. Preferred sound shape of new roots: on some phonotactic and prosodic properties of shortenings in German and French. In B.Hurch and R.Rhodes (eds), Natural phonology: the state of the art. Berlin. 261–92. Ungerer, F. 1991. Acronyms, trade names and motivation. Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik 16. 131–58. Dictionary The Oxford dictionary of abbreviations. 1992. Oxford. word formation Abkhaz North-West Caucasian Abkhazi-Adyge North-West Caucasian ablative [Lat. ablatus ‘carried away,’ (past part. of) ferre ‘to carry’] Morphological case in certain languages (e.g. Latin, Hungarian) which indicates various types of adverbial relations, such as manner (Lat. pedibusīre ‘to go on foot’), separation (Hung. levéltól ‘away from the letter’), and time (Lat. hieme ‘in the winter’). References case A-Z 3 ablative absolute Syntactic construction in Latin for abbreviating subordinate clauses. The ablative absolute is not valence-bound (and is thus ‘absolute’) and consists of a noun in the ablative case as well as an attributive participle, noun or adjective which is dependent on it: Tarquinio regnante ‘when Tarquinius was king’ or ‘during the reign of Tarquinius’; trānquillo mari ‘during calm at sea.’ ( also case) References case ablaut (also apophony, vowel gradation) German term for a systematic morphophonemic alternation ( morphophonemics) of certain vowels in etymologically related words in Indo-European languages. The term has been used in this sense since Grimm (1819). Prior to that, it had been used pejoratively for any kind of vowel irregularity. (The Greek term ‘apophony,’ used in ‘tone.’) some languages, is a loan translation of Grimm’s term: apó ‘away from,’ Originally, ablaut was purely phonetic-phonological; it was later morphologized ( morphologization), especially in Germanic, where ablaut indicates tense differences in the inflection of strong verbs ( strong vs weak verb), e.g. sing—sang—sung or other processes of word formation, e.g. song. Depending on the type of vowel alternation, one can distinguish between the following: (a) Qualitative ablaut (also ‘Abtönung’), in which there is a change from e (in a few cases also from a) to o, cf. Greek phér-ō ‘I bear, carry’: phor-éō ‘I carry repeatedly’ ( iterative): am(phi)-phor-eús ‘vessel with two handles for carrying,’ which all go back to a common IE root *bher- ‘to bear, carry.’ (b) Quantitative ablaut (also ‘Abstufung’), in which an alternation of the short vowels mentioned (full grade) with the respective long vowels (lengthened grade) or an ‘thief,’ lit. ‘one who elimination of the short vowels (zero grade) occurs; cf. Grk carries something off (lengthened grade), Sanskrit bhr-tí ‘bearing, carrying’ (zero grade). It is hypothesized that this system is the descendant of a previous system of different rules of stress2, in force at different times. It is assumed that qualitative ablaut results from a musical stress, quantitative ablaut from a dynamic stress. The order of the different types of ablaut into ablaut classes that is to be found in historical grammars of the Germanic languages is based not on phonological, but rather on morphological regularities that can be explained from the different consonantal environments of the vowels undergoing ablaut; they can be observed most clearly in the conjugational classes of the Germanic strong verbs. As a rule, the ablaut classes are Dictionary of language and linguistics 4 indicated by the stem forms of the strong verb (infinitive, preterite singular and plural, past participle). The order and number of the ablaut classes depends on which consonant or resonant follows the vowel undergoing ablaut. On details of the different historical stages historical grammars. References Coetsem, F.van. 1990. Ablaut and reduplication in the Germanic verb. Heidelberg. Fulk, R.D. 1986. The origins of Indo-European quantitative ablaut. Innsbruck. Grimm, J. 1819–37. Deutsche Grammatik, 4 parts. Göttingen. (Facsimile printing of the 2nd edn of Berlin 1870–8. Hildesheim 1967.) Lindeman, F.O. 1988. Introduction to the ‘Laryngeal theory.’ Oxford. Indo-European, laryngeal theory abrupt onset of voicing abruptive glottalization ejective absolute Valence-independent occurrence of a case that is not integrated into the sentence structure, for example, ablative absolute in Latin, the accusative absolute in French (La nuit tombée, elle chercha un hôtel ‘When night had fallen, she looked for a hotel’) or the absolute nominative. References case A-Z 5 absolute antonymy Good vs bad, in contrast to excellent vs bad, are absolute antonyms since they are more or less equidistant from the midpoint on a scale of antonymy. Reference Lehrer, A. and K.Lehrer. 1982. Antonymy. Ling&P 5. 483–501. absolute nominative Term from stylistics for a special form of prolepsis. The absolute nominative is a nominal expression in the nominative case which occurs initially in a sentence and is referred to in the main clause by a pronoun or pronominal adverbial (e.g. All those lost years, she didn’t want to think about them). The absolute nominative is a special case of left dislocation. ( also dislocation, left vs right dislocation) References stylistics absolute vs relative verbs This distinction refers to the property of verbs to be used either with (=relative) or without (= absolute) complements (to give, to love vs to sleep, to bloom). In the absolute use of relative verbs the object is either understood from the context or is considered obvious due to the collocation (e.g. to deal [cards]). ( also government, valence) Dictionary of language and linguistics absolute superlative 6 degree absolutive Morphological case in ergative languages for indicating the subject of intransitive verbs and the object of transitive verbs. The absolutive can be considered the primary syntactic func-tion of this language type. Like the nominative case in nominative languages, this case usually has a zero form. References case, ergative language absolutive language ergative language abstract noun [Lat. abstractus ‘dragged away, separated from’] In contrast to concrete nouns, abstracts form a semantically defined class of nouns that denote concepts (psyche), characteristics (laziness), relationships (kinship), institutions (marriage), etc., but not persons, objects, substances, or the like. abstractness controversy In generative phonology, the question of how far removed from the surface form (=the actually realized form), i.e. how abstract, the underlying form should be. A-Z 7 References Fujimura, O. (ed.) 1973. Three dimensions of linguistic theory. Tokyo. 5–56. Gussmann, E. 1980. Studies in abstract phonology. Cambridge, MA. Kiparsky, P. 1968. How abstract is phonology? Bloomington, IN. Sommerstein, A.H. 1977. Modern phonology. London. 211–25. Abstufung ablaut Abtönung ablaut accent [Lat. accentus, from ad-cantus ‘that which is sung (together with)’] stress2 2 Diacritic marking stress, tone, or other phonetic modifications e.g. acute ‹ ́›, grave ‹ ̀›, circumflex ‹~› or ‹ˆ›. 3 Idiosyncratic pronunciation of a foreign language, especially due to the articulatory also applied linguistics, or phonotactic characteristics of one’s native language. ( articulatory phonetics, phonotactics) 1 References phonetics, phonology acceptability A term from Chomsky (1965) for the acceptability of expressions in natural languages reflecting the view of the participant in communication, not the grammarian ( grammaticality). The question of acceptability concerns performance whereas grammaticality is an issue of competence ( competence vs performance). Acceptability is a relative term, i.e. an expression is deemed more or less acceptable Dictionary of language and linguistics 8 according to the context. There are various criteria for determining non-acceptability: (a) ungrammaticality; (b) complex sentence structure involving repeated encapsulating or self-embedding constructions; (c) semantic contradiction; (d) untruth in an expression as it relates to a situation; (e) an expression that cannot be interpreted because of missing reference or a differing knowledge of the world; (f) stylistic incompatibility. Since acceptability depends heavily on the limits of short-term memory, acceptability can be tested psycholinguistically. References Bever, I.G., J.J.Katz, and D.T.Langendoen (eds) 1976. An integrated theory of linguistic ability. Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Greenbaum, S. 1977. Acceptability in language. The Hague. Quirk, R. and J.Svartvik 1966. Investigating linguistic acceptability. London and The Hague. grammaticality accessibility hierarchy universal hierarchy accidence Property of linguistic expressions (based on Aristotelian categories) whose ‘essential’ fundamental forms can appear in different ‘accidental’ inflectional forms. Nouns are subject to case and number, verbs to tense, mood, and voice. ( also inflection) accomplishment resultative accusative [Lat. accusare ‘to blame’; faulty ‘(case) of that translation of Grk caused’] (also objective) A-Z 9 Morphological case in nominative languages such as German or Latin. Noun phrases in the accusative case generally function syntactically as a direct object (Ger. Er liest ein Buch ‘He is reading a book’). The accusative case can also serve to indicate adverbial functions and/or relations (Ger. den ganzen Tag lachen ‘to laugh all day’), or predicative complements (Ger. Sie schimpft ihn einen Dummkopf ‘She calls him an idiot’). In addition, the accusative also occurs after certain prepositions (Ger. gegen ‘against,’ Lat. cognate object) in which the ante ‘before’). There can also be cognate accusatives ( semantic content of the verb is repeated by a nominal element in the accusative case (e.g. to dream a dream). References Moravcsik, E.A. 1978. Case marking of objects. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. Vol. 4, 250–89. case, direct object accusative language nominative language accusative plus infinitive construction (also subject to object raising) Syntactic construction consisting of an accusative object and a verb in the infinitive which occurs with verbs of saying and perception (I heard him sing) as well as causatives (e.g. to have: The judge had the defendant come forward; to let: The policeman let him go). This type of construction is often analyzed as two underlying sentences with the accusative functioning both as the underlying subject of the infinitive as well as the object of the dominant verb. In the framework of transformational grammar this analysis is called raising. Causative constructions are handled in a similar way, for example, in Japanese. References Bech, G. 1955–7. Studien über das deutsche Verbum infinitum, 2 vols. Copenhagen. (Repr. Tübingen 1983.) Harbert, W. 1977. Clause union and the German accusative plus infinitive constructions. In P.Cole and J.M.Sadock (eds), Grammatical relations. New York. 121–50. McKay, T. 1985. Infinitival complements in German: lassen, scheinen and the verbs of perception. Cambridge. Dictionary of language and linguistics 10 accusativization Valence change occurring in many languages in which an object in another case (dative, genitive) or a prepositional object alternates with an accusative or a direct object: Ger. Er kocht ihr/ für sie ‘He cooks for her’ (dative/prepositional phrase) vs Er bekocht sie ‘He cooks for her’ (accusative). ( also applicative) References Chung, S. 1976. An object-creating rule in Bahasa Indonesia. LingI 7. 41–89. Comrie, B. 1985. Causative verb formation and other verb-deriving morphology. In T.Shopen (ed.), Language typology and syntactic description. Cambridge, Vol. 3, 309–48. Moravcsik, E.A. 1978. Case marking of objects. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. Vol. 4, 250–89. Plank, F. (ed.) 1984. Objects: towards a theory of grammatical relations. London. Achi Mayan languages achievement punctual resultative achievement test language test acoustic agnosia acoustic allesthesia agnosia agnosia A-Z 11 acoustic analysis Generally, the analysis of acoustic characteristics (such as amplitude, quantity, and frequency) by means of electronic instruments. acoustic phonetics acoustic cue Any of the linguistically redundant components of acoustic features used to aid the perception of spoken language. Their characteristics and structure are studied with regard to the development of techniques for speech recognition and speech synthesis. ( also distinctive feature) Reference Delattre, P. 1968. From acoustic cues to distinctive features. Phonetica 18. 198–230. acoustic image (also sound image) In de Saussure’s linguistic framework, a psychologically motivated asp ect of the linguistic sign consisting of a sound and an associated concept. In Noreen’s linguistic framework, the acoustic image corresponds to the concept of morpheme ( signifier vs signified). References Noreen, A. 1903–. Vårt språk. Nysvensk grammatik i sign framställning. Lund. Dictionary of language and linguistics 12 acoustic phonetics Branch of general phonetics that investigates the physical properties of the acoustic structure of speech sounds according to frequency (pitch), quantity (duration), and intensity (spectrum). After 1930, acoustic phonetics advanced (a) through the use of electric, then later electronic, machines of great precision that could produce, intensify, transfer, store, and reproduce speech sounds and (b) through the expanded utility of speech synthesis (speech recognition) especially in computational linguistics. Signal phonetics is a branch of acoustic phonetics that predominantly investigates the phonetic signal. Many recent phonological investigations make extensive use of the concepts and terminology of acoustic phonetics. References Jakobson, R., G.G.M.Fant and M.Halle. 1952. Preliminaries to speech analysis: the distinctive features and their correlates. Cambridge, MA. Ladefoged, P. 1962. Elements of acoustic phonetics. Chicago. ——1975. A course in phonetics. New York. 3rd edn 1993. Lieberman, P. and S.E.Blumstein. 1988. Speech physiology, speech perception, and acoustic phonetics. Cambridge. O’Shaughnessy, D. 1990. Speech communication, human and machine. Reading, MA. phonetics acquired dyslexia alexia acquired language disorder disorder language acquisition/learning hypothesis approach natural A-Z 13 acrolect Term introduced by Bickerton (1975) to designate the local variety of standard English found in creole societies. An acrolect is distinguished from the basilect, i.e. the pure creole language, and from the mesolect, a transitional variety of language between the two. ( also pidgin, creole) Reference Bickerton, D. 1975 The dynamics of a creole system. Cambridge. acronym abbreviation1 acrophone (also phonetic acronym) Abbreviations that are pronounced as words rather than as a series of letters. For example, in Eng. AIDS [eidz] for acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Acrophones are commonly found in many other European languages: cf. Span. and Fr. SIDA [sida] (‘AIDS’). References abbreviation acrophony Process of inventing and naming alphabetical writing systems from syllabic pictographs ( pictography); the alphabetic symbols for sounds refer to the phonetic value of the first syllable of the original word to which the pictogram refers. ( also graphemics) Dictionary of language and linguistics 14 References graphemics, writing actant dependency grammar ACTFL proficiency guidelines proficiency action-denoting verb verb of action active 1 active voice 2 as an aspect category stative vs dynamic active articulator articulator active language Language type according to relational typology which contrasts with nominative languages and ergative languages. Assuming that in simple sentences the categories transitive and intransitive ( transitivity) and the semantic roles agent and patient are the most important, this language type can be described as follows: the agent of an intransitive verb is expressed in the same way as the agent of a transitive verb, and differently from the patient of an intransitive or transitive verb. The patient is also expressed in the same way in both intransitive and transitive clauses. This yields a split in A-Z 15 the coding of intransitive clauses in active languages that has been described as split intransitivity (Dixon 1979; Merlan 1 985). This situation can be represented as follows: In contrast to this, the following distribution is found in nominative languages: An example from Eastern Pomo: há ce.xelka ‘I’m slipping (unintentionally)’ vs wí ce.xelka ‘I’m slipping/sliding (intentionally).’ The semantic distinction underlying active coding differs somewhat from language to language: volitional vs non-volitional participant, active vs stative verb (see Van Valin 1990; Mithun 1991; Primus 1994). Some North American Indian languages (e.g. Dakota), as well as Lhasa-Tibetan and Guaraní are active languages. The tendency to encode the sole argument of intransitive verbs differently is marginally present in other languages, as in German, where with some intransitive statal verbs the entity experiencing the state is in the accusative or dative case: Mich friert ‘It freezes me (acc.),’ i.e. ‘It’s cold,’ or Mir ist angst ‘(To) me (dat.) is fear,’ i.e. ‘I’m afraid.’ In intransitive action verbs, however, the agent is in the nominative (Ich arbeite ‘I’m working’). In contrast to German, the opposition activeinactive is dominant in active languages. References Delancey, S. 1985. On active typology and the nature of agentivity. In F.Plank (ed.), Relational typology. Berlin, 47–60. Dixon, R.M.W. 1979. Ergativity. Lg 55. 59–138. Klimov, G.A. 1974. On the character of active languages. Linguistics 131. 11–23. ——1977. Typoplogija jazykov aktivnogo stroja. Moscow. Lazard, G. 1986. Le type linguistique dit ‘actif’: reflexions sur une typologie globale. FoLi 20. 87– 108. Merlan, F. 1985. Split intransitivity: functional oppositions in intransitive inflection. In J.Nichols and A.C.Woodbury (eds), Grammar inside and outside the clause. Cambridge. 324–62. Mithun, M. 1991. Active/agentive case marking and its motivations. Lg 67. 510–46. Nichols, J. 1990. Some preconditions and typical traits of stative-active language type. In W.P. Lehmann (ed.), Language typology 1987. Systematic balance in language. Amsterdam. 95–114. Primus, B. 1994. Relational typology. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. Vol. 2 1076–109. Van Valin, R.D. 1990. Semantic parameters of split intransitivity. Lg 66. 221–60. Dictionary of language and linguistics 16 active voice Verbal voice which contrasts with passive and middle voice in nominative languages. The active voice generally expresses the agent as the subject of a sentence and is considered the unmarked form, since it generally has no restrictions, appears with all verbs, and is morphologically the simplest construction. References voice actor-action-model Term in Bloomfield’s sentence analysis used to indicate the most common basic type of complete sentence found in most Indo-European languages whose minimal form consists of the constituent denoting the performer of the action (actor, agent) and the constituent denoting the action carried out by the actor: Louise (agent) plays the flute (action). Reference Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. acute accent [Lat. acer ‘sharp’] 1 Superscript diacritic serving several purposes. It indicates length in Czech, Hungarian, and Old Icelandic (e.g. á for [a:]). In modern Icelandic it is used as a transcription of the sounds corresponding to the old long vowels, e.g. á for [aυ]. In French a distinction is drawn between é for [e] and è for [ε]. In Spanish the acute accent is used to mark syllable stress as, for example, in filosófico (‘philosophic’) and to distinguish graphemically between homonyms, cf. qué (‘what’) vs que (‘that’); similarly, some Russian texts use the acute accent for marking syllable stress. The acute accent is also used to mark tones as, for example, the long rising tone in Serbo-Croatian and rising tone in the Latinized Pīnyīn writing system of Chinese. Examples of other uses: in , and respectively; in Dutch for word stress x staat vóór y Polish: ń, ś, ź for A-Z 17 (‘x comes before y’); in Greenlandic spelling, acute accent on a vowel indicates that the also graphemics, writing) following consonant is long. ( 2 accent2 3 In comparative linguistics, term for a stress of two morae ( mora, law of three morae). grave vs acute 4 grave vs acute1 5 As a distinctive feature Adamawa-Eastern Adamawa-Ubangi Adamawa-Ubangi (also Adamawa-Eastern) Language branch of the Niger-Congo family with approximately 160 languages concentrated near the center of the African continent. These languages are generally divided into two main groups, Adamawa and Ubangian (Eastern). They have not yet been closely studied. The most important member of this family is Sango, which functions as a trade language for the central African republic. References Samarin, W.J. 1971. Adamawa-Eastern. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics, The Hague. Vol. 7, 213–44. Schimizu, K. 1983. The Zing dialect of Mumuye. Hamburg. adessive [Lat. adesse ‘at’+‘to be’] Morphological case in some languages (e.g. Finnish) which expresses the location of an object. The adessive is often used to express ownership or instrumental use. Dictionary of language and linguistics 18 adhortative [Lat. adhortativus ‘encouraging, urging on’] Subcategory of verbal mood, especially of the subjunctive. The adhortative designates a first person plural imperative of joint action. In most Indo-European languages, the adhortative does not have a special paradigm, but is expressed by the first person plural subjunctive, cf. Let’s go; Fr. Soyons amis ‘Let’s be friends.’ References Cole, P. 1975. The synchronic and diachronic status of conversational implicature. In P.Cole and J.L. Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts, New York. 257–88. modality adjacency pair [Lat. adiacens ‘lying beside, neighboring’] Coined by Sacks and Schegloff, the term refers to a particular instantiation of the turn-bysequential organization, turn). It is the turn organization of conversations ( affiliation of two utterance types into a pair type, where, upon production of the first pair part by the current speaker, the production of the second pair part by the addressee is relevant or expectable ( conditional relevance). Such adjacency pairs are, for example, greeting—greeting or question—answer. First pair parts have identifiable, conventional properties, such as syntactic devices and sequential positioning (cf. Schegloff 1984). The second pair part can be identified primarily by its position, which is implied sequentially by the occurrence of the first pair part, that is, the second pair part is understood in regard to how it relates to the first pair part. Deviations offer evidence for this ‘normative requirement’ (Heritage 1984:262f.). If a second pair part fails to occur, its absence will be noticed: (a) the first pair part will be repeated until the second is provided; or (b) the absence of the second will be accounted for (e.g. ‘I don’t know’) preserving the normative framework of the adjacency-pair format; or (c) the delay of the second will be accounted for, for example, where another adjacency pair is inserted to supply the necessary information for the production of the second pair part: Q1 S: What color do you think you want? Q2 C: Do they just come in one solid color? A2 S: No. They’re black, blue, red, orange, light blue, dark blue, gray, green, tan [pause], black. A1 C: Well, gimme a dark blue one, I guess. A-Z 19 (Merritt 1976:333) Additional evidence is provided by adjacency pairs with preferred second parts ( preference). ( also discourse analysis) References Heritage, J. 1984. Garfinkel and ethnomethodology. Cambridge. Levinson, S. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge. Merritt, M. 1976. On questions following answers in service encounters. LSoc 5. 315–57. Schegloff, E. 1968. Sequencing in conversational openings. AA 70.1075–95. (Repr. in J.J.Gumperz and D.Hymes (eds), Directions in sociolinguistics. New York. 346–80.) ——1984. On some questions and ambiguities. In J.M.Atkinson and J.Heritage (eds), Structures of social action. Cambridge. 28–52. Schegloff, E. and H.Sacks. 1973. Opening and closing. Semiotica 8. 289–327. conversation analysis adjectival adverb Adjective used adverbially (e.g. Caroline reads fast vs the fast reader). Adjectival adverbs have comparative and superlative forms like adjectives (e.g. Caroline reads the fastest of all), while pure adverbs do not (e.g. here, today). adjective [Lat. trans. of Grk epítheton ‘that which is added’] Grammatical category (part of speech) that is used attributively with nouns (a white fence) or is governed by a copular verb (The fence is white). In some languages, adjectives may also exhibit valence (e.g. Ger. sicher sein+gen. ‘to be sure of [something]’), be subject to agreement (gender, number, case), and/or have comparative and superlative forms (degree). In German and other Germanic languages, such as Old English, there is a distinction between strong (also: pronominal) and weak (also: nominal) inflection of adjectives. The use of the different types of inflection corresponds to the principle of ‘mono-inflectional co-operation,’ that is, the strong (determining) form is used whenever the syntactic form of the noun phrase that is modified by the adjective is not marked by any other (pronominal) elements, such as the article, or by gender: Ger. grüner Apfel ‘green apple’ vs der grüne Apfel ‘the green Dictionary of language and linguistics 20 apple’; OE ‘good king’ vs se eorl ‘the good earl.’ Syntactically speaking, they can be used predicatively or attributively, but not all adjectives can necessarily fulfill both of these latter functions: There are adjectives which can be used (a) attributively as well as predicatively (red, big, new), but are not gradable (dead, single) or (b) only attributively (the former president vs *The president is former). There is a certain semantic similarity between adjectives and adverbs (e.g. to write legibly. a legible hand); both parts of speech modify the element they are connected to (noun, verb) with respect to particular characteristics. If this characterization is implicitly or explicitly based on a certain norm (as in big, small, thick), one speaks of relative or relational adjectives. For numeric adjectives, numerals. For hierarchies between various adjectives, cf. Posner (1980). References Bartsch, R. and T.Vennemann. 1972. Semantic structures: a study in the relation between semantics and syntax. Frankfurt. (2nd edn 1973). Bhat, D.N.S. 1994. The adjectival category. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Bierwisch, M. 1967. Some semantic universals of German adjectivals. FL 3. 1–36. Bierwisch, M. and E.Lang (eds). 1989. Dimensional adjectives: grammatical structure and conceptual interpretation. Berlin. Bolinger, D.L. 1967. Adjectives in English. Lingua 18. 1–34. Ferris, C. 1993. The meaning of syntax: a study in the adjectives of English. London. Hellan, L. 1981. Towards an integrated analysis of comparatives. Tübingen. Posner, R. 1980. Ikonismus in der Syntax: zur natürlichen Stellung der Attribute. ZSem 2. 57–82. Rusiecki, J. 1985. Adjectives and comparison in English. London. Schachter, P. 1985. Parts-of-speech systems. In T. Shopen (ed.), Language typology and syntactic description. Cambridge. Vol. 1, 3–63. Vendler, Z. 1968. Adjectives and nominalizations. The Hague. Warren, B. 1994. Classifying adjectives. Göteborg. adjective phrase Syntactic category ( phrase) which has an adjective as its head and which can be modified by an adverb of degree (really small, fairly bright, very beautiful) or a complement (tired of war, proud of an achievement). A-Z 21 References adjective adjunct [Lat. adiungere ‘to connect, to add’] Linguistic expression used attributively which semantically specifies either a preceding or a following element. This can be either restrictive through the use of an article, pronoun, relative clause, and the like (that/my book; the book that he is reading right now) or qualitative (an unusual book; that book over there). In contrast to complements, adjuncts are not grammatically required, that is, they are free adjuncts. ( also attribute) adjunction 1 In transformational grammar, an elementary syntactic operation through which constituents, after having been removed from their position in the deep structure, are inserted into a different position in the surface structure; they are linked to the tree diagram of the surface structure by an additional branch. ( also transformation, Chomskyadjunction) 2 A synonym for disjunction in formal logic. adsentential sentence adverbial adstratum [Lat. stratum ‘layer’] A type of interference in which two languages come in contact or mix with each other. Adstratum refers to the mutual influence of two neighboring languages on each other over a period of time. The contact of Flemish and French in Belgium represents such a situation. ( also substratum, superstratum) Dictionary of language and linguistics 22 References language contact adverb [Lat. ad-verbum ‘belonging to the verb’] Grammatical category (part of speech) that serves to modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and whole clauses semantically. Adverbs cannot be declined ( declension) and thus are often grouped with prepositions and conjunctions as a subgroup of particles. Adverbs form a very heterogeneous group, containing numerous overlappings with other parts of speech, which is why they can be classified grammatically in a variety of ways. The following divisions can be made according to the particular classification of an adverb. (a) Syntactically, a distinction is made between adverbs which occur freely (evenings, downhill, gladly) and so-called ‘pronominal adverbs’ (whereof, wherein, hereby), which appear as pro-forms of prepositional phrases or adverbials. With regard to use, a distinction is usually drawn between adverbs which can be used both adverbially and attributively (The book is here vs this book here) and those which can be used only adverbially (They work quickly). Sentence adverbs (such as hopefully, maybe, probably) form a special class which can be used adsententially ( sentence adverbial), that is, which constitute speaker judgments about the whole statement. (b) Semantically, there are groups with temporal (now, afterwards, yesterday), spatial (here, inside, there), modal (gladly, reluctantly), and causal (correspondingly, regardless, notwithstanding) meaning, or which show degree (very, somewhat). (c) Morphologically, adverbs can be classified as pure adverbs (soon, now), compound adverbs (forthwith, henceforth), and derived adverbs (skyward, completely). References adverbial adverbial Collective term for several syntactic functions with various semantic realizations: an adverbial characterizes a verbal action, process, or state of affairs with respect to time, place, kind, manner, etc. These semantic functions correspond to the classification in school grammar of temporal, spatial, modal, causal, conditional, and consecutive A-Z 23 adverbs. In English, there are three major classifications: (a) valence-dependent adverbials which certain verbs require, e.g. to inhabit+spatial adverbial, to feel+modal adverbial, to go+directional adverbial; (b) valence-independent adverbials, such as modal adverbials that can occur with verbs of motion (Louise runs/drives/swims pretty fast); (c) valence-independent adverbials which do not impose any selectional restrictions (Philip is working/relaxing/singing/ meditating in the backyard). Adverbials from groups (a) and (b) are complements, while those in group (c) are free adjuncts. All these adverbials are dominated by the VP, while sentence adverbials (Hopefully/Most likely/ Luckily he will come today) have the sentence as their scope. Various grammatical categories (parts of speech) can serve as adverbials: adverbs (today, there), adjectives (beautiful, new), pronominal adverbs (therein, hereafter), prepositional phrases (on the table), noun phrases (one morning), as well as adverbial clauses (He followed her wherever she went). References Cresswell, M.J. 1985. Adverbial modification. Dordrecht. Rappaport, G.C. 1984. Grammatical function and syntactic structure. Columbus, OH. Thompson, S.A. and R.E.Longacre. 1985. Adverbial clauses. In T.Shopen (ed.), Language typology and syntactic description. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 171–234. Bibliographies Sabourin, C. 1977. Adverbs and comparatives: an analytical bibliography. Amsterdam. Siegrist, L. 1976. Bibliographie zu Studien über das deutsche und englische Adverbial. Tübingen. grammatical category, parts of speech, sentence adverbial, syntactic function advertising language A persuasive use of language aimed at influencing people’s behavior in politics, business, and especially in consumption. Pragmatic features of advertising language include its persuasive intention, its communicative distance to various addressees, and its distinctive use of certain expressions such as elliptical comparatives (25 percent less car—than what?), complex comparatives (More car for less money), and adjectivizations (meaty taste). Owing to its characteristic register, advertising language is readily recognizable as such by consumers. Advertising language is innovative (e.g. in the formation of new words) on the one hand and functions as a means of language distribution between different language groups (technical language becoming standard language). On the other hand, it confirms and reinforces existing social norms and social stereotypes ( topos). The extent to which it is effective in its persuasive goals is the subject of investigation in semiotics (e.g. visual advertising, sociology, and psychology). Dictionary of language and linguistics 24 References Cook, G. 1992. The discourse of advertising. London. Cumberbatch, G. et al. 1989. A measure of uncertainty: the effects of the mass media. London. Geis, M. 1982. The language of television advertising. New York. Tanaka, K. 1994. Advertising language: A pragmatic approach to advertisements in Britain and Japan. London. Vestergaard, T. and K.Schrøder. 1985. The language of advertising. Oxford. Vianello, R. 1988. The rhetoric of the ‘spot’: the textual analysis of the American television commercial. Ann Arbor, MI. mass communication Adyge North-West Caucasian affected object Semantic relation ( thematic relation) referring to an entity that exists independently from the action or process denoted by the verb, but yet affected by it, e.g. Caroline corrects the letter, as opposed to an effected object, e.g. Caroline writes the letter. Affected objects are typically expressed as direct objects in nominative languages. affective filter hypothesis approach affective meaning natural connotation1 A-Z 25 affiliation [MLat. affiliare ‘to adopt as a son,’ from Lat. ad+filius ‘son’] Relationship between languages which deri ve from a common language orprotolanguage. ( also classification of languages) affix [Lat. afficere ‘to attach’] Collective term for bound formatives or word-forming elements that constitute subcategories of word classes. Affixes are classified according to their placement on the stem: prefixes precede the stem (Eng. re+write, Fr. co+ president, Ger. Un+tat), suffixes follow the stem (Eng. sister+hood, Fr. jeun+esse, Ger. taten+los), while infixes are inserted into the stem (e.g. -m- in Lat. rumpo ‘I break’ vs ruptum ‘broken’). Affixes are frequently associated with a particular word class, cf. happy+ness vs *happy+able, *mother+ness vs mother+ hood. The order of affix placement is rule-governed according to the underlying word class, cf. standard+ize+able vs *standard+ able+ize. Viewed synchronically, affixes are bound morphemes whose meanings have become abstract but whose origins as free morphemes with a clearly discernible lexical meaning can be reconstructed in many cases, cf. the Eng. suffix -hood used to form abstracts, which goes back to an independent noun with the meaning ‘quality, characteristic,’ as in Got. haidus and OHG heit. Besides semantic shift, the fact that some morphemes form semantic classes unto themselves indicates a transition from free morpheme status to affix status, cf. −works in fire+works, water+works, road+ works. Such transitional affix-like elements are also called affixoids. ( also semi-prefix, semi-suffix) References derivation, word formation affixation Process of word formation in which the stem is expanded by the addition of an affix. With regard to placement of the word-forming elements on the stem, a distinction is drawn between prefixation (=attachment of the affix before the stem: happy vs unhappy) Dictionary of language and linguistics 26 and suffixation (=attachment of the affix after the stem: happy vs happiness). Infixation infix) is found in some languages (e.g. Latin and Greek), though not in English. ( References word formation affixoid affix affricate [Lat. affricare ‘to rub’] Oral consonant ( consonant, oral) in which the initial stop closure is followed by a small release, so that frication occurs. If the frication occurs at the same place of bβ]. Otherwise articulation as the stop, it is said to be homorganic, e.g. [ , , , it is heterorganic, as , . While English affricates use only the pulmonic airstream Bantu) has a click affricate mechanism, Georgian has ejective affricates, and Xhosa ( [!Xũ]. According to theoretical criteria, an affricate can be analyzed as either a single (or ‘unit’) phoneme or a combination of two phonemes. ( also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics affrication Sound change by which affricates are created from original stops, as for example OE [k]> Mod. Eng. in church or [p, t, k,]> , , in the Old High German consonant shift. In this process, an intermediate stage with strongly aspirated stops is conceivable. A-Z 27 References sound change African languages The languages of the African continent can be divided into four major groups according to the generally accepted division of J.H.Greenberg (1963): Afro-Asiatic, NigerKordofanian, Nilo-Saharan and Khoisan. The reconstruction of Afro-Asiatic (and especially of Semitic) has a long tradition, while the other three groups, especially NiloSaharan, have reconstructions that are still somewhat speculative. References Dihoff, I.R. et al. (eds) 1983. Current approaches to African linguistics. 2 vols. Dordrecht. Greenberg, J.H. 1963. The languages of Africa. Bloomington, IN. (2nd edn 1966.) Gregersen, E. 1977. Language in Africa: an introductory survey. New York. Heine, B. 1976. A typology of African languages. Berlin. Heine, B. et al. (eds) 1981. Die Sprachen Afrikas. Hamburg. Mann, M. and D.Dalby (eds) 1987. A thesaurus of African languages: a classified and annotated inventory of the spoken languages of Africa, with an appendix on their orthographic representation. Munich. Sebeok, T.A. (ed.) 1971. Current trends in linguistics, vol. 7: Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa. The Hague. Tucker, A.N. and M.A.Bryan 1956. Linguistic analyses: the non-Bantu languages of North Eastern Africa. (Handbook of African Languages 5). Oxford Welmers, W.E. 1973. African language structures. Berkeley, CA. Bibliography Meier, W. (ed.) 1984. Bibliography of African languages. Wiesbaden. Journals Afrika und Übersee Journal of African Languages and Linguistics Studies in African Languages Dictionary of language and linguistics 28 Afrikaans Language of the Boers in South Africa which derived from Dutch dialects of the seventeenth century and has been used as a written language since 1875. Afrikaans is the only creole that has been elevated to an official language (1926– along with English, in the Republic of South Africa and in Namibia); approx. 5 million speakers. The vocabulary and orthography of Afrikaans were determined by colloquial Dutch at the time of South Africa’s colonization. Structurally, Afrikaans demonstrates even more morphological simplicity than Dutch (e.g. loss of endings in conjugation and declension, cf. Afrk. sy loop vs Du. zij lopen ‘they run’). References Breyne, M.R. 1936. Afrikaans: eine Einführung in die Laut-, Formen- und Satzlehre mit Literaturproben. Leipzig. Donaldson, B.C. 1993. A grammar of Afrikaans. New York. Kloeke, G.G. 1950. Herkomst en groei van het Afrikaans. Leiden. Le Roux, J.J. 1923. Oor die afrikaanse sintaksis. Amsterdam. Raidt, R. 1983. Einführung in Geschichte und Struktur des Afrikaans. Darmstadt. Van Schoor, J.L. 1983. Die grammatika van standard-Afrikaans. Cape Town. Afro-Asiatic (also Hamito-Semitic, Erythraic) Language branch consisting of approx. 250 languages with about 175 million speakers in North Africa and southwest Asia which can be grouped into five or possibly six language families (Egyptian, Berber, Cushitic, Semitic, Chadic, and possibly Omotic). The first written attestations (Egyptian, Akkadian) date from the early third millennium BC. Historically most of the research done on this group has focused on the reconstruction of Semitic. In the nineteenth century scholars realized that the languages of northern Africa were related to Semitic; these languages were called ‘Hamitic’ (after Ham, the son of Noah) and were contrasted with Semitic (Lepsius 1855). Later the term ‘Hamitic’ was used for all inflectional languages with masculine/feminine gender in northern Africa, which were considered to be languages of more culturally advanced peoples (Meinhof 1912). Today the current opinion is that the Semitic languages contrast with several language families instead of with a unified Hamitic group and that languages such as Fula, Massai, and Nama belong to other language groups. Characteristics: gender system (masculine/ feminine, with feminine marker t), verbal personal prefixes and free personal pronouns, separate conjugation for stative verbs, simple case system (nominative, accusative, objective, genitive) with indications of an A-Z 29 underlying ergative system, verbal voice (causative, passive, middle, etc.), a rich number system (frequently dual-forms and a collective-singular distinction). Phonologically three types of articulation for obstruents (voiced, voiceless, and ‘emphatic,’ realized typically as pharyngeal, ejective, or similar sounds). References Diakonoff, I.M. 1965. Semito-Hamitic languages. Moscow. Hodge, C.T. (ed.) 1968. Afroasiatic: a survey. The Hague. Lepsius, R. 1855. Standard alphabet for reducing unwritten languages and foreign graphic systems to a uniform orthography in European letters. London. (2nd edn 1863.) Meinhof, C. 1912. Die Sprache der Hamiten. Hamburg. Sasse, H.J. 1981. Afroasiatisch. In B.Heine et al. (eds), Die Sprachen Afrikas. Hamburg, 129–48. Etymological dictionary Orel, V.E. and O.V.Stolbova. 1995. Hamito-Semitic etymological dictionary: materials for reconstruction. Leiden. Journals Comptes Rendus du Groupe Linguistique d’Etudes Chamito-Sémitiques Journal of Afroasiatic Languages African languages agent [Lat. agere ‘to do, to perform’] (also agentive, actor) Semantic role ( thematic relation) of the volitional initiator or causer of an action, which is usually expressed in nominative languages like English as the subject of the sentence: He ate the apple. In passive sentences the agent is expressed in an oblique case as, for example, in Latin or Russian, or by a prepositional phrase: The apple was eaten by him. Dictionary of language and linguistics 30 References case grammar. ergative, subject, voice agglutinating language [Lat. agglutinare ‘to glue together’] Classification type postulated by von Humboldt (1836) from a morphological point of view for languages that exhibit a tendency toward agglutination in word formation, as, for example, Turkish, Japanese, Finnish. In contrast analytic language ( also language typology isolating language), inflectional language. also Reference Von Humboldt, W. 1836. Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaus. Berlin. (Repr. in W. Von Humboldt, Werke, ed. A.Flitner and K. Gields. Darmstadt, 1963. Vol. 3, 144–367.) agglutination [Lat. agglutinare ‘to glue together’] Morphological process ( morphology) of word formation in which individual morphemes have a single semantic meaning ( monosemy) and are juxtaposed ( juxtaposition), that is, each morpheme corresponds to a single meaning and the morphemes are simply connected linearly, cf. Turkish: ev ‘house,’ -im ‘my,’ -ler ‘plural,’ -in ‘genitive’ in evlerimin ‘my houses’. ( also agglutinating language) References morphology A-Z 31 agnosia [Grk agnōsía ‘ignorance’] In neuropsychology, term referring to partial or complete inability, whether it be congenital or acquired, to recognize objects or persons despite the absence of any sensory loss in the respective organ. Thus, a noise (e.g. the rattling of keys) may be perceived, but its source cannot be identified (auditory imperception) or the distance and direction of a sound or noise may not be identified (acoustic allesthesia); or the minimal acoustic contrast between phonemes may not be recognized (partial weakness in differentiation, acoustic agnosia) or linguistic sound sequences may not be differentiated (‘word deafness’ or verbal agnosia). Similarly, in visual and tactile agnosia, objects may not be identified despite normal vision or sense of touch. References Brown, J. 1972. Aphasia, apraxia and agnosia. Springfield, IL. Farah, M.J. 1990. Visual agnosia: disorders of object recognition and what they tell us about normal vision. Cambridge, MA. Hecaen, H. and M.Albert. 1978. Human neuropsychology. New York. Luria, A.R. 1966. Higher cortical functions in man. New York. ——1973. The working brain: an introduction to neuropsychology. New York. neuropsychology agrammatism [Grk agrámmatos ‘illiterate’] In neurolinguistics, term referring to an acquired impairment or disorder of oral and written expression. A typical characteristic of this condition is the occurrence of fragmentary sentences in which function words and inflections are missing (so-called ‘telegraphic style’). These morphological and syntactic features often co-occur with semantic and phonological impairments as well as with overall problems in language comprehension. This condition is often observed in cases of Broca’s aphasia; and often ‘agrammatism’ is used synonymously with the syndrome ‘Broca’s aphasia.’ Recent studies show that there are language-specific characteristics of agrammatism (see Bates et al. 1987) and emphasize, moreover, that the distinction between agrammatism and paragrammatism—and thus between Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia—is not as clear-cut as has been assumed. Sometimes agrammatism is also used for disorders in the development of grammatical abilities in children. ( dysgrammatism) Dictionary of language and linguistics 32 References Bates, E. et al. 1987. Grammatical morphology in aphasia: evidence from three languages. Cortex 23. 545–74. Caplan, D. 1987. Neurolinguistics and linguistic aphasiology. Cambridge. Jakobson, R. 1971. Two aspects of language and two types of aphasic disturbance. In R.Jakobson and M.Halle (eds) Fundamentals of language. The Hague. 155–82. (Orig. 1956.) Johnston, J.R. 1988. Specific language disorders in the child. In N.Lass et al. (eds), Handbook of speech—language pathology and audiology. Philadelphia. 685–715. Kean, M. (ed.) 1985. Agrammatism. Orlando, FL. Kolk, H. and C.Heeschen. 1992. Agrammatism, paragrammatism and the management of language. Language and Cognitive Processes 7. 89–129. Luria, A.R. 1966. Higher cortical functions in man. New York. ——1970. Traumatic aphasia. The Hague. Menn, L. and L.K.Obler. 1989. Agrammatism: a cross-linguistic narrative sourcebook. Amsterdam. Obler, L.K. and L.Menn. 1988. Agrammatism: the current issues. Journal of Neurolinguistics 3. 63–76. aphasia, language disorder agraphia [Grk gráphein ‘to write’] In neurolinguistics, term referring to an acquired impairment in, or loss of, the ability to write. Pure agraphia is, however, an exception, in that oral expression and reading are usually impaired as well. On the various types and classifications, see Hecaen and Albert (1978). ( also alexia, aphasia) References Benson.D.F. 1979. Aphasia, alexia, agraphia. New York. Hecaen, H. and M.Albert. 1978. Human neuropsychology. New York. Roeltgen, D.R. and S.Z.Rapcsak. 1993. Acquired disorders of writing and spelling. In G.Blanken et al. (eds), Linguistic disorders and pathologies: an international handbook. Berlin and New York. 262–78. aphasia agreement (also concord) Correspondence between two or more sentence elements in respect to their morphosyntactic categories (case, person, number, gender). (a) Grammatical agreement A-Z 33 occurs within a sentence or its constituents, such as in the noun phrase in German: des jungen Baumes ‘of the young tree,’ where all the elements agree in case (genitive), number (singular), and gender (masculine). Agreement can mark syntactic relations, such as two constituents belonging to the same complex constituent, as well as syntactic functions, such as subject and attribute. Grammatical agreement has three important domains: (i) in many languages the inflected verb phrase agrees with the subject with regard to person and number (I sing vs she sings vs they sing) and sometimes gender (cf. Bantu). There are also some languages with object—verb agreement, such as Swahili, Kinyarwanda (Rwanda), and other Bantu languages; Abkhaz, Laz and other Caucasian languages; and Basque, among others. Verbal agreement is determined primarily by the syntactic function (subject, object, adverbial) accompanying the verb. In object-verb agreement, animacy ( animate vs inanimate), definiteness. and/or the thematic relation of the verb complement also play a role (see Givón 1976). (ii) Nominal agreement affects elements accompanying the noun, such as determiners, adjectival attributes, and appositions, which agree with their antecedent in case and other categories: cf. Ger. Sie sucht einen Jungen, ihren kleinsten Sohn ‘She is looking for a boy, her youngest son,’ where Jungen ‘boy’ and Sohn ‘son’ are both accusative masculine. (iii) In predicative agreement, the subject and predicate agree in gender, number, or case: He is an actor vs She is an actress. (b) Anaphoric agreement extends beyond the sentence boundary and indicates, for example, the coreference between a pronoun and its andecedent: A young woman entered the room. She was carrying a large briefcase. There may be a historical connection between anaphoric and grammatical agreement; in many languages, grammatical markers for agreement developed from pronouns (see Givón 1976). References Barlow, M. and C.A.Ferguson (eds) 1988. Agreement in natural language. Stanford, CA. Bosch, P. 1983. Agreement and anaphora. London. Bresnan, J. and S.Mchombo. 1986. Grammatical and anaphoric agreement. CLS 22. 278–97. Corbett, G.G. 1983. Hierarchies, targets and controllers: agreement patterns in Slavic. London. Gazdar, G. et al. (eds) 1983. Order, concord and constituency. Dordrecht. Givón, T. 1976. Topic, pronoun and grammatical agreement. In C.N.Li (ed.), Subject and topic. New York. 149–88. Lehmann, C. 1982. Universal and typological aspects of agreement. In H.Seiler and J.Stachowiak (eds), Apprehension: das sprachliche Erfassen von Gegenständen. Tübingen. Part 2, 201–67. Lyons, J. 1968. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Cambridge. Moravcsik, E.A. 1978. Agreement. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. Vol. 4, 352–74. Steele, S. 1989. Subject values. Lg 65.537–78. gender Dictionary of language and linguistics AI 34 artificial intelligence Ainu Language with approx. 16,000 speakers on the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido, Sakhalin, and in the Kurile Islands. Its genetic affiliation has not yet been satisfactorily determined. References Dettmer, H. 1989. Ainu-Grammatik. Wiesbaden. Patrie, J. 1982. The genetic relationship of the Ainu language. Honolulu, HI. Shíbatani, M.Y. 1990. The languages of Japan. Cambridge. airstream mechanism Articulatory process involved in the formation of speech sounds in which air is forced from the lungs (pulmonic airstream mechanism), through the glottis (glottalic airstream mechanism), or between the dorsum and velum (velaric airstream mechanism). In English, all sounds are formed with the pulmonic airstream mechanism. Implosives and ejectives are formed with the glottalic airstream mechanism, and clicks with velaric airstream mechanism. ( also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics A-Z Akan 35 Kwa Akkadian Oldest attested Semitic language (app. 3200 BC to around the turn from BC to AD), the language of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires. After the second century BC Akkadian split into two dialects (Assyrian, Babylonian), written in cuneiform borrowed from Sumerian. References Caplice, R. 1980. Introduction to Akkadian. Rome. Gelb, I.J. 1961. Old Akkadian writing and grammar. 2nd edn. Chicago. ——1969. Sequential reconstruction of Proto-Akkadian. Chicago. Groneberg, B.R.M. 1987. Syntax, Morphologie und Stil der jungbabylonischen ‘hymnischen’ Literatur, 2 vols. Wiesbaden. Hecker, K. 1968. Grammatik der Kültepe-Texte. Rome. Huehnergard, J. 1988. The Akkadian of Ugarit. Cambridge, MA. Lipin, L.A. 1973. The Akkadian language. Moscow. Reiner, E. 1966. A linguistic analysis of Akkadian. The Hague. Von Soden, W. 1952. Grundriβ der Akkadischen Grammatik. Rome. ——1969. Ergänzungsheft zum Grundriß der akkadischen Grammatik. Rome. Dictionaries Assyrian dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. 1956–. Vol. 17, 1989. Chicago, IL. Von Soden, W. 1965–81. Akkadisches Handwörterbuch. Wiesbaden. Journals Akkadica Orientalia Zeitschrift für Assyriologie Dictionary of language and linguistics 36 Aktionsart (also manner of action) German term meaning ‘manner of action’; it is used by some linguists (especially German and Slavonic) to denote the lexicalization of semantic distinctions in verbal meaning, as opposed to aspect, which is then used to denote the systematic grammaticalization of such distinctions. Usage differs as to whether the term ‘Aktionsart’ covers all lexicalized semantic distinctions, i.e. those inherent in the meaning of the verb as well as those created by derivational morphology, e.g. suffixes denoting iterativity etc., or only the latter. Most English-speaking linguists do not use the term ‘Aktionsart’, but subsume the distinctions described above under aspect. References aspect Albanian Branch of Indo-European consisting of one language which is the official language of Albania and spoken as well in parts of the former Yugoslavia, Greece, and Italy (approx. 5 million speakers). There are two main dialects: Gheg, in the north, and Tosk, in the south. Characteristics: in addition to the usual categories of Indo-European languages, definiteness and indefiniteness are expressed in the noun by inflection (cf. bukë ‘bread,’ buka ‘the loaf of bread’). Relatively complicated morphology, especially in the verbal system (highly complex tense, mood, and aspect system). Development of object agreement by proclitic pronouns. Word order usually SVO, adjectives placed after the noun. Numerous lexical borrowings from Latin and some from other Balkan languages, mostly Greek, Slavic, and also Turkish. First written documents dating from the fifteenth century. References Bevington, G.L. 1974. Albanian phonology. Wiesbaden. Buchholz, O. and W.Fiedler. 1987. Albanische Grammatik. Leipzig. Çabej, E. 1975–7. Studime Gjuhësore, 5 vols. Prishtinë. Camaj, M. 1984. Albanian grammar, collaborated on and trans. L.Fox. Wiesbaden. Hamp, E.P. 1972. Albanian. In T.A.Sebeck (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 9, 1626–92. A-Z 37 ——1991. Albanian. In J.Gvozdanović (ed.), Indo-European numerals. Berlin and New York. 835–922. Huld, M.E. 1983. Basic Albanian etymologies. Columbus, OH. Newmark, L., P.Hubbard, and P.Prifti. 1982. Standard Albanian: a reference grammar for students. Stanford, CA. Historical grammars Demiraj, S. 1986. Gramatikë historike e gjuhës shqipe. Tirana. Mann, S. 1977. An Albanian historical grammar. Hamburg. Dictionary Fjalori i gjuhës së sotme shquipe. 1980. Akademia e Shkencave e RPS të Shqipërisë, ed. A.Kostallari. Tirana. Journals Gjurmime Albanologjike Lidhja Linguistique Balkanique Studia Albanica Studime filologjike Zeitschrift für Balkanologie Zjarri Aleut Eskimo-Aleut alexia [Grk léxis ‘speech wordly’] (also acquired dyslexia) In neurolinguistics, term referring to an acquired impairment in the ability to read despite intact vision. Often associated with aphasia, alexia may be observed when patients attempt to say individual letters (‘literal alexia’), read individual words or simple sentences (‘verbal alexia’ or ‘word blindness’). For details on further classification, see Kay (1993). Of particular interest are investigations of patients’ behavior in languages with different writing systems, for instance Japanese with one logographic and two Dictionary of language and linguistics 38 phonological systems (see Paradis 1987). Alexia is generally differentiated from developmental dyslexia. References Benton, A.L. and R.J.Joynt. 1960. Early descriptions of aphasias. Archives of Neurology 3. 205–21. Brown, J.W. 1972. Aphasia, apraxia and agnosia. Springfield, IL. Coltheart, M., K.Patterson, and J.C.Marshall (eds) 1987. Deep dyslexia, 2nd edn. London. Kay, J. 1993. Acquired disorders of reading. In G. Blanken et al. (eds), Linguistic disorders and pathologies: an international handbook. Berlin and New York. 251–62. Luria, A.R. 1966. Higher cortical functions in man. New York. Marshall, J.C. 1987. Routes and representations in the processing of written language. In E.Keller and M.Gopnik (eds), Motor and sensory processes of language. Hillsdale, NJ. 237–56. Paradis, M. 1987. The neurofunctional modularity of cognitive skills: evidence from Japanese alexia and polyglot aphasia. In E.Keller and M.Gopnik (eds), Motor and sensory processes of language. Hillsdale, NJ. 277–89. aphasia algebraic linguistics formal language, mathematical linguistics Algic Algonquian Algonquian Language family in North America with approx. twenty languages located in the central and eastern parts of the continent; the largest languages are Cree (approx. 70,000 speakers) and Ojibwa (approx. 40,000 speakers). Bloomfield (1962) has done the most detailed analysis of a language from this family (Menomini). Algonquian and Ritwan (the languages Yurok and Wiyot of northern California) form the Algic language family. Characteristics: very simple consonant and vowel systems; two genders derived from an animate/inanimate distinction; rich person system including indefinite (‘one’), inclusive/ exclusive and proximate/obviative; distinction between alienable and inalienable possession. The distinction noun/verb occurs only weakly: possessive verb conjugation (cf. ne-su: niyanm ‘my money,’ ne-po: sem ‘I embark’=‘my embarkation’). Transitive verbs are marked; when, the agent in the person hierarchy (second before first before third person) occurs before the patient, the verb is in a voice similar to passive. A-Z 39 The related language Yurok deviates strongly due to the areal influence of neighboring languages (rich sound system, numeral classification). References Bloomfield, L. 1962. The Menomini language. New Haven, CT. Goddard, I. 1979. Comparative Algonkian. In L. Campbell and M.Mithun (eds), The languages of native America: historical and comparative assessment. Austin, TX. 70–132. ——1975. Algonquian, Wiyot and Yurok: providing a distant genetic relationship. In M.D.Kincade et al., Linguistics and anthropology in honour of C.F.Voegelin, Lisse. 249–62. Robins, R.H. 1958. The Yorok language. Berkeley, CA. Teeter, K. 1973. Algonquian. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 10, 1143–63. Bibliography Pentland, D.H. et al. 1982. Bibliography of Algonquian linguistics. Winnipeg. Dictionary Aubin, G.F. 1976. A Proto-Algonquian dictionary. Ottawa. Journal Algonquian and Iroquoian Linguistics Newsletter algorithm Derived from the name of the Arabian mathematician Al Chwarism (approx. AD 825), the term denotes a mathematical process established through explicit rules designed to solve a class of problems automatically. An algorithm consists of an ordered system of basic operations and conditions of application that guarantee that, in a finite series of steps, given arbitrary input data from one domain, the corresponding output data (solutions) will be generated. (Cf. the mathematical rules for multiplication, algebraic simplification, and other operations.) For example, we may specify an algorithm to check whether a given natural n is prime. Simple check, for each i, 2 i n/2, whether n is evenly divisible by i. This mechanical procedure is guaranteed to provide a correct answer to the question posed in a definite amount of time (in this example somewhat inefficiently). ( also automaton, formal language, Turing machine) Dictionary of language and linguistics 40 References formal logic alienable vs inalienable possession [Lat. alienus ‘belonging to others, not one’s own’] Semantic subcategory which expresses possession in reference to whether or not the possessed object is easily removed, transferable, temporary or permanent, or essential. It is ized real differently in various languages, cf. Eng. own: I own a house/*a father/*a heart. In Swahili, inalienable possession is marked morphologically, while alienable possession is marked syntactically: baba-ngu ‘my father,’ nyumba yangu ‘my house.’ In Chickasaw ( Muskogean), there are different morphological forms, e.g. sa-holba ‘a picture of me’ (in which I am depicted, =inalienable) vs a-holba ‘my picture’ (that I own, =alienable). Recent investigations show that the ability of the object to be transferred is not as important as whether or not the possessor noun is a relational expression or not. all-quantifier Synonym for the universal quantifier ( operator). allative [Lat. allatus, past part. of afferre ‘to be moved (in the direction of)’] Morphological case of location in some languages (e.g. Finnish) which expresses the fact that an object is moving towards a location. A-Z 41 allegation [Lat. allegare ‘to send on an errand, to cite’] (also necessitation) Term introduced by Sgall (Sgall et al. 1973:108–11) for a special type of implicational relations, which he defines as: from S follows A, but from not S, neither A nor not A follows. Along these lines, the concept of allegation lies between that of assertion, whose meaning is reversed through negation, and that of presupposition which remains constant under negation. The relation of allegation corresponds to the ‘if-verbs’ in Karttunen (1971). Applications for relations of this sort are found primarily in text linguistics. References Karttunen, L. 1971. The logic of English predicate complement constructions. Bloomington, IN. Sgall, P. et al. 1973. Topic, focus and generative semantics. Kronberg. allegory Extending a metaphor through an entire speech or passage, or representing abstract concepts through the image of an acting person (‘personification’). Allegory is also referred to as an extended metaphor: for example, Reverie…a musical young girl, unpredictable, tender, enigmatic, provocative, from whom I never seek an explanation of her escapades (André Breton, Farouche à quatre feuilles, p. 13). The allegory is sometimes called ‘pure’ when every main term in the passage has a double significance, ‘mixed’ when one or more terms do not. References Bloomfield, M.W. 1962–3. A grammatical approach to personification allegory. MPh 60. 161–71. Fletcher, A. 1964. Allegory: the theory of a symbolic mode. Ithaca, NY. Frye, N. 1957. Anatomy of criticism: four essays. Princeton, NJ. MacQueen, J. 1976. Allegory. London. Quilligan, M. 1979. The language of allegory: defining the genre. Ithaca, NY. trope Dictionary of language and linguistics 42 alliteration [Lat. ad ‘to,’ littera ‘letter (of the alphabet)’] Repetition of homophonous accented, syllableinitial phonemes, as in house and home, cash and carry, tea for two, usually for stylistic or poetic effect. Alliteration can be useful in the reconstruction of historical linguistic features; in Germanic alliterative verse (e.g. the ‘Edda’) all vowels were alliterative since the glottal stop before vowels was realized as a consonant. Moreover, the combinations sp, st, sk were considered phoneticphonological units, since they—like all consonants—alliterated only with themselves. allo- [Grk állos ‘another, different’] A designation for morphological elements distinguishing variations of linguistic units on the level of parole ( langue US parole). Allo-forms (e.g. allophone, allomorph) represent variation of fundamental linguistic units such as phonemes, morphemes, on all levels of description. alloflex The concrete realization of a grammatical morpheme signaling inflection. ( flexive) also allograph [Grk gráphein ‘to write’] Graphic variant of the transcription of a nongraphic object where a distinction is drawn between the following: (a) The allograph of a phone: in the IPA (see chart, p. xix), [ι] and [ı], [ω] and [υ] are allographs denoting the same phone; ‹g› and ‹g› are, as a rule, allographs in writing systems based on Latin. (b) The allograph of a phonemic complex: in English center and centre are in an allographic relation. (c) Conceptual allographs are found in logographic writing systems ( logography) like that of Chinese. Whether two written signs are allographs depends on the given system: for example, in contrast with English, German, and French orthography, and ‹a› do not represent allographs in the IPA. With regard to a phonological description of English, however, ‹a›, , ‹a›, ‹A›, A-Z 43 and ‹A› can all be viewed as allographs; however, this view must be excluded when talking about upper vs lower case, or cursive vs Roman typeface as belonging to different also graphemics) systems. ( References writing allomorph [Grk ‘form, shape’] Concretely realized variant of a morpheme. The classification of morphs as allomorphs or as the tokens of a particular morpheme is based on (a) similarity of meaning and (b) complementary distribution: for example, [s], [z], and [tz] are considered allomorphs of the plural morpheme. If the phonetic form of the allomorph is determined by the phonetic environment then it is a phonologically conditioned allomorph, e.g. in English the past tense marker -ed is realized as [d] (said) and [t] (wished). If, however, there are no phonetic conditions for allomorphic variation, then the allomorphs are morphologically conditioned, e.g. [swım] (swim) vs [swæm] (swam). ( also allophone) References morphology allophone [Grk ‘sound, voice’] (also phonemic variant) Concretely realized variants of a phoneme. The classification of phones as allophones of a phoneme is based on (a) their distribution and (b) their phonetic similarity. In final position, aspirated ( aspiration) [ph] and unreleased [p’] (as in [taph] vs [tap’] (top) are allophones in free variation. Most allophones, however, are in complementary distribution, as [ph] in [phaut] pout and [p] in [spaut] spout. ( also phonotactics) Dictionary of language and linguistics 44 References phonology alloseme [Grk ‘sign’] An element of meaning of a sememe in the terminology of Nida. Semantic context is the important factor in determining the meaning: for example, the dictionary entry for foot [part of x, x=+living] also exhibits an alloseme that is realized as [-living] in the context of foot of the mountain. Reference Nida, E. 1946. Morphology, 2nd edn. Ann Arbor, MI. allotagm [Grk tágma ‘order, arrangement’] A concretely realized variation of a tagmeme, the smallest grammatical meaning-bearing unit. Reference Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. allotax [Grk táxis ‘arrangement’] An umbrella term for the smallest, concrete variant of a taxeme or allophone that does not carry any meaning. A-Z 45 alpha privativum [Lat. privativus ‘negative,’ from privare ‘to deprive’] Term for the Greek prefix a-lan- derived from Indo-European * (Lat. in-, Eng. un-) that is used to negate the expression it precedes, e.g. a+thiest (<Grk átheos ‘godless’), ‘without a name’). a+nonymous (<Grk References word formation alphabet [Grk álpha (α)+ (β), names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet] 1 Inventory of written signs of an alphabetic writing system in a standardized order. The inventory and order of Latin-based alphabetic signs (=letters) is roughly the same from language to language, though alphabets for individual languages may have additional characters. Thus, the Spanish alphabet contains thirty characters and has the following additional letter (ñ); k occurs only in foreign loan words. Similarly, German shares a basic twenty-six character alphabet with English, though ä, ö, ü, and β (ligatures for ae, oe, ue, and sz respectively) are generally considered to be additional characters in the German alphabet. References alphabetic writing system, writing 2 (also vocabulary) Finite set of symbols or basic signs upon which the description of formal (artificial) languages is based. For example, the Morse alphabet consists of two elements, namely short and long tones (dots and dashes), whose various strings constitute the Morse code. In transformational grammar a distinction is drawn between nonterminal symbols (S, NP, VP, etc.) and terminal symbols taken from the lexicon. Dictionary of language and linguistics 46 alphabetic writing system System of writing based on phonetic and phonological criteria, i.e. a system in which graphic signs represent individual sounds or sound segments. Alphabetic writing systems are differentiated by this ‘phonographic’ principle from writing systems that use (a) picture-like signs to represent linguistic or non-linguistic phenomena (pictograph), (b) concepts (ideograph), (c) morphological units—morphemes or words—(logograph), or (d) syllables. In contrast to ideographic (and syllabographic) systems, which developed independently at different times with different peoples, all alphabetic writing systems can be traced back to a single system invented in the Semitic (Old Phoenician) linguistic area. The Greeks adapted this originally consonantal alphabetic writing system by adding vowels and writing out words in a linear series of consonants and vowels. The universal development and spread of alphabetic writing systems is based on the particularly favorable relationship between the simplicity and the learnability of the system as well as the economy of its use. While the modern Chinese (logographic) writing system ( Chinese script) requires some 6,000–8,000 signs to accommodate colloquial communication and nearly ten times as many for scientific texts, alphabetic writing systems have an average of thirty characters: English has twenty-six, German thirty, French thirty-one, and Russian thirty-three. The transmission of the Latin alphabet to other European languages brought about various difficulties in adapting the alphabet, depending on the phonological structure of the language, as well as certain orthographic irregularities concerning the relation of sound to sign (and vice versa). Such problem cases, which were frequently intensified through historical changes or by chance, are especially due to unsystematically ascribing signs/graphemes to sounds/phonemes. Individual European languages are affected by the following complications to varying degrees: (a) one sign stands for several sounds (e.g. ‹c› stands for [k] in cat, [s] in cell, and [ts] in cats); (b) several signs denote the same sound (‹f, ph› stand for [f] in file, in juice); or philosophy); (c) simple signs are used for complex sounds (‹j› stands for (d) complex signs stand for individual sounds (‹sh› for [∫] in shine). References Cohen, M. 1958. La Grande Invention de l’écriture et son ézvolution. Paris. Diringer, D. 1962. Writing. London. Földes-Padd, K. 1966. Vom Felsenbild zum Alphabet: die Geschichte der Schrift von ihren frühesten Vorstufen bis zur lateinischen Schreibschrift. Stuttgart. Friedrich, J. 1966. Geschichte der Schrift unter besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer geistigen Entwicklung. Heidelberg. Gelb, I.J. 1952. A study of writing: the foundation of grammatology. London. Lüdtke, H. 1969. Die Alphabetschrift und das Problem der Lautsegmentierung. Phonetica 20. 147– 76. Naveh, J. 1982. Early history of the alphabet: an introduction to West Semitic epigraphy and paleography. Leiden. Powell, B.B. 1991. Homer and the origin of the Greek alphabet. Cambridge. Raible, W. 1991. Zur Entwicklung von Alphabetschrift-Systemen. Heidelberg. A-Z 47 writing Alsea Penutian Altaic Language group in central and northern Asia with approximately sixty languages and 250 million speakers, divided into the Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic families. The inclusion of Korean, Japanese, and Ainu into this group, as well as its possible relationship to the Uralic and Eskimo-Aleut language groups is debated. The first classification goes back to Strahlenberg (1730). Characteristics: relatively uniform in its typology; simple phonemic system, simple syllable structure, vowel harmony; morphological agglutination, primarily suffixal; rich case system, subject-verb agreement. Word order SOV, strictly prespecifying; numerous participial forms (converbs) for conjunction and subordination of clauses. References Comrie, B. 1981. The languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridge. Fortescue, M. 1981. Endoactive-exoactive markers in Eskimo-Aleut, Tungus and Japanese: an investigation into common origins. In L.J.Dorais (ed.), The language of the Inuit: historical, phonological and grammatical issues, Quebec. 5–41. Poppe, N. 1960. Vergleichende Grammatik der altaischen Sprachen. Wiesbaden. alternant In Bloomfield’s terms, the alternation of the elements of emic units (such as phoneme and morpheme), namely of allophones and allomorphs (also etic vs emic analysis). Reference Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 48 alternation Regular synchronic sound alternation in etymologically related words. (a) In automatic (or ‘complementary’) alternation the sound change is conditioned through the phonetic context, cf. the alternation of [aι] ~ [ι] in divine ~ divinity, crime ~ criminal, conditioned through change in syllable stress. (b) Morphophonemic alternation differentiates words grammatically, such as through ablaut in tense formation (sing—sang—sung) and word formation (bind—band—bound), and umlaut in plural formation (woman—women). ( also allomorph, morphophoneme) References phonology alternative principle binary opposition alveolar [Lat. alveolus ‘bowl, basin’] Speech sound classified according to its place of articulation (alveolar ridge), e.g. [t, d, n, s, z]. ( also articulator, phonetic transcription) References phonetics alveolar ridge (also alveolus) A-Z alveolo-palatal 49 lamino-palatal Bony ridge behind the upper teeth, in front of the palate. ( phonetics, place of articulation) alveolus also articulator, alveolar ridge amalgam blend amalgamation [mixture of a metal with mercury, orig. from Grk málagma ‘emollient,’ through Syrian mālaġmā and Arab. al 1 In Katz and Fodor’s semantic theory (1963), a step-by-step process employing projection rules that combines the meaning of individual constituents to arrive at sentence meaning. The process of amalgamation depends upon the syntactic relations of the constituents in the deep structure. ( also interpretive semantics, principle of compositionality) References Katz, J.J. and J.A.Fodor. 1963. The structure of a semantic theory. Lg 39. 170–210. 2 In morphology, a back-formation. References back formation, word formation Dictionary of language and linguistics 50 ambiguity In natural languages, property of expressions that can be interpreted in several ways, or, rather, that can be multiply specified in linguistic description from lexical, semantic, syntactic, and other aspects. In this sense, ambiguity is different from the complementary term vagueness as a designation for pragmatic ambiguousness or indeterminacy, which cannot be systematically described. Ambiguity can be resolved or represented (a) by the competent speaker, who can clarify the different readings with the help of paraphrases, (b) by grammatical analysis, for instance, within the framework of generative syntax models, which accord each possible interpretation of ambiguous surface structures different underlying structures ( disambiguation). Depending on whether ambiguity results from the use of specific lexemes or from the syntactic structure of complex expressions, a distinction is drawn between (a) lexical ambiguity (also polysemy, homonymy) and (b) syntactic ambiguity (also polysyntacticity, constructional homonymy). The representation and resolution of ambiguity by multiple interpretation is considered to be the most important criterion for the evaluation of the efficacy of grammars, especially as the occurrence of ambiguity plays a decisive part in numerous linguistic problems of description, as, for example, in quantifiers, negation, pronominalization ( personal pronoun), as well as in word formation. In everyday communication, ambiguity is a rather marginal problem, as context, intonation, situation, etc. usually sift out the adequate reading. References Gorfein, D.S. (ed.) 1989. Resolving semantic ambiguity. Berlin Kempson, R.M. 1977. Semantic theory. Cambridge. 123–138. Kooij, J. 1971. Ambiguity in natural language. Amsterdam. Su, S.P. 1994. Lexical ambiguity in poetry. London. Zwicky, A. and J.Saddock. 1975. Ambiguity tests and how to fail them. In J.Kimball (ed.) Syntax and semantics. vol. 4 New York. 1–36. Bibliography Fries, N. 1980. Ambiguität und Vagheit. Tübingen. ambisyllabic A segment occurring on the boundary of two syllables. e.g. [r] in Arab. A-Z 51 American English English American Sign Language (abbrev. ASL) sign language American structuralism (also postBloomfieldian linguistics) General term for variously developed branches of structuralism pioneered above all by E.Sapir (1884–1939) and L.Bloomfield (1887–1949). Although the various schools cannot be clearly distinguished from one another, a distinction is made between two general phases: the so-called ‘Bloomfield Era,’ and distributionalism, with Z.Harris as chief representative. Common to all branches are certain scientific prerequisites which decisively influenced the specific methodological orientation of American structuralism. At first. an interest in dying Native American languages brought about interdisciplinary research in linguistics and anthropology. The occupation with culturally distant and as yet completely unresearched languages, which existed only orally, was a significant catalyst for the paroleoriented, purely descriptive methods of American structuralism ( langue also field work). The vs parole). The works of E.Sapir and F.Boas are significant ( theoretical and methodological format came to be determined in large part by the principles of behaviorist psychology ( behaviorism). Following the natural sciences, this direction of research reduces the object of its investigation to sensorally perceptible data and draws on observations made in animal experiments to explain human behavior. This restriction to an exact analysis of objectively experienced data meant that the problem of meaning was deemed an extralinguistic phenomenon, whereas phonology and grammar were subject to a strictly formal analysis, based on the discovery procedures of segmentation and classification. Methodologically, American structuralism is characterized by empirical ( empiricism) and inductive procedures, in which only the identification and arrangement of linguistic elements are relevant for grammatical description. ( also antimentalism, descriptive linguistics, item-andarrangement grammar) References Bloch, B. 1942. Outline of linguistic analysis. Baltimore, MD. Bloomfield, L. 1926. A set of postulates for the science of language. Lg 2. 153–64. ——1933. Language. New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 52 Boas, F. (ed.) 1911. Handbook of American Indian languages. 3 vols. New York. (Repr. 1938.) Fries, C.C. 1927. The structure of English. New York. Gleason, H.A. 1955. An introduction to descriptive linguistics. New York. Harris, Z.S. 1951. Methods in structural linguistics. Chicago, IL. Hockett, C.F. 1958. A course in modern linguistics. New York. Jespersen, O. 1937. Analytic syntax. Copenhagen. Joos, M. (ed.) 1966. Readings in linguistics, vol. 1: The development of descriptive linguistics in America 1925–1956. Chicago, IL. (Orig. 1957.) Newmeyer, F.J. 1984. Linguistic theory in America. Orlando, FL. Postal, P.M. 1964. Constituent structure: a study of contemporary models of syntactic description. Bloomington, IN. Sampson, G. 1980. Schools of Linguistics. Stanford, CA. Sapir, E. 1921. Language. New York. distributionalism, linguistics (history) Amerindian Language group postulated by Greenberg (1987) which comprises all language families of the Americas with the exception of the Eskimo-Aleut and Na-Dene languages. The hypothesis of a comprehensive Amerindian language group was highly controversial when first proposed. References Greenberg, J.H. 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA. Ruhlen, M. 1987. A guide to the world’s languages, vol. 1. Stanford, CA. classification of languages, North and Central American languages Amharic Largest Semitic language of Ethiopia with approx. 16 million speakers, official language of Ethiopia. Characteristics: Amharic is syntactically interesting because of the historically attested structure change from VSO to SOV word order. Unique syllabary (thirty-three consonant signs, each with seven diacritic vowel signs) developed from Ge’ez. A-Z 53 References Hartmann, J. 1980. Amharische Grammatik. Wiesbaden. Leslau, W. 1967. Amharic textbook. Wiesbaden. Richter, R. 1987. Lehrbuch der amharischen Sprache. Leipzig. Schramm, G.M. 1954. A practical course in the Amharic language. Washington, DC. Dictionaries Kane, T.L. 1990. An Amharic-English dictionary, 2 vols. Wiesbaden. Leslau, W. 1976. Concise Amharic dictionary, 2 vols. Wiesbaden. Bibliography Leslau, W. 1965. An annotated bibliography of the Semitic languages of Ethiopia. The Hague. amnesia [Grk amnēsía ‘forgetfulness’] In psychiatry and neuropsychology, term referring to loss of memory. In neurolinguistics, this term may refer specifically to loss of memory for words. References aphasia anacoluthon [Grk anakoloũthon ‘inconsistent’] Sudden change of an originally planned sentence construction to an alternative, inconsistent one during sentence production due to unplanned speech. Anacoluthon is considered to be the result of self-correction during speech or also the blend of two different constructions, e.g. Take mercy on me (blend of Have mercy on me and Take pity on me). The ‘permissible’ ( left vs right dislocation) forms of anacoluthon include prolepsis (also left dislocation), where an element which has been syntactically fronted is represented by a pronoun later in the sentence (Sardines, I can’t stand them), as well as Dictionary of language and linguistics 54 the so-called absolute nominative, where the pronominal antecedent of a fronted nominative does not correspond to this in case: The memory (=subject) of Crete, her stay (=subject) in Venice, she became increasingly sad the more she thought about them (=prepositional object). References stylistics anagram [Grk anagrammatízein ‘to transpose the letters of one word so as to form another’] A meaningful expression (word, word group, or sentence) rendered from another by scrambling or rearranging the letters, e.g. dame—made. Words and expressions which read the same backwards and forwards are called palindromes. Analogists vs Anomalists Opposing factions of Greek grammarians at the turn of the first millennium from BC to AD whose differences concerned the extent of regularity in grammatical systems. While the Analogists assumed that language is fundamentally logical, and therefore regular and classifiable into systematic patterns (i.e. paradigms), the Anomalists were oriented towards language use and held that no regular correspondence exists between language and reality. This is evidenced by the inconsistencies of gender in nouns or the problems of synonymy and homonymy. The position of the Anomalists was ultimately a result of their speculative interest in etymological research, while the Analogists were more engaged in literary criticism, i.e. with the analysis of inadequately transmitted historical texts. The hypothesis of regularity in grammar offered a firm basis for the reconstruction of these texts. References Colson, F.J. 1919. The analogist and anomalist controversy. ClassQ 13.24–36. linguistics (history) A-Z 55 analogue communication Term coined by Watzlawick et al. (1967) on the model of analogue calculators (which, like slide rules in contrast to digital calculators, operate with actual quantities) for nonverbal communication that operates mainly with body language and sign language and is based on a relationshi p of similarity between thesignal and the referent. Analogue communication is used primarily for the representation of human relations; its semantics is complex, but situation-specific, and is often ambiguous (e.g. laughing, crying). As analogue communication possesses no morphological elements for marking syntactic relations (negation, conjunction), and no temporal differentiation, its translatability into digital communication is problematic. Reference Watzlawick, P., J.H.Beavin, and D.D.Jackson. 1967. Pragmatics of human communication: a study of interactional patterns, pathologies and paradoxes. New York. analogy Synchronic or diachronic ( synchrony vs diachrony) process by which conceptually related linguistic units are made similar (or identical) in form, especially where previous phonetic change had created a variety of forms. Analogy is often regarded as the result of the move towards economy of form or as a way to facilitate the acquisition of the morphological forms of a language. The main types of analogy are as follows (see Hock 1986:167–237). (a) Analogical leveling (also ‘paradigmatic leveling’), or the reduction or elimination of morphophonemic alternation within a morphological paradigm ( morphology, morphophoneme, paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relationship), especially if there is no semantic differentiation involved (e.g. OE cēo—san—cēas—curon—(ge) coren vs Mod. Eng. choose—chose—chose—chosen, where both the vowel and the consonant alternates have been leveled). (b) Proportional analogy, in which a regularity is carried over to irregular forms according to the formula A:A′=B:X (e.g. the replacement of the original plural form kine by the analogized form cows according to the pattern stone: stones=cow: X (=cow-s)). Proportional analogy can affect (i) morphology, as in the above example; (ii) orthography (e.g. ME ‹wolde›, ‹coude›, becoming Mod. Eng. ‹would›, ‹could›, respectively); (iii) word formation (in the creation of neologisms), e.g. xeroxing. Proportional analogy can work in combination with morphological reanalysis in word formation as well (e.g. Hamburger with the original meaning ‘from Hamburg,’ reanalyzed as ham+burger and yielding analogized forms such as cheeseburger, turkeyburger). Dictionary of language and linguistics 56 Analogy is also an important factor in sound change. When a sound A becomes A' in word X, then it will usually undergo the same change in other words, given the same phonologically conditioned). Such inductive rules can phonological conditioning ( become too ‘potent,’ especially under extralinguistic motivation, creating incorrect forms hypercorrection), for example forms found in children’s through overgeneralization ( speech, such as *foots for feet or *goed for went. The concept of analogy goes back to classical times, but was then understood differently from today ( Analogists vs Anomalists). Central to the modern notion is the Neogrammarian view of sound laws, where analogy was set forth as the ‘psychological counterpart of physiologically motivated sound laws’ (see Boretzky 1977:131) in order to ‘explain away exceptions to supposedly exceptionless sound laws as form associations and thereby justify the autonomy of the sound level’ (cf. Sturtevant 1961). The transformational grammarians (transformational grammar) interpret analogy as an instance of the universal process of simplification. In the case of analogy, a complex group of rules is simplified by a single rule that takes on the function of several others, which are then eliminated. References Andersen, H. 1973. Abductive and deductive change. Lg 49. 765–93. Anttila, R. 1977. Analogy. The Hague. Becker, T. 1990. Analogie und morphologische Theorie. Munich. Best, K.H. 1973. Probleme der Analogieforschung. Munich. Boretzky, N. 1977. Einführung in die historische Linguistik. Reinbek. Chene, B.de 1975. The treatment of analogy in a formal grammar. PCLS 11. 152–64. Hermann, E. 1931. Lautgesetze und Analogie. Berlin. Hock, H.H. 1986. Principles of historical linguistics. Berlin. (2nd edn 1991). Kuryłowicz, J. 1949. La nature des procès dits ‘analogiques.’ ALH 5. 15–37. Lehmann, W.P. 1962. Historical linguistics: an introduction. New York. (3rd edn London, 1994.) Mańczak, W. 1958. Tendences générales des changements analogiques. Lingua 7. 298–325 and 387–420. ——1980. Laws of analogy. In J.Fisiak (ed.), Historical morphology. The Hague. 283–8. Meyerthaler, W. 1979. Aspekte der Analogietheorie. In H.Lüdtke (ed.), Grundlagen des Sprachwandels. Berlin. 80–130. Paul, H. 1880. Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. Halle. (9th edn. Tübingen, 1975.). Ch. 5. Rogge, C. 1925. Die Analogie im Sprachleben. Archiv für die ges. Psychologie 52. 441–68. Ross, J.F. 1982. Portraying analogy. Cambridge. Sapir, E. 1921. Language. New York. Saussure, F.de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C.Bally and A.Sechehaye. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) Skousen, R. 1989. Analogical modeling of language. Dordrecht. Sturtevant, E.H. 1961. Linguistic change. Chicago, IL. (Orig. 1907.) Vennemann, T. 1972. Phonetic analogy and conceptual analogy. In T.Vennemann and T.Wilbur (eds), Schuchardt, the Neogrammarians, and the transformational theory of phonological change. Frankfurt. 181–204. A-Z 57 Bibliography Anttila, R. and W.A.Brewer. 1977. A basic bibliography. Amsterdam. analphabetic phonetic transcription analytic language A type of classification postulated by Schlegel (1818) under morphological aspects for languages that have the tendency to mark the syntactic relations in the sentence wordexternally with the help of function words ( synsemantic word), such as prepositions or auxiliary verbs, e.g. Fr. la maison du père vs Ger. Vaters Haus ‘father’s house,’ Eng. more beautiful vs Ger. schöner. In contrast see synthetic language. The tendency towards analyticity is to be found in most modern languages, the genuine type (e.g. Chinese, Vietnamese) is also termed isolating. References language typology analytic vs synthetic sentence In philosophy, a distinction is traditionally drawn between analytic and synthetic statements or sentences. (a) Analytic sentences in the narrow sense (also logically true sentences) are statements that necessarily, i.e. in all possible worlds, are true solely on the basis of their logical form and whose truth can be determined without empirically checking it; cf. Either it’s raining, or it’s not raining. Analytic sentences in the broader sense are those whose truth depends on their syntactic structure and on the meaning of their linguistic elements. They are based on semantic relations such as semantic similarity (i.e. synonymy) and semantic inclusion (i.e. hyponymy); cf. the statement Siblings are related to one another. (b) Synthetic sentences, on the other hand, are those statements about relationships of facts whose truth depends not only on their syntactic or semantic structure, but on extralinguistic factors and experience and thus can be empirically checked; cf. Bill Clinton is the 42nd president of the United States. That is, while analytic sentences are necessarily true, synthetic sen-tences are true or false depending on the Dictionary of language and linguistics 58 composition of the world described by them. See Quine (1951) on the difficulties in also formal logic) distinguishing the two types. ( References Kripke, S. 1972. Naming and necessity. In D.Davidson and G.Harmann (eds), Semantics of natural language. Dordrecht. 253–355 and 763–9 (addendum). Quine, W.V. 1951. Two dogmas of empiricism. PhR 60. 20–43. Bibliographies Hall, R. 1966. Analytic-Synthetic: a bibliography. PhQ 60. 178–81. Petöfi, J.S. (ed.) 1978. Logic and the formal theory of natural language: selective bibliography. Hamburg. formal logic anaphora [Grk anaphor-á ‘carrying back; reference’] (also anaphoric element, coreference, pro-form) 1 Linguistic element which refers back to another linguistic element ( antecedent) in the coreferential relationship, i.e. the reference of an anaphora can only be ascertained by interpreting its antecedent (see Wasow 1979; Thrane 1980). In this sense, anaphora is contrasted with cataphora, where the words refer forward. However, the term ‘anaphora’ may also be found subsuming both forward and backward reference. If the anaphoric element has the same reference as the antecedent, it is termed coreferent. The occurrence of anaphoras is considered to be a characteristic property of texts; it produces textual coherence ( textuality; cf. text linguistics). The most common anaphoric elements are pronouns (Philip read a novel. He liked it a lot); in addition, certain forms of ellipsis can be evaluated as cases of anaphora (Philip [bought a book], Caroline [0] too). In Government and Binding theory, the traditional term anaphora takes a more restrictive sense, referring only to reflexive and reciprocal pronouns (They hit themselves/each other). Cf. binding theory. References Aoun, J. 1985. A grammar of anaphora. Cambridge, MA. Bosch, P. 1983. Agreement and anaphora. London. Fiengo, R. and R.May. 1994. Indices and identity. Cambridge, MA. A-Z 59 Fox, B.A. 1993. Discourse structure and anaphora. Cambridge. Graeme, H. 1981. Anaphora in natural language understanding: a survey. New York. Hintikka, J. and J.Kulas. 1987. Anaphora and definite descriptions. Dordrecht. Huang, Y. 1994. The syntax and pragmatics of anaphora: a study with special reference to Chinese. Cambridge. Koster, H. and E.Reuland (eds) 1991. Long-distance anaphora. Cambridge. Kreimann, J. and A.E.Ojeda (eds) 1980. Pronouns and anaphora. Chicago, IL. Kuno, S. 1987. Functional syntax: anaphora, discourse and empathy. Chicago, IL. Reinhart, T. 1983. Anaphora and semantic interpretation. Chicago, IL. (Rev. repr. London, 1984.) Sternefeld, W. 1993. Anaphoric reference. In J. Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 940–65. Thrane, T. 1980. Referential—semantic analysis. Cambridge. Wasow, T. 1979. Anaphora in generative grammar. Ghent. Weber, B.L. 1979. A formal approach to discourse anaphora. New York. Westergaard, M.R. 1986. Definite NP anaphora. Oslo. Wiese, B. 1983. Anaphora by pronouns. Linguistics 21.373–417. binding theory, deictic expression, deixis, discourse representation theory, Government and Binding theory, personal pronoun, reflexive pronoun, text linguistics, trace theory 2 Stylistic device of ancient rhetoric which serves to increase rhetorical force by repeating words or syntactic structures at the beginning of two consecutive sentences or verses ( epiphora). References figure of speech anaphoric element anaphora anaphoric island A term from Postal (1969) related to the problems of deixis. Anaphoric island refers to a relational expression (e.g. orphan) which has an implicit, but not overtly expressed, semantic component (e.g. ‘child without parents’) that cannot be referred to by anaphoric elements. For example, one can say, Philip’s parents are dead; he misses them very much, but not, Philip is an orphan; he misses them very much, despite the fact that the word orphan refers to a child without parents. Dictionary of language and linguistics 60 References Postal, P.M. 1969. Anaphoric islands. ChLS 5. 205–37. ——1972. Some further limitations of interpretative theories of anaphora. LingI 3. 349–72. anaphora anaptyxis [Grk ‘opening, unfolding’] (also epenthesis, parasite vowel, svarabhakti) Change in syllable structure through the insertion of a vowel between two consonants (one or both of which are usually sonorants) for added ease of pronunciation, e.g. [æθəlit] athlete or change) chimney. ( also epenthesis, language change, sound anarthria [Grk an- negation, arthroũn ‘to utter distinctly’] Term used in neurology, clinical phonology, and speech-language pathology to denote the inability to perform any kind of oral expression or articulation. Anarthria is the severest type of dysarthria. anastrophe [Grk ‘turning upside down’] A figure of speech that departs from normal word order, by placing the adjective after the noun, e.g. three bags full. Other examples can be found in topicalization, e.g. To my mother, I leave my house in the writing of a will, and exbraciation. Special cases of anastrophe are hypallage and hysteron proteron. A-Z 61 References figure of speech Anatolian (also Hittito-Luvian) Extinct branch of Indo-European consisting of Hittite, Lŭvīan Hieroglyphic (Luvian), Palaic, Lydian, and Lycian in Asia Minor, of which Hittite is by far the best known. References Baiŭn, D.S. 1987. Nadpisi i jazyki drevnej Maloi Azii, Kipra, i antichnogo Severnogo prichernomoria. Moscow. Friedrich, J. et al. 1969. Altkleinasiatische Sprachen. Leiden. Gusmani, R. 1964–86. Lydisches Wörterbuch, 2 vols. Heidelberg. Hawkins, J.D., A.Morpurgo-Davis, and G.Neumann. 1974. Hittite hieroglyphs and Luwian: new evidence for the connection. Göttingen. Heubeck, A. 1969. Lykisch. In J.Friedrich et al. (eds), Altkleinasiatische sprachen: Handbuch der Orientalistik 2, 1, 2. Leiden. 397–425. Marazzi, M. 1990. Ilgeroglifico anatolico. Problemi di analisi e prospettive di ricerca. Rome. Melchert, H.C. 1993. Cuneiform Luvian lexicon. Chapel Hill, NC. ——1993. Lycian lexicon. Chapel Hill, NC. ——1994. Anatolian historical phonology. Amsterdam/Atlanta. Neumann, G. 1969. Lykisch. In J.Friedrich et al (eds), Altkleinasiatische Sprachen: Handbuch der Orientalistik 2, 1, 2. Leiden. 358–96. Rosenkranz, B. 1978. Vergleichende Untersuchungen der altanotolischen Sprachen. The Hague. Journals Anatolian Studies Newsletters for Anatolian Studies Orientalia Zeitschrift für Assyriologie Andean Alleged language family in South America with approx. twenty languages, considered by Greenberg (1960) to be part of an (even more controversial) Andean-Equatorial language Dictionary of language and linguistics 62 group. The most important language branch of Andean is Quechumaran with the languages Quechua (approx. 7 million speakers) and Aymara (approx. 2.5 million speakers) in Peru and Bolivia; in addition, Araucian (also called Mapuche) in Chile also belongs to this group (approx. 0.7 million speakers). References Greenberg, J.H. 1960, The general classification of Central and South American languages. In A. Wallace (ed.), Selected Papers of the Fifth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences. Philadelphia, PA, 791–4. South American languages animal communication (also animal language, primate communication (language)) Species-specific systems of communication whose investigation can be carried out only through interdisciplinary effort by (behavioral) psychologists, anthropologists, biologists, linguists, and others. Differences and similarities between animal and human systems of communication provide the basis for hypotheses and theories about the origin and development of human language from earlier forms of communication in the animal kingdom. To be sure, the results of such comparative investigations and their interpretation are largely dependent on the given fundamental definition of language. If natural language is defined as a system of phonetic signs, through the production of which the speaker can express objects, states of affairs (including those that are not spatially or temporally present), and conceptual generalizations in symbols, then the ‘language’ of animals can be distinguished from human languages accordingly: (a) Natural languages are characterized by the feature of double articulation, i.e. complex linguistic expressions are composed of meaningful elements, monemes or morphemes, which in turn can be described as combinations of the smallest meaningful phonetic elements, phonemes. The signals of animal communication, however, can only be analyzed on the first level of articulation for form and meaning, but not as the combination of smaller, more formal elements. (b) Utterances in animal communication are generally reflexes of external signals, i.e. they are connected with released stimuli and thus are not produced intentionally. (c) The meaning of the species-specific signals is apparently known largely by instinct (indeed, in many animals such signals are completely instinctive), and thus do not have to be learned. (d) It is not possible to combine elements of a given communication system to fit new situations, though more recent investigations seem to indicate that chimpanzees may possess latent, though unexploited, combinatory abilities (see Marler 1965). (e) In contrast to natural languages, animal communication cannot express conceptual generalizations with symbols. (f) A-Z 63 Furthermore, animals cannot communicate about language by using language, i.e. they cannot formulate metalinguistic statements. References Altmann, S.A. 1968. Primates’ communication in selected groups. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.) Animal communication: techniques of study and results of research. Bloomington, IN. 466–522. Demers, R.A. 1988. Linguistics and animal communication. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: The Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 3, 314–35. Gardner, R.A. and B.T.Gardner. 1969. Teaching sign language to a chimpanzee. Science 165.664– 72. Hockett, C.F. 1960. The origin of speech. Scientific American 203.88–96. Linden, E. 1974. Apes, men, language. London. Marler, P. 1965. Communication in monkeys and apes. In I.de Vore (ed.), Primate behavior. New York. 544–84. Premack, D. 1971. Language in Chimpanzee? Science 172. 808–22. ——1976. Intelligence in ape and man. Hillsdale, NJ. ——1990. Words: What are they, and do animals have them? Cognition 3. 197–212. Sebeok, T.A. (ed.) 1968. Animal communication: techniques of study and results of research. Bloomington, IN. ——1972. Perspectives in zoosemiotics. The Hague. Smith, W.J. 1974. Zoosemiotics: ethology and the theory of signs. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 12, 561–628. zoosemiotics animal language animal communication animate vs inanimate Nominal subcategories referring to the distinction between ‘living’ creatures (humans, animals) and ‘non-living’ things. This distinction, which is significant in many languages, is of importance in English in the use of the interrogative/relative pronouns who and which, in the Slavic languages in inflection, in Bantu languages in the ordering of nouns into different classes ( noun class) and in many languages with split ergativity ( ergative language) in the choice of syntactic construction (see Silverstein 1976). Dictionary of language and linguistics 64 References Silverstein, M. 1976. Hierarchy of features and ergativity. In R.M.W.Dixon (ed.), Grammatical categories in Australian languages. Canberra. 112–71. hierarchy universal Annamese Anomalists Vietnamese Analogists vs Anomalists anomia aphasia answer A contextually specified type of statement: namely, the desired type of response to a question. A distinction is drawn between syntactically independent (What time is it?— It’s four o’clock) and dependent answers, and syntactically dependent (or grammatically incomplete) ones. The latter are further divided into elliptic (Four o’clock) and anaphoric (Both, in response to the question Do you take milk or sugar?) answers. Particles used as answers belong to this last category. Dependent answers are more common than independent ones. A further distinction must be made between semantically suitable answers, which give exactly the required information, neither less (underinformative answers) nor more (overinformative answers), and pragmatically appropriate answers: the utterance In Paris is a semantically suitable (and true) answer to the question Where is the Eiffel Tower located?, but if this question is posed, for example, by a tourist in Paris, it is probably a pragmatically inappropriate response, due to a wrong choice of granularity. References Goffman, E. 1976. Replies and responses. LSoc 5. 257–313. Grewendorf, G. 1983. What answers can be given? In F.Kiefer (ed.), Questions and answers. Dordrecht. 45–84. A-Z 65 Groenendijk, J. and M.Stokhof. 1984. The semantics of questions and the pragmatics of answers. In F. Landman and F.Veltman (eds), Varieties of formal semantics: proceedings of the fourth Amsterdam Colloquium, September 1982. Dordrecht. 143–70. antecedent 1 In formal logic, the first statement (premise) in an argument, e.g. I can’t go to bed yet implication). in I can’t go to bed yet, because the TV show isn’t over ( 2 In linguistics, a linguistic expression to which an anaphoric expression (such as a pronoun) refers: Caroline, who saw the stranger first,… (Caroline is the antecedent of who). anterior vs non-anterior Binary phonological opposition in articulatory distinctive feature analysis ( articulatory phonetics, phonology). Sounds with the feature [+anterior] (labials, dentals, and alveolars) are made by a constriction at the front of the mouth (in front of the palate), while [−anterior] sounds (palatals, velars, and vowels) are constricted at or behind the palate. This distinction describes the opposition of [p, t] vs [ç, k] among others. ( also place of articulation) anthroponymy [Grk ánthrōpos ‘human being,’ ónyma (=ónoma) ‘name’] Subdiscipline of onomastics concerned with the development, origin, and distribution of personal names. anthroposemiotics Subdiscipline of general semiotics. Anthroposemiotics studies all systems of human communication, including all natural languages (as primary systems), acoustic and visual Dictionary of language and linguistics 66 forms of communication, body language, gesture, and other forms of non-verbal communication, whistling and drumming languages, as well as all other substitutes for linguistic communication (e.g. Morse code). More broadly, anthroposemiotics encompasses all secondary systems of representation such as the global representations of also zoosemiotics) art, science, literature, religion, and politics. ( References semiotics anticipatory assimilation assimilation antimentalism [Grk antí- ‘against’; Lat. mens ‘mind’] Derogatory designation for L.Bloomfield’s behavioristic ( behaviorism) approach to research which was based on the detachment of linguistics from psychology and the simultaneous turn towards the exact methods of the natural sciences. The rejection of any form of introspection, the exclusive confinement to observable linguistic data, i.e. surface phenomena ( empiricism), and the reduction of the problem of meaning to stimulusresponse mechanisms are recognized as the fundamentals of taxonomic analysis. N.Chomsky’s mentalistic approach is an opposing view in modern linguistics ( mentalism). References behaviorism antipassive Voice category in ergative languages. In the basic construction in ergative languages the patient is regularly treated as a subject, i.e. it is in the zero-marked case, the absolutive, and the agent is regularly treated as an object, i.e. it is in the ergative. In the antipassive, A-Z 67 the patient is marked by an oblique case or an adposition, and the agent is in the absolutive. Additionally, the predicate takes a special antipassive form. The non-basic status of the antipassive is evident from this additional marking of the predicate, different restrictions of use, and a low text frequency. References Givón, T. (ed.) 1994. Voice and inversion. Amsterdam. Heath, J. 1976. Antipassivization: a functional typology. BLS 2.202–11. Shibatani, M. (ed.) 1988. Passive and voice. Amsterdam. Van Valin, R.D. 1980. On the distribution of passive and antipassive constructions in universal grammar. Lingua 50.303–27. References ergative language antithesis [Grk ‘opposition’] Also known as ‘contrapositio’ and ‘oppositio,’ antithesis conjoins contrasting ideas, e.g. steal from the rich and give to the poor. Antithesis is a favored rhetorical device of persuasive speech in politics and advertising. References advertising language, chiasm, oxymoron, parallelism antonomasia [Grk antonomázein ‘to name instead’] The replacement of a proper noun by a reworded appellative ( common noun) or a periphrasis: the Almighty (=God), The eternal city (=Rome). This also works the other way around for the appellative use of a proper noun, e.g. an Odyssey, or the Paris of the West (=San Francisco). Antonomasia led to a change in name in the case of the French word renard, which became the popular name for a fox, Reynard. Dictionary of language and linguistics 68 antonymy [Grk antí- ‘against,’ ónyma (=ónoma) ‘name’] Relation of semantic opposition. In contrast to the general relation of incompatibility. antonymy is restricted to gradable expressions that usually correlate with opposite members of a scale: e.g. good vs bad. The various positions on the scale cannot be determined absolutely, but rather depend upon the context, e.g. A large mouse is smaller than a small elephant. ( also absolute antonymy, complementarity, gradable complementaries, polarity, semantic relation). References Cruse, D.A. 1976. Three classes of antonyms in English. Lingua 38. 281–92. Hale, K. 1971. A note on a Walbiri tradition of antonymy. In D.D.Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics: an interdisciplinary reader in philosophy, linguistics, and psychology. Cambridge, 472–82. Katz, J.J. 1964. Analyticity and contradiction in natural language. In J.A.Fodor and J.J.Katz (eds), The structure of language: readings in the philosophy of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 519– 43. Lehrer, A. and K.Lehrer. 1982. Antonymy. Ling&P 5. 483–501. lexicology aorist [Grk aóristos ‘indefinite’] Greek term for the perfective aspect. In Greek and Old Indic ( Sanskrit), the aorist was used as a tense form for a succession of actions, especially in literary texts. In its use, it corresponds to the Latin perfect or to the historical perfect (passé simple) in French. References aspect, tense A-Z 69 A-over-A principle A universal constraint on the use of transformations suggested by N.Chomsky in the aspects model. If a transformation refers to a node of category ‘A,’ and ‘A’ dominates a node of the same category ‘A,’ then the transformation can only operate on the dominating node. In particular, this constraint applies to transformations which move or delete noun phrases embedded in the noun phrase: for example, in the noun phrase the boy walking to the railway station, the embedded NP the boy cannot undergo a transformation alone and be taken out of the noun phrase. Criticism of this principle in later developments of transformational grammar can be found in Ross (1967). ( trace theory) References Ross, J.R. 1967. Constraints on variables in syntax. Dissertation, Cambridge, MA. constraints Apache Na-Dene apex [Lat. ‘tip, point’] The tip of the tongue, primary articulator of apical sounds. ( phonetics) aphaeresis also articulatory aphesis aphasia [Grk ‘speechlessness’] In neurolinguistics, cover term referring to a number of acquired language disorders due to cerebral lesions (caused by vascular problems, a tumor, or an accident, etc.). In this condition, comprehension and production in the oral and written modalities may be Dictionary of language and linguistics 70 afflicted to varying degrees, thus leading to the differentiation of various aphasic syndromes. Aphasias often cooccur with articulatory disorders such as verbal apraxia or dysarthria. Excluded from aphasia are language impairments due to sensory deficits (e.g. hearing problems), dementia, or psychological-emotional problems. The classifications of aphasias and their symptoms associated with these syndromes are under debate. The traditional notions and classifications are based on the location of the lesion and the criteria of ‘receptive vs expressive’ disorder and ‘fluent vs non-fluent’ speech. The following distinctions have been drawn: (a) motor or Broca’s aphasia (also expressive or non-fluent aphasia); (b) sensory or Wernicke’s aphasia (also receptive or fluent aphasia); (c) global aphasia with the most severe impairments in all modalities; (d) anomia or amnesia (also nominal aphasia) characterized by difficulties in finding words, semantic paraphasia, and occasional minor problems in syntax and comprehension; (e) conduction aphasia with phonemic paraphasia and the inability to repeat what was just said; and (f) transcortical aphasia with possible impairments in the sensory or motor areas associated with no difficulties in the ability to repeat what was just said. For an overview see Benson (1979). References Benson, D.F. 1979. Aphasia, agraphia, alexia. New York. Blanken, G. et al. (eds) 1993. Linguistic disorders and pathologies: an international handbook. Berlin and New York. Brown, J. 1972. Aphasia, apraxia, agnosia. Springfield, IL. Caplan, D. 1987. Neurolinguistics and linguistic aphasiology. Cambridge. Caplan, D. and N.Hildebrandt. 1987. Disorders of syntactic comprehension. Cambridge, MA. Eling, P. (ed.) 1994. Reader in the history of aphasia: from Franz Gall to Norman Geschwind. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Gitterman, M. and L.F.Sils. 1990. Aphasia in bilinguals and ASL-signers: implications for a theoretical model of neurolinguistic processing based on a review and synthesis of the literature. Aphasiology 4. 233–9. Grodzinsky, Y. 1990. Theoretical perspectives on language deficits. Cambridge, MA. ——(ed.) 1993. Grammatical investigation of aphasia. Special issue of Brain and Language, Vol. 45(3). Hecaen, H. and M.Albert. 1978. Human neuropsychology. New York. Howard, D. and S.Franklin. 1988. Missing the meaning? A cognitive neuropsychological study of the processing of words by an aphasic patient. Cambridge, MA. Lesser, R. and L.Milroy. 1993. Linguistics and aphasia: psycholinguistic and pragmatic aspects of intervention. London. Luria, A.R. 1976. Basic problems of neurolinguistics. The Hague. ——1977. Neurolinguistics, vol. 6: Neuropsychological studies in aphasia. Amsterdam. Martins, I.P. et al. 1991. Acquired aphasia in children. Dordrecht. Packard, J.L. 1993. A linguistic investigation of aphasic Chinese speech. Dordrecht. Paradis, M. 1987. The assessment of bilingual aphasia. Hillsdale, NJ. Ryalls, J. 1984. Where does the term ‘aphasia’ come from? B&L 21. 358–63. Schnitzer, M.L. 1989. The pragmatic basis of aphasia: a neurolinguistic study of morphosyntax among bilinguals. Hillsdale, NJ. Tyler, L.K. 1992. Spoken language comprehension: an experimental approach to disordered and normal processing. Cambridge, MA. A-Z 71 Wulfeck, B. et al. 1986. Sentence interpretation in healthy aphasic bilingual adults. In J.Vaid (ed.), Language processing in bilinguals: psycholinguistic and neuropsychological perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ. 199–219. Journals Aphasiology Brain and Language neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics aphemia [Grk ‘to speak’] Now obsolete term, used by P.Broca, to refer to aphasia. Reference Ryalls, J. 1984. Where does the term ‘aphasia’ come from? B&L 21. 358–63. aphesis [Grk ‘release, dismissal’] (also aphaeresis, deglutination, procope, prosiopesis) The loss of initial vowel, consonant, or syllable, as in opossum ~ possum, or the loss of initial [k] before [n] in knee, knight. ( also apocope, syncope) References language change, sound change Dictionary of language and linguistics aphonia [Grk 72 ‘sound, voice’] In speech-language pathology, term referring to an impairment of phonation (the most severe degree of dysphonia) due to organic causes (e.g. infection or trauma) or psychogenic causes. References Scholefield, J.A. 1987. Aetiologies of aphonia following closed head injury. British Journal of Disorders of Communication 22. 167–72. voice disorder apical Having the apex, or tip, of the tongue as the primary articulator. In English, [t, d, n] are apical sounds. ( also articulatory phonetics, place of articulation, retroflex) References phonetics apico-alveolar Speech sound classified according to its (primary) articulator (apex=tip of the tongue) and its (primary) place of articulation (alveolar ridge). In English, [t, d] are apicoalveolar sounds. ( also articulatory phonetics) A-Z 73 apico-dental Speech sound classified according to its primary articulator (apex=tip of the tongue) and its place of articulation (upper teeth). In English, the ‘clear l’ in leave [li:v] is apicodental. ( also articulatory phonetics) apico-labial Speech sound classified according to its primary articulator (apex=tip of the tongue) and its place of articulation (lips). Such sounds are found in some Caucasian also articulatory phonetics) languages, e.g. in Abkhaz. ( apico-post-alveolar apocopation retroflex apocope apocope [Grk ‘cutting off’] Loss (synchronic or diachronic) of a final vowel, consonant, or syllable, as in comb (<[kome]). ( also aphesis, language change, [ko:m] (<[ko:mb]) or come sound change, syncope) Dictionary of language and linguistics apodosis 74 protasis vs apodosis apokoinu [Grk apó koinoũ ‘from what is in common’] Syntactic construction in which two sentences share a common element that can be either in the second sentence or on the border between the two sentences. Apokoinu refers to both sentences grammatically and syntactically, cf. This is the sword killed him. It is debatable whether or not so-called contact clauses such as There is a man below wants to speak to you are instances of apokoinu or not (see Jespersen 1927). Reference Jespersen, O. 1927. A modern English grammar on historical principles. Heidelberg. Vol. III 2. 132–5. (Repr. London, 1954.) apophony ablaut aposiopesis [Grk ‘becoming silent’] A figure of speech that shortens a sentence with an unexpected break to express (feigned) politeness, alarm, or concern. The idea, although unexpressed, is clearly perceived: You can go to h——! Synonyms: reticence, reserve. References figure of speech A-Z 75 apostrophe [Grk ‘a turning away’] The turning away from an audience and addressing a second audience of present or absent persons: Soul of the age! The wonder of our stage! The applause! Delight! May Shakespeare rise! (Ben Jonson) figure of speech appellative function of language (also vocative function of language) The appellative function of language constitutes one of the three subfunctions of the linguistic sign in K.Bühler’s organon model of language. It refers to the relation between the linguistic sign and the ‘receiver,’ whose behavior is influenced by the linguistic sign. ( also axiomatics of linguistics, expressive function of language, representational function of language) References organon model of language appellative common noun application Term adopted from H.B.Curry is mathematical logic that basically denotes ‘linking’ and represents the basis of Šaumjan’s language theory ( applicational generative model). Applications are formal operations for generating symbols that represent linguistic expression. Through applications linguistic entities are connected to other linguistic entities to form new entities, that is, expressed formally: if X and Y are entities of the most general type Ob(ject), then the combination of X and Y is also an entity of the type Ob. Every application can be interpreted as a function, but presupposes a subclassification of expressions for a meaningful application. Every type of categorial grammar is based on application. Dictionary of language and linguistics 76 References Curry, H.B. and R.Feys. 1958. Combinatory logic. Amsterdam. Šaumjan, S. 1965. Outline of the applicational generative model for the description of language. FL 1. 189–222. applicational generative model Grammatical model developed by the Russian linguist Šaumjan, who was influenced by the mathematical logic of K.Ajdukiewicz and H.B. Curry. The term ‘applicational’ refers to the formal operation known as an application, i.e. the combination of linguistic units into new linguistic units, which is the foundation for the ‘generative’ objective of Šaumjan’s grammatical theory. Šaumjan begins with a two-level model and differentiates between an abstract genotypical ( genotype) language level, which as an ideal, universal semiotic system ( semiotics) is the basis for all natural languages, and a phenotypical ( phenotype) level, which represents the realization of logical constructs applied to the genotypical level in individual languages. On the genotypical level, there are no spatial relations between linguistic objects; only in the phenotypical level are these produced in a linear order. Unlike N. Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar, which generates surface structures, Šaumjan’s generative apparatus serves primarily to generate linguistic universals, i.e. highly abstract linguistic objects. A further significant difference from transformational grammar lies in the fact that Šaumjan does not restrict himself to the description of sentence structures, but rather integrates an equivalent process of word formation into his model. Therefore, Šaumjan introduces two types of production rules, the ‘phrase generator’ and the ‘word class generator.’ The fundamental operation in the formation of complex linguistic units on the basis of elementary units is the application, which largely corresponds to category formation on the basis of the operator-operand relation in categorial grammar. The applicational generative model is based on a foundation of very complex mathematics and formal logic and, up to now, has been exemplified only in Russian. References Ajdukiewicz, K. 1935. Die syntaktische Konnexität. SPh 1. 1–27. Curry, H.B. and R.Feys, 1958. Combinatory logic. Amsterdam. Šaumjan, S. 1965. Outline of the applicational generative model for the description of language. FL 1. 189–222. A-Z 77 applicative Verbal voice which makes a non-subject ( benefactive) a direct object, cf. Swahili Mama alipika chakula kwa watoto ‘The mother cooked the food for the children’ vs Mama aliwapikia watoto chakula ‘The mother cooked the children food,’ where pika is the basic form for ‘cook’ and pikia ‘cooked for.’ applied linguistics Term covering several linguistic subdisciplines as well as certain interdisciplinary areas that use linguistic methods: language pedagogy, psycholinguistics, language acquisition, second language acquisition, translation, contrastive analysis, language planning, lexicography,’ computational linguistics, ethnolinguistics, sociolinguistics, and others. Applied linguistics differs from theoretical linguistics in that the latter is concerned with the formal structure of language as an autonomous system of signs. The term ‘applied linguistics’ is in some cases misleading, since in many of the subdisciplines language is studied from both a theoretical and practical (i.e. applied) perspective. Moreover, some areas should be considered ‘applications’ of linguistics. Applied linguistics has become a field of growing linguistic interest, as evidenced by the many journals devoted to these allied studies which have been launched since the 1960s. References Allen, P.B. and S.P.Corder (eds.) 1973–7. The Edinburgh course in applied linguistics. 4 vols. London. Corder, S.P. 1973. Introducing applied linguistics. Harmondsworth. Jung, U. 1988. Computers in applied linguistics and language teaching: ACALL handbook. Frankfurt. Kaplan, R.B. (ed.) 1979–. Annual review of applied linguistics (Vols 1, 5, 10: A broad survey of the entire field of applied linguistics). Cambridge. Tomic, O.M. and R.W.Shuy (eds) 1987. The relation of theoretical and applied linguistics. New York. Dictionary Richards, J., J.Platt, and H.Weber. 1985. Longman dictionary of applied linguistics. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 78 Journals AILA Review Annual Review of Applied Linguistics Applied Linguistics Bulletin CILA: Organe de la Commission interuniversitaire suisse de linguistique appliquée Neuchâtel Cahiers de Linguistique Théorique et Appliqué Gal-Bulletin Glottodidactica: an International Journal of Applied Linguistics IRAL: International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching Issues in Applied Linguistics computational linguistics apposition Optional constituent of a noun phrase which agrees syntactically and usually referentially with the nominal head. Appositions can be either closely or loosely connected with the nominal head, and preposed or postposed: Aunt Nelly, Mr Smith, President Jones; Philip, my best friend. Appositions are typically noun phrases, but are not absolutely limited to this category. Words and phrases in all syntactic categories (nouns, adjectives, adjective phrases, prepositional phrases, clauses, etc.) can occur as appositions, and even non-linguistic units as well: the film ‘One flew over the Cuckoo’s nest,’ the word ‘and,’ the symbol $, the musical note A#. There are also appositions which are major constituents of the sentence, e.g. Young people, of course, don’t want to hear anything about it. References Burton-Roberts, N. 1975. Nominal apposition. FL 13. 391–420. Meyer, C.F. 1992. Apposition in contemporary English. Cambridge. Schindler, W. 1990. Untersuchungen zur Grammatik appositionsverdächtiger Einheiten im Deutschen. Tübingen. Seiler, H. 1960. Relativsatz, Attribut, und Apposition. Wiesbaden. approximant Manner of articulation in which the primary constriction is more open than for a stop or fricative. In English, [r, l, j, w, h] are approximants, [l] being lateral. the others being A-Z central ( compact vs diffuse). ( articulation, semivowel) 79 also articulatory phonetics, place of approximative system interlanguage apraxia [Grk ‘non-action’] Neuropsychological term ( neuropsychology) referring to an impairment of the ability to execute movements willfully (i.e. on demand) in spite of the ability to move the respective body parts. In this condition, involuntary movements remain intact. Symptoms of this syndrome are found, for example, in articulation (verbal apraxia or apraxia of speech), in writing of letters of the alphabet (e.g. apraxic agraphia) or in gestures and mimicry (bucco-facial apraxia). Minor disturbances are often called dyspraxia. Apraxia, characterized by incon-sistent errors and variable substitutions, is distinguished from dysarthria. When occurring in childhood and interfering with language acquisition, apraxia may be called ‘developmental apraxia.’ ( also articulation disorder) References Brown, J.W. 1972. Aphasia, apraxia and agnosia. Springfield, IL. Darley, F., A.Aronson, and J.R.Brown. 1975. Motor speech disorders. Philadelphia. Hecaen, H. and M.Albert. 1978. Human neuropsychology. New York. Ryalls, J. (ed.) 1987. Phonetic approaches to speech production in aphasia and related disorders. Boston. aphasia, language disorder apraxic agraphia apraxia Arabic Largest Semitic language, spoken in North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and in the Middle East (approx. 150 million speakers); the cult language of Islam. A panregional form of Arabic exists which is broadly similar to the language of the Koran (Classical Dictionary of language and linguistics 80 Arabic), as well as various regional dialects (main dialects: Egypt, West North Africa, Syria, Iraq, Arabian Peninsula; Maltese is strongly influenced by Italian). The term ‘Old South Arabian’ is used for the old independent languages in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula. A unique alphabet developed from Aramaic (consonantal writing system with restricted ability to mark vowels) in two versions: the block letter Kūfī writing and the cursive form Nashī more often used. Characteristics: rich consonant system (including uvular, pharyngeal and laryngeal Semitic. Word sounds) contrasting with a simple vowel system. For its morphology order VSO; in the dialects often SVO. References Bloch, A.A. 1991. Studies in Arabic syntax and semantics, 2nd rev. printing. Wiesbaden. Eid, M. et al. (eds) 1990–4. Perspectives on Arabic linguistics, 6 vols. hitherto. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Fischer, W. and H.Gätje (eds) 1982. Grundriss der arabischen Philologie, vol. I: Sprachwissenschaft. Wiesbaden. Classical Arabic Fischer, W. 1987. Grammatik des Klassischen Arabisch, 2nd edn. Wiesbaden. Wright, W. 1955. A grammar of the Arabic language, 3rd edn, 2 vols. Cambridge. Modern Standard Arabic Cantarino, V. 1974–5. Syntax of Modern Arabic prose. Bloomington, IN and London. Holes, C. 1994. Modern Arabic. London. Stetkevych, J. 1970. The Modern Arabic literary language: lexical and stylistic developments. Chicago and London. Individual dialects Ahmed, M. 1992. Lehrbuch des Ägyptisch-Arabischen, 3rd rev. and enlarged edn. Wiesbaden. Aquilina, J. 1973. The structure of Maltese: A study in mixed grammar and vocabulary. Msida. Behnstedt, P. and M.Woidich. 1985–8. Die ägyptisch-arabischen Dialekte, 3 vols. Wiesbaden. Blau, J. 1988. Studies in Middle Arabic and its Judaeo-Arabic variety. Leiden. Cowell, M.W. 1964. A short reference grammar of Syrian Arabic. Washington, DC. Erwin, W.M. 1963. A short reference grammar of Iraqi Arabic. Washington, DC. Fischer, W. and O.Jastrow. 1980. Handbuch der arabischen Dialekte. Wiesbaden. Harrell, R.S. 1962. A short reference grammar of Moroccan Arabic. Washington, DC. Holes, C. 1989. Gulf Arabic. London. Mitchell, T.F. 1956. An introduction to colloquial Egyptian Arabic. London. Owens, J. 1984. A short reference grammar of Eastern Libyan Arabic. Wiesbaden. ——1993. A grammar of Nigerian Arabic. Wiesbaden. A-Z 81 Prochazka, T. 1988. Saudi Arabian dialects. London and New York. Qafisheh, D.A. 1977. A short reference grammar of Gulf Arabic. Tucson, AZ. Rice, F.A. and F.A.Majed. 1979. Eastern Arabic: an introduction to the Arabic spoken by Palestinian, Syrian, and Lebanese Arabs, re-issue. Washington. Talmoudi, F. 1984. The diglossic situation in North Africa: a study of Classical Arabic/dialectal Arabic diglossia with sample text in ‘Mixed Arabic.’ Göteborg. Tapiero, N. 1979. Manuel d’arabe algérien moderne. Paris. Dictionaries Deboo, J. 1989. Jemenitisches Wörterbuch: Arabisch-Deutsch-Englisch. Wiesbaden. Piamenta, M. 1990–1. A dictionary of post-classical Yemeni Arabic, 2 vols. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Ullmann, M. et al. 1970–. Wörterbuch der Klassischen Arabischen Sprache. Wiesbaden. Wehr, H. 1979. A dictionary of Modern written Arabic: Arabic—English, ed. J.M.Cowan, 4th edn. Wiesbaden. Bibliographies Bakalla, M.H. 1983. Arabic linguistics: an introduction and bibliography. London. Woidich, M. 1989. Bibliographie zum Ägyptisch-Arabischen. Amsterdam. Journals Al-‛Arabiyya: Journal of the American Association of Teachers of Arabic. Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik. Aramaic Group of Semitic dialects attested since the tenth century BC, widespread throughout the Near East from approx. 300 BC to AD 600. Aramaic was used in the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Empires and is spoken today in small enclaves in Syria, Turkey, and Iraq. References Arayathinal, T. 1957–9. Aramaic grammar: method Gaspey-Otto-Sauer. Mannanam. Beyer, K. 1986. The Aramaic language: its distribution and subdivisions, trans. J.F.Healey, Göttingen. Dictionary of language and linguistics 82 Kutscher, E.Y. 1977. Aramaic. In Ben-Hayyim, Z. (ed.), Hebrew and Aramaic Studies. Jerusalem. 90–155. Macuch, R. 1965. Handbook of classical and modern Mandaic. Berlin. Marcus, D. 1981. A manual of Babylonian Jewish Aramaic. Washington, DC. Noeldeke, T. 1904. Compendious Syriac grammar, trans. from the 2nd German edn by J.Crichton. London. Rosenthal, F. 1961. A grammar of Biblical Aramaic. Wiesbaden. ——(ed.) 1967. An Aramaic handbook, 2 parts. Wiesbaden. Bibliographies Fitzmeyer, J.A. et al. 1992–. An Aramaic bibliography. Baltimore, MD. Krotkoff, G. 1990. An annotated bibliography of Neo-Aramaic. In W.Heinrichs (ed.), Studies in Neo-Aramaic. Atlanta, GA. 3–26. Araucian Andean Arawakan (also Maipuran) Language family in Central and South America with approx. 80 languages, originally spread throughout the Caribbean up to Florida. Greenberg (1956, 1987) considered it a member, together with Tupi, of the Andean-Equatorial language group (Andean). Gilij (1780–4) was one of the first to suspect that several Arawakan languages were related. Largest language: Goajiro in northern Columbia (approx. 60,000 speakers). Characteristics: typologically very diverse; original word order probably SOV with postpositions, under Caribbean influence also OVS; case markings occur seldom (either ergative or accusative); gender and classifying systems are common. References Derbyshire, D.C. 1986. Comparative survey of morphology and syntax in Brazilian Arawakan. In D.C.Derbyshire and G.Pullum (eds), Handbook of Amazonean languages. Berlin. 469–566. Greenberg, J. 1960. The general classification of Central and South American languages. In A. Wallace (ed.), Selected Papers of the Fifth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences. 791–4. Philadelphia. ——1987. Languages in the Americas. Stanford, CA. Matteson, E. 1972. Proto-Arawakan. In E.Matteson (ed.), Comparative studies in Amerindian languages. The Hague. 160–242. Noble, G.K. 1965. Proto-Arawakan and its descendants. IJAL 31. 3.2. South American languages A-Z 83 arbitrariness Basic property of linguistic signs, meaning that between the signifier (=sound shape, shape of the sign) and the signified ( signifier vs signified) there is an arbitrary, rather than a natural, i.e. iconical, relationship. Depending on the theoretical standpoint, this arbitrariness refers either to the relationship between linguistic signs and the extralinguistic reality or to the relationship between a linguistic sign and its meaning. De Saussure (1916) uses arbitrariness for the relationship between the sound shape (image acoustique) and the concept. As proof for this assumption of arbitrariness, he adduces the fact that the same object in reality has different names in different languages. Arbitrariness does not mean that the individual speaker can proceed quite freely in the choice of linguistic constructions: from the standpoint of language acquisition and communication, the speaker experiences the connection between sign and meaning as customary and obligatory. The arbitrariness of the linguistic sign corresponds its ‘nonmotivatedness’ ( motivation), which is, however, relativized in word formation, e.g. in compounds such as living room, or in onomatopoeic expressions such as miaow and crash ( onomatopoeia). In this connection, one speaks of ‘secondary motivation.’ For another view see Wright (1976). References Saussure, F. de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C.Bally and A.Sechehaye. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) Taylor, T.J. 1990. Free will versus arbitrariness in the history of the linguistic sign. PICHoLS 4/1. 79–88. Wright, E.L. 1976. Arbitrariness and motivation: a new theory. FL 14. 505–23. sign archaism [Grk archaĩos ‘old-fashioned, antiquated’] The effective use of outdated expressions for poetic, ironic, or elevated connotation. Scott and Tennyson, in using archaisms to give color to conversation in historical romance, rendered themselves guilty of what Robert Louis Stevenson called ‘tushery’: Knight/Slay me not: My three brothers bod me do it (Tennyson, ‘Gareth and Lynette,’ in Idylls of the King). Dictionary of language and linguistics 84 archilexeme [Grk archí—‘main, chief,’ léxis ‘word’] Introduced by B.Pottier, the term (coined in analogy to archiphoneme) refers to a word whose meaning can be identified in relation to the collective meaning of the lexical field. The archilexeme of birch, ash, maple, etc. is tree, whose meaning is identical to the meaning of all the elements of the semantic field taken together. An archilexeme does not necessarily have to be the same part of speech as the other words in the particular lexical field. In other cases, a lexical field, such as the adjectives of temperature in English, may be lacking an archilexeme. ( also hyperonymy) Reference Pottier, B. 1963. Recherches sur l’analyse sémantique en linguistique et en traduction mécanique. Paris. archiphoneme [Grk phoné ‘sound, voice’] Prague School term for the complete group of distinctive features which are common to two phonemes in binary opposition. Through neutralization, the removal of the differentiating feature can ensue in certain positions, e.g. the loss of the voiced vs , so that voiceless opposition in medial position in Amer. Eng. latter vs ladder the archiphoneme of /t/ and /d/ is a non-nasal alveolar stop. References Davidsen-Nielsen, N. 1978. Neutralization and the archiphoneme: two phonological concepts and their history. Copenhagen. phonology A-Z Arc Pair Grammar areal linguistics 85 relational grammar dialect geography argot A secret language, roughly corresponding to cant, used by beggars and thieves in medieval France. More broadly, argot may refer to any specialized vocabulary or set of expressions ( jargon) used by a particular group or class and not widely understood by mainstream society, e.g. the argot of gamblers or the argot of the underworld. ( also slang) argument 1 In formal logic, term that denotes the empty slot of a predicate or of a function1. Depending on how many arguments a predicate requires, it is called either a one-, two-, or three-place predicate. One-place predicates like x is round (notation: round (x)) assign a property to the argument; in this case the argument/ predicate relation corresponds to the subject/ predicate distinction in traditional grammar. Multi-place predicates, on the other hand, represent relations between arguments: x is younger than y (notation: younger (x, y)) or x hands y a z (notation: hand (x, y, z)), whereby the elements are ordered (and therefore not arbitrarily substitutable). The empty positions of the predicate correspond in other terminology to its syntactic valence. 2 In Government and Binding theory a referential expression which corresponds to a thematic role ( theta criterion) in logical form. Chomsky characterizes the deep structure as a representational level in which every position occupied by an argument is assigned a thematic role and vice versa. The terms ‘theta-marked position’ and ‘argument’ are not synonymous in Government and Binding theory, because at sstructure an argument may no longer be in the position which defines the logical argument of the predicate in surface structure if a transformation affects that argument. The empty position left by the transformation is theta-marked, but is not an argument. Other empty categories, however, like PRO, are necessarily arguments because they fulfill the function of referential pronouns. Dictionary of language and linguistics 86 References Comrie, B. 1993. Argument structure. In: J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 905–13. Grimshaw, J. 1990. Argument structure. Cambridge, MA. Government and Binding theory, theta criterion 3 The distinction introduced by Williams (1981) between ‘external vs internal’ argument refers to the argument positions of a logical predicate and their realization in the syntax: an argument position of a predicate is syntactically external, if its thematic role appears or has to be assumed outside of the maximal projection ( X-bar theory) of the predicate. Thus, subjects, as a rule, are external arguments, for they appear outside of the verb phrase (e.g. Philip in Philip battles against untidiness), whereas objects stand within the verb phrase and so are internal arguments. Thus, Philip in Philip’s battle against untidiness is the internal argument of battle, for the ‘subject’ of the noun battle appears within the noun phrase. Williams (1981) uses the terms ‘argument’ and ‘thematic role’ synonymously; however, it would be more precise to distinguish between internal vs external thematic roles. References Williams, E. 1981. Argument structure and morphology. LRev 1. 81–114. ——1993. Thematic structure in syntax. Cambridge, MA. argument linking In Lieber’s (1983) word formation, assumed process in which a thematic relation is attributed by a verb or a preposition within the word structure to a word-internal or external argument, e.g. drawbridge and handpaint the picture, respectively. ( also composition, verbal vs root compound, word syntax) Reference Lieber, R. 1983. Argument linking and compounds in English. LingI 14. 251–85. A-Z 87 argument position N.Chomsky’s term in Government and Binding theory for positions in the tree diagram that can be assigned a theta role ( theta criterion) independently of any particular lexical item. Therefore, subject and object positions are argument positions, but the COMP position is not. The difference between argument positions and non-argument positions is especially important in binding theory, where there is an important distinction between anaphora and so-called variables. Anaphoras have a local antecedent in an argument position, whereas variables have a local antecedent in a non-argument position. Correspondingly, one differentiates between A-binding and A-bar-binding. argumentation Complexly structured linguistic act to explain a state of affairs or to justify an act. The foundation of argumentation is the Aristotelian syllogism, in which the truth of the conclusion necessarily arises from the linguistic form and the choice of arguments (premise). The so-called ‘rhetorical argument’ of everyday language (entymon), is much more complicated than such ‘analytic conclusions,’ which form the topics of formal logic. The persuasive power of ‘rhetorical arguments’ depends as much on their linguistic construction as on the credible substantiation of their claims. Arguments can take the form of dialogues, can be embedded in scientific discourse, and are found in all kinds of commercial advertising ( advertising language). Argument theory, developed by S.A.Toulmin, C.Perelman, and others, is central to modern rhetoric and modern text linguistics. It is an inherently interdisciplinary field of study. References Benoit, W.L., D.Hample, and P.J.Benoit (eds) 1992. Readings in argumentation. Berlin and New York. Cox, R.J. and C.A.Willard (eds) 1982. Advances in argumentation: theory and research. Carbondale, IL. Freeman, J.B. 1991. Dialectics and the macro-structure of arguments. Berlin and New York. Govier, T. 1985. A practical study of argument. Belmont. Hirsch, R. 1989. Argumentation, information, and interaction. Göteborg. Hirschberg, S. 1990. Strategies of argument. New York. Johnstone, H.W. 1968. Theory of argumentation. In R.Klibansky (ed.), La Philosophie contemporaine. Florence. Vol. I, 177–84. Perelman, C. et al. 1969. The new rhetoric: a treatise on argumentation. London. ——1977. L’Empire rhétorique: rhétorique et argumentation. Paris. Rescher, N. 1966. The logic of commands. London. Richards, T.J. 1978. The language of reason. Oxford. Dictionary of language and linguistics 88 Scriven, M. 1976. Reasoning. New York. Toulmin, S. 1958. The uses of argument. Cambridge. ——et al. 1979. An introduction to reasoning. New York. Van Eemeren, F. et al. (eds) 1987. Argumentation: proceedings of the first international conference on argumentation, 3 vols. Dordrecht. ——et al. (eds) 1987. Handbook of argumentation theory: critical survey of classical backgrounds and modern studies. Dordrecht. Bibliography Nye, R.A. 1973. Argument and debate: an annotated bibliography. New York. Journal Argumentation: an International Journal of Reasoning Armenian Branch of Indo-European consisting of only one language with numerous dialects and approx. 5.5 million speakers located in the former Soviet Union, Turkey, Iran, and in numerous other countries. Written documents date from the fifth century AD. Armenian has its own alphabet which continues to be used today and according to tradition was developed by bishop Mesrop in AD 406, based on Aramaic and Greek. Armenian contains numerous loan words, particularly from Persian. Characteristics: articulatory contrast of voiceless/voiceless aspirated/voiced; rich case system (seven cases); loss of Indo-European gender system; word order: SVO. References Bardakjian, K.B. and R.W.Thomson, 1977. A text-book of modern western Armenian. Delmar, NY. Diakonoff, I.M. 1984. The pre-history of the Armenian people. Delmar, NY. Godel, R. 1975. An introduction to the study of Classical Armenian. Wiesbaden. Greppin, J.A.C. and A.A.Khachaturian. 1986. A handbook of Armenian dialectology. Delmar, NY. Leroy, M. and F.Mawet. 1986. La place de l’arménien dans les langues indo-européennes. Leuven. Solta, G. 1964. Die armenische Sprache. In B.Spuler (ed.), Handbuch der Orientalistik I, vol. 7: Armenisch und kaukasische Sprachen. Leiden. 80–128. Thomson, R.W. 1975. An introduction to Classical Armenian. Delmar, NY. A-Z 89 Grammars Hübschmann, H. 1897. Armenische Grammatik. Leipzig. (3rd repr. Hildesheim and New York 1972.) Kogian, S.L. 1949. Armenian grammar (west dialect). Vienna. Meillet, A. 1913. Altarmenisches Elementarbuch. Heidelberg. (Repr. New York, 1981.) ——1936. Esquisse d’une grammaire comparée de l’arménien classique, 2nd edn. Vienna. Minassian, M. 1980. Grammaire d’Arménien oriental. Delmar, NY. Schmitt, R. 1981. Grammatik des Klassisch-Armenischen mit sprachvergleichenden Erläuterungen. Innsbruck. Dictionary Bedrossian, M. 1879. New dictionary Armenian—English. Beirut. Journals Annual of Armenian Linguistics Revue des Études Arméniennes arrow 1 In comparative linguistics, the arrow, as well as the ‘>,’ is used to indicate historical developmental processes and should be read ‘becomes’ or ‘changes to.’ 2 In formal logic, the arrow is a symbol for logical connectives of implication: p→q reads ‘p implies q’ or ‘if p, then q.’ 3 In generative transformational grammar, the arrow is a symbol for replacement processes (also: expansion symbol): S→NP+VP means ‘replace the symbol S with the symbols NP and VP.’ The double arrow symbolizes the application of a transformation: A+B B+A means ‘transform the symbols A and B into the symbol chain B and A.’ ( also permutation) article [Lat. articulus ‘joint’] Term from traditional and structural grammar for a grammatical category with two elements: definite articles (the) and indefinite articles (a, an). These elements are now grouped with determiners and, in the case of alan, quantifiers. There are no articles in Latin or in most Slavic languages. In English, French, and German, an article occurs Dictionary of language and linguistics 90 before the noun and can only be moved in the sentence together with the noun. However, it can also come after the noun (=postposed) or, as in Danish and Bulgarian, appear in the form of a suffix. In English, articles are defined either as definite (e.g., the, which is a reflex of an original demonstrative pronoun) or as indefinite (a, an, stemming from the original indefinite pronoun and numeral, which were identical). References determiner articulation 1 In the broader sense, intentional movement of the primary articulators for the creation of speech sounds, including those organs involved in the airstream mechanism and phonation. ( also articulatory phonetics) 2 In the narrower sense, the restriction of the airstream by the tongue or lips. Because of their physiological preconditions, the tongue and the lips (especially the lower lips) contribute most effectively to the acoustically or auditively perceivable change of the airstream in that they constrict the airstream to a greater or lesser degree. A distinction is drawn between primary and secondary articulation if the airstream must overcome two obstructions. The parts of the lower lip and tongue that are actively used in the changes to the airstream are called primary articulators. They give their names to the sounds they form (following in parentheses): lower lip (labial1); tip of the tongue (apical); rim of the tongue (coronal coronal vs non-coronal); blade, or lamina, of the tongue (laminal); back, or dorsum, of the tongue (dorsal); root, or radix, of the tongue (radical). Those parts of the upper and back of the oral cavity and pharynx which can be reached completely or partly by the articulators are called places of articulation which give their names to the sounds they form (following in parentheses): upper lip (labial2); upper teeth (dental); alveolus (alveolar); hard palate (palatal); velum (velar); uvula (uvular); pharynx (pharyngeal). Since not every articulator can reach every place of articulation, the places of articulation can be simplified and classified (according to the IPA, see the table on p. xix) as the following speech sounds (the detailed terms are given in parentheses): (a) bilabial (bilabial); (b) labio-dental (labio-dental); (c) dental (apicodental, lamino-dental); (d) alveolar (apico-alveolar, lamino-alveolar); (e) retroflex (apico-post-alveolar); (f) palato-alveolar (lamino-post-alveolar); (g) alveolo-palatal (lamino-palatal); (h) palatal (pre-dorso-palatal); (i) velar (medio-dorso-palatal); (j) uvular (post-dorso-uvular); (k) pharyngeal (radico-pharyngeal). In the articulation of nasals the velum is lowered, while in the articulation of orals it is raised. In classifying vowels, instead of pre-dorso-palatal, medio-dorso-velar and post-dorsovelar, the terms ‘front,’ ‘middle,’ and ‘back’ are used to describe those vowels formed by using the front, middle, or back of the tongue (for further differentiation, vowel). A-Z 91 Depending on the manner in which the airstream is constructed in the oral cavity or pharynx during articulation, a distinction is drawn between: (a) a stop with oral closure; (b) a fricative (also spirant) with friction; (c) an approximant with neither oral closure nor oral friction. A further distinction is drawn depending on the manner in which the obstruction of the airstream is bypassed in the pharynx or oral cavity: (d) a median with a grooved central opening; (e) a lateral with openings to the sides; (f) a flap or tap with a striking or tapping motion; (g) a vibrant (also ‘trill’) with vibration. Median stops, in which the closure is orally released, are called plosives1; those that are formed with expiration are called egressives or explosives. Affricates are formed when friction occurs as the closure opens. References phonetics articulation base 1 Group of articulatory characteristics common to all speakers in a speech community. 2 Starting position (=resting position) of the articulators in the articulation of a speech sound. ( also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics articulation disorder A general term referring to impairments in the execution of speech sounds. Such a disorder may arise from a congenital problem (e.g. cleft palate) or a change in the peripheral organs of speech ( dysglossia), from an inability to execute articulatory movements voluntarily ( apraxia), or from an impairment of the neural mechanisms dysarthria). It may also involve a faulty temporal and/or involved in speaking ( spatial co-ordination of movements of the speech organs. Recently, in Dictionary of language and linguistics 92 speech-language pathology and clinical linguistics, this term has been distinguished from phonological disorder, which refers to the difficulty in acquiring the underlying categories of speech sounds though not in executing them. In Europe, the term may also refer to speech disorders that depend on the situation or relate to fluency, such as stuttering ( dysfluency). References Benthal. J. and N.W.Bankson. 1988. Articulation and phonological disorders, 2nd rev. edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Ryalls. J. (ed.) 1987. Phonetic approaches to speech production in aphasia and related disorders. Boston. A-Z 93 articulator (also articulatory organ) 1 In the narrow sense (also active articulator), the (relatively) mobile organs used for articulation, especially the lips, lower jaw, and the various parts of the tongue. The primary active articulator is the single most relevant active articulator. 2 In the broader sense, all organs involved in articulation, i.e. the movable organs as well as the stationary places of articulation, the glottis, lungs, and so on. ( also articulatory phonetics) Dictionary of language and linguistics 94 articulatory canal vocal tract articulatory organ articulator articulatory phonetics Subdiscipline of general phonetics which describes the physiological processes occurring in the vocal tract during speech. From a physical standpoint, speech sounds are resonances, the production of which involves four factors: (1) airstream mechanism, the initiation of an actual or potential flow of air; (2) phonation, the activity of the larynx (other than for initiation or articulation); (3) the position of the velum, yielding nasal or nasalized sounds on the one hand and oral sounds on the other; and (4) the place of articulation and manner of articulation. (1) and (4) are factors in all speech sounds, (2) and (3) only in pulmonic sounds. artificial intelligence (abbrev. AI) Subdiscipline of computer science that attempts to simulate and understand human intelligence and cognitive abilities by using machines (i.e. computers). Two important currents can be seen in artificial intelligence: (a) an orientation towards cognition whose goal is to describe and explain cognitive processes; and (b) an orientation towards applied theory which has focused on constructing working computer systems. Every type of interaction between humans and machines is based on concepts of artificial intelligence. Its areas of application include theorem proving, knowledge-based expert systems, machine learning programs, machine-aided translation. and comprehending and generating spoken language, among many others. References Barr, A. and E.A.Feigenbaum, (eds) 1981–2. The handbook of artificial intelligence, 3 vols. Los Altos, CA. ——, P.Cohen and E.A.Feigenbaum (eds) 1989. The handbook. of artificial intelligence. vol. 4. Los Altos, CA. Broadbent, D. (ed.) 1992. The simulation of human intelligence. Oxford. Charniak, E. 1994. Statistical language learning. Cambridge, MA. A-Z 95 Johnson-Laird, P. 1988. The computer and the mind. Cambridge, MA. Krause, P. and D.Clark. 1993. Representing uncertain knowledge: an artificial intelligence approach. Dordrecht. Paris, C.L., et al. 1991. Natural language generation in artificial intelligence and computational linguistics. Dordrecht. Partridge, D. and Y.Wilks 1990. The foundation of artificial intelligence. Cambridge. Rich, E. 1983. Artificial intelligence. London. Shapiro, S. (ed.) 1987. Encyclopedia of artificial intelligence. New York. Vollnhals, O. 1992. Multilingual dictionary of artificial intelligence. London. Way, E.C. 1991. Knowledge representation and metaphor. Dordrecht. Journal Artificial Intelligence artificial language 1 In contrast to a natural language, an artificially created language system (a) for purposes of international understanding ( planned language), (b) as a logical sign system for explicit description (for eliminating ambiguities) of scientific systems ( formal language), (c) as a symbolic language for computer programs ( computational linguistics, programming language). Reference Garner, M. 1987. Artificial languages: a critical history. London. 2 An imitation of natural language through electro-acoustic processes. ( speech) Arumanian also synthetic Rumanian Asiatic languages Genuinely Asiatic language groups are Altaic, Sino-Tibetan, Dravidian, and AustroThai and possibly some isolated language (groups) such as Paleo-Siberian, Dictionary of language and linguistics 96 Burushashki, and Ket as well. It is uncertain whether or not Japanese or Korean belong to this group. Many of these languages belong to language groups spanning a number of continents (Indo-European, Caucasian languages, Uralic, Afro-Asiatic, Austronesian Malayo-Polynesian). The genetic distribution of the Asian languages was already understood fairly well by the eighteenth century, and a number of the individual languages had been studied even earlier. References Comrie, B. 1981. The languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridge. Shapiro. M.C. and H.F.Schiffman (eds) 1983. Language and society in South Asia. Dordrecht. ASL (American Sign Language) language sign aspect Aspect refers to the internal temporal structure of a verb or sentence meaning. The most important aspectual distinctions are the following: (a) stative vs active, by which situations are classified into states, which do not involve a change in time (e.g. own, know, like), and processes, activities, or actions, which refer to an active situation (e.g. blossom, hit). (b) perfective vs imperfective, durative vs non-durative, progressive vs non-progressive. Imperfective, durative, or progressive aspect refers to situations which are viewed as temporally not delimited (e.g. work, read, be burning). Perfective, nondurative, non-progressive, or punctual aspect implies a temporal boundary of the situation denoted by a verb or sentence (e.g. burn down, have read a novel). (c) Repetition or frequency with habituals (used to drink) and iteratives (flutter). (d) Reference to causality is sometimes also related to aspect. Causality distinguishes an action which is caused by an agent (e.g. hit, read) from a state or process (know, blossom); process vs action. With causative verbs (fell, drench) the causative component is added by morphological derivation (cf. fall, drink). There is considerable disagreement in the treatment and description of aspect categories. This is partly due to the diverse grammatical and lexical means of expressing aspectual notions. The interaction of lexical meaning of verbs, the morphological form of the verb, the type of argument noun phrases (singular vs plural, mass noun vs count noun), adverbials, auxiliaries, tenses, etc. may contribute to the aspectual character of a sentence. A-Z 97 In English, most verbs have a simple and a progressive form (I sing vs I am singing) and the selection of the progressive is restricted, in general, to verbs whose lexical meaning is not stative (*I am knowing). In Russian, the durative verb lexemes (e.g. spat ‘to sleep,’ zit ‘to live, to dwell,’ sidet ‘to sit’) have, in general, only imperfective forms, whereas non-durative verb lexemes may have both an imperfective and a perfective form, e.g. probuzdat’ sja (imperf.) probudit’ sja (perf.), ‘to wake up,’ naxodit/najti ‘to find,’ umirat/umeret ‘to die’. The type of argument noun phrases influences aspect categorization: he ate apples (durative, imperfective) vs he ate an apple (non-durative, perfective). In Finnish, the case of the object noun phrase is relevant for the aspect of the sentence: luen kirjaa (partitive) ‘I read some of the book’ (durative, imperfective) vs luen kirjan (acc.) ‘I read the book’ (non-durative, perfective). The choice of adverbials denoting the duration of the event is also restricted by aspect: she worked in Texas for two years (durative, imperfective) vs she wrote a novel in two years (non-durative, perfective). There are also aspect-indicating verbs or auxiliaries: she started working (non-durative, inchoative), she finished working (non-durative, completive). Closely related to Aktionsart. References Bache, C. 1982. Aspect and Aktionsart: towards a semantic distinction. JL 18. 57–72. Bybee, J., R.Perkins, and W.Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar: tense, aspect and modality in the languages of the world. Chicago, IL. Comrie, B. 1976. Aspect: an introduction to the study of verbal aspect and related problems. Cambridge. Dahl, Ö. 1985. Tense and aspect systems. Cambridge. Forsyth, J. 1970. A grammar of aspect: usage and meaning in the Russian verb. Cambridge. Groot, C.de and H.Tommola (eds) 1984. Aspect bound: a voyage into the realm of Germanic, Slavonic and Finno-Ugrian aspectology. Dordrecht. Hoepelmann, J. 1981. Verb classification and the Russian verbal aspect: a formal analysis. Tübingen. Nedjalkou, V.P. (ed.) 1988. Typology of resultative constructions. Amsterdam. Rohrer, C. (ed.) 1978. Papers on tense, aspect and verb classification. Tübingen. Saurer, W. 1984. A formal semantics of tense, aspects and Aktionsart. Bloomington, IN. Steinitz, R. 1981. Zum Status der Kategorie ‘Aktionsart’ in der Grammatik (oder: Gibt es Aktionsart im Deutschen?). LSt 76. 1–122. Tedeschi, P.J. and A.Zaenen (eds). 1981. Tense and aspect. New York. Thelin, N.B. (ed.) 1990. Verbal aspect in discourse: contributions to the semantics of time and temporal perspective in Slavic and non-Slavic languages. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Tobin, Y. 1993. Aspect in the English verb. London. Vendler, Z. 1967. Linguistics in philosophy. Ithaca, NY. Verkuyl, H.J. 1972. On the compositional nature of the aspects. Dordrecht. ——1989. Aspectual classes and aspectual composition. Ling&P 12. 39–94. ——1993. A theory of aspectuality. Cambridge. tense Dictionary of language and linguistics 98 aspects model (also aspects theory, standard theory) An abbreviated name for the model proposed in Chomsky’s (1965) book Aspects of the Theory of Syntax, in which he revised his suggested model for transformational grammar published in Syntactic Structures in 1957. The most important changes and extensions of the aspects model are: (a) the differentiation between the terms competence and performance ( competence vs performance), grammaticality and acceptability, surface structure and deep structure; (b) instead of generalized transformations, recursiveness is part of the base components of the grammar; (c) the lexicon is added to the grammar as a base component and the level of semantics is treated as an interpretive component. transformational grammar for the extensions of the aspects model. References transformational grammar aspects theory aspects model aspirate [Lat. aspirare ‘to breathe’] 1 (Usually voiceless) aspirated plosive ( voiced vs voiceless, aspiration), as [th] in h Eng. [t i] tea. 2 One of the posited series of voiced aspirates in Proto-Indo-European and its etymological equivalent in the daughter languages. ( also historical linguistics, laryngeal theory) A-Z 99 References phonetics aspiration Voiceless breath ( voiced vs voiceless) before (=preaspiration) or after (=postaspiration) the formation of a (usually voiceless) stop or fricative, due to the preceding (or succeeding) opening of the glottis, especially after (or before) the formation of a voiced vowel, e.g. [hp], [hk] in Icelandic ['hεhp:ιn] ‘happy,’ ['1Yh k:a] ‘luck’; [hk'] in Georgian [hk'idia] ‘(he/she/ it) hangs’; or Eng. [ph], [th], [kh] in [phæn] pan, [thæn] tan, [khæn] can. The degree of air pressure determines the strength of aspiration. ( also articulatory phonetics, fortis vs lenis, phonotactics) References phonetics Assamese assertion Indo-Aryan allegation, statement assibilation 1 Formation of an epenthetic ( epenthesis) sibilant through palatalization between a dorsal stop ( dorsal, stop) and a following front vowel [i, e], e.g. the [s] in German Nation [natsion]. Dictionary of language and linguistics 100 2 Change of [g] and [k] to sibilants before palatal sounds, e.g. OE cirice>Mod. Eng. also assimilation, church; or Lat. centum (with initial [k])>Fr. cent (with initial [s]). ( sound change) assimilation [Lat. assimilare ‘to make like (to)’] Articulatory adaptation of one sound to a nearby sound with regard to one or more articulation). Assimilation has numerous aspects. (a) Assimilation can be a features ( matter of (i) the place of articulation, e.g. the n in incomplete pronounced as [ŋ]; (ii) the manner of articulation. e.g./in/>[ir] in irregular); or (iii) the glottal state, e.g. the and cats [kæts]. (This is also pronunciation of the plural morpheme {-s} in dogs called ‘voicing assimilation.’) (b) Depending on the direction of influence in a sound sequence, a distinction is drawn between progressive (or perseverative) assimilation, in which a following sound adapts itself to a preceding one (as in vowel harmony), and regressive (or anticipatory) assimilation, in which a preceding sound takes on a feature or features of a following sound (as in umlaut). (c) A distinction is also made between complete and partial assimilation. Complete assimilation describes the leveling of two sounds (as in irregular, above), which is always the case if the sounds are differentiated by only one feature. Partial assimilation refers to the change of only one of several features (as in incomplete, above). (d) Assimilation can also be reciprocal (also called ‘bidirectional’ or ‘fusional’), when a mutual adaptation occurs, and a third sound replaces the two original sounds: [ti]>[∫] in nation ['nei∫ən]. (e) If the process involves adjacent sounds, it is a case of contact assimilation. Otherwise it is called distant assimilation. ( also coarticulation, labialization, monophthongization, palatalization) References Vennemann, T. 1972. Phonetic detail in assimilation. Problems in Germanic phonology. Lg 48. 863–92. phonetics, sound change A-Z 101 association In psychology, process of conscious association of two or more aspects of the imagination. This simultaneous occurrence of several experiential units is triggered by specific associative rules such as temporal and spatial contiguity as well as similarity and contrast between the experienced content. Associations play a central role in the investigation and fostering of fantasy, thinking, memory, and in all learning processes. In psycholinguistics, associations (in connection with the neobehaviorist psychol-ogy) are defined as a connection between stimulus and response (or stimulus and reaction) and are used for language tests, especially to explain meaning ( stimulus-response). Here a distinction is drawn between immediate associations (strings of words that are triggered by a particular stimulus word) and mediating associations that are assumed to function as not directly observable mediators in stimulusresponse processes. References Anderson, J.R. and G.H.Bowers. 1973. Human associate memory. Washington, DC. mediation, memory, psycholinguistics associative meaning Assyrian connotation1 Akkadian asterisk [Grk asterískokos ‘little star’] Typographical symbol used in linguistics in two ways: (a) to mark an unattested protoform ( proto) which has been hypothesized using comparative reconstruction or internal reconstruction, e.g. Proto-Indo European ‘horse’; or (b) to characterize an ungrammatical utterance, e.g. *Eve eated the apple. The asterisk has been used in this second fashion since Høysgaard in the mid-eighteenth century. Dictionary of language and linguistics 102 References Høysgaard, J.P. 1751. Methodisk Forsøg til en Fulstaendig Dansk Syntax. Copenhagen. Koerner, E.F.K. 1975. Zu Ursprung und Geschichte der Besternung in der historischen Sprachwissenschaft. ZUS 89.185–90. asyndetic sentence construction asyndeton asyndeton [Grk ‘unconnected’] Omission of conjunctions between words, phrases or clauses. Caesar used asyndeton in his famous expression Veni, vidi, vici ‘I came, I saw, I conquered.’ The opposite of asyndeton is polysyndeton. ( also syndesis) atelic durative vs non-durative, telic vs atelic aterminative vs terminative non-durative Athabaskan durative vs Na-Dene A-Z 103 athematic verb stem vowel ATN grammar augmented transition network grammar atomic concept semantic primitive atomic sentence In propositional logic ( formal logic), an elementary sentence of a language that does not itself contain any sentence in this language (and thus also no logical connectives). Thus, Philip is tall is an atomic sentence, but not Philip is tall and stocky, since this expression consists of two sentences that are connected by the logical connective and: Philip is tall and Philip is stocky. attenuative diminutive attribute Dependent expression which modifies a nominal head. The term is not used uniformly everywhere; originally, it related only to attributive adjectives in English and Romance and some German linguistic literature, whereas in more recent grammars it is used as a designation for complements to any syntactic category in the sentence (with the exception of the verb). Attributes characterize or identify persons or states of affairs with respect to certain features; their semantic function is usually predication. Formally, attributes can be represented by different categorial fillings, e.g., as attributive adjective: (the) new (book), genitive attribute: Salomé’s dance, prepositional attribute: the day at the sea, adverbial attribute: (this weather) today, infinitive group: the right to vote, restrictive clause: (the book) that interests us the most, apposition: (this book), a real masterpiece. Dictionary of language and linguistics 104 References Burton-Roberts, N. 1975. Nominal apposition. FL 13. 391–419 Huddleston, R. 1971. The sentence in written English. London. Quirk, R., S.Greenbaum, G.Leech, and J.Svartvik 1985. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London. Seiler, H. 1960. Relativsatz, Attribut und Apposition. Wiesbaden. attributive vs referential reading (also de dicto/intensional vs de re/extensional reading) Term introduced by Donnellan (1966) to distinguish between various readings of definite noun phrases. The sentence Caroline wants to see the play that is being presented at the theater tonight is ambiguous. Either the speaker means a particular play, e.g. Hamlet, which he/ she assumes will be presented tonight—though that may not necessarily be the case—(referential reading), or he/she means whatever play for which the noun phrase could be true, no matter what play that might be (attributive or non-referential reading). In the case of the attributive reading, the form of the expression is essential for determining meaning. This is not so for the referential reading, i.e. any form is possible as long as the identity of the referent is clear. References Bartsch, R. 1976. The role of categorial syntax in grammatical theory. In A.Kasher (ed.), Language in focus. Dordrecht. 503–39. Donnellan, K. 1966. Reference and definite descriptions. Philosophische Rundschau 75. 281–304. Kripke, S.A. 1977. Speaker’s reference and semantic reference. Midwest Studies in Philosophy 2. 225–76. Lieb, H.H. 1979. Principles of semantics. In F.Henry and H.Schnelle (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 10: Selections from the third Groningen round table. New York. 353–78. Montague, R. 1973. The proper treatment of quantification in ordinary English. In K.J.J.Hintikka et al. (eds), Approaches to natural languages. Dordrecht. 221–42. Partee, B.H. 1970. Opacity, reference and pronouns. Synthese 21. 359–85. (Repr. in D.Davidson and G. Harman (eds), Semantics of natural language. Dordrecht, 1972. 415–41.) Searle, J.R. 1979. Referential and attributive. The Monist 13. 190–208. (Repr. in Expression and meaning. Cambridge, 1979. 137–61.) A-Z 105 audio-lingual method [Lat. audire ‘to hear,’ lingua ‘tongue’] (also audio-lingualism) Method of foreign-language instruction based on structuralist ( structuralism) principles and drawing on stimulus-response theory. The audio-lingual method became predominant in the United States in the late 1950s and throughout the 1960s, as the US government expanded its efforts to increase the number of people learning and teaching foreign languages. Its proponents believed that language learning is primarily a matter of developing proper mechanical habits, through positive reinforcement of correct utterances; that target language2 forms should be presented in spoken form before introducing their written representation; that analogy is a more effective mode of language learning than analysis, and that linguistic forms should be presented in context rather than as isolated items. Characteristic of audio-lingualism is the extensive use of pattern practice in instruction. ( also language pedagogy, second language acquisition) References Brooks, N. 1964. Language and language learning: theory and practice. 2nd ed. New York. Brown. H.D. 1987. Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs. NJ. Chastain, K. 1969. The audio-lingual habit theory versus the cognitive code-learning theory: some theoretical considerations. IRAL 7: 79–106. Chastain, K. 1971. The development of modern language skills: theory to practice. Chicago. Chomsky, N. 1959. A review of B.F.Skinner’s Verbal behavior. Lg 355.1: 26–58. Moulton, W. 1966. A linguistic guide to language learning. New York. Richards, J.C. and Rodgers, T.S. 1986. Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge. Rivers, W.M. 1964. The psychologist and the foreign language teacher. Chicago, IL. Skinner, B.F. 1957. Verbal behavior. New York. audio-lingualism audio-lingual method auditory phonetics Branch of phonetics which studies the anatomical and neurophysiological processes involved in the perception and decoding of spoken linguistic signals. In a comprehensive study of how language is comprehended, situational, psychological, and other such Dictionary of language and linguistics 106 components are studied in auditory phonetics alongside of the capacity to perceive and differentiate speech sounds. augment The augment is a word-forming element preserved in some older Indo-European languages (Greek, Indo-Iranian, Armenian, and Phrygian) for the designation of the past. Originally probably an adverb *é with the meaning ‘then, in the past,’ it later became a verbal prefix in the indicative mood of the imperfect, aorist and past perfect (e.g., Grk éphere: Skt ábharat: Arm. eber, all ‘carried’). References Greek, Indo-European augmentative 1 In the narrow sense, denominal or deadjectival derivations by means of particular suffixes (especially in the southern Romance languages), that denote an enlargement of the designated object, cf. Ital. naso vs nasone (‘big nose’), Span. hombre vs hombrote (‘large man’). 2 In a broader sense, any type of intensification of the basic meaning of a word by the addition of prefixes or prefixoids such as arch-, extra-, macro-, mega-, super-, and the like. References word formation A-Z 107 augmented transition network (ATN) grammar Formalism used in computational linguistics1 for analyzing (and generating) sentences, which was developed around 1970 as an alternative model to transformational grammar that could be easily implemented on computers. Instead of phrase structure rules (PS rules), augmented transition network grammar uses an equivalent set of finite state automata ( finite state automaton, formal language) that are called up recursively. Corresponding to the expansions of PS rules are permissible transitions between automata states; the working of transformations (e.g. in word order, congruence, active-passive-converse, control, etc.) is modeled by checking and modifying the register contents of the computer (through auxiliary functions). The latter represent augmentations to the simpler (recursive) network grammars that are equivalent to context-free (PS) grammars. Moreover, it is possible to associate any kind of actions—for example, ones which form tree diagrams, semantic representations, etc.— with the transitions between states. In this way, the augmented transition network grammar is not only a recognizing automaton, but also a transducer. Since the use of registers is, in principle, not subject to any limitations and all the possibilities of a conventional programming language can be used, the augmented transition network grammar is as powerful as the universal Turing machine. For the application of augmented transition network grammars to psycholinguistics, see Halle, Bresnan, and Miller (1978). References Bates, M. 1978. The theory and practice of augmented transition network grammars. In L.Bolc (ed.), Natural language communication with computers. Berlin. 191–259. Bobrow, D. and B.Fraser. 1969. An augmented state transition network analysis procedure. Proceedings of the IJCAI 69. 557–67. Halle, M., J.Bresnan, and G.Miller (eds) 1978. Linguistic theory and psychological reality. Cambridge, MA. Kaplan, R. 1972. Augmented transition networks as psychological models of sentence comprehension. AI 3. 77–100. Rumelhart, D. 1977. Introduction to human information processing. New York. Thorne, J. et al. 1968. The syntactic analysis of English by machine. In D.Mitchie (ed.), Machine intelligence. New York. Wanner, E. and M.Maratsos. 1978. An ATN approach to comprehension. In M.Halle, J.Bresnan, and G.Miller (eds), Linguistic theory and psychological reality. Cambridge, MA. 119–61. Woods, W.A. 1970. Transition network grammars for natural language analysis. Communications of the ACM 13. 591–606. formal language Dictionary of language and linguistics a-umlaut 108 breaking Australian languages Group of languages which includes all the languages of Australia, numbering approx. 170 languages, many nearly extinct, with about 30,000 speakers. The largest language family, Pama-Nyungan, covers nearly the whole continent; twenty-eight smaller and typologically divergent languages are concentrated on the northern coast. The most important language, Pitjantjatjara (Western Desert), is the trade language of West Australia. The main research on the Australian languages, with a few exceptions (e.g. the work of the Australian farmer E.M.Curr (1886), the Austrian priest W.Schmidt (1919) and the Australian A.Capell (1956)), did not start until 1960. Today numerous grammars as well as broader investigations are available on the individual languages. Languages such as Dyirbal or Warlpiri play an important role in current linguistic discussions. Characteristics: numerous common Australian words due to intercultural contact; this, as well as the tabooization and coining of words, makes reconstruction difficult. Characteristics of the Pama-Nyungan languages: simple phonetic system (only three vowels, no fricatives, no voice contrast, but a partially higher number of articulation oppositions). Complex words (suffixes), complex verb formation (tense, mood, government), noun classes with agreement; complex number categories (with dual), which often contrast with a very simple number system. They are primarily ergative languages, some languages (e.g. Dyirbal) showing clear syntactic ergativity. Extremely free word order. Complex locative deixis, including affixation on the verb. The nonPama-Nyunga languages deviate strongly from this model: complex consonant systems, case prefixes, pronominal prefixes with the verb. References Blake, B.J. 1986. Australian aboriginal grammar. London. Capell, A. 1956. A new approach to Australian linguistics. Sydney. Curr, E.M. 1886–7. The Australian race: its origins, languages, customs, places of landing in Australia, and the routes by which it spread itself over the continent, 4 vols. Melbourne. Dixon, R.M.W. 1980. The languages of Australia. Cambridge. Dixon, R.M.W. and J.Blake. 1979–91. Handbook of Australian languages, 4 vols. Amsterdam. Vol. 4 Oxford. Schmidt, W. 1919. Die Gliederung der australischen Sprachen. Vienna. Wurm, S.A. 1972. Languages of Australia and Tasmania. The Hague. Yallop, C. 1982. Australian aboriginal languages. London. A-Z Austroasian 109 Austro-Asiatic Austro-Asiatic Language group of South and South-East Asia with approx. 150 languages and 56 million speakers. The most important branches are the Munda and Mon-Khmer languages. Schmidt (1906) was the first to suggest combining the Austroasian languages with the Austronesian languages ( Malayo-Polynesian), a hypothesis which is still debated. The larger languages were often influenced by other language families, such that the original characteristics of this language group are preserved only in the smaller languages occurring in more isolated areas. The affinity of this language group to Vietnamese was not recognized until fairly recently. Characteristics: original features include: high number of vowel phonemes (up to forty, occasionally with creaky or breathy voice as distinctive feature), implosive consonants, in part tonal languages. Morphology usually prefixal or infixal; word order SVO. References Schmidt, W. 1906. Die Mon-Khmer-Völker: ein Bindeglied zwischen Völkern Zentralasiens und Austronesiens. Braunschweig. Zide, N.H. 1969. Munda and Non-Munda Austroasiatic languages. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 5, 411–30. Austronesian Malayo-Polynesian Austro-Thai Language group of South-East Asia which includes Austronesian ( MalayoPolynesian), Kam, Thai, and possibly Miao-Yao. A possible relationship to the AustroAsiatic languages has been suggested. Dictionary of language and linguistics 110 Reference Benedict, P.K. 1975. Austro-Thai: language and culture. New Haven, CT. autism [Grk autós ‘self,’ ‘by oneself, alone’] Term in child and adolescent psychiatry for a syndrome characterized by severe disorders in social behavior, abnormal development of communicative abilities, pronounced rituals and stereotypic behavior. and abnormal reactions to sensory stimuli. Believed to have various causes, autism starts in early childhood before the thirtieth month. With regard to their linguistic skills, autistic persons may manifest the following symptoms: echolalia, abnormal prosody, almost exclusively literal understanding of words or phrases, and pragmatic difficulties (e.g. topic violations, low responsivity, inappropriate register, deictic confusion, restricted range of function). ( also developmental language disorder) References Baltaxe, C.A.M. and J.Q.Simmons, 1985. Prosodic development in normal and autistic children. In E. Schopler and G.B.Mesibov (eds), Communication problems in autism. New York. 95–120. Cohen, D.J. et al. 1987. Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders. New York. Demyer, M.K. et al. 1981. Infantile autism reviewed: a decade of research. Schizophrenia Bulletin 7:3. 3–451. Eales, M.J. 1993. Pragmatic impairments in adults with childhood diagnoses of autism or developmental receptive language disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 23. 593–617. Fay, W.H. and A.Schuler. 1980. Emerging language in autistic children. London. Frith, U. 1989. A new look at language and communication in autism. British Journal of Disorders of Communication 24. 123–50. Kanner, L. 1973. Autistic disturbances of affective contact. The Nervous Child 2. 217–50. ——(ed.) 1973. Childhood psychosis. Washington, DC. Rutter, M. and E.Schopler (eds) 1978. Autism. New York. Schopler, E. and G.B.Mesibov. 1986. Social behavior in autism. New York. ——1988. Diagnosis and assessment in autism. New York. Schreibman, L. 1988. Autism. Newsbury Park. Tager-Flusberg, H. and M.Andersen. 1991. The development of contingent discourse ability in autistic children. Journal of Child Psychology, Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 32. 1123–34. Wing, L. 1988. Aspects of autism: biological research. London. A-Z 111 Journal Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorder automata theory automaton automatic translation machine-aided translation automaton [Grk autómatos ‘self-acting’] In the broad sense, any concrete machine that can perform independently, e.g. telephones or vending machines. In the narrow sense of automata theory. a mathematical model of concrete machines as information-processing systems which store and process input and provide output. All automata are defined as sets of automata states and transitions between these. More complex automata include a last-in-first-out memory (stack automata) or random access memory (Turing machines). In more recent linguistic research automata play an important role as processing models of language. Thus, regular grammars correspond to the finite state automata and context-free grammars correspond to the ‘push-down automata’ or stack automata, and unrestricted grammars (including, for example, all known transformational grammars) correspond to Turing machines (named after the mathematician A.M.Turing). Reference Hopcroft, J. and J.Ullmann, 1979. Introduction to automata theory, languages and computation. Reading, MA. Dictionary of language and linguistics 112 autonomy In glossematics, a form of constellation. The paradigmatic relation between two free elements which may be joined and whose common appearance is independent from each other, as opposed to determination and interdependence. autosegmental phonology Proposed by J.Goldsmith, a representation of generative phonology which allows certain features to be described as belonging to one or more segments. This hypothesis has proven useful in the description of tonal languages and vowel harmony. Autosegmental phonology is one theory of non-linear phonology. ( also prosody) References Clements, G.V. 1977. The autosegmental treatment of vowel harmony. In W.U.Dressler and O.E. Pfeiffer (eds), Phonologica 1976. Innsbruck. 111–19. Goldsmith, J.A. 1976. Autosegmental phonology. Bloomington, IN. ——1989. Autosegmental and metrical phonology: an introduction. Oxford. Van der Hulst, M. and N.Smith. 1985. Advances in non-linear phonology. Dordrecht. autosemantic word [Grk autós ‘self,’ ‘sign’] (also content word, open-class word) In distinction to synsemantic words, autosemantic words have a meaning that is selfcontained and independent of context. They are mainly nouns, verbs, and adjectives. The distinction between autosemantic and synsemantic words is not tenable in the strictest sense. A-Z AUX 113 auxiliary auxiliary [Lat. auxiliaris ‘giving aid’] (also AUX, helping verb) Subcategory of verbs which can be distinguished from main verbs by semantic and syntactic criteria. Auxiliaries have a reduced lexical meaning (cf. have, will, be). Their valence is different from main verbs, since they do not select nominal arguments but rather main verbs as their argument. Auxiliaries typically occur as exponents of morphological categories such as tense, mood, voice, number, and person. In English, auxiliaries allow the so-called subject-auxiliary inversion in certain constructions, e.g. Caroline has eaten vs Has Caroline eaten? It is a matter of debate whether these differences from main verbs are sufficient to treat auxiliaries as separate categories. Within earlier versions of transformational grammar, auxiliaries were treated as verbs with the feature AUX. In more recent generative grammar models the exponent of verbal inflection is a separate node called INFL ( INFL node). Occasionally modal verbs and copular verbs are subsumed under the category auxiliary ( modal auxiliary). References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Edmondson, J.A. and F.Plank. 1976. Auxiliaries and main verbs reconsidered. Lingua 38. 109–23. Gazdar, G. et al. 1982. Auxiliaries and related phenomena in a restrictive theory of grammar. Lg 58. 591–638. Harris, M. and P.Ramat (eds) 1987. The historical development of auxiliaries. Berlin. Heine, B. 1994. Auxiliaries: cognitive forces and gramaticalization. Oxford. Heny, F. and B.Richards (eds). 1983. Grammatical categories: auxiliaries and related puzzles. Dordrecht. Ross, J.R. 1969. Auxiliaries as main verbs. In W. Todo (ed.), Studies in philosophical linguistics. Evanston, IL. Steele, S. 1978. The category AUX as a language universal. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of human language, vol. 3: Word structure. Stanford. CA. 7–45. ——1981. An encyclopedia of AUX. A study of cross-linguistic equivalence. Cambridge, MA. Verharr, J.W.N. (ed.) 1957–9. The word ‘be’ and its synonyms: philosophical and grammatical studies. 4 parts. Dordrecht. Warner, A.R. 1992. English auxiliaries: structure and history. Cambridge. Dictionary of language and linguistics Avar 114 North-East Caucasian Avestan Avaro-Andi Iranian North-East-Caucasian axiom [Grk axíoma ‘worth, value’] In the framework of scientific theory a fundamental principle that forms the basis of a scientific system from which all other theorems can be logically derived. In the ancient logic of Aristotle and Euclid, axioms were considered to be incontestable, intuitively obvious principles and the statements derived from them to be true assertions. The development of axiomatic geometry by Hilbert (1899) brought about a new interpretation of the concept ‘axiom’ according to which the truth of axioms is not intuitively presupposed but rather that axioms are arbitrarily determined. For the correctness of logical axioms it is, however, necessary that the axiom be proven true. The introduction of axiomatic theory in language description plays an important role in numerous more recent descriptive models such as transformational grammar, categorial grammar, integrative linguistics and others. References Bühler, K. 1933. Die Axiomatik der Sprachwissenschaften. Kantstudien 38. 19–90. (2nd edn Frankfurt. 1969.) Hilbert, D. 1899. Grundlagen der Geometrie. Stuttgart. (Repr. 1977.) Lieb, H.-H. 1975–6. Grammars as theories: the case for axiomatic grammar. TL 1. 39–115 and 3. 1–98. formal logic, formalization A-Z 115 axiomatics of linguistics Basic principle of linguistic communication, postulated by K.Bühler with reference to mathematics and logic, from which allegedly all linguistic factors can be deductively derived and explained: (a) the basic functions of language are representation, expression and appellation ( organon model of language); (b) language is a system of signs which are used according to the principle of abstractive relevance; (c) language is to be studied under the subject-related phenomena Sprachwerk ‘language work’ and Sprachgebilde ‘language form’ (four-field schema); (d) language is constituted by the two interrelated levels of semantics and syntax. References Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart, 1965.) Mulder, J.W.F. 1989. Foundations of axiomatic linguistics. Berlin. Ortner, H. 1986. Bühlers Vierfelderschema (das dritte Axiom in der ‘Sprachtheorie’): Grundgedanken und Rezeption. Kodikas 9.211–26. Axiom Aymara Andean, Quechua Azerbaijani Aztecan Turkic Uto-Aztecan Azteco-Tanoan Uto-Aztecan Dictionary of language and linguistics 116 B Babylonian Bach-Peters paradox Akkadian problominalization back channel Verbal expressions, such as uh, yes, and their non-verbal equivalents, like nodding, are normally expressed during the speaker’s turn and are used by the listener to demonstrate that he/she is paying attention to the speaker. Not considered conversational turns per se, such signals are said to occur ‘in the back channel.’ The term was first used by Yngve (1970). The status of these signals as turns is under debate (see Duncan 1974; Duncan and Fiske 1977; Schegloff 1982,1988). ( also discourse analysis) References Duncan, S. 1974. On the structure of speaker-audience-auditor interaction during speaking turns. Language in Society 3. 161–86. Duncan, S. and D.W.Fiske. 1977. Face-to-face interaction: research, methods, and theory. Hillsdale, NJ. Goffman, E. 1978. Response cries. Lg 54.787–815. Schegloff, E.A. 1982. Discourse as an interactional achievement: some uses of ‘uh huh’ and other things that come between sentences. In D.Tannen (ed.), Analyzing discourse: text and talk. GURT Washington, DC. 71–93. ——1988. Discourse as an interactional achievement II: An exercise in conversation analysis. In D.Tannen (ed.) Linguistics in context: Connecting observation and understanding. Norwood, NJ. 135–58. Yngve, V. 1970. On getting a word in edgewise. CLS 6. 567–77. conversation analysis) A-Z 117 back formation In word formation, a term denoting the process and result, by means of which an originally older and more complex expression gives rise to the formation of a new stem. The original expression is then analyzed synchronically as a derivation on the basis of the new stem and a productive suffix, e.g. edit<editor, stage-manage<stagemanager or spoonfeed< spoonfed. Nominal back formations derived from verbs (e.g. walk<(to) walk) are termed ‘nomina post verbalia’ by historical grammarians. Grammatical back formations occur when singular forms are derived from original plural forms, e.g. pea<peas. References Marchand, H. 1960. The categories and types of present-day English word-formation. Munich. (2nd edn 1969.) ——1963. On content as a criterion of derivational relationship with backderived words. IF 68. 170–5. back vowel backing vowel velarization bahuvrihi (also exocentric compound, possessive compound) Term coined from the Sanskrit word which literally means ‘having much rice.’ A subgroup of determinative compounds, bahuvrihis are compounds whose first member modifies the second, while the whole compound refers exocentrically only to a part of its referent, that is, to one who is characterized by a certain trait: longlegs. Bahuvrihis are often strongly idiomatic: dimwit, knucklehead, bignose. Dictionary of language and linguistics 118 References composition Baltic Branch of Indo-European. Baltic is closely related to Slavic, and some believe that there was a common Balto-Slavic language group in prehistorical times. The Baltic languages include Old Prussian (now extinct), Lithuanian, and Latvian. References Endzelīns, J. 1948. Baltu valodu skanas un formas. Riga. (Transl. as Janis Endzelīns’ comparative phonology and morphology of the Baltic languages, by W.R.Schmalstieg and B.Jēgers. The Hague and Paris 1971.) Gimbutas, M. 1963. The Balts. New York and Washington. Magener, T.F. and W.R.Schmalstieg (eds) 1970. Baltic linguistics. University Park. PA and London. Stang, C.S. 1966. Vergleichende Grammatik der baltischen Sprachen. Oslo and Bergen. Bibliography Kubicka, W. 1967–77. Języki . Bibliografia, 4 vols. Lodz. Journals Baltistica. Linguistica Baltica. A-Z Balto-Finnish Bambara Bantoid 119 Finno-Ugric Mande Benue-Congo Bantu Largest language group of Benue-Congo languages with over 500 closely related languages forming a dialect continuum; the most significant languages are Congo, Zulu (approx. 6 million speakers), Rwanda, Xhosa, Luba, Shona (approx. 5 million speakers), and Swahili, which is widely used in East Africa as a trade language. Internal divisions: Rain Forest Bantu in the west, Savannah Bantu in the east and south. The high degree of similarity between these languages points to a relatively recent immigration of the Bantuspeaking peoples from the Benue area (Nigeria). The unity of the Bantu languages was recognized relatively early (e.g. Bleek, 1856); in 1899, Meinhof succeeded in reconstructing the sound system of Proto-Bantu ( protolanguage, reconstruction). Guthrie (1967–71) collected comprehensive data for the reconstruction of ‘Common Bantu,’ creating the commonly used (if somewhat arbitrary) reference system of fifteen zones for Bantu languages and dialects. Characteristics: usually tonal (two tones), tendency towards bisyllabic roots and reduced vowel system (seven or five vowels). Welldeveloped noun class system: each noun belongs to a separate class (one of usually about ten to twenty) with a specific prefix, where a certain plural class often corresponds to a singular class (cf. Swahili ki-ti ‘chair,’ vi-ti ‘chairs’); the division into classes is often semantically motivated (animate, object, fluid, and other classes). Complex verb morphology (agreement prefixes, tense/mood/polarity prefixes, voice-marking suffixes). Word order SVO. References Bleek, W.H.I. 1856. The languages of Mozambique: vocabularies of the dialects of Lourenço Marques. London. Byarushengo, E.A. et al. 1977. Haya grammatical structure. Los Angeles. CA. Clements, G.N. and J.A.Goldsmith. 1984. Autosegmental studies in Bantu tone. Dordrecht. Cole, D.T. 1955. An introduction to Tswana grammar. Cape Town. Dictionary of language and linguistics 120 Guthrie, M. 1967–71. Comparative Bantu: an introduction to the comparative linguistics and prehistory of the Bantu languages. Farnborough. Hinnebusch, T.H., D.Nurse and M.Mould. 1981. Studies in the classification of Eastern Bantu languages. Hamburg. Kimenyi, A. 1980. A relational grammar of Kinyarwanda. Berkeley, CA. Mchombo, S. 1994. Theoretical aspects of Bantu grammar, vol. 1. Chicago, IL. Meinhof, C. 1899. Grundriβ einer Lautlehre der Bantusprachen nebst einer Anleitung zur Aufnahme von Bantusprachen. Leipzig. (Repr. 1966.) Möhlig, W.L.G. 1981. Die Bantusprachen im engeren Sinn. In B.Heine et al. (eds), Die Sprachen Afrikas. Hamburg. 77–116. barbarism [Grk bárbaros ‘non-Greek, foreign’] A term in classical rhetoric for the improper use of a word. Originally coined for the unusual use of foreign words, barbarism was later used for mistakes in orthography, pronunciation, and agreement. A barbarism violates the rhetorical style of correct speech ( solecism). John Steinbeck illustrates its literary usefulness in writing: ‘Awright,’ she said contemptuously. ‘Awright, cover’ im up if ya want ta. Whatta I care? …I tell ya I could of went with shows. Not jus’ one, neither. An’ a guy tol’ me he could put me in pitchers’ (Of Mice and Men, p. 86). References rhetoric barriers A term from Chomsky’s (1986) book Barriers for the further development of Government and Binding theory. This theory strives for the unification of the theory of government with subjacency principle. This attempted unification is the result of the hypothesis that barriers are the basis for the local domains of government as well as the bounding nodes for subjacency. Modifications include: (a) the application of X-bar theory to the sentential categories S and S-bar, where S-bar is a projec-tion of the COMP position and S is the maximal projection of the INFL-position ( INFLnode); (b) the resulting modification of the term ‘government,’ so that only maximal projections can be barriers, and case is assigned to the subject position of IP. A-Z 121 References Chomsky, N. 1986. Barriers. Cambridge, MA. Johnson, K. 1988. Clausal gerunds. the ECP, and government. LingI 19. 583–610. Bartholomae’s Law A sound change in Indo-Iranian in consonant clusters consisting of aspirated voiced stops and non-aspirated voiceless stops. The root-final voiced aspirated stop is deaspirated; it gives voice and transfers aspiration to the following stop, cf. IE. *bhudhto>Indo-Iranian *bhuddha-. It is debated whether Bartholomae’s Law might not also have left some traces in Germanic. References Bartholomae, C. 1883. Handbuch der iranischen Dialekte. Leipzig. (Repr. Wiesbaden, 1968.) Collinge, N.E. 1985. The laws of Indo-European. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. 7–11. base head2 base component In generative grammar a level of grammatical description which is composed of phrase structure rules, subcategorization rules, and the lexicon, and which generates the structural description of simple sentences. The syntactically based deep structure is generated in the base component and can be illustrated by a tree diagram. base (morpheme) Forming the largest subset of a language’s inventory of morphemes, base morphemes are free morphemes—as opposed to bound (inflectional and word-forming) morphemes ( Dictionary of language and linguistics 122 affix)—and are, as a rule, stressed elements. Occasionally, the term ‘base’ is used to refer to multimorphemic lexical constructions. The inventory of bases is changed through direct borrowing from foreign languages (e.g. atom) or through neologisms created artificially with foreign elements (product+ion), as well as through the effects of language change as, for example, when constituents of earlier compounds lose their former motivation (cupboard) or through an obscuring of the original meaning, as in lord, from OE *hlāfweard ‘keeper of the bread.’ References word formation BASIC English C.K.Ogden and I.E.Richards introduced BASIC (‘British, American, Scientific, International, Commercial’) English as a simplified form of English which consists of a basic vocabulary of 850 words (with eighteen verbs) and a greatly simplified grammar. BASIC nglish E can supposedly be learned in about sixty hours, though it requires additional vocabulary lists for specialized jargons. Its value as a versatile means of international communication is disputed. References Ogden, C.K. 1930. Basic English. London. ——1942. Basic for science. London. basic vocabulary (also core vocabulary) The minimum number of lexical items in a language usually chosen for pedagogical purposes (e.g. the minimum vocabulary for second language learners or the spelling vocabulary for native-speaking pupils at a certain educational level). Beside the degree of utility, the most important criterion for determining the basic vocabulary is the frequency of use. A-Z 123 References Carter, R. 1987. Is there a core vocabulary? Some implications for language teaching. AppLing, 8:2. 178–93. frequency dictionary, lexicostatistics basic word order basilect basis word order acrolect antecedent Basque Language isolate with approx. 1 million speakers in northern Spain and south-western France, divided into a number of strongly deviating dialects. Basque is possibly related to the Iberian language, which is attested solely in inscriptions. The first substantial written documents date from the sixteenth century. Characteristics: phonologically, Basque resembles Spanish. Rich morphology (suffixal); syntactically an ergative language: the subject in transitive sentences is in the ergative, marked by -ek (e.g. Martin ethorri-da ‘Martin came,’ Martin-ek haurra igorridu ‘Martin sent the child,’ in which -ek marks the ergative). Rich agreement system (with subject, direct and indirect object), agreement markers are typically fusional. Word order: SOV. Numerous lexical borrowings from Latin. References Hualde, J.I. 1991. Basque phonology. London. ——and J.Oritz de Urbina (eds) 1993. Generative studies in Basque linguistics. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. King, A.R. 1994. The Basque language. Reno, CA. Lafitte, P. 1962. Grammaire basque. Bayonne. Lüders, U.J. 1993. The Souletin verbal complex: new approaches to Basque morphophonology. Munich and Newcastle. Dictionary of language and linguistics 124 Saltarelli, M. 1988. Basque. London. Dictionaries Aulestia, G. 1989. Basque-English dictionary. Reno, CA. ——and L.White. 1990. English-Basque dictionary. Reno, CA. Etymological dictionary Löpelmann, M. 1968. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der baskischen Sprache. Berlin and New York. battarism cluttering beech argument Hypothesis for determining the original home of the Indo-European tribes as well as the Slavs based on the occurrence of words derived from IE *bhag(u)gos ‘beech.’ West of the line Königsberg-Crimea this term is widely attested (cf. all the Germanic languages, Lat. fagus), while to the east of this line the word is used for various kinds of trees, cf. Grk phēgós ‘oak,’ Russ. buz ‘elder,’ and Kurdish buz ‘elm.’ The distribution of the reflexes of this IndoEuropean word suggests that after the break-up and spread of the Indo-European tribes the word came to be used for other trees in areas where there were no beeches. References Krogmann, W. 1955. Das Buchen-Argument. ZVS 73. 1–25. Lane, G.S. 1967. The beech argument. ZVS 81. 197–202. Wissmann, W. 1952. Der Name der Buche. Berlin. Behaghel’s laws Basic principles of word order formulated by Otto Behaghel (1854–1936). (a) Behaghel’s first law maintains that elements which are semantically closely connected to one another A-Z 125 are placed close together. (b) A second law is that whatever is more important is placed after whatever is less important. (c) A third law is that the specifying element (=specifier) precedes the specified element. And (d) the shorter constituent tends to precede the longer ( weight principle). In addition, there is a tendency for constituents with also word order) stronger stress to alternate with constituents with weaker stress. ( References Behaghel, O.P. 1932. Deutsche Syntax. Heidelberg. Vol. 4. Collinge, N.E. 1985. The laws of Indo-European. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. 242. behaviorism Direction of psychological research founded by J.B.Watson (1878–1959) and modeled after natural science that takes aim at the methods of self-observation (introspection) as well as the description of the consciousness (such as feelings, thoughts, impulsive behavior). Behaviorism investigates objectively observable behaviors as a reaction to changes in environmental circumstances. The stimulus-response model (developed through experiments on animals) as well as the fundamental categories of ‘conditioned reflexes’ and conditioning provide the point of departure for behaviorist research. According to these theories, behavior is analyzed as a reaction to particular environmentally conditioned external or internal stimuli and is thereby predictable based on the exact characterization of the corresponding instance of stimulus. Behaviorism has become particularly significant in educational psychology. Its principle of the learning process as a conditioning process, which was further developed in educational psychology, was also applied to the process of language acquisition. In contrast to the mentalist ( mentalism) understanding of language acquisition as a maturation process that runs according to an innate plan derived from an inborn internal mechanism (‘device’), behaviorism assumes that one can only presuppose the command of certain procedures or strategies for the acquisition of cognitive and, thus, also linguistic knowledge as an innate psychological ability, but that the learning process itself is carried out through continual experience. As Skinner presents in detail in his (to a great degree speculative) book Verbal Behavior (1957), language is explained as a learned behavior, as the sum of individual language habits developed and acquired through conditioning, reinforcement and generalization, as a circumstantial network of associative connections of linguistic expressions. The conception of behaviorism is most clearly expressed in Bloomfield’s antimentalist concept of language, especially in his taxonomic method of description which is itself geared towards those methods used in the natural sciences (cf. antimentalism, distributionalism). For a critique of this approach from a linguistic point of view, see Chomsky (1959). Dictionary of language and linguistics 126 References Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. Chomsky, N. 1959. Verbal behavior (a discussion of B.F.Skinner, 1957). Lg 35. 26–38. Hull, C.L. 1930. Knowledge and purpose as habit mechanism. PsycholR 37. 511–25. ——1977. A behavior’s system. Westport, CT. Mead, G.H. 1934. Mind, self and society from the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Chicago, IL. Skinner, B.F. 1957. Verbal behavior. London. ——1978. Reflections on behaviorism and society. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Tolman, E.C. 1932. Purposive behavior in animals and men. New York. Watson, J.B. 1919. Psychology from the standpoint of a behaviorist. Philadelphia, PA. ——1930. Behaviorism. New York. Zuriff, G.E. 1985. Behaviorism: a conceptual reconstruction. New York. Belochi Iranian, Kurdish Belorussian East Slavic language with approx. 7 million speakers, primarily in Belorussia, but also in other former Soviet republics and in Poland. The first uses of Belorussian as a literary language date from the mid nineteenth century, before which Old Church Slavic was used with Belorussian editing. Belorussian has been developing as a modern literary language since 1918. Belorussian uses the Cyrillic alphabet with the additional letter in contrast to Ukrainian and Russian. the letters ‹и› › and ‹щ› are not used. Differences from Russian include [dz] and [c] instead of [d] and [t] (so-called ‘dzekanie’ and ‘cekanie’). Characteristics: nominative plural instead of genitive singular after the numerals 2, 3, and 4. References Atraxovič, K.K. and M.H.Bulaxaŭ (eds) 1962. Hramatyka belaruskaj movy, vol. 1: Marfalohija. Minsk. ——and P.P.Šuba (eds) 1966. Hramatyka belaruskaj movy, vol. 2: Sintaksis. Minsk. Biryla, M.V. and P.P.Šuba. 1985–6. Belaruskaja hramatyka, 2 vols. Minsk. Blinava, E. 1980. Belaruskaja Dyjalektalohija, 2nd edn. Minsk. Jankoŭski, F.M. 1980. Sučasnaja belaruskaja literaturnaja mova. Marfalohija, 2nd edn. Minsk. Mayo, P.J. 1976. A grammar of Byelorussian. Sheffield. Wexler, P. 1977. A historical phonology of the Belorussian language. Heidelberg. A-Z 127 Historical grammar Jankoŭski, F.M. 1989. Histaryčnaja hramatyka belaruskaj movy, 3rd edn. Minsk. Dictionaries Martynaŭ, V.U. 1978–90. Etimalahičny sloŭnik belaruskaj movy, 6 vols. Minsk. Suša, T.M. and A.K.Ščuka. 1989. Angla-belaruskaruski sloŭnik. Minsk. Žuraŭski, A.I. 1982–90. Histaryčny sloŭnik belaruskaj movy. 10 vols. Minsk. Journals Belaruskaja Linhvistyka Belaruskaja Mova benefactive Semantic (or thematic) relation for the beneficiary of the action expressed by the verb, for example, her and himself in: He bought a record for her and a book for himself. Cf. case grammar, thematic relation. Bengali Indo-Aryan language with approx. 150 million speakers in India and Bangladesh. Characteristics: relatively simply noun morphology (loss of gender, four cases), rich verb morphology. Subject-verb agreement in person and status (polite, neutral, disparaging). Word order SOV. References Bender, E. and T.Riccardi, Jr. 1978. An advanced course in Bengali. Philadelphia, PA. Chatterji, S.K. 1926. The origin and development of the Bengali language, 3 vols. Calcutta. (Repr. London.) Hilali, M.R. 1990. Learning Bengali. London. Ray, P.S. and L.Ray. 1966. Bengali language handbook. Washington, DC. Sen, D.C. 1986. History of Bengali language and literature. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 128 Dictionary Biswas, S. 1987–8. Samsad Bengali-English/ English-Bengali dictionary, 2 vols, 10th/5th edn. Calcutta. Benue-Congo Largest linguistic group of Niger-Congo (approx. 600 languages, spoken from Nigeria to South Africa). Divided into four groups: the largest, Bantoid (including the Bantu languages), as well as three smaller groups (Plateau, Cross-River, Jukunoid) in Nigeria. References Gebhardt, L. 1983. Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Sprachen des nigerianischen Plateaus. Glückstadt. Shimizu, K. 1980. A Jukun grammar. Vienna. Williamson, K. 1971. The Benue-Congo languages and Ijo. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 7, 245–306. Benue-Kwa Niger-Congo Berber Language family of the Afro-Asiatic group in North Africa containing numerous languages and dialects (e.g. Tamashek (Tuareg), Shlih, Zenaga). Approx. 10 million speakers, primarily in isolated areas. Strong influence from Arabic. Tamashek has its own written system (borrowed from the Phoenicians). Characteristics: word order VSO in verbal clauses; nominal clauses have no verbal element. Direct object and topicalized NP are in the citation form (‘status liber’), while the subject, genitive, and indirect object are marked (‘status annexus’). Complex consonant system with a tendency towards consonant harmony. References Applegate, J.R. 1970. The Berber languages. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 6, 586–664. A-Z 129 Chaker, S. 1984. Textes en linguistique berbère: introduction au domaine berbère. Paris. Sadiqi, F. 1986. Studies in Berber syntax: the complex sentence. Würzburg. Wolff, E. 1981. Die Berbersprachen. In B.Heine et al. (eds), Die Sprachen Afrikas, Hamburg. 171– 85. Berlitz method Variation on the direct method used by M. Berlitz in his commercial language schools. Berlitz emphasized the acquisition of everyday vocabulary and sentences through presentation exclusively in the target language and making extensive use of demonstration and visuals. Follow-up practice consisted of teacher-directed question and answer exchanges. Grammar was presented though an inductive approach with an emphasis on formal accuracy. References Berlitz, M.D. 1887. Méthode Berlitz. New York. Titone, R. 1968. Teaching foreign languages: an historical sketch. Washington, DC. biconditional equivalence bidirectional assimilation Bihari assimilation Indo-Aryan bilabial Speech sound classified according to its place of articulation (lower lip) and its primary articulator (upper lip), e.g. the [b], [m], and [p] in bump. ( also articulatory phonetics) Dictionary of language and linguistics 130 bilateral implication equivalence, implication bilateral opposition opposition bilingualism [Lat. ‘two’, ‘tongue, language’] 1 A speaker’s competence in two or more languages and their use in everyday communication (Cf. also multilingualism). Depending on the kind and extent of the competence in both languages, a distinction can be made between: (a) the mastery of different, but only partially differentiated dialects or varieties vs distinct languages; (b) the acquisition of bilingual competence within a family (e.g. in mixed marriages) vs the acquisition in school or at work; (c) the (simultaneous or successive) acquisition of two languages in child- or adulthood; (d) directed vs non-directed language acquisition; (e) different competence in both languages (dominance of one language) vs ‘genuine’ bilingualism (which is less common), where passive as well as active competence in both languages is actually equal (‘coordinate bilingualism’ according to Weinreich 1953). 2 Apart from these questions of individual bilingual competence (individual bilingualism), the existence of two or more languages within a society (societal bilingualism) and their communicative functions are also of interest ( diglossia). References Alatis, J.E. and J.J.Staczek (eds) 1985. Perspectives on bilingualism and bilingual education. Washington, DC. Beardsmore, H.B. 1982. Bilingualism: basic principles. Clevedon. Bialystok, E. (ed.) 1991. Language processing in bilingual children. Cambridge. Döpke, S. 1992. One parent—one language. An interactional approach. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Ervin, S. and C.E.Osgood. 1954. Second language learning and bilingualism. JASP 49 (suppl.). 134–46. Hamers, J.E and M.Blanc. 1988. Bilinguality and bilingualism. Cambridge. Hoffmann, C. 1991. An introduction to bilingualism. London. Houwer, A. de. 1990. The acquisition of two languages from birth: a case study. Cambridge. Hyltenstam, K. and L.K.Obler. 1989. Bilingualism across the lifespan: aspects of acquisition, maturity and loss. Cambridge. Mackey, W.F. 1987. Bilingualism and multilingualism. In U.Ammon et al. (eds). Sociolinguistics: an international handbook on the science of language and society. Berlin and New York. 799– 813. A-Z 131 Meisel, J. (ed.) 1990. Two first languages: early grammatical development in bilingual children. Dordrecht. Schreuder, R. and B.Weltenss (eds) 1993. The bilingual lexicon. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Seliger, H.F. and R.M.Vago (eds) 1991. First language attrition. Cambridge. Weinreich, U. 1953. Languages in contact: findings and problems. New York. (Repr. 1966.) Williams J. and G.Snipper. 1990. Literacy and bilingualism. London. Journal Literacy and Bilingualism aphasia, language acquisition, language contact, literacy, psycholinguistics binary The property of descriptive terms which are predicated upon the opposition of two units, e.g. upon the presence or absence of certain features. ( also binary opposition, distinctive feature) binary digit bit binary opposition Classificatory and descriptive method used in many disciplines (e.g. biology, information theory, logic, mathematics) which is based on two values. A basic principle of this system is the fact that essentially all—even the most complex—states of affairs and occurrences can be reduced to a finite set of elementary yes/no-decisions: for example, the 64 squares of a chess board can be determined by six yes/no-questions, since 26=64. Binary opposition goes back to classical logical principles and can be interpreted as a function in propositional logic in the sense of ‘X is true or is not true’ ( formal logic). Primarily, binary decisions can be simulated in practice with simple technical devices, such as by an electrical switch with on/off positions or by punch cards with hole/ non-hole markings. It is on this principle that the analytical workings of a calculator are based. In linguistics, especially in phonology, Jakobson and Halle (1956) introduced the method of binary segmentation by proposing a universal inventory of twelve binary phonetic features to describe all languages in the world ( distinctive feature). Moreover, the concept of binary oppo sition has been adapted to morphology, Dictionary of language and linguistics 132 syntax2 ( phrase structure), and semantics ( componential analysis). even though some doubts remain as to the general validity of the process of binary markedness) segmentation for natural languages (see Henrici 1975). ( References Halle, M. 1957. In defense of number two. In E. Pulgram (ed.), Studies presented to J.Whatmough. The Hague. 65–72. Henrici, G. 1975. Die Binarismus. Problematik in der neueren Linguistik. Tübingen. Jakobson, R., G.Fant, and M.Halle. 1951. Preliminaries to speech analysis: the distinctive features and their correlates. Cambridge, MA. (7th edn 1967.) Jakobson, R. and M.Halle, 1956. Fundamentals of language. The Hague. (2nd revised edn 1975.) binding In Chomsky’s Government and Binding theory, a syntactic representation of particular anaphoric relations, described by binding theory. A node A binds a node B when A ccommands B, and A and B are co-indexed. If binding occurs and B is not a trace ( trace theory), then A and B are interpreted as coreferential, i.e. the expressions A and B relate semantically to the same object. In this case the binding theory describes whether the coreference between A and B is syntactically permissible. If B is a trace, then the binding theory formulates constraints on whether B can be the trace of A, i.e. whether the movement of material in position B into position A is syntactically permissible. References binding theory binding theory A subtheory of transformational grammar which governs the relationship between anaphoras, pronouns, referential expressions and traces and their potential antecedents. An antecedent binds the noun phrase (NP) coreferentially with it if the antecedent ccommands the NP. Binding restrictions operate as a filter, which restricts the formally possible coreference relations between NPs as well as between NPs and their traces, so that only well-formed structures meet the binding constraints. Chomsky (1981) distinguishes three types of NP: (a) anaphors. i.e. reciprocal and reflexive NPs, whose A-Z 133 reference is bound by a preceding NP in the same clause, e.g. Philip bought himself a new suit, where himself refers to Philip, or The cat washes herself, where herself refers to the cat. (b) Personal pronouns which can be interpreted anaphorically (proximately) or deictically (obviately), e.g. Caroline still thinks she was right where she can refer either to Caroline or another person not mentioned in the sentence. (c) All NPs which do not fall into (a) or (b), e.g. proper nouns, labels, traces of wh-movement. According to binding theory, anaphors (a) are bound within a specific syntactic domain, their governing category; that is, they have an antecedent which c-commands them within their governing category. Personal pronouns (b) are not bound within their governing categories; they can be bound only by elements outside of the governing category. All other NPs (c) are always free. Violations of these conditions can be found in the following sentences: *Philip Philip thinks that Jacob1 is buying himself a picture, where there is intended coreference between Philip and himself; *He1 thinks that Jacob Jacob is buying Philip a picture, where there is coreference between he and Jacob. ( constraints, pronominalization, reflexivization, transformational grammar) References Aoun, J. 1985. A grammar of anaphora. Cambridge, MA. ——1986. Generalized binding: the syntax and logical form of wh-interrogatives. Dordrecht. Chomsky, N. 1980. On binding. LingI 11. 1–46. ——1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. ——1986. Knowledge of language: its nature, origin and use. New York. Everaert, M. 1986. The syntax of reflexivization. Dordrecht. Kayne, R. 1980. Extensions of binding and case-marking. LingI 11. 75–96. Lasnik. H. 1988. Essays on anaphora. Dordrecht. Lust, B. (ed.) 1986. Studies in the acquisition of anaphora, 2 vols. Dordrecht. Manzini, R. 1992. Locality. Cambridge, MA. Radford, A. 1981. Transformational syntax: a student’s guide to Chomsky’s Extended Standard Theory. Cambridge. Reinhart, T. 1983. Anaphora and semantic interpretation. London. Williams, E. 1987. Implicit arguments, the binding theory, and control NL&LT 5. 151–80. Yang, D.W. 1983. The extending binding theory of anaphors. LangR 19. 169–92. Dictionary of language and linguistics 134 biphonemic classification polyphonemic classification bisegmentalization Phonetically motivated sound change in which a complex segment is split into two simple segments, e.g. medial gemination in the OHG *Old High German consonant shift: essen ‘eat,’ or Eng. cop-per (loan from Lat. cuprum) as well as Eng. ham-mer<OE ha-mor. The original affricate [ts] is bisegmentalized to /t+s/, and thereby assigned to different syllables; the assimilation of the stop to the following fricative [ts]>[ss] yields the gemination. ( also articulatory phonetics) Reference phonology bisemy [Grk ‘sign’] The simplest type of ambiguity. A word is bisemic, if it has two meanings which are frequently, though not necessarily, opposed to each other, e.g. Fr. sacré: ‘holy’ and ‘damned.’ ( also homonymy, polysemy) bit Contraction of ‘binary digit,’ the smallest unit of measure for the informational content of binary decisions. Every unit contains one bit of information since it is equivalent to a single yes/no-decision ( binary opposition). Thus, in the case of a coin, there are two A-Z 135 possibilities as to which side is up; the corresponding information amounts to one bit. The information about which side of a die is up requires three bits since also information theory) .( biuniqueness [Lat. unicus ‘the only’] A term coined by Chomsky in 1964. Biuniqueness is a principle associated with the socalled taxonomic structuralism by which a one-to-one relationship exists between phonetic and phonemic representations in a phonological analysis. That is, if two words are pronounced identically, then they are phonologically equivalent. This ensures that one and the same phone is not assigned to different phonemes as in paws and pause. ( also distributionalism) References Chomsky, N. 1964. Current issues in linguistic theory. The Hague. phonology black box analysis A metaphorical term for the investigation of systems in which only the input and output can be observed. The inner structure of the data and their relationships to each other cannot be observed; so the properties of the structure in the ‘box’ are inferred from the input and output data. This view, taken from cybernetics ( information theory), is in keeping with the investigation of natural languages, whereby the system of grammatical rules can be equated with the internal structure of linguistic production. This is similar to the ‘black box’ of the human brain, whose neurophysiological processes during speech are not accessible to empirical observation and can only be hypothesized. ( also transformational grammar) Dictionary of language and linguistics 136 Black English (also Black English vernacular) Umbrella term used to denote a number of non-standard American English sociolects ( English, sociolect) spoken by North Americans of African descent. The origin of Black English is believed to have possibly developed from a creole spoken by the first African slaves. It differs from standard English predominantly in its lexicon, morphology, and syntax: e.g. lack of verb-subject agreement, as in he walk; presence of an idiosyncratic grammatical form to express the habituative. as in They be walkin’ around here. Originally considered by many linguists to be a deficient form of English ( code theory), Black English has come to be understood since the 1960s, in the wake of seminal studies by Labov, Wolfram, and others, as a full-fledged variety of American English. References Bailey, G., N.Maynor. and P.Cukor-Avila (eds) 1991. The emergence of Black English. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. PA. Bennett, J. 1908. Gullah: a Negro patois. SAQ 7.332–47. Fasold, R.W. 1972. Tense marking in Black English: a linguistic and social analysis. Washington, DC. Labov, W. et al. 1968. A study of the non-standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican speakers in New York City. Cooperative research project no. 3288. Washington, DC. ——1972. Language in the inner city: studies in the Black English vernacular. Philadelphia, PA. Luelsdorff, P. 1975. A segmental phonology of Black English. Berlin and New York. McDavid, R.I. and L.M.Davis. 1972. The speech of Negro Americans. In M.E.Smith (ed.), Studies in linguistics in honor of George L.Trager. The Hague. 303–12. ——and V.G.McDavid. 1951. The relationship of the speech of American Negroes to the speech of whites. AS 26. 3–17. Millard, J.L. 1972. Black English: its history and usage in the United States. New York. Stewart, W.A. 1967. Sociolinguistic factors in the history of American Negro dialects. Florida FE Reporter 5:2. 11–26. (Repr. in W.A.Wolfram and N.H.Clarke (eds), Black-white speech relationships. Washington, DC. 74–89.) ——1968. Continuity and change in American Negro dialects. Florida FL Reporter 6:1. 3–4, 14– 16, 18. Wolfram, W.A. and N.H. Clarke (eds) 1971. Black-white speech relationships. Washington, DC. ——1974. The relationship of white southern speech to vernacular black English. Lg 50. 498–527. creole A-Z 137 Black English vernacular Black English blend (also amalgam, fusion, hybrid, telescoped word) In word formation, synchronic or diachronic crossing or combining of two expressions into a single new one. Blends may develop from an unconscious or unintentional misspeaking ( speech error), e.g. in the blend of innuendo and insinuation to insinuendo, or through stylistic intent. In the latter case, a distinction may be drawn hapology) in which the last part of the first word between (a) haplological blends ( and the first part of the second word are identical (networkhorse, californicate) or in which sound and syllable elements overlap (tragicomic, guestimate); (b) neologisms involving word splitting (=true blends) (motel, eurocrat, telethon); (c) analogous formations in which a base word is replaced by a similar sounding lexeme (vidiot<video+idiot); (d) orthographic variants that are recognized as blends only from their spelling (Ronald Raygun). Blends, in comparison with more usual compounds. tend to be formed spontaneously through the close association of two words and do not themselves usually serve as models for further compounds. Because most blends can only usually be understood in context, only a very few of them (e.g. the linguistic term Franglais), are adopted into everyday language. On syntactic blends, see Paul (1880) and Bolinger (1961). References Bolinger, D. 1961. Syntactic blends and other matters. Lg 37. 366–81. Paul, H. 1880. Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. Tübingen. 121–6. (9th edn 1975.) body language Designation for instinctive, conscious and/or conventional expressive movements of the body. ( also non-verbal communication) word formation Dictionary of language and linguistics Bokmål 138 Norwegian Boolean function In the mathematical logic developed by the English mathematician G.Boole (1815–69), function whose arguments and values can accept only the values ‘true’ or ‘false’ (or 1 or 0). Important examples are the truth functions of the operations of conjunction, disjunction, implication, and negation in propositional logic ( logical connective). References Boole, G. 1847. The mathematical analysis of logic. London. formal logic, truth value border signal boundary marker borrowed meaning Meaning that a word takes on owing to the influence of a foreign word or concept, whereby the original meaning is reinterpreted or is expanded in view of its original meaning, e.g. write (originally ‘to scratch’) and read (originally ‘to advise’) took on new meanings when reading and writing were introduced to the English by the Christians. References borrowing A-Z 139 borrowing Adoption of a linguistic expression from one language into another language, usually when no term exists for the new object, concept, or state of affairs. Among the causes of such cross-linguistic influence ( language contact) may be various political, cultural, social, or economic developments (importation of new products, prestige, local flavor, internationalization of specialized languages and jargons, among others). Throughout its history, English has been subjected to influences from foreign cultures and languages, for example, through expansion of the Roman Empire, the migrations of the Scandinavians, Christianization, the development and growth of science and the humanities, French borrowings on and off since the Norman conquest, and more recent borrowings from dozens of languages in modern times, especially through the growth of telecommunications and universal travel. ( also foreign word, loan word, semantic change, word formation) References Gneuss, H. 1955. Lehnbildungen und Lehnbedeutunger im Altenglischen. Berlin. Haugen, E. 1950. The analysis of linguistic borrow-ing. Lg 26. 210–31. Lokotsch, K. 1927. Wörterbuch der europäischen (germanischen, romanischen und slawischen) Wörter orientalischen Ursprungs. Heidelberg. (2nd edn 1975.) Meillet, A. 1921. Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris. Weinreich, U. 1953. Languages in contact, 2nd rev. edn. The Hague. Bibliography Benjamin, S.M. and L.von Schneidemesser. 1979. German loan words in American English: a bibliography of studies, 1878–1978. AS 54.210–15. bottom up vs top down Hypothesis about analytical strategies in language processing. In the bottom-up process, language comprehension commences with the identification of individual words (as stimuli) that are analyzed according to possible meanings and syntactic functions and categories and are used as the basis for the construction of possible underlying propositions. The top-down process attempts to circumvent problems that arise particularly in polysemic expressions: here, the analysis is based on pre-expectations of the hearer/receiver regarding the grammatical function of an expression dependent on its immediate context; thus, in SOV languages ( word order) a verb is expected after a Dictionary of language and linguistics 140 noun phrase at the beginning of a sentence. Provided the corresponding expression occurs as a verb in the lexicon, all other possible readings are thereby simultaneously excluded. In computational linguistics, it has been shown in parsing that both strategies must be implemented for speech recognition. The same thing appears to be the case for human also psycholinguistics) language processing. ( Reference Just, M.A. and P.A.Carpenter (eds) 1977. Cognitive process in comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ. boundary marker (also border signal, demarcative feature) Sound phenomenon that occurs only at the beginning or end of a linguistic unit (morpheme, syllable, word), e.g. the consonant cluster /ts/ which occurs only in wordmedial or word-final position in English: It’s a pizza. References Maddieson, I. 1985. Phonetic cues to syllabification. In: V.Fromkin (ed.), Phonetic linguistics. New York. 203–20. Mayerthaler, W. 1971. Zur Theorie der Grenzsymbole. In A.von Stechow (ed.), Beiträge zur generativen Grammatik. Brunswick. 162–71. Trubetzkoy, N. 1939. Grundzüge der Phonologie. Göttingen. (4th edn 1967.) bounded vs non-bounded telic vs atelic bounding theory A term introduced in the Revised Extended Standard Theory (REST) of transformational grammar. Bounding theory deals with constraints on the locality conditions for particular transformations ( subjacency) and stops an NP from being moved over more than one S or NP node which dominates it. A-Z 141 References constraints, transformational grammar box diagram In immediate constituent analysis, a box Box diagram diagram is a form of representation used for illustrating the hierarchical structures of sentences. If the symbols of the grammatical categories are connected by branc the hes, result is a tree diagram turned upside down. The different levels of the box diagram correspond to the individual steps of division in immediate constituents. Box diagrams are equivalent to the corresponding tree diagram. phrase structure rules and labeled bracketing, cf. the diagram under tree diagram. brace construction Basic principle of German and Dutch word order that refers to a positional separation of the different parts of predication and/or of other elements of the sentence. The formation of the brace construction varies according to sentence and brace type. (a) The verbal brace construction is formed, among others, by (i) the separable parts of a morphologically complex verb: Sie lernte gestern den Sachverhalt endlich genauer kennen ‘Yesterday she finally got to know the matter better’; (ii) finite auxiliary or den Sachverhalt modal verb and infinite main verb or predicate part: Sie kennenlernen ‘She will/must get to know the matter’; (iii) finite predicate part and certain verb complements or other information that in basic word order ( word order) generally comes after the sentence negation (this itself is regarded as a brace-closing element in some of the pertinent literature): Sie bekam den Fall nicht unter Kontrolle; Sie fühlte sich nicht überarbeitet ‘She did not come to grips with the case’; ‘She did not Dictionary of language and linguistics 142 feel overworked.’ The verbal brace construction divides verb-second sentences into three positional fields (termed Vorfeld, ‘prefield’ or ‘front field,’ Mittelfeld ‘inner field’ and Nachfeld ‘final field,’ ‘post-field,’ or ‘end field’); the first stretches from the beginning of the sentence to the finite verb, the second from the finite verb to the closing element of the brace; the third only exists in sentences with exbraciation, i.e. if some part of the sentence is placed after the brace-closing element: Er schickte mich ins Haus hinein zu seinem Vater ‘He sent me into the house to his father.’ (Verb-initial sentences lack a prefield.) (b) The brace construction in a verb-final (usually subordinate) clause is formed by the clause-initiating elements (conjunctions etc.) and the verbal parts:…, weil er durstig war ‘…because he was thirsty.’ (c) The nominal brace construction is created by the distance position of article or preposition and head noun: ein nicht mehr zu überbietendes groβartiges Ereignis ‘a wonderful event which cannot be surpassed.’ References Admoni, W. 1982. Der deutsche Sprachbau, 4th edn. Munich. Kromann, H.P. 1974. Satz, Satzklammer und Ausklammerung. Kopenhagener Beiträge zur Germanistischen Linguistik 4. 7–82. Presch, G. 1974. Die Satzklammer im Deutschen: syntaktische Beschreibung, Dekodierungsstrategien. Konstanz. Ronneberger-Sibold, E. 1993. Typological conservatism’ and framing constructions in German morphosyntax. In J.Van Marle (ed.), Historical linguistics 1991: papers from the tenth international conference on historical linguistics. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. 295–314. Thurmair, M. 1991. Warten auf das Verb. Die Gedächtnisrelevanz der Verbklammer im Deutschen. Jahrbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache 17. 174–202. Vennemann, T. 1983. Verb second, verb late, and the brace construction in Germanic. In J.Fisiak (ed.), Historical syntax. The Hague. 627–36. constraint, German, transformational grammar, word order brachylogy [Grk brachýs ‘short’, lógos ‘word’] (also brachylogia) An intentional omission of essential thoughts. In its broadest sense, the term for expressing something in the most concise way possible: The corps goeth before, we follow after, we come to the grave, she is put into the fire, a lamentation is made (Peacham). A-Z 143 References figure of speech bracketing An economical writing convention used in rewrite rules and phrase structure rules. Optional rules are written in parentheses and alternative rules in curly brackets. As a result of this notational convention, the following four phrase structure rules (a)-(d) can be combined in (e). (a) NP→N, (b) NP→Art+N, (c) NP→Art+Adj+N, (d) NP→Pronoun (e) bracketing paradox In word formation, a paradox found in several classes of complex words, in which a single constituent grouping cannot satisfy the phonological conditions of language while functioning as the basis of semantic interpretation. The comparative suffix in English, for example, can combine only with single-syllable bases or two-syllable bases with weak secondary stress on the last syllable (e.g. nicer, cleverer, crueler, gentler, luckier). In words with bases of two or more syllables, the comparative is formed analytically (more direct). According to this rule-governed system, the negated adjective unluckier would have the following bracketed structures: (a) [A un [A lucky+er]] or (b) [A[A un+lucky]+er]. Yet, the structure (a) cannot be the basis of the semantic interpretation because unluckier, in accordance with the bracketed structure (b), is (more (unlucky)) and not, as in (a), (not (more lucky)); cf. also [Gödel number+]ing, [atomic scient+]ist. Different solutions to this problem, each tied to a specific theory, have been suggested in more recent literature. References Kiparsky, P. 1983. Word and the lexicon. In F.Ingman (ed.), Proceedings of the 1982 MidAmerican linguistics conference, Lawrence, KS. Dictionary of language and linguistics 144 Pesetsky, D. 1985. Morphology and logical form. LingI 16. 193–246. Sproat, R. 1985. On deriving the lexicon. MIT Diss. ——1988. Bracketing paradoxes, cliticization and other topics: the mapping between syntactic and phonological structure. In M.Everaert et al. (eds), Morphology and modularity, Dordrecht. 339– 60. Williams, E. 1981. Argument structure and morphology. LRev 1. 81–114. Brāhmi Brahui Sanskrit Dravidian branch In the representation of the syntactic structure of sentences in the form of a tree diagram, branches are the connecting lines between two nodes, the branching-off points. branching diagram tree diagram breaking (also a-umlaut, lowering, voice mutation) Term in traditional comparative linguistics used originally by J.Grimm to refer to a number of different assimilatory vowel changes ( assimilation) in Germanic languages. Some examples include the lowering in Gothic of [i, u] to [e, o] before a following [r] or [h]. The diphthongization in Old Norse of [e] to [ia] before [a], or to [io] before [u] in the following syllable, the assimilatory lowering of high vowels before nonhigh vowels in the following syllable in Old High German, the diphthongization of [e], [i] to [eo], [io] before [u], and of [as] to [ea] before [r], [1], [h]+ consonant and simple [h]: eahta ‘eight’, heard ‘hard’, feallan ‘fall.’ These diphthongs were later leveled out again. Today, only the diphthongizations are referred to as breaking. A-Z 145 References Grimm, J. 1848. Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. Leipzig. Howell, R. 1991. Old English breaking and its Germanic counterparts. Tübingen. Morgenroth, W. 1959–60. Brechung, Umlaut, Vokalharmonie: eine Begriffsklärung. WZUG 9. 201–16. English, historical grammars, sound change, umlaut breathy voice murmuring Breton Celtic language spoken in Brittany (France) with approx. 1.2 million speakers. Breton has been well attested since the eighth century, but the ol dest documents are no earlier than the sixteenth century. It belongs to the p-Celtic group (along with Cornish, Welsh, and the extinct Gaulish), and was brought to Brittany by immigrants from the British isles. References Fleuriot, L. 1964. Le Vieux Breton: éléments d’une grammaire. Paris. Le Gléau, R. 1973. Syntaxe du breton moderne (1710–1972). La Baule. McKenna, M. 1988. A handbook of modern spoken Breton. Tübingen. Press, I.J. 1986. A grammar of modern Breton. Berlin. Trépos, P. 1968. Grammaire bretonne. Rennes. Celtic bridge verb A term introduced by N.Erteschik in 1973 for verbs which allow extractions from finite complements. For example, Who do you think met Byron? vs *Who do you regret/whisper met Byron? Dictionary of language and linguistics 146 References Erteschik, N. 1977. On the nature of island constraints. Bloomington, IN. Koster, J. 1987. Domains and dynasties: the radical autonomy of syntax. Dordrecht. [ constraints, island, transformational grammar] British contextualism London School British English Umbrella term used to denote a number of dialects spoken in the British Isles that vary primari1ly according to the regional and socioeconomic background of their speakers. ( also Cockney English) References Hughes, A. and P.Trudgill. 1979. English accents and dialects: an introduction to social and regional varieties of British English. London. McIntosh, A. 1952. Introduction to a survey of Scottish dialects. Edinburgh. Orton, H. 1960. An English dialect survey: Linguistic Atlas of England. Orbis 9. 331–48. (Repr. in H.B. Allen and G.N.Underwood (eds), Readings in American dialectology. New York, 1971. 230–44.) Trudgill, P. (ed.) 1978. Sociolinguistic patterns in British English. London. Wakelin, M.F. 1972. English dialects: an introduction. London. Broca’s aphasia (also expressive aphasia, motor aphasia, non-fluent aphasia) Named after the French surgeon Paul Broca (1824–80), Broca’s aphasia is an acquired language disorder characterized by fragmentary sentences consisting mainly of content words and simplified, or absent, morphological marking ( agrammatism), by phonemic paraphasias, by dysprosody, and by a non-fluent style of speaking. The extent of the impairment in understanding oral or written language, and in writing, varies from patient to patient. ( also language and brain) A-Z 147 References Bates, E. et al. 1987. Grammatical morphology in aphasia. Cortex 23. 545–74. ——1988. On the preservation of word order in aphasia: cross-linguistic evidence. B&L 33. 323– 64. Daffner, K.R. et al. 1991. Broca’s aphasia following damage to Wernicke’s area: for or against traditional aphasiology. Archives of Neurology 48. 766–8. Kean, M.L. (ed.) 1985. Agrammatism. Orlando, FL. Kolk, H. and C.Heeschen. 1992. Agrammatism, paragrammatism and the management of language. Language and Cognitive Processes 7. 89–129. Zurif, E. et al. 1993. An on-line analysis of syntactic processing in Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia. B&L 45 (special issue. ed. Y.Grodinsky). 448–64. Broca’s area Named after its discoverer, the French surgeon Paul Broca (1824–80), this term denotes a cortical area associated with speech motor functions that is located at the base of the third gyrus in the left hemisphere of the brain. Broca believed that one’s ability to speak could be traced to this area and early views attributed Broca’s aphasia to a lesion in this area. ( also language and brain, language area) Brythonic Celtic bucco-facial apraxie apraxia Bulgarian South Slavic language with approx. 7.5 million speakers (mostly in Bulgaria), which developed from a dialect of Thessalonica. Characteristics: multiple occurrence of the negative particle in simple negations; postclitic definite article ( cliticization) with limited inflection (gender, number, nominative vs objective); no indefinite article; rich verbal inflection, but loss of nominal case inflection; complex tense and aspect system with a narrative form: Niàmalo da izléze níšto ot tová ‘Nothing (it is said) will come of that’ vs Niáma da izléze níšto ot tová Dictionary of language and linguistics 148 ‘Nothing will come of that’; as in Macedonian, no verbal infinitive. The letter ‹ъ› is used between consonants; before 1945, the letter was also used. to represent References Andrejčin L.D. 1977. Gramatika na bălgarskija ezik. Sofia. Conev, B.N. 1984. Istorija na bălgarskija ezik. Sofia. Feuillet, J. 1994. Bulgare. Munich. Georgieva, E. and N.Todorova. 1981. Bălgarskata knižovna reč. Sofia. Gramatika na săvremennija bălgarski knižoven ezik. 1982–3. 2 vols. Sofia. Khubenova, M.G. and A.Dzhumadanova. 1983. A course in modern Bulgarian. Columbus, OH. Părvev, X. 1987. Săzdateli i tvorci na bălgarskoto ezikoznanie. Sofia. Popov, K.P. 1985. Iz istorijata na bălgarskija knižoven ezik. Sofia. Rusinov, R.C. 1985. Bălgarskijat knižoven ezik sled osvoboždenieto: 1878–1944. Veliko Tărnovo. Scatton, E.A. 1984. A reference grammar of Modern Bulgarian. Columbus. OH. Historical grammar Mirčev. K. 1963. Istoričeska gramatika na bălgarskija ezik, 2nd edn. Sofia. Dictionaries Bălgarski etimologičen rečnik. 1971–. Sofia. Čolakova, K. (ed.) 1977–. Rečnik na bălgarskija ezik, vol. 6. 1990. Sofia. Journa l Bălgarski Ezik Slavic Burgundian Germanic Burmese Sino-Tibetan language, official language of Burma (approx. 22 million speakers). Long writing tradition (since the twelfth century) in a script borrowed from India; strong lexical borrowing from Pali. A-Z 149 Characteristics: tonal language, voice qualities such as creaky voice also utilized. No inflection, but derivation and prefixization are used; word order: topic-comment; verb generally sentence-final. The ordering of thematic relations to specific elements of a sentence is often governed by selection restrictions or must be deduced from the context or general speaker knowledge. References Burling, R. 1967. Proto Lolo-Burmese. Bloomington, IN. (=IJAL 33:1, pub. 43.) Okell, J. 1969. A reference grammar of colloquial Burmese. 2 vols. London. Roop, D.H. 1972. An introduction to the Burmese writing system. New Haven, CT. Burushaski Language isolate in Kashmir with approx. 30,000 speakers (at least two dialects: Xunza, Yasin). Characteristics: four noun classes, two numbers, rich morphology, ergative language (split ergativity), word order: SOV. References Berger, H. 1974. Das Yasin-Burushaski (Werchikwar): Grammatik, Texte, Wörterbuch. Wiesbaden. ——1992. Das Burushaski: Schicksale einer zentralasiatischen Restsprache. Heidelberg. Lorimer, D. 1935. The Burushaski Language, 3 vols. Oslo. Dictionary of language and linguistics 150 C cacophony [Grk kakophōnía ‘ill sound’] Linguistic or musical discord resulting from a disagreeable combination of sounds. The antonym is euphonism. cacuminal retroflex Caddoan Language family in North America with four languages, each with fewer than 200 speakers. Chafe (1979) considers Caddoan to be a member, along with Siouan and Iroquoian, of the Macro-Siouan language group, while Greenberg (1987) adds Keresan to the group and designates it Keresiouan. References Chafe, W.L. 1979. Caddoan. In L.Campbell & M. Mithun (eds), The languages of Native America: historical and comparative assessment. Austin, TX, 213–35. Greenberg, J.H. 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA. North and Central American languages A-Z 151 calculus Deductive system of basic signs and rules that guarantees that mathematical or logical operations are carried out in a controlled, non-contradictory, mechanical fashion. Such basic signs may be letters, natural numbers, words, logical connectives, truth values, among others. Rules are, for example, arithmetical operations such as multiplication, addition, syntactic rules, rules for logical connections. The concept of calculus plays a basic role in the formalization of grammatical theories about natural languages to the degree that the models of generative language descriptions can be construed as calculus (or as algorithms instead of rules, if commands are operative). A generative grammar (e.g. transformational grammar) contains a finite set of objects (all words in a language) and rules (constituent structure rules, transformational rules ( transformation, recursive rules) by means of which an infinite set of sentences can be generated. The language of calculus is the formal language or artificial language of formal logic. ( also formalization, mathematical linguistics) References Carnap, R. 1937. Logical syntax of language. London. Curry, H.B. 1963. Foundations of mathematical logic. New York. Whitehead, A.N. and B.Russell. 1910–13. Principia mathematica, 3 vols. Cambridge. calque A French term for a new word modeled after a word in another language. While, in the case of borrowing, a foreign word and its meaning are adopted wholesale into the other language as a loan word, a calque emerges when the language is adapted to new concepts. This can happen in several ways: (a) by way of a borrowed meaning through change and expansion of the meaning of native words—write (originally ‘to scratch’) influenced by Lat. scribere; (b) through neologisms loosely based on a foreign concept— Ger. Sinnbild for symbol; (c) through word-for-word loan translation—crispbread from Ger. Knäckebrot, accomplished fact from Fr. fait accompli, Span. rascacielos for skyscraper; (d) through a loose loan translation—brotherhood for Lat. fraternitas. Dictionary of language and linguistics 152 References borrowing Cambodian Mon-Khmer Campidanese Sardinian Cam-Thai Branch of Austro-Thai in South-East Asia with approx. 60 million speakers. The most important languages are Thai (30 million) and Laotian (17 million). Reference Benedict, P.K. 1975. Austro-Thai: language and culture. New Haven, CT. cant The jargon or secret language of a socially isolated and often “asocial” group that deviates from the standard language especially in its specific vocabulary. Cants are intentionally meant to be unintelligible to those who have no command of them. Thus, whenever cant vocabulary is adopted into the standard language newly coined secret words become ry. necessa The ty pical process involves either changing the meanings of words in the common language through metaphor (e.g. snow for cocaine) or borrowing words from a foreign language. Various words of Yiddish origin have been taken over into colloquial English in this way: shyster ‘swindler,’ meshuggener ‘crazy person,’ etc. ( also argot, slang) A-Z Cantonese 153 Chinese capital vs small (also upper case vs lower case) Capital and small letters double the inventory of many alphabetic writing systems in that, as a rule, each capital letter has a corresponding small letter. Capital and small letters are found in all writing systems that are based on the Latin, Greek, or Cyrillic alphabets, as well as in the Armenian Khutsuri script (biblical script). Capital letters are used in proper names (in Greenlandic only in proper names), sentence-initially (not in Greenlandic), and in particular expressions (the first person singular pronoun ‹I› and all words in titles except particles, in English; all nouns in German and—prior to 1947—in Danish). References writing captation Pragmatic figure of speech. An appeal to the goodwill of the reader or the listener, e.g. through stressed modesty. Captation is used as a topos (called ‘ad captandum appeal’) especially in introductory speech. References figure of speech Dictionary of language and linguistics 154 cardinal number [Lat. cardinalis ‘that serves as a pivot’] 1 In set theory the cardinal number of a (finite) set A is the number of elements of A. For example: A={red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet}, Card (A)=7. 2 Subset of the numerals: the basic numbers one, two, three, etc. cardinal vowel Vowel reference system developed by the English phonetician D.Jones (1881–1967). The system was developed first as a two-, then as a three-dimensional reference system for abstract ‘normal vowels’ and offered a standardized phonetic description of vowels for all languages. References phonetics Carib Language family containing approx. 50 languages in northern South America and the Antilles; today only approx. 25,000 speakers. Established by Gilij (1780–4), Carib is considered by Greenberg (1987) to belong to the Macro-Carib language family. Word order often OVS. References Derbyshire, D.C. 1979. Hixkaryana. Amsterdam. Durbin, M. 1977. A survey of the Carib language family. In E.B.Grasso (ed.), Carib speaking Indians. Tucson, AZ. Gilij, F.S. 1780–4. Saggio di storia americana o sia storia naturale, civile e sacra, de’ regni e delle provincie spagnuole de terra ferma nell’ America Meridionale, 4 vols. Rome. Greenberg, J.H. 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA. Hoff, B.J. 1968. The Carib language. The Hague. A-Z 155 Koehn, E. and S.Koehn. 1986. Apalai. In D.C. Derbyshire and G.Pullum (eds), Handbook of Amazonean languages. Berlin. 33–127. Rodriguez, A.D. 1985. Evidence for Tupi-Carib relationships. In H.E.Klein and L.Stark (eds), South American Indian languages. Austin, TX. South American Languages Cartesian linguistics Term introduced by N.Chomsky for all rationalistic linguistic approaches based on the approach of the French philosopher R. Descartes (1598–1650), the school of the Port rationalism). In assuming that Royal grammar, J.G.Herder and W.von Humboldt ( ‘innate ideas’ exist prior to the cognitive (especially linguistic) development of humans, Cartesian linguistics contrasts with empirical approaches to language ( empiricism) which postulate sensory perception (thus success and learning) as the source of all knowledge. ( also mentalism) Reference Chomsky, N. 1966. Cartesian linguistics: a chapter in the history of rationalist thought. New York. Cartesian product set case [Lat. casus ‘a fall,’ trans. of Grk fall’] ‘a Grammatical category of inflected words which serves to indicate their syntactic function in a sentence and, depending on the function, involves government and agreement. Case systems may vary from language to language and undergo continuous change. The cases of nominative languages are generally named after the reconstructed cases of IndoEuropean: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, locative, instrumental, vocative. In other languages, there are often other cases: in ergative languages ergative and absolutive are used instead of nominative and accusative; in Finno-Ugric languages, the terms partitive, elative, illative, inessive, among others, occur. In modern IndoEuropean languages, many of the original eight cases have disappeared, with original locatives, ablatives, instrumentals, and some genitives being replaced by the dative case Dictionary of language and linguistics 156 or prepositional phrases. The merger of various cases due to sound change is termed syncretism. In inflectional languages, case is marked by grammatical morphemes which often have a variet y of functions, such as markinggender and number. Adpositions, as in give to Caroline are occasionally referred to as case. In non-inflectional languages, where syntactic functions are primarily encoded by word order or sentence structure (e.g. English and French), attempts have been made to associate cases with specific syntactic case theory, Government and Binding theory). positions. ( A general distinction can be made between (a) casus rectus (nominative) and oblique cases (genitive, dative, accusative, etc.), and (b) syntactic and semantic cases. The syntactic cases such as nominative and accusative encode primary syntactic functions such as subject and object and do not have any specific semantic function. On the other hand, cases like ablative, instrumental, and locative generally represent adverbials which have a more specific semantic content. In some languages (e.g. Turkish, Finnish, Russian) the use of cases is also sensitive to the definiteness and/or animacy of their constituents. Despite numerous attempts dating back to antiquity, there are as yet no satisfactory semantic classifications of individual cases. References Allen, C.L. 1995. Case marking and reanalysis. Grammatical relations from Old to Early Modern English. Oxford. Blake, B.J. 1994. Case. Cambridge. Brecht, R. and J.Levine (eds) 1987. Case in Slavic. Columbus, OH. Comrie, B. 1991. Form and function in identifying cases. In F.Plank (ed.), Paradigms: the economy of inflection. Berlin. 41–56. Gil, D. 1982. Case marking, phonological size and linear order. In J.P.Hopper and S.A.Thompson (eds), Studies in transitivity. New York. Hjelmslev, L. 1935. La catégorie des Cas: étude de grammaire générale. Aarhus. Jakobson, R. 1936. Beiträge zur allgemeinen Kasuslehre. TCLP 6. 240–88. Kuryłowicz, J. 1964. The inflectional categories of Indo-European. Heidelberg. Moravcsik, E.A. 1978. Case marking of objects. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. Vol. 4, 250–89. Shibatani, M. 1983. Towards an understanding of the typology and function of case-marking. In S. Hattori and K.Inoue (eds), Proceedings of the thirteenth International Congress of Linguistics, Tokyo 1982. Tokyo. 45–58. Van Kemenade, A. 1987. Syntactic case and morphological case in the history of English. Dordrecht. Wierzbicka, A. 1980. The case for surface case. Ann Arbor, MI. Yip, M., J.Maling, and R.Jackendoff. 1987. Case in tiers. Lg 63. 217–50. Bibliography Campe, P. 1994. Case, semantic roles, and grammatical relations: a comprehensive bibliography. Amsterdam. 2 Term for semantic role ( grammar) thematic relation), or ‘deep case.’ ( also case A-Z 157 case grammar (also case theory, functional grammar) General term for linguistic theories which employ the concept of ‘deep case’ (semantic roles or thematic relations) as the central means of explaining both the syntactic structure as well as the meaning of sentences. Deep cases name the various semantic roles of the various ‘participants’ in the situation described by the verb. The number and types of cases are a matter of continuous debate in the literature. Two main approaches to semantic roles can be distinguished. (a) The case grammar introduced by Fillmore (1968, 1977), taken up and modified by Dik (1978, 1980) as functional grammar and by Starosta (1978) as the ‘Lexicase Model.’ The most important cases in the Fillmore model are the following: (i) agent, the relation of the animate volitional causer of an action: Philip in Philip opened the door; (ii) instrumental, the relation of the inanimate causer of an action (The wind blew the door open) or the object with which an action is accomplished (Philip opened the door with his key); (iii) objective (in earlier works, the most neutral case, later termed patient or goal), the role of the inanimate participant directly affected by an action (the door in (i)); (iv) dative (also: recipient, benefactive, experiencer), the role of the animate participant who is less directly affected by the action or state described by the verb (in contrast to the patient): Philip opened the door for Caroline); (v) locative for the location of the action. More recent approaches to case grammar have proposed a classification of semantic roles on the basis of the aspect of the verb (see Dik 1978, 1983; Dowty 1991). Thus the agent of an action ( process US action) is set in contrast to the experiencer of a state stative vs active), which is no longer equated with the (Philip in Philip is afraid) ( recipient as in Fill-more’s system. (b) The so-called ‘localistic theory’ (see Gruber 1967; Anderson 1971, 1977; Jackendoff 1972, 1987; Lutzeier 1991) takes as its point of departure a very limited number of general locative roles which can be found in verbs of motion and position, and applies them to more ‘abstract’ events, especially to verbs of possession and change of possession. Jackendoff (1972) establishes the following roles he calls thematic relations: cause, goal, theme, source, and locative. In this relation system the agent is grouped with cause, while the patient, the experiencer, and the first argument of verbs of position (The door is over there) are grouped under theme. The goal corresponds to recipients (Caroline in Philip promised Caroline that he would quit smoking), as well as to the goal or direction of verbs of motion as in The plane departed for Los Angeles). Semantic role theories determine not only the semantic roles, but also their function in grammar, i.e. how role structure, semantic structure, and syntactic structure interplay. According to Fillmore (1977), each verb selects a certain number of deep cases which form its case frame. Thus, a case frame describes important aspects of semantic valence, both of verbs and of other elements with valence (adjectives and nouns). Syntactic rules are determined by semantic role structures which are themselves determined by the case frame of the verb in question. Case frames are subject to certain restrictions, such as that a deep case can occur only once per sentence. Syntactic functions are assigned on the Dictionary of language and linguistics 158 basis of thematic relations. The strongest hypothesis of case grammar is that syntactic functions can be defined in terms of deep cases. Fillmore (1968) takes the following hierarchy for his universal subject selection rule: Agent<Instrumental<Objective. If the case frame of a predicate contains an agent, it is realized as the subject of an active sentence; otherwise, the role following the agent in the hierarchy (i.e. Instrumental) is selected as the subject. The general rule is the following: if the roles X, Y, or Z occur in a sentence, then the element highest in the hierarchy is realized as the subject in the basic voice of the language. Jackendoff (1972) and Dik (1980) formulate other hierarchy universals, based on a slightly modified hierarchy, which apply for various universal phenomena such as object selection, verbal agreement, passive, reflexivization, etc. Case grammar stands out from other recent linguistic theories by the assumption that (1) syntactic functions are concepts of universal grammar derived from deep cases and (2) deep cases can explain phenomena that are handled in other theories by syntactic notions. The influence of case grammar on more recent research can be seen in the fact that numerous linguistic theories incorporate thematic relations, cf. theta criterion in transformational grammar, relational grammar, functional grammar. References Abraham, W. (ed.) 1978. Valence, semantic case and grammatical relations. Amsterdam. Anderson, J.M. 1971. The grammar of case: towards a localistic theory. Cambridge. ——1977. On case grammar: prolegomena to a theory of grammatical relations. London. ——1990. Case grammar contrasts. In J.Fisiak (ed.), Further insights into contrastive analysis. Amsterdam. 23–8. Dik, S.C. 1978. Functional grammar. Amsterdam. ——1980. Studies in functional grammar. London/New York. ——(ed.) 1983. Advances in functional grammar. Dordrecht. Dirven, R. and G.Radden (eds) 1987. Concepts of case. Tübingen. ——1987. Fillmore’s case grammar: a reader. Heidelberg. Dowty, D.R. 1991. Thematic proto-roles and argument selection. Lg 67. 547–619. Fillmore, C.J. 1968. The case for case. In E.Bach and R.T.Harms (eds), Universals in linguistic theory. New York. 1–88. ——1977. The case for case reopened. In P.Cole and J.M.Sadock (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 8: Grammatical relations. New York. 59–82. Finke, P. 1974. Theoretische Probleme der Kasusgrammatik. Kronberg. Gruber, J.S. 1967. Studies in lexical relations. Bloomington, IN. (Also in Lexical structures in syntax and semantics. Amsterdam, 1976.) Halliday, M.L. 1967–8. Notes on transitivity and theme in English. JL part I, 1967, 37–81; part II, 1967, 177–274; part III, 1968, 153–308. Huddlestone, R. 1970. Some remarks on casegrammar. LingI 1. 501–11. Jackendoff, R.S. 1972. Semantic interpretation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. ——1987. The status of thematic relations in linguistic theory. LingI 18. 369–411. ——1991. Semantic structures. Cambridge, MA. Lutzeier, P. 1991. Major pillars of German syntax. Tübingen. Roca, I.M. (ed.) 1992. Thematic structure: its role in grammar. Berlin and New York. Schwarze, C. (ed.) 1978. Kasusgrammatik und Sprachvergleich: kontrastive Analysen zum Italienischen und Deutschen. Tübingen. A-Z 159 Starosta, S. 1978. The one per cent solution. In W. Abraham (ed.), Valence, semantic case and grammatical relations. Amsterdam. 459–577. Bibliographies Rubattel, C. 1977. Eine Bibliographie zur Kasusgrammatik. LingB 51. 88–106. Wotjak, G. 1979. Bibliographie zur Kasusgrammatik. DaF 16. 184–91. case theory 1 A basic theory of the Government and Binding theory whereby certain lexical categories can assign case. The following distinctions are made in case theory: (1) case dependent on lexical items, e.g. the German verb helfen ‘to help’ governs the dative case; (2) case dependent on semantic roles ( thematic relation); (3) case dependent on the grammatical functions of lexical items, e.g. Philip’s book where Philip is in the genitive case. This theory is more elaborate in ‘case languages’ such as German and Latin than in English. References Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. Ostler, N. 1980. A theory of case linking and agreement. Bloomington, IN. Schlesinger, I.M. 1995. Cognitive space and linguistic case. Cambridge. 2 case grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics Cassubian Castillian 160 Kashubian Spanish casus rectus [Lat. rectus ‘straight’] Nominative case, as opposed to all other cases, which are grouped together as oblique cases. The image implied by ‘casus rectus’ refers to an upright rod or pole which is declined (inflected) to various degrees ( inflection) References case catachresis [Grk katáchrēsis ‘analytical application’] The use of a rhetorical trope to name some-thing that otherwise has no name, (in contrast to metaphor): e.g. (table) leg. Quintilian called catachresis a ‘necessary misuse.’ Catachresis is often used to name products that are the result of new technology. In Brit. Eng. the crossing-point of several highways is called spaghetti junction. Catachresis is common in advertising slogans such as Spalding, the longest ball, or Molson ‘s dry beer. Many terms now considered proper are catachresis in origin: a leaf (of paper), the foot (of a mountain), balkanization. A-Z 161 References figure of speech Catalan Romance language spoken by approx. 7 million speakers in the eastern and northeastern part of the Iberian peninsula, on the Balearic Islands, in French Roussillon, in the Sardinian city of Alghero, the official language of Andorra. The dialect of Barcelona, long suppressed by Franco and now enjoying a limited resurgence, forms the basis for the written language. The status of Catalan as an independent language can be seen at the phonological level in the palatalization of initial [1] (Lat. luna>lluna ‘moon’). Catalan dialects break into east and west variants, with Valencian belonging to the latter. Whether Catalan belongs to IberoRomance ( Spanish) or Gallo-Romance ( Occitan) is still debated; in many ways the area where it is spoken can be seen as a transition zone between the two. References Badía Margarit, A.M. 1962. Gramática catalana. 2 vols. Madrid. ——1981. Gramática historica catalana. Valencia. Berquist. M.F. 1981. Ibero-Romance: comparative phonology and morphology. Washington, DC. Blasco Ferrer, E. 1985. Gramatica storica del Catalano e dei suoi dialetti con speciale riguardo all’ Algherese. Tübingen. Bonet, S. and J.Solá. 1986. Sintaxi generativa catalana. Barcelona. Fabra, P. 1981. Gramática catalana. 10th edn. Barcelona. Gili, J. 1967. Introductory Catalan grammar: with a brief outline of the language and literature, 3rd edn. Oxford. Griera, A. 1966. Tresor de la llengua, 14 vols. Barcelona. Holtus, G.M.Metzeltin, and C.Schmitt (eds), 1989. Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik, vol. 5. Tübingen. Hualde, J.I. 1992. Catalan. London. Kremnitz, G. 1979. Sprachen im Konflikt: Theorie und Praxis der katalanischen Soziolinguisten. Tübingen. Lüdtke, J. 1984. Katalanisch: ein einführende Sprachbeschreibung. Munich. Dictionaries Catalan dictionary. 1994. London. Coromines, J. 1980. Diccionari etimològici complementari de la llengua catalana (to date. 7 vols to ‘SOF’). Barcelona. Dictionary of language and linguistics cataphor 162 cataphora cataphora [Grk kataphorá ‘bringing down, downward motion’] Term coined by K.Bühler (1934) in analogy to anaphora indicating a linguistic element which points to information immediately following the utterance. Such cataphoric elements of speech (deixis) include determiners, personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, and interrogative pronouns in questions, e.g. He who in He who laughs last laughs longest. References Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (2nd edn Stuttgart, 1965.) Halliday, M.A.K. and R.Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London. Reinhart, T. 1983. Anaphora and semantic interpretation. London. (Rev. repr. 1984.) Wiese, B. 1983. Anaphora by pronouns. Linguistics 21. 373–417. catastrophe theory [Grk katastréphein ‘to overturn’] General mathematical theory of planes in n-dimensional spaces. Singularities (i.e. ‘catastrophes’) frequently arise for the descriptive functions in sections of such planes. With some imagination one can interpret such sections as dynamic processes. Wildgen (1982) tries to make this potentially useful for linguistics; so far, it has been applied to morphology and semantics. References Wildgen, W. 1982. Catastrophe theoretic semantics: an elaboration and application of René Thom’s theory. Amsterdam. ——1989. Catastrophe theory as a basic tool in theoretical linguistics. TL 14. 259–94. A-Z 163 catchword 1 A much-used word that implicitly interprets or evaluates a complex state of affairs. A catchword has the effect of bringing solidarity to groups in society. Because catchwords have a persuasive-agitative function, they are often the cause of public controversy, e.g. traditional values, equal opportunity, discrimination. A catchword can be understood as a condensed, linguistically fixed form of a topos. 2 lemma categorematic expression In Montague grammar, categorematic expressions are understood to be expressions without any (lexical) meaning of their own. To the extent that this is the case, they do not appear in the lexicon, but are only introduced via syntactic rules. The corresponding semantic (interpretation) rules encompass the semantic effect of the categorematic expressions in more extensive syntagms. Examples of categorematic expressions are conjunctions, articles and quantifiers. Reference Montague, R. 1974. Formal philosophy: selected papers of Richard Montague. New Haven, CT. categorial grammar Grammatical model developed by Polish logicians (Ajdukiewicz 1935) as an algorithm for checking the wellformedness of sentences. Its application to natural language was worked out primarily by J.Lambek, Y.Bar-Hillel, D. Lewis, and R.Montague. New developments of categorial grammar are represented by generalized categorial grammar and categorial unification grammar. All variants of categorial grammar are characterized by a specific category concept as well as by the parallel treatment of syntax and semantics. The names of categories in categorial grammar encode the combinatorial properties of linguistic expressions and as a consequence important aspects of their distribution and syntactic function. For instance, the category S/N expresses the fact that an expression of this category can be combined with an expression of category N to form an expression of category S. (This corresponds to the traditional statement that a noun and a verb form a sentence.) The category ‘verb’ in contrast to S/N does not explicitly Dictionary of language and linguistics 164 reflect this fact. Complex categories such as S/N are derived from a limited number of basic categories: N for nominal expressions (Philip, he, the book) and S for sentences (Philip is reading the book). From these, any number of complex categories can be derived, such as S/N (for sleep, work), (S/N)/N for greet, shave, (S/N)/(S/N) for eagerly, secretly, etc. The complex categories are analyzed as mathematical functions and named functor categories. Thus S/N names a function (operation) which has N as an argument and S as a value. Correspondingly, expressions are classified into functor (or operator) and argument (or operand) expressions. This categorial system has many advantages: (a) There is no need to indicate all the various syntactic combinatory rules; instead, the following rule schema is sufficient: an expression of category A/B is combined with an expression of category B to form an expression of category A. This rule schema corresponds mathematically to a functional application: a functor expression of category A/B is applied to an ‘appropriate’ argument of category B, yielding a value of category A. According to this schema, an intransitive verb of the category S/N can be combined with a nominal expression of category N to yield a sentence S. If, however, one tries to combine an S/N expression with a transitive verb of the category (S/N)/N, the functional application will fail since the argument is of the wrong category. In order to see whether Philip works well is a well-formed sentence, each expression must first be assigned a category, and then the functional application schema is applied successively to all categories. If the result is S, then the sen tence is well formed. The following diagram illustrates the successive functional applications: (b) Syntactic representations reconstruct both the constituent structure of complex expressions as well as their function-argument structure. Thus the successive functional applications above represent the analysis of the sentence into constituents: the sentence is composed of the immediate constituents Philip and works well. The latter in turn is a complex expression consisting of works and well. In addition, the sentence is also analyzed in terms of dependency relations between sister constituents. Two sister constituents are not of the same rank, but rather are distinguished from one another as functor and argument. Thus well is the functor of works and the complex expression works well is the functor of Philip. This functional hierarchy is important for the semantic interpretation of sentences. It can also be used for the reconstruction of dependency in general and valence in particular, or for making more precise the concept ‘head of a construction’ (Vennemann 1977). (c) The mathematical representation simplifies the verification of the grammar and its application, such as in computational linguistics. The syntactic system of categories as well as the syntactic combination of expressions into sentences runs parallel to the semantic system of categories and to the semantic combination of the meanings of simple expressions into sentence meaning. The relation between syntax and semantics is compositional, with syntactic categories and semantic A-Z 165 types standing in the closest possible relation, the former merely encoding the latter. Thus categorial grammars have a semantically motivated formal syntax. For approaches to categorial grammar in morphology, see Šaumjan (1971), Reichl (1982), Hoeksema (1985), Hoeksema and Janda (1987), Moortgat (1987); in phonology, Wheeler (1987); in pragmatics Zaefferer (1979). ‘Classical’ categorial grammar is not adequate for the complete and adequate description of a language, since it cannot handle discontinuous constituents, word order permutations, as well as morphological markings and relationships such as agreement and government. Extensions of the ‘classical’ model include the introduction of transformations (Lewis 1970; Partee 1975), syntactic features (Bach 1983, in the framework of generalized categorial grammar and categorial unification grammar), as well as rules which are not functional applications according to rule schema in (a) mentioned above, see Lambek (1958), Geach (1972), and Oehrle et al. (1987). ( also intensional logic, Montague grammar) References Ajdukiewicz, K. 1935. Die syntaktische Konnexität. Studia Philosophica 1. 1–27. (Trans. in S.McCall (ed), Polish logic. Oxford, 1967. 207–31.) Bach, E. 1983. On the relationship between wordgrammar and phrase-grammar. NL&LT 1. 65–89. Bar-Hillel, Y. 1954. Logical syntax and semantics. Lg 30. 230–7. ——1964. Language and information. Reading, MA. Bartsch, R. and T.Vennemann. 1972. Semantic structures: a study in the relation between semantics and syntax. Frankfurt. (2nd edn 1973.) Buszkowski, W., W.Marciszewski, and J.van Benthem (eds) 1988. Categorial grammar. Amsterdam. Cresswell, M.J. 1973. Logics and languages. London. Dowty, D.R. 1982. Grammatical relations and Montague grammar. In P.T.Jacobson and G.K.Pullum (eds), The nature of syntactic representation. Dordrecht. 79–130. Geach, P. 1972. A program for syntax. In D.Davidson and G.Harman (eds), Semantics of natural language. Dordrecht. 483–97. Hoeksma, J. 1985. Categorial morphology. New York. ——and R.D.Janda. 1987. Implications of process-morphology for categorial grammar. In R.Oehrle, E.Bach, and D.Wheeler (eds), Categorial grammars and natural language. Dordrecht. 199–248. Lambek, J. 1958. The mathematics of sentence structure. American Mathematical Monthly 65. 154–70. Lewis, D. 1970. General semantics. Synthese 22. 18–67. Montague, R. 1974. Formal philosophy: selected papers of R.Montague. ed. R.H.Thomason. New Haven. CT. Moortgat, M. 1987. Mixed composition and discontinuous dependencies. In R.Oehrle, E.Bach. and D.Wheeler (eds), Categorial grammars and natural language. Dordrecht. 319–48. ——1989. Categorial investigations. Dordrecht. Oehrle. R.E.Bach. and D.Wheeler (eds) 1987. Categorial grammars and natural language. Dor drecht. Partee, B. 1975. Montague grammar and transformational grammar. LingI 6. 203–300. Reichl, K. 1982. Categorial grammar and word-formation: the de-adjectival abstract noun in English. Tübingen. Šaumjan, S. 1971. Strukturelle Linguistik. Munich. Dictionary of language and linguistics 166 Steedman, M. 1993a. Categorial grammar. Lingua 90. 221–58. ——1993b. Categorial grammar. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 395–412. Vennemann, T. 1977. Konstituenz und Dependenz in einigen neueren Grammatiktheorien. Sprachwissenschaft 2. 259–301. Von Stechow, A. 1990. Categorial grammar and linguistic theory. SLang 14. 433–78. Wheeler, D. 1987. Consequences of some categorially motivated phonological assumptions. In R.Oehrle, E.Bach, and D.Wheeler (eds), Categorial grammars and natural language. Dordrecht. 467–88. Wood, M.M. 1993. Categorial grammars. London. Zaefferer, D. 1979. Sprechakttypen in einer Montague-Grammatik. In G.Grewendorf (ed), Sprechakttheorie und Semantik. Frankfurt. 386–417. categorial unification grammar (abbrev. CUG) An umbrella term for grammatical models in which the syntactic theory of categorial grammar is realized using the methods of unification grammar. The simple and derived syntactic categories of categorial grammar and the combination rules can be encoded as feature structures. The application of combination rules takes place with the help of feature unification. Calder, Klein, and Zeevat (1988) developed a version of CUG called unification categorial grammar which combines a categorial syntax with a compositional semantics based on discourse representation theory. Another version was suggested by Karttunen (1986) and used to describe word order variations in Finnish. CUG formalisms are used for the implementation of several experimental computational linguistics program systems. References Calder. J.E.Klein, and H.Zeevat. 1988. Unification Categorial Grammar: a concise, extendible grammar for natural language processing. COLING 88. 83–6. Karttunen, L. 1986. Radical lexicalism. CSLI Report 86–68. Stanford. CA. Uskzoreit, H. 1986. Categorial Unification Grammar. COLING 86. 187–94. category feature A subgroup of’ semantic-syntactic features in transformational grammar described by ‘N. Chomsky in 1965. Category features identify linguistic units as belonging to specific grammatical categories such as noun or verb. A-Z 167 category symbol In transformational grammar, an abbreviation for classes of grammatical (syntactic) categories such as NP, VP, V as well as for individual elements from these classes. ( also grammatical categories) Caucasian languages Geographical term for the languages which are spoken in the linguistically diverse Caucasus region. In addition to a number of Indo-European and Turkic languages, the term includes especially the languages of three local language families, North-West Caucasian, North-East Caucasian, and South Caucasian. Genetic affinity among the three groups has hitherto not been proved. Other attempts at relating the Caucasian languages to languages outside of the Caucasus, e.g. Basque, are equally dubious. ( also classification of languages) References Catford, J.C. 1977. Mountain of tongues: the languages of the Caucasus. Annual Review of Anthropology 6. 283–314. Comrie, B. 1981. The languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridge. Chap. 5. Deeters, G. 1963. Die kaukasischen Sprachen. In B. Spuler (ed.), Handbuch der Orientalistik, vol. I, 7: Armenisch und kaukasische Sprachen. Leiden. 1–79. Dirr, A. 1928. Einführung in das Studium der kaukasischen Sprachen. Leipzig. Geiger. B. et al. 1959. Peoples and languages of the Caucasus. The Hague. Hewitt, G. 1992. Caucasian perspectives. Munich. Klimov, G.A. 1994. Einführung in die kaukasische Sprachwissenschaft, trans. J.Gippert. Hamburg. Vinogradov, V.V. et al. (eds) 1966–8. Jazyki narodov SSSR. 5 vols. Moscow. Journal Studia Caucasica Dictionary of language and linguistics 168 causal clause Semantically defined clause which usually functions as an adverbial modifier describing the cause of the state of affairs expressed in the main clause: He was tired because he had been hiking all day. causative (also factitive verb) Semantically defined class of verbs and verb phrases which describe a caused action. Formally the following subgroups can be distinguished. (a) morphological causatives: certain derived regular (= weak) verbs which can be paraphrased as ‘to cause that’: to set=to make sit, to lay=to make lie, to fell=to make fall. Historically, these verbs in English were formed by suffixing the causative element -jan to certain strong verbs which caused umlaut in the root vowel: cf. Goth. dōmjan, OE dēman ‘to judge, to deem.’ Another type of causative verb is formed from adjectives with the suffix -en: blackblacken, red-redden, fat-fatten. (b) Ergative verbs ( unaccusative) used both transitively and intransitively where the transitive use expresses causation, cf. The sun is melting the ice vs The ice is melting. There are also corresponding verb pairs that are not etymologically related: to die—to kill. (c) Auxiliaries with causative meaning such as to make, to have, cf. Have him brought in; You can’t make me do that. ( also recessive) References Cole, P. 1983. The grammatical role of the cause in universal grammar. IJAL 49. 115–83. Comrie, B. 1985. Causative verb formation and other verb-deriving morphology. In T.Shopen (ed.), Language typology and syntactic description. Cambridge. Vol. 3, 309–48. Comrie, B. and M.Polinsky (eds) 1993. Causatives and transitivity. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Dubinsky, S., M.-R. Lloret, and P.Newman. 1988. Lexical and syntactic causatives in Oromo. Lg 64. 485–500. Kastovsky, D. 1973. Causatives. FL 10.255–315. Shibatani, M. (ed.) 1976. Syntax and semantics, vol. 6: The grammar of causative constructions. New York. Syeed, S.M. 1985. Morphological causatives and the problem of the transformational approach. Bloomington, IN. generative semantics A-Z 169 c-command An abbreviation for ‘constituent command’. C-command is one of the most important universal structure-related terms in generative grammar ( transformational grammar) along with domination and maximal projection. A constituent X ccommands Y (a constituent which is different from X) if and only if the first branching node dominating X also dominates Y and when neither X nor Y dominates the other. In the prepositional phrase (PP) in the book (=[prep+NP]pp). the preposition in ccommands the following noun phrase the book; the c-commands book, but not in. Ccommand plays a central role in the various modules of the theory and thus defines binding, government, and the scope of quantifiers. References Aoun,J. and D.Sportiche. 1983. On the formal theory of government. LRev 2. 211 36. Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. Radford, A. Transformational syntax: a student’s guide to Chomsky’s Extended Standard Theory. Cambridge. Chs 10 and 11. Reinhart, T. 1976. The syntactic domain of anaphora. Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, MA. ——1983. Anaphora and semantic interpretation. London. Cebuano Malayo-Polynesian cedilla Derived from Span. zedilla ‘little z.’ the cedilla is a comma-shaped diacritic that originally comes from Greek ζ (zēta) and functions variously as a subscript beneath Roman letters: when placed below the letter c, it corresponds in French to [s] or /s/ before the dark vowels a, o, u (e.g. garçon ‘boy’); in Rumanian. the cedilla differentiates between , ş [∫] and t [t], s [s]; in Latvian it denotes palatalization. Dictionary of language and linguistics Celtiberian 170 Celtic Celtic Branch of Indo-European, formerly spread over large parts of Europe and Asia Minor, but today found only in northwestern Europe. Geographically, Celtic falls into two groups. (a) Continental Celtic, which is extinct today and attested only in inscriptions, borrowings and place-names; to this group belong Celtiberian (or Hispano-Celtic), Gaulish, Lepontic (sometimes subsumed under Gaulish), and Galatian. In the last two decades, there have been some important finds of longer texts, such as the tablets in Botorrita (Celtiberian) and Larzac (Gaulish). (b) Insular Celtic. under which fall the two groups Gaelic (or Goidelic). with the subdivisions Irish (approx. 500,000 speakers). Scots-Gaelic (approx. 90.000 speakers) and the recently extinct Manx (on the Isle of Man), on the one hand. and Brythonic. with the branches Welsh (approx. 400.000 speakers. attested since the eighth century). Breton (approx. 1.2 million speakers in the French province of Brittany, where speakers emigrated to from Britain some 1.400 years ago). and Cornish (extinct since the eighteenth century, but currently experiencing a revival). on the other hand. It is still under debate whether the division into Continental and Insular Celtic also constitutes a genetic grouping. For there is a further division that exists between the Celtic languages which does not coincide with the former grouping. i.e. that into the so-called pand q-Celtic languages depending on the fate of IE . which in the q-Celtic languages remained a velar sound (Celtiberian, Irish, and some Gaulish dialects). whereas in the p-Celtic languages it became p (the Brythonic languages and Gaulish along with Lepontic). The exact genetic relationship between these groups remains controversial to date. Other characteristics: the whole of the Celtic branch of languages lost IE *p, which is the most significant feature. Furthermore, there is no infinitive and no verb ‘have.’ Features characteristic of all the Insular Celtic languages include initial consonantal mutations, originally a sandhi phenomenon caused by a preceding vowel, but later heavily grammaticalized, and pronominal forms affixed to the verb. Its orthography leaves it unclear whether Continental Celtic had any kind of mutation. Word order in Insular Celtic is VSO, which deviates from other IE languages. References Ball, M. (ed.) 1993. The Celtic languages. London and New York. Gregor, D.B. 1980. Celtic: a comparative survey. Cambridge. Hendrick, R. (ed.) 1990. Syntax and semantics, vol. 23: The syntax of the modern Celtic languages. New York. Jackson, K. 1953. Language and history in Early Britain. Edinburgh. Macauley, D. (ed.) 1992. The Celtic languages. Cambridge. A-Z 171 McCone, K.R. 1992. Relative Chronologie: Keltisch. In R.Beekes et al. (eds), Rekonstruktion und relative Chronologie: Akten der VIII. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft. Innsbruck. 11–39. Pedersen, H. 1909/13. Vergleichende Grammatik der keltischen Sprachen. 2 vols. Göttingen. (Repr. Zürich 1976.) Abbrev. English version: H. Lewis and H.Pedersen. 1937. A concise comparative Celtic grammar. Göttingen.) Schmidt, K.H. (ed.) 1977. Indogermanisch und Keltisch. Wiesbaden. Journals Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies. Celtica. Eriu. Etudes Celtiques. Revue Celtique. Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie. center antecedent Central Sudan languages languages central vs peripheral Chari-Nile compact vs diffuse centralization Replacement of a less central vowel with a more central vowel. For example, centralization in English takes place in virtually all unstressed vowels and is represented , cf. ‹telegraph›. by schwa Dictionary of language and linguistics 172 centrifugal vs centripetal [Lat. fugare ‘to drive away’; petere ‘to aim at’] Terms borrowed from physics which indicate the properties of forces which proceed either from or towa rds a center. 1 L.Tesnière uses these two terms in his dependency grammar for the relationship between the dependency of elements on each other and their syntactic order relative to one another. The linear order: governing expression (=center)/dependent expression he terms ‘centrifugal’ (cf. Fr. cheval blanc), the reverse order, ‘centripetal’ (cf. white horse). His concept of language typology is based on this distinction, which in another terminology is called postspecifying vs prespecifying ( word order). References Greenberg, J.H. 1966. Language universals: with specific reference to feature hierarchies. The Hague. Lehmann, W.P. (ed.) 1978. Syntactic typology: studies in the phenomenology of language. Austin. TX. Tesnière, L. 1959. Elements de syntaxe structurale. Paris. Vennemann, T. and R.Harlow, 1977. Categorial grammar and consistent basic VX serialization. TL 4. 227–54. 2 B.A.Abramov among others uses these terms in Russian linguistics to distinguish various syntactic ‘potencies’ (=the ability to fulfill certain syntactic functions). ‘Centrifugal potency’ expresses the ability of linguistic expressions to dominate other expressions: this term corresponds largely with valence. ‘Centripetal potency’ on the other hand refers to the syntactic property of being able to function as a dependent element. Reference Abramov, B.A. 1967. Zum Begriff der zentripetalen und zentrifugalen Potenzen. DaF 3. 155–68. centum vs satem languages [Lat. centum, Skt śatám ‘one hundred’] In historical linguistics, a division set up according to the reconstruction of the IndoEuropean languages into a Western and an Eastern group that are named after their respective term for the numeral ‘100.’ The original (now not uncontroversial) thesis A-Z 173 maintained the following: The Indo-European proto-language had three series of guttural . These sounds, i.e. velars [k, g, gh], palatals [k’, g’, gh’] and labio-velars three rows were developed differently in the individual daughter languages: in the socalled centum languages (= Germanic, Celtic, Italic, etc.) the palatals merged with the velars, the labio-velars remaining separate; in the so-called satem languages (=Indic ( Indo-Aryan), Iranian, Slavic, etc.) the velars merged with the labio-velars, while the palatals here remained separate and subsequently developed further into spirants. Consequently, the originally palatal stop corresponds to [k] in centum languages (in Germanic to [h] due to subsequent Grimm’s law) and to some kind of sibilant in the satem languages. Several criticisms of a phonological kind have been leveled against this hypothesis; but especially the more recent discoveries of Tocharian (1904) and Hittite (1906), two centum languages located in the east, have proved this classification into two geographically and phonologically distinguished language branches to be not unproblematic; also, the development within the individual languages is not as unequivocal as was formerly believed. References classification of languages, historical linguistics, Indo-European Cercle Linguistique de Copenhague glossematics Cezian North-East Caucasian Chadic Language family of Afro-Asiatic south of Lake Chad with more than 125 languages; by far the largest is Hausa with over 25 million speakers. Characteristics: tonal languages (high, low, occasionally falling), glottalized consonants; three-member gender system (masculine, feminine, plural) with complex plural formation; rich system of voices (including directional meaning components). Verbal groups consist of a complex of auxiliary (marking aspect, mood, person) and a verbal noun; word order SVO. Dictionary of language and linguistics 174 References Newman, P. 1977. Chadic classification and reconstructions. AfL 5. 42. ——1980. The classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic. Leiden. Wolff, E. 1981. Die tschadischen Sprachen. In B. Heine et al. (eds), Die Sprachen Afrikas, Hamburg. 239–62. chain A technical term from Government and Binding theory which formally represents the steps of a (possibly repeated) movement transformation as a sequence of positions in sstructure. The positions affected by a movement are joined in a chain in such a way that the first member of the chain is the end point of the movement, the last member of the chain is the point of departure and all points in between are intermediate landing sites of the movement. Chains serve to define the so-called theta criterion, which requires an unambiguous correspondence between arguments and thematic roles ( thematic relation): as a result of the theta criterion, a chain must possess only one theta-marked position if it contains an argument, and correspondingly, every chain must contain exactly one argument, if it is assigned a theta role. References McClosky, J. and P.Sells. 1988. Control and A-chains in modern Irish. NL&LT 6.143–90. Rizzi, L. 1986. On chain formation. In H.Borer (ed.), Syntax and semantics, vol. 19: The syntax of pronominal clitics. Orlando, FL. 65–95. ——1986. Relativized minimality. Cambridge, MA. characteristic function Special type of function1: let there be two sets A and B, where B is a subset of A. The characteristic function of B assigns, from a third set C (that contains only the elements ‘true’ and ‘false,’ or 1 and 0) to every element x of A exactly the value ‘true’ (or 1), if x is an element of B. Cf. as set A the set of all phonemes in English, as set B the set of all vowels in English. The characteristic function indicates which phonemes from A are vowels in English. In categorial grammar or model-theoretic semantics, the characteristic function corresponds to the extension of the predicate. A-Z 175 References categorial grammar, formal logic Chari-Nile languages Language family in Africa, considered by Greenberg (1963) to be a branch of the NiloSaharan languages. The following subgroupings can be made: the East Sudan languages (with nine branches, including Nubian and Nilotic), the Central Sudan languages, and a number of individual languages. The most widely spoken languages include Dinka (approx. 2.7 million speakers) and Nubian (approx. 2 million speakers) in Sudan, Luo (approx. 2.2 million speakers) and Kalenjin (approx. 2 million speakers) in Kenya, Turkana (approx 1.5 million speakers) in Uganda and Kenya. Historically there have been a number of debates regarding these languages, since researchers such as Müller (1877) and Meinhof (1912) considered some languages to be ‘Hamitic,’ based on cultural and anthropological considerations ( Afro-Asiatic). Important contributions were made by Lepsius (1880), Westermann (1935), Köhler (1955) and Tucker and Bryan (1956). Characteristics of these fairly diverse languages: lack of noun classes which are common to the neighboring Bantu languages; isolated development of a gender system (e.g. in Massai, masculine and feminine); a distinction between singular and plural in the noun is widely made. Old written attestations exist of Nubian (eighth century). References Dimmendaal, G.W. 1983. The Turkana language. Dordrecht. Greenberg, J.H. 1963. The languages of Africa. Bloomington, IN. (2nd edn 1966.) Köhler, O. 1955. Geschichte der Erforschung der nilotischen Sprachen. Berlin. Lepsius, R. 1880. Nubische Grammatik mit einer Einleitung über die Völker und Sprachen Afrikas. Berlin. Meinhof, C. 1912. Die Sprache der Hamiten. Hamburg. Müller, F. 1877. Die Sprachen Basa, Grebo und Kru im westlichen Afrika. Vienna. Tucker, A.N. and M.S.Bryan. 1956. The non-Bantu languages of North-Eastern Africa. (Handbook of African languages 3). Oxford. Vossen, R. 1982. The Eastern Nilotes, linguistic and historical reconstructions. Berlin. Westermann, D. 1935. Charakter und Einteilung der Sudansprachen. Africa 8. 129–48. Dictionary of language and linguistics 176 chart In parsing, a schematic way to show, economically and without redundancy, the syntactic representations of all possible well-formed substrings of a sentence. Since sentences of natural language frequently contain structurally ambiguous strings of words, as well as clearly definable constituents, it is often not possible to decide which of the possible structures of a string of words are appropriate for interpretation ( ambiguity). In order not to recompute all the parts of each new analysis (i.e. backtrack) in ambiguous structures, all pieces of accumulated knowledge are put into the chart, where they can be consulted as often as necessary and in any possible combination. One can picture a chart simply as a collection of all the possible tree diagrams of all the substrings of a sentence, in which the same parts of different tree diagrams are always represented only once. References Kaplan, R. 1970.The mind system. A grammar rule language. Santa Monica, CA. Kay, M. 1967. Experiments with a powerful parser. AJCL. Microfiche 43. ——1980. Algorithmic schemata and data structures in syntactic processing. Stockholm. Varile, G.B. 1983. Charts: a data structure for parsing. In M.King (ed.), Parsing natural language. London. 73–87. ( also computational linguistics) Chechen North-East Caucasian checked syllable closed vs open checked vs unchecked Binary phonological opposition in distinctive feature analysis, based on acoustically analyzed and spectrally defined criteria ( acoustic phonetics, spectral analysis). Acoustic characteristic: strong energy release over a short period vs lower energy release over a longer period. Articulatory characteristic ( articulation): closing vs opening of the glottis. A-Z 177 Reference Jakobson, R. et al. 1951. Preliminaries to speech analysis. Cambridge, MA. (6th edn 1965.) Cheremis Cherokee Finno-Ugric Iroquoian chiasmus [Grk chiasmós ‘diagonal arrangement’ (after the Greek letter χ ‘chi’)] (also chiasm) The inversion of the second of two parallel phrases or clauses, e.g. The French live to eat, the English eat to live. Chiasm is often used as a syntactic form of anthithesis, and has long been popular in advertising language (The question isn’t whether grape nuts are good enough for you, it’s whether you are good enough for grape nuts). References figure of speech Chibchan Chibchan-Paezan Chibchan-Paezan Language group consisting of about forty languages located in Central America and in northwestern South America with approx. 400,000 speakers. Greenberg (1960, 1987) combined the Chibchan languages in the more restricted sense with the Paezan languages Dictionary of language and linguistics 178 into a common language family, ‘Chibchan-Paezan’; this grouping is still debated. The largest languages are Guaymi in Panama (approx. 65,000 speakers) and Paez in Columbia (approx. 60,000 speakers). Characteristics: relatively simple sound system; tendency towards polysynthesis and descriptivity. Occasional numeral classification, noun classes, and verb classification classifying verb) in the southern language Itonama. One unusual syntactic trait: the ( subject of past tense sentences is marked with the genitive. Word order usually SVO. References Craig, C. 1985. Indigenous languages of Nicaragua of Chibchan affiliation. In E.M.Peña (ed.), Estudios de lingüística Chibcha. San José. 47–55. Greenberg, J.H. 1956. The general classification of Central and South American languages. Repr. in A.F.C.Wallace (ed.), Men and cultures. Philadelphia, PA, 1960. ——1960. The general classification of Central and South American languages. In: A.Wallace (ed.), Selected Papers of the Fifth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences. 791–4. Philadelphia. ——1987. Languages in the Americas. Stanford, CA. Lopez-Garcia, A. 1995. Gramática muisca. Munich. Dictionary Holmer, N.M. 1952. Ethno-linguistic Cuna dictionary. Göteborg. South American languages Chicksaw Muskogen childhood dysphasia developmental aphasia, specific language impairment Chinese Largest Sino-Tibetan language, which is actually a group of at least six languages: Mandarin (in the form Putenghua the official language of the People’s Republic of China, in the form Guoyu the official language of Taiwan; with 613 million speakers the most A-Z 179 widely spoken language in the world), Wu (on the Yangtze, 84 million), Yue (in South China, along with Cantonese, 54 million), Min (Taiwan and offshore coast, 77 million), Kan-Hakka (South China, 67 million), and Hsiang (Hunan, 49 million). The beginnings of the ideographic writing system date back 4,000 years; today it is the oldest writing system in use. Characteristics: all are tonal languages (Mandarin: four tones: high, rising, fallingrising, falling; Cantonese: nine tones) with somewhat complex tone-sandhi rules (combinations of tones). Simple syllable structure. Morphology: no inflection, but frequent derivations and compounds; in contrast to Classical Chinese, modern Chinese is not a strictly isolating language. Example of compounding: fù-mǔ ‘fatherclassifying language). Word mother’=‘parents’; zhěn-tóu ‘rest-head’=‘pillow’ ( order: topic-comment; the placement of the object depends on, among other things, definiteness. Serial verb constructions are frequent, where certain verbs take on the function of prepositions. References Baxter, W.H. 1992. A handbook of Old Chinese phonology. Berlin and New York. Chao, Y.-R. 1968. A grammar of spoken Chinese. Berkeley, CA. Henne, H. et al. 1977. A handbook of Chinese language structure. Oslo. Killingley, S.-Y. 1994. Cantonese. Munich. Kratochvil, P. 1968. The Chinese language today. London. Li, C.N. and S.Thompson. 1981. Mandarin Chinese: a functional reference grammar. Berkeley, CA. Matthews, S. and V.Yip. 1994. Cantonese: a comprehensive grammar. London. Norman, J. 1988. Chinese. Cambridge. Dictionaries Chi, W. 1977. Chinese—English dictionary of contemporary usage. Berkeley, CA. A classified and illustrated Chinese—English dictionary. 1981. By the compiling group, Guangzhou Institute of Foreign languages. Hong Kong. Hornby, A.S. 1989. Oxford advanced learner’s English—Chinese dictionary, 3rd edn. Hong Kong. Chinese writing Logographic script dating back to the early second century BC and still used for Chinese (and partly for Japanese). Typically, a sign consists of two parts, one so-called ‘radical’ indicating a semantic area, and the rest which contains indications as to the phonetic realization. The 214 radicals also serve for the lexicographical classification of the signs. Altogether, there are over 40,000 signs; however, fewer than 10,000 are sufficient for nearly all purposes. Dictionary of language and linguistics 180 References Schmidt, W.G.A. 1990. Einführung in die chinesische Schrift- und Zeichenkunde. Hamburg. Chinese, writing Chinookan Penutian Muskogean Chocktaw Chomsky adjunction A special case of adjunction in which a constituent B is the sister of A and daughter of another node A which immediately dominates the sisters A and B, i.e. the adjoined constituent is simultaneously the sister and daughter of an A constituent which is copied to create two segments. \ A-Z 181 References transformational grammar Chomsky hierarchy Chukchi generative capacity Paleo-Siberian Chukotko-Kamchatkan Paleo-Siberian chunk(ing) Term introduced by Miller and Selfridge (1950), and again by Miller (1956), in memory research to denote the (individually differing) segmentation and bundling of information units. Based on such a schematization of knowledge, which depends on personal experience or expert knowledge, it is quite plausible that the capacity to remember information is variable: a professional chess player will be able to recall the positions of a particular move (that was just played out before one’s eyes) much more completely than a novice player, since the professional chess player can engage his/her command of the rules for chunking (to structure the information of the playing board). References Miller, G.A. 1956. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for processing information. PsychologR 63. 81–97. Miller, G.A. and J.A.Selfridge. 1950. Verbal context and the recall of meaningful material. American Journal of Psychology 63. 176–85. comprehensibility Dictionary of language and linguistics circonstant 182 dependency grammar circumflex [Lat. circumflexus ‘in rounded form’] 1 Diacritic mark, in the shape of a hat ‹ˆ› and placed above Latin letters or in the shape of tilde) and placed above a Greek letter ( accent2). In ancient Greek, the a snake ( circumflex denotes a particular tone for the given vowel. In Romance languages, the circumflex has various uses: in French in combination with e to denote the open vowel [ε] (e.g. forêt) and in combination with o to denote the closed vowel [o] (e.g. rôle); in ; in Greenlandic to denote Rumanian to distinguish between ‹i› for [i] and ‹î› for vowel length. 2 In Indo-European studies, a designation for overlong syllables (those of three morae). ( also mora, law of three morae) class A whole set of (linguistic) elements that are characterized by at least one common property. For example, the words book, back, and bathe belong to the class of expressions in English that begin with the letter b, while aunt, sister, and daughter belong to the class of female kinship terms. In this use, ‘class’ is synonymous with set. Classes determined in this way can be in various relations to one another, a distinction being drawn primarily between hierarchical (organized according to the schema of genus proximum—differentia specifica) classifications and cross-classifications ( definition). Examples of a hierarchical classification are speech act classes ( speech act theory) as well as morphological classes ( morphology); the systematization in phonology by means of distinctive features is based on a cross-classification. In taxonomic structuralism the form classes, characterized by their different realizations, are the basis of language description ( distribution). A-Z class noun 183 common noun classical Arabic Arabic classical Greek Greek classical Latin Latin classification An elementary method of analysis of taxonomic structuralism that after the segmentation of the linguistic continuum into basic units (phone, morph), attributes the units arrived at in this way to certain classes of elements with the same characteristics by comparing these units with one another. After a linguistic continuum has been divided into such basic units, these units are co-ordinated. Such paradigms can be found at all levels of description and the phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of languages is based on this. References operational procedures classification of languages The process and result of grouping several languages together based on certain criteria. (a) Areal (geographical) classification, based on linguistic similarities which have arisen from cultural contact between linguistic communities as well as geographical proximity through borrowing of words and grammatical constructions. Languages which share essential characteristics due to borrowings are termed linguistic areas; examples include Dictionary of language and linguistics 184 the Balkan languages or the influence of Chinese on Vietnamese. (b) Genealogical (genetic) classification, based on linguistic similarities that result from being descendants of a common proto-language. Languages that derive from a common proto-language are called language families, e.g. the Indo-European languages. Genealogical classification is based primarily on words and grammatical forms preserved in common (Voegelin and Voegelin 1977; Ruhlen 1987). (c) Typological classification, based on structural similarities that are independent of geographical influence and/or genealogical affiliation, e.g. isolating/ analyticvs synthetic languages, ergative vs nominative languages, languages with various word orders. Typological similarities can be explained either functionally, i.e. as performing functions which are common to all human languages, or as resulting from a common biological capacity for language present in all human beings ( universals). In specific cases, it is often very difficult to discern between areal, genealogical, and typological factors: for example, there are cases where genealogically related languages are still in geographical contact after their development into separate languages. References Campbell, G.L. 1991. Compendium of the world’s languages, 2 vols. London and New York. Comrie, B. (ed.), 1987. The world’s major languages. London. (2nd edn 1991). ——(ed.) 1990. The major languages of East and South-East Asia. London. ——(ed.) 1990. The major languages of South Asia, the Middle East and Africa. London. ——(ed.) 1990. The major languages of Eastern Europe. London. ——(ed.) 1990. The major languages of Western Europe. London. Haarman, H. 1976. Aspekte der Arealtypologie. Tübingen. Haas, M.R. 1966. Historical linguistics and the genetic relationship of languages. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.). Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 3, 113–54. Hymes, D.H. 1959. Genetic classification: retrospect and prospect. AnL 1. 50–66. Katzner, K. 1986. The languages of the world. London. (2nd rev. edn 1994.) Lyovin, A.V. 1966. An introduction to the languages of the world. Oxford. Parlett, D.S. 1967. A short dictionary of languages. London. Robins, R.H. 1973. The history of language classification. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 11, 3–44. Ruhlen, M. 1987. A guide to the world’s languages, vol. I: Classification. London. Voegelin, C.F. and F.M.Voegelin. 1977. Classification and index of the world’s languages. Bloomington, IN. Bibliography Troike, R.C. 1990. A bibliography of bibliographies of the languages of the world, 2 vols. Amsterdam. historical linguistics, language typology, universals A-Z 185 classifier Particle used to combine a numeral and a mass noun, e.g. head in five head of cattle. Classifiers refer to something countable in the denotation of the noun, and thus must be distinguished from expressions which refer to a certain measuring standard, such as pound in five pounds of beef. In many languages (especially in East Asia), classifier constructions are very common, because a noun cannot be directly connected to a numeral, cf. Chinese san ge ren, lit. ‘three piece people,’ i.e. ‘three people.’ In these classifying languages, there are numerous classifiers which are used for nouns belonging to certain semantic domains (e.g. for nouns which indicate flat, round, or edible objects). ( also gender, noun class) Reference Hundius, H. and U.Kölver. 1983. Syntax and semantics of numeral classifiers in Thai. SLang 7. 165–214. classifying language Classification type for languages that have the tendency to relate all expressions to certain logical mental categories (such as person, object, characteristics, etc.) through the affixation of noun class-forming prefixes. These prefixes also serve for syntactic structuring, as all word groups belonging together are characterized by the same prefix. There are classifying languages, for instance, among South African native dialects. References language typology classifying verb A phenomenon which became known primarily through Apache ( Na-Dene) languages such as Navajo. With different types of objects, action verbs have varying morphological forms which are characteristic for their corresponding objects, cf. Navajo Dictionary of language and linguistics 186 ‘to carry a small object/long object/container with its contents’; ‘to place a small object/long object/container with its contents.’ References Sapir, E. and H.Hoijer. 1967. The phonology and morphology of the Navaho language. Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA. Seiler, H. 1986. Apprehension: language, object and order, part III: The universal dimension of apprehension. Tübingen. Chapter 4. Langacker, R. 1969. Pronominalization and the chain of command. In D.A.Reibel and S.A.Schane (eds), Modern studies in English, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. clause Neutral term for both dependent ( main clause). subordinate clause) and independent ( clauses clause-mate condition A restriction on transformations, so that a transformation may only relate an element to other elements within the same clause. These clause-mate conditions appear in the early versions of generative grammar, e.g. with respect to reflexivization. ( also constraints, transformational grammar) Reference Klima, E.S. 1964. Negation in English. In J.A.Fodor and J.J.Katz (eds), The structure of language, Englewood Cliifs, NJ. 246–323. cleft sentence (also clefting) Syntactic construction where a single clause has been divided into two clauses. The term ‘clefting’ refers to the transformation in generative transformational grammar which A-Z 187 derives the cleft sentence from basic sentences: Caroline found the dog—It was Caroline who found the dog. The paraphrase What Caroline found was the dog is termed pseudoclefting. In this case, the clefted constituent is moved to the right and transformed into a predicate noun, leaving behind an interrogative pronoun as a pronominal copy. Cleft sentences serve to mark the constituents that are the focus of the sentence and are also theme vs rheme, topic vs comment) especially used to indicate contrast. ( References Akmajian, A. 1970. On deriving cleft sentences from pseudo-cleft sentences. Ling I. 1.149–68. Collins, P.C. 1991. Cleft and pseudo-cleft constructions in English. London. Cullicover, P.W. 1977. Some observations concerning pseudoclefts. Ling&P 1.347–75. Halvorsen, P.-K. 1978. The syntax and semantics of cleft constructions. Austin, TX. Higgins, F.R. 1979. The pseudo-cleft construction in English. New York. Jenkins, L. 1974. Cleft reduction. In C.Rohrer and N. Ruwet (eds), Actes du Colloque FrancoAllemand de grammaire transformationelle. Tübingen. Vol. 1, 182–91. clefting cleft sentence cliché Pejorative term taken from printers’ language, generally used to refer to a commonly occurring utterance that is used schematically. ‘Cliché’ is also used as a more neutral synonym for stereotype, idiom, or formula. Reference Partridge, E. 1978. A dictionary of clichés. London. Redfern, W. 1989. Clichés and coinages. Oxford. click 1 Speech sound caused by the sudden opening of an oral air chamber which causes the surrounding air to rush into that chamber. The chamber is formed by a truncated closure at the velum and, for stops, by a further closure-possible for stops—in the front of the Dictionary of language and linguistics 188 oral cavity. Clicks are found in several languages of southern Africa, e.g. in the Khoisan language Nama as well as in the Bantu languages of Zulu and Xhosan. In African language studies and in the International Phonetic Alphabet (1989) the following notations are customary: , I, II, ! (these correspond to the following symbols in the , , [¿], [C]). The sound that occurs, for International Phonetic Alphabet (1979): . example in a kiss, is a labial click: References phonetics 2 Acoustic signal used in psycholinguistic tests on speech recognition and language production to determine the psychological reality of grammatical units. In several investigations subjects were exposed simultaneously to linguistic utterances in one ear and click signals in the other ear. In these tests, clicks were remembered exactly at constituent boundaries, while clicks within constituents were displaced in their memories to constituent boundaries (‘click displacement’). By changing the click position in this way the hypothesis could be confirmed that constituents play a more decisive role in speech recognition than other grammatical units (syllables, words) since they immediately serve the formation of propositions. References Bever, T.G. 1970. The cognitive basis for linguistic structures. In J.R.Hayes (ed.), Cognition and the development of language. 279–352. Kimball, J.P. 1973. Seven principles of surface structure parsing in natural language. Cognition 2. 15–47. Levelt, W.J.M. 1974. Formal grammars in linguistics and psycholinguistics, vol. 3: Psycholinguistic applications. The Hague. [ psycholinguistics] climax Mounting by degrees through linked words or phrases with related meaning of increasing intensity, e.g. Veni, vidi, vici (Caesar). A-Z 189 References figure of speech clinical linguistics A subdiscipline of applied linguistics that makes use of linguistic theories, methodology, and research findings for the explanation, diagnosis, and treatment of organic and/or psychological disturbances in communication and language acquisition. While clinical linguistics applies linguistic theories, neurolinguistics develops linguistic theories. In Britain, clinical linguistics is viewed as a link between linguistics and speech-language pathology. References Crystal, D. 1984. Linguistic encounters with language handicaps. Oxford. ——1987. Clinical linguistics. London. Journal Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics clinical phonology Term referring to a subdiscipline of clinical linguistics. clipping Short variant of a complex word. (a) In ‘head words,’ the first part is used: ad(vertisement), math(ematics). (b) In ‘end words,’ the beginning of a word is dropped: (tele)phone, (airplane). (c) Occasionally, the middle part of a word is dropped to create an ‘elliptical word’: news(paper)boy. ( also word formation) Dictionary of language and linguistics 190 Reference Marchand, H. 1960. The categories and types of present-day English word-formation. Munich. (2nd edn 1969.) cliticization General term for the process of adding proclitics and enclitics. Reference Uhlenbeck, E.M. 1990. Clitics, morphemes and words: their structural differences. PICL 14. 637– 41. closed-class word synsematic word closed set Characteristic of a set whose number of elements is closed, e.g. the rules of phoneme combinations in a given language. closed vs open 1 Characteristic of vowels. The opposition refers to the degree to which the resonance chamber is open during the formation of vowels. 2 Characteristic of syllables. Syllables are ‘open’ when they end in a vowel, ‘closed’ when they end in one or more consonants. English has both open (e.g. [pi:] in [‘pi:kak] peacock) and closed (e.g. [pi:k] peak) syllables. Closed syllables are not found at all in the Austronesian language ( Malayo-Polynesian) of Tahiti nor in Old Church Slavic. A-Z 191 cluster In Weinreich’s semantic theory, an unordered set of semantic features. For example, daughter has among other features [+feminine] and [+offspring]. The order of the features is arbitrary. In contrast concatenation2. ( also interpretive semantics) Reference Weinreich. U. 1966. Explorations in semantic theory. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 3, 395–477. cluttering (also battarism, tachysphemia) Term used in neurology, speech-language pathology, and psychopathology for one type of fluency disorder and/or its associated thought processes. Characteristics include an accelerated rate of speech in long sentences or those with polysyllabic words, the omission or repetition of syllables, a distortion of sounds as well as a reduction of consonant clusters ( anaptyxis, assimilation, blend, metathesis). Cluttering is associated with impulsive behavior and sudden vasomotor reactions such as blushing. As a symptom, it represents a distortion of temporal structure; as a syndrome it may be associated with specific language impairment and developmental dyslexia. In contrast to stutterers ( dysfluency), clutterers are able to control their behavior in situations where ‘good speaking’ is required. This phenomenon is not widely accepted as a clinical entity in North America. References Daly, D.A. 1986. The clutterer. In K.St Louis (ed.), The atypical stutterer. Orlando, FL. Silverman, F. 1992. Stuttering and other fluency disorders. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. coalescence [Lat. coalescere ‘to grow together’] Sound change that brings about a simplification in the syllable structure of a word, e.g. a CV-VC sequence lacking an initial consonantal syllable after a preceding syllable with an Dictionary of language and linguistics 192 empty coda is to be avoided. Both syllables coalesce, the combination of which brings about either a long vowel or a diphthong as a new syllable nucleus2. References syllable co-articulation In phonetics, term for anticipatory articulation. Contrasting with the orthographic representation of individual letters, the occurrences of sounds that correspond to speech sounds are not discrete units. Speech production occurs through the continuous movement of the articulators without natural pauses. Not all articulators are always equally involved: for example, English vowels are regularly nasalized before nasal . Co-articulation can bring about all types of consonants, cf. bag [bæg] vs bang assimilation. References phonetics, sound change Cockney Dialectal variant of British English spoken in the inner city of London. The name, derived from ME cokenay (‘cock’s egg’), was used originally as a nickname to refer to effeminate townspeople in London. References Chambers, R.W. and M.Daunt. 1931. A book of London English. London. MacKenzie, B.A. 1928. The early London dialect. Oxford. Matthews, W. 1938. Cockney: past and present. London. Sivertsen, E. 1960. Cockney phonology. Oslo. A-Z 193 co-constituent Constituents which are immediately dominated by the same node ( domination). In the tree diagram of The Chairwoman held a lecture, the NP the chairwoman and the VP held a lecture are co-constituents, but also the and chairwoman, as well as a and lecture are coconstituents; not, however, held and a, because they are not dominated by a common node. References (also immediate constituent analysis). coda [Lat. coda ‘the extreme, end part of something’] Final segment of a syllable between the nucleus2 and the head of the following syllable, e.g. [t] in bitter, [d] in head. References Kaye, J. 1990. ‘Coda’ licensing. Phonology 7. 301–30. syllable code [Lat. codex ‘notebook (orig. made of wooden tablets)’] 1 In information theory, the rule for the coordination of two different repertoires of signs, which can represent the same information. For example, the binary code is based on the values 1 and 0 (i.e. yes and no). The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 can be indicated by the codes 00, 01, 10, 11, whereby both systems are semantically equivalent. Morse code is based upon a similar system. The development of rational codes is indispensable for electronic data processing. 2 In linguistics, code is used in the sense of 1 above for linguistic signs and the syntactic rules which bind them together. Martinet used the term ‘code’ for langue Dictionary of language and linguistics 194 (language system) as opposed to ‘message’ for parole (language use) ( parole). langue vs Reference Martinet, A. 1960. Elements de linguistique générale. Paris. 3 A term used in computational analysis. ( compiler). 4 A term in sociolinguistics for class-specific language variations, especially for the different strategies of verbal planning ( code theory). code-switching Depending on the demands of a particular communicative situation, bilingual or bilingualism multilingualism) will switch between multilingual speakers ( language varieties. A distinction must be made between ‘situative’ code-switching, in which the functional distribution of varieties that are evaluated differe ntly in society is subject to normative rules (e.g. standard language on high-status occasions, dialect on more familiar, low-status occasions; diglossia), and ‘conversational’ code-switching, which is not linked to a change of external factors of the speech constellation, but occurs within an externally invariant speech situation, within a turn or even intrasententially. Conversational code-switching serves to create various contexts ( contextualization). For example, ‘informality’ in a formal situation, the different types of relationships between individual participants in a conversation, irony vs seriousness, and background information vs the ‘actual’ message can all be contextualized by means of codeswitching. References Berk-Seligson, S. 1986. Linguistic constraints on intrasentential code-switching: a study of Spanish/ Hebrew bilingualism. LSoc 15. 313–48. Blom, J.-P. and J.J.Gumperz. 1972. Social meaning in linguistic structure: code-switching in Norway. In J.J.Gumperz and D.Hymes (eds), Directions in sociolinguistics: the ethnography of communication. New York. 407–34. Clyne, M. 1987. Constraints on code-switching: how universal are they? Linguistics 25. 739–64. Gumperz, J.J. 1976. The sociolinguistic significance of conversational code-switching. In J.J.Gumperz and J.Cook-Gumperz (eds), Papers on language and context. Berkeley, CA. ——1978. Dialect and conversational inference in urban communication. LSoc 7. 393–409. ——1982. Discourse strategies. Cambridge. Hudson, R.A. 1980. Sociolinguistics. Cambridge. Milroy, L. and P.Muysken (ed.). 1995. One speaker, two languages. Cross-disciplinary perspective on code-switching. Cambridge. Myers-Scotton, C. 1993a. Social motivations for codeswitching: evidence from Africa. Oxford. A-Z 195 ——1993b. Duelling languages: grammatical structure in codeswitching. Oxford. sociolinguistics code theory Sociolinguistic theory developed by Bernstein (1958) that is based on the premise that different classes within a society are marked by different types of social relations. From such relations different ‘codes’ arise which, through a process of linguistic socialization, have a stabilizing effect upon the social structure. Corresponding to the class divisions of society is the linguistic dichotomy of an ‘elaborated’ (middle-class) code and a ‘restricted’ (lower-class) code; the degree of elaborateness or restrictedness is measured by the complexity of sentences and by the extent of grammatical and lexical alternatives. Based on its relative paucity of variants, the restricted code is considered m ore predictable, more redundant, less complex, and, measured against the norm-setting standards of the middle class, ‘deficient’ (deficit hypothesis). The mixed reception of Bernstein’s code theory gave strong impetus to the development of sociolinguistics and social dialectology in the 1960s, at which time dialects, in the sense of non-standard social or regional varieties, were considered by many to be restricted codes. This theory had an explosive effect on the politics of mass education by prompting a number of empirical studies and a more intensified demand for ‘compensatory language instruction’ which would reduce the linguistic deficit and the inequality of social opportunity associated with it. Criticism of these assumptions came above all from Labov in his variational linguistics. In his studies of Black English vernacular in the United States, he emphasized the unique character and value of this form of language, namely that it is not deficient, but rather only a variety distinct from standard English with its own regularities and turns of expression (‘difference hypothesis’). References Bernstein, B. 1958. Some sociological developments of perception. British Journal of Sociology 9.159–74. ——1971. Class, codes and control, vol. 1: Theoretical studies towards a sociology of language. London. ——(ed.) 1973. Class, codes and control, vol. 2: Empirical studies. London. ——1987. Social class, codes and communication. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Berlin. 563–78. Dittmar, N. 1976. Sociolinguistics: a critical survey of theory and application. London. Edwards, A.D. 1976. Language in culture and class. London. Labov, W. 1972. Language in the inner city: studies in the Black English vernacular. Philadelphia, PA. Dictionary of language and linguistics 196 cognate object [Lat. cognatus ‘related by birth’] Object that is etymologically or semantically related to the verb on which it is dependent, e.g. to sleep the sleep of the simple, to die a cruel death. Cognate objects cannot normally be passivized: *A cruel death was died by him. Reference Baron, N.S. 1971. On defining ‘cognate object.’ Glossa 51.71–98. cognitive grammar [Lat. cognitio ‘acquaintance; comprehension’] Cognitive grammar attempts to describe language by what is known about cognitive processes. In this view, grammar is no longer an autonomous system, but rather serves to structure and symbolize conceptual content. Lexical, morphological, and syntactic units are altogether symbolic units and can only be assigned to different components in a relatively arbitrary manner. Meaning is equated with conceptualization, in which semantic structures are characterized only according to elementary cognitive realms, such as the experience of time or space. In particular, it is the task of the linguist to investigate the possibilities of alternative linguistic structures for a perceptual or conceptual situation. References Langacker, R.W. 1986. An introduction to cognitive grammar. CSc 10. 1–40. ——1987–99. Foundations of cognitive grammar, 2 vols. Stanford, CA. ——1990. Concept, image and symbol: the cognitive basis of grammar. Berlin and New York. Lange, K.-P. 1985. Language and cognition: an essay on cognitive grammar. Tübingen. A-Z 197 cognitive linguistics (also cognitive psychology) Interdisciplinary direction of research developed at the end of the 1950s in the United States that is concerned with the investigation of mental processes in the acquisition and use of knowledge and language. In contrast with behaviorism that concentrates on observable behavior and stimulus-response processes, behavior in cognitive linguistics plays only a mediating role inasmuch as it supports insights into cognitive processes. The object of investigation is research into cognitive or mental structure and organization by analyzing cognitive strategies used by humans in thinking, storing information, comprehending, and producing language. References Bever, T.G. et al. (eds) 1985. The study of language in cognitive sciences. Cambridge, MA. Carston, R. 1988. Language and cognition. In F. Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 3, 28–68. Deane, P.D. 1992. Grammar in mind and brain. Explorations in cognitive syntax. Berlin and New York. Dressler, W.U. 1990. The cognitive perspective of ‘naturalist’ linguistic models. Cognitive Linguistics 1. 75–98. Estes, W.K. 1978. Handbook of learning and cognitive processes, vol. 6: Linguistic functions in cognitive theory. Hillsdale, NJ. Howard, D.V. 1983. Cognitive psychology: memory, language, and thought. New York. Jackendoff, R. 1992. Languages of the mind: essays on mental representation. Cambridge, MA. Lakoff, G. 1987. Women, fire and dangerous things. What categories reveal about the mind. Chicago and London. Reuland, E. and Abraham, W. (eds) 1992. Knowledge and language, 2 vols. Dordrecht. Rudzka-Ostyn, B. (ed.) 1988. Topics in cognitive linguistics. Amsterdam. Schwarz, M. (ed.) 1994. Kognitive Semantik/ Cognitive semantics: Ergebnisse, Probleme, Perspektiven. Tübingen. Von Geert, P. 1981. The development of perception, cognition, and language. London. Journals Cognition Cognitive Linguistics Dictionary of language and linguistics cognitive psychology 198 cognitive linguistics coherence [Lat. cohaerere ‘to stick together’] A term from text linguistics. 1 In general, the grammatical and semantic interconnectedness between sentences that discourse grammar). It is the semantic structure, not its formal form a text ( meaning, which create coherence. 2 In a narrower sense, coherence is separate from grammatical cohesion and specifically signifies the semantic meaning and the cohesion of the basic interconnection of the meanings of the text, its content/semantic and cognitive structure. Semantic coherence can be represented as a sequence of propositions ( thematic development, macrostructure) that form a constellation of abstract concepts and connected relations. When a series of sentences seems incoherent, the listener can use inference to understand the text. References Charolles, MJ., S.Petöfi, and E.Sözer (eds) 1986. Research in text connexity and text coherence. Hamburg. Gernsbacher, M.A. and T.Givón (eds) 1995. Coherence in spontaneous text. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Halliday, M.A.K. and R.Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London. Hartveldt, R. 1987. Pragmatic aspects of coherence in discourse. Groningen. Heydrich, W. et al. (eds) 1989. Connexity and coherence: analysis of text and discourse. New York. Neubauer, F. (ed.) 1983. Coherence in natural-language texts. Hamburg. Norgard-Sørensen, J. 1992. Coherence theory: the case of Russian. Berlin and New York. Petöfi, J.S. and E.Sözer (eds) 1988. Micro and macro connexity of texts. Hamburg. Sözer, E. (ed.) 1985. Text connexity, text coherence. Hamburg. Tannen, D. (ed.) 1984. Coherence in written and spoken discourse. Norwood, NJ. Tomlin, R.S. (ed.) 1987. Coherence and grounding in discourse. Amsterdam. Werth, P. 1984. Focus, coherence and emphasis. London. Bibliographies Lohmann, P. 1988. Connectedness of texts: a biblio-graphical survey, Part 1. In J.S.Petöfi (ed.), Text and discourse constitution. Berlin. 478–501. ——1989. Connectedness of texts: a bibliographical survey, Part 2. In W.Heydrich et al. (eds), Connexity and coherence: analysis of text and discourse. New York. A-Z 199 cohesion Cohesion refers to the various linguistic means (grammatical, lexical, phonological) by which sentences ‘stick together’ and are linked into larger units of paragraphs, or stanzas, or chapters. Cohesion is produced by (a) the repetition of elements of the text, e.g. recurrence, textphoric, paraphrase, parallelism; (b) the compacting of text through the use of devices such as ellipsis; (c) the use of morphological and syntactic devices to express different kinds of relationships such as connection, tense, aspect, deixis, or theme-rheme relationships ( theme vs rheme) ( also coherence). References Barthes, R. 1970. S/Z.Paris. Halliday, M.A.K. and R.Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London. Stoddard, S. 1991. Text and texture: patterns of cohesion. Norwood, NJ. cohortative [Lat. cohortatio ‘encouragement’] Mood of admonition, encouragement, or recommendation, which can be part of either verbal mood or sentential mood. ( also imperative, jussive, modality) References modality coining In contrast to word formation by means of derivation and composition using already present linguistic elements, coining is the first-time creation of an unmotivated ( arbitrariness) connection motivation), i.e. non-complex and completely arbitrary ( between expression and content. It is generally believed that the basic elements of a language’s vocabulary were created by coining in its earliest stages of development. Dictionary of language and linguistics 200 References word formation collective noun Semantically defined class of nouns that express a group or set of several members in terms of a single unit: cattle, herd, furniture, people, government. Some languages can form collective nouns with the help of affixes (e.g. German Berg ‘mountain’: Gebirge ‘mountain range’). References word formation colligation [Lat. colligatio ‘bond’] Morphologically and syntactically motivated conditions for the ability of linguistic elements to be combined. These conditions, as expressed in government or valence, can lead to differences in meaning: The car stopped vs The car stopped honking. On semantically motivated factors of combinability, collocation. collocation [Lat. collocatio ‘arrangement, ordering’] (also concomitance, selection) 1 Term introduced by J.R.Firth in his semantic theory to designate characteristic word combinations which have developed an idiomatic semantic relation based on their frequent co-occurrence. Collocations are, therefore, primarily semantically (not grammatically) based, e.g. dog: bark, dark: night. This concept of collocation touches on W.Porzig’s ‘inherent semantic relation’ as well as on E.Coseriu’s ‘lexical solidarities.’ ( also co-occurrence, compatibility, distribution) A-Z 201 References Coseriu, E. 1967. Lexikalische Solidaritäten. Poetica 1. 293–303. Firth, J.R. 1957. Modes of meaning. In his Papers in linguistics 1934–1951. London. 190–215. Kastovsky, D. 1981. Selectional restrictions and lexical solidarities. In D.Kastovsky (ed.), Perspektiven der lexikalischen Semantik. Tübingen. 70–98. Porzig, W. 1934. Wesenhafte Bedeutungsbeziehun-gen. PBB 58. 70–97. 2 In the wider sense, a term referring to the conditions of syntactic-semantic grammaticality. collocation test A method to describe semantic differences based on their conditions of occurrence. For example, in the distinct collocations of green with tree, vegetable, and person, each of the various semantic components of green is realized. This test was developed in analogy to a method used by M.Joos and A.Neubert in phonology. References Joos, M. 1958. Semology: a linguistic theory of meaning. SiL 13. 53–70. ——1964. The English verb: form and meanings. Madison, WI. (2nd edn 1968.) Leisi, E. 1952. Der Wortinhalt: seine Struktur im Deutschen und Englischen. Heidelberg. (5th edn 1975.) collogation juxtaposition colloquial expression idiom colloquial speech 1 As ‘everyday language,’ colloquial speech refers to the total set of utterances in a familiar, informal context such as at home or at the workplace. Dictionary of language and linguistics 202 2 Product of panregional leveling between social and regional spoken language variants. References dialect, spoken language colloquialism colon [Grk idiom ‘limb, member’] 1 Linguistic unit in classical rhetoric which occurs between two breath pauses, contains seven to sixteen syllables, forms a unit of meaning, and is made up of several dependent subunits ( comma1). 2 Punctuation mark ‹:› used to direct attention to following sentence elements. ( also punctuation) color terms Color terms belong to the basic vocabulary of all natural languages. Owing to their shared perceptive abilities, speakers of different languages view the color spectrum in the same way; yet the color terms in their languages may correspond to a different breakdown of the color spectrum. In their study of ninety-eight languages, Berlin et al. (1969) ascertained a number of universal color terms: for example, they found eleven elementary color categories which correspond to the English prototypes of black, white, red, orange, yellow, brown, green, blue, crimson, pink, and gray. For languages that linguistically express fewer than these eleven categories, the relationships can be expressed in the form of absolute universals, e.g. ‘All languages have color terms for white and black,’ or in the form of implicative universals, e.g. ‘If a language has three color terms, then one of them will necessarily be a color term for red.’ Interestingly, a high percentage of color terms have restrictions on their uses. Note the following English examples: white wine vs *yellow wine or black coffee vs *brown coffee. A-Z 203 References Berlin, B., E.A.Berlin, and P.Kay. 1969. Basic color terms: their universality and evolution. Berkeley, CA. Davies, I. and G.Corbett. 1994. The basic color terms of Russian. Linguistics 32. 65–89. Heider, E.R. 1972. Universals in color naming and memory. JeP 93. 10–20. Kay, P. 1975. Synchronic variability and diachronic change in basic color terms. LSoc 4. 257–70. Kay, P. and C.K.McDaniel. 1978. The linguistic significance of the meanings of basic color terms. Lg 54. 610–46. Sahlins, M. 1976. Colors and cultures. Semiotica 16. 1–22. Witkowski, S.R. and C.H.Brown. 1977. An explanation of color nomenclature universals. AA 70. 50–7. combination In glossematics, a form of constellation: a syntagmatic (as well as) relation that exists between two elements that are syntacto-semantically compatible, i.e. can follow upon each other in the same context, but also occur independently of each other, as in Latin the preposition ab and the ablative, which can be present together, but also separately (see Hjelmslev 1943). References Hjelmslev, L. 1943. Omkring sprogteoriens grundlaeggelse. Copenhagen. (Prolegomena to a theory of language, trans. F.J.Whitfield. Baltimore, MD, 1953.) glossematics comitative [Lat. comitatus ‘escort, company’] 1 Verbal aspect which characterizes an action as accompanying another action. 2 Case in the Finno-Ugric languages which serves to mark the accompaniment of a person or thing. Dictionary of language and linguistics 204 comma [Grk kómma ‘that which is cut off, piece’] 1 In classical rhetoric, dependent subunit of larger units of meaning consisting of approximately two to six syllables. ( also colon) 2 Punctuation ‹,› mark for indicating syntactic ordering, such as separating introductory clauses from the main clause. comment (also focus, rheme) The term ‘comment’ refers semantically to the part of an utterance that contains new information. Syntactically, in unmarked word order the comment refers to the predicate, while the subject is usually the topic, containing information which is contextually bound or already mentioned. The comment can also be identified by means of the question test, where the scope of the question refers to the focus of the corresponding natural (unmarked) answer, i.e. to the new information requested by the question; e.g. What did Philip buy himself?—A new car (he bought himself). References theme vs rheme, topic vs comment commissive Speech act meant to commit a speaker to some future course of action, expressed in the propositional content (proposition) of the act. Commissives are, for example, promises, oaths, commitments, etc. ( also speech act classification) References Levinson, S.C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge. Searle, J.R. 1975. A taxonomy of illocutionary acts. In K.Gunderson (ed), Language, mind and knowledge. Minneapolis, MN. (Repr. in Expression and meaning. Cambridge, 1979 1–29.) A-Z 205 common noun (also class noun, generic noun, (nomen) appellativum) Semantically defined class of nouns which denotes objects or states of affairs or individual representatives thereof, e.g. animal(s) or human(s), as opposed to proper nouns, which serve to identify particular individual objects. The transition from common to proper nouns (and vice versa) is fluid. References Carlson, G. 1991. Natural kinds and common nouns. In A.von Stechow and D.Wunderlich (eds), Semantik/Semantics: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. 370–98. Chur, J. 1993. Generische Nominalphrasen im Deutschen: eine Untersuchung zu Referenz und Semantik. Tübingen. Krifka, M. 1991. Massennomina. In A.von Stechow and D. Wunderlich (eds), Semantik/Semantics: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. 399–417. Werner, O. 1974. Appellativa—Nomina Propria. Wie kann man mit einem begrenzten Vokabular über unbegrenzt viele Gegenstände sprechen? In L. Heilmann (ed.), Proceedings of the eleventh International Congress of Linguists. Bologna. Vol. 2, 171–87. commonsense knowledge commonsense reasoning commonsense reasoning (also commonsense knowledge) In artificial intelligence (AI) and computational linguistics the representation of common knowledge plays an important role. Linguistic data processing in AI rests on the assumption that knowledge about the world is a necessary prerequisite for understanding and producing natural-language texts. The particular problems of reconstructing ‘natural reasoning’ arise in developing models for basic concepts, such as time, space, causality, and the like, in a form that takes common knowledge about these aspects into account. For this reason, it is not enough to consider only theories proposed in the natural sciences about the nature of space and time. In user modeling, one attempts to account for common concepts of these areas. Dictionary of language and linguistics 206 Reference Hobbs, J. and R.Moore (eds) 1985. Formal theories of the commonsense world. Norwood, NJ. communication [Lat. communicatio ‘the action of imparting’] In its broadest sense, this term refers to every kind of mutual transmission of information using signs or symbols between living beings (humans, animals), between people and data-processing machines. For information on the technical and cybernetic use of communication, information theory. In its narrower, linguistic sense, communication is the understanding which occurs between humans through linguistic and non-linguistic means like gestures, mimicry and voice ( non-verbal communication). The basic components of communication are shown in communication models. Research into its qualities and mutual co-operation is the concern mainly of pragmatically and sociolinguistically oriented linguistics and general communication science. ( also animal communication, communication model, communication science, non-verbal communication, semiotics, sociolinguistics) References Mellor, D.H. (ed.) 1990. Ways of communication. Cambridge. Journal European Journal of Communication communication model The schematic (usually graphic) representation of the conditions, the structure, and the path of communicative processes based on the following formula: ‘Who is saying what by what means to whom with what effect?’ (Lasswell 1948). Most communication models are based on one designed in 1949 by Shannon and Weaver for news transmission. The basic components of a communication model, which may be differentiated according to one’s focus, are (a) sender and receiver (speaker/hearer), (b) channel or medium of the A-Z 207 transmission of information (acoustic, optical, tactile), (c) code (inventory of signs and combination rules), (d) news, (e) disruptions (white noise), (f) pragmatic meaning, (g) feedback. The most well-known communication models are those of K. Bühler ( organon model of language) and R.Jakobson. References Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart, 1965.) Hymes, D. 1968. The ethnography of speaking. In J.A.Fishman (ed.), Readings in the sociology of language. The Hague. 99–138. Jakobson, R. 1960. Linguistics and poetics. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Style in language. London. 350– 77. Lasswell, H.D. 1948. The analysis of political behaviour. London. Shannon, C.E. and W.Weaver. 1949. The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, IL. communication science Study of the conditions, structure, and course of the exchange of information on the basis of sign systems. In this sense, communication comprises sociologically oriented directions of research which deal with processes of communication from psychological, sociological, ethnological, political, or linguistic aspects, as well as disciplines on information processing with the help of data-processing machines. In the narrow sense, communication science is considered a cover term for all studies on the conditions, structure and course of interhuman communication that have a close connection with psychology, sociology, anthropology, linguistics, etc. and are concerned especially with research on (a) means of communication, (b) motivation and behavior of communication participants as well as (c) the sociocultural conditions of communication. References Gumperz, J.J. and D.Hymes (eds) 1972. Directions in sociolinguistics: the ethnography of communication. New York. Halliday, M.A.K. 1973. Explorations in the function of language. London. Watzlawick, P., J.H. Beavin, and D.D.Jackson. 1967. Pragmatics of human communication: a study of interactional patterns, pathologies and paradoxes. New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 208 communicative competence Coined by D.Hymes in his ethnography of communication ( ethnography of speaking), this term is a critical expansion of N. Chomsky’s concept of competence ( competence vs performance) (which concerns only the linguistic capabilities of the ideal speaker-hearer, so that the social function of language remains unaddressed). Communicative competence is the fundamental concept of a pragmalinguistic model of linguistic communication: it refers to the repertoire of know-how that individuals must develop if they are to be able to communicate with one another appropriately in the changing situations and conditions. In this model, speaking is understood as the action of transmitting symbols (i.e. interaction). Communicative competence is the descriptive goal of various social-psychological disciplines. References Habermas, J. 1971. Vorbereitende Bemerkungen zu einer Theorie der kommunikativen Kompetenz. In J.Habermas and N.Luhmann (eds), Theorie der Gesellschaft oder Sozialtechnologie. Frankfurt. 101–41. Hymes, D. 1968. The ethnography of speaking. In J.A.Fishman (ed.), Readings in the sociology of language. The Hague. 99–138. Kochan, D.C. (ed.) 1973. Sprache und kommunikative Kompetenz. Stuttgart. Russell, J. 1981. Communicative competence in a minority group: a sociolinguistic study of the Swahili-speaking community in the Old Town, Mombasa. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. commutation substitution commutation test [Lat. commutatio ‘exchange’] Experimental analytical procedure used in structuralism to discover syntactic regularities. Single syntactic elements are rearranged in a sentence, so that the new sentence is grammatical, and the syntactic effects are noted. As a result of this test, constituents are shown to be commutable sentence units. Sentences can be analyzed as declarative, interrogative, and imperative, depending on the position of the verb, and rules of word order can describe and resolve structural ambiguities: Caesar loved fat men and women Caesar loved women and fat men. ( also operational procedures) A-Z 209 References glossematics COMP position The term for a position in the tree diagram which can contain the complementizer or other sentence-initial elements. It was shown in the Revised Extended Standard Theory ( transformational grammar, trace theory) that COMP serves as an escape hatch for movement transformations which move an element into the COMP of an embedded sentence and then into the COMP of the matrix sentence. This splitting up of a long movement into shorter movements makes it possible to circumvent locality constraints: for example, in Who [sdo you think [t [sPhilip loves t]] the object moves in two steps (indicated by the first trace t in COMP) so that subjacency is met at each step. ] References complementizer, subjacency compact vs diffuse (also central vs peripheral) Binary phonological opposition in distinctive feature analysis, based on acoustically analyzed and spectrally defined criteria ( acoustic phonetics, spectral analysis). Acoustic characteristic: greater (more compact) vs lesser (more diffuse) concentration of energy in a relatively narrow area of the spectrum, for compact vowels, broader formants. Articulatory characteristic ( articulation): constriction farther to the back vs to the front of the vocal tract with broader vs narrower lip-opening. The distinction characterizes the opposition between [ŋ, k, g] vs [m, p, b]. References Jakobson, R. et al. 1951. Preliminaries to speech analysis. Cambridge, MA. 27–9. (6th edn 1965.) distinctive feature Dictionary of language and linguistics comparative 210 degree comparative clause Semantically specified modal clause which functions as an adverbial modifier to express a comparison to the state of affairs described in the main clause. They are introduced by such conjunctions as like, as, as if, like when: He acted like he understood everything. comparative linguistics Developed in the nineteenth century as an independent linguistic discipline with the goal of reconstructing the origins, developmental history, and relationships of and between individual languages on the basis of comparative studies ( reconstruction). It can be stated that comparative linguistics was born in Germany during the ‘Romantic period,’ in which both the study of the history of the Europeans as well as of Sanskrit were pursued. This period is associated primarily with the names of F.V.Schlegel, F. Bopp, R.Rask, J.Grimm, and A.Schleicher, each of whom studied the genetic relationships between the Germanic languages and other Indo-European languages throughout their recorded history. Based on a thorough description of the most important Indo-European languages, as undertaken by Bopp and Grimm, Schleicher attempted to derive all such languages from a reconstructed Indo-European proto-language; the genetic relationships that were uncovered were represented in the form of a genetic ‘family tree’ ( genetic tree theory). Through the so-called Neogrammarians the historical view of language became the primary, indeed for a while almost exclusive, direction of linguistic studies (see Paul 1880, and the over-views in Bragmann and Delbrück 1886–1900; Hirt 1921–37; Meillet 1903; and others). References Anttila, R. 1989. Historical and comparative linguistics, 2nd rev. edn. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Baldi, P. (ed.) 1990. Linguistic change and reconstruction methodology. Berlin and New York. Bopp, F. 1816. Über das Conjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache. Frankfurt. Brugmann, K. and B.Delbrück. 1886–1900. driβ der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, 5 vols. Strassburg. (Unabr. repr. 1970.) Durie, M. (ed.) 1996. The comparative method reviewed. Oxford. A-Z 211 Grimm, J. 1819–37. Deutsche Grammatik, 4 parts. Göttingen. (Facsimile edn of the 2nd edn of Berlin 1870–8. Hildesheim, 1967.) Hirt, H. 1921–37. Indogermanische Grammatik. Heidelberg. Hock, H.H. 1986. Principles of historical linguistics. (2nd edn, rev. and updated 1991.) Berlin and New York. Katičić, R. 1970. A contribution to the general theory of comparative linguistics. The Hague. Mauro, T. de et al. 1990. Leibniz, Humboldt and the origins of comparativism. Amsterdam. Meillet, A. 1903. Introduction à l’étude comparative des langues indo-européenens. Paris. Paul, H. 1880. Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. Tübingen. (9th edn 1975.) Rask, R. 1932. Ausgewählte Abhandlungen, ed. L.Hjelmslev. Copenhagen. Schlegel, F. 1808. Die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier. (In Sämtliche Werke, vol. 7. Vienna, 1846.) Schleicher, A. 1861–2. Compendium der vergleichended Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. Weimar. Von Humboldt, W. 1836. Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues. Berlin. (Repr. 1963.) ——1963. Schriften zur Sprachphilosophie. Darmstadt. linguistics (history) comparative method comparative linguistics, reconstruction comparison degree compatibility Compatibility refers to the conditions of grammaticality that depend on specific semanticsyntactic features between linguistic expressions found in particular syntactic positions. ( also collocation, incompatibility, inherent semantic relation, lexical solidarities, selection restriction) Dictionary of language and linguistics 212 compensatory lengthening (also loss with compensatory lengthening) Diachronic ( synchrony vs diachrony) phonological process ( phonology) by which the loss of a segment results in the lengthening of a neighboring syllabic segment, e.g., PIE *nizdó->Lat. nīdus ‘nest’, or hard pronounced as [ha:d] in ‘r-less’ dialects of English. In such cases, the original quantitative relations are retained. References Clements, G.N. 1982. Compensatory lengthening. Bloomington, IN. Lehiste, I. 1972. Temporal compensation in a quantitative language. In Proceedings of the third International Congress of Phonetic Sciences. 929–37. Wetzels, L. and E.Sezer (eds), 1986. Studies in compensatory lengthening. Dordrecht. competence vs performance Chomsky’s postulated dichotomy between general linguistic ability and individual language use, which is connected to de Saussure’s distinction langue vs parole. Competence is that knowledge about the native language which is acquired along with the language used by an ideal speaker/listener of a homogeneous speech community (i.e. free from dialectal and sociolectal variations). Due to an infinite inventory of elements (sounds, words) and syntactic rules, the speaker can theoretically produce and understand an infinite number of utterances. Performance refers not only to this, but also to the ability of the speaker to pass judgment on the grammaticality of sentences, on ambiguity, and paraphrases. The goal of transformational grammar is to formulate a grammar that illustrates as truly as possible the ability of a speaker’s competence, and at the same time to offer a hypothesis about language acquisition. Linguistic theories based on the notion of competence have been reproached for being too idealistic, which has led to a broadening of the original concept to mean communicative competence. Whereas the terms ‘performance’ (Chomsky) and ‘parole’ (de Saussure) can be used almost interchangeably, their counterparts ‘competence’ and ‘langue’ are quite different from each other. ‘Langue’ is a static system of signs, whereas competence is understood as a dynamic concept, as a mechanism that will generate language endlessly. A-Z 213 References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Newmeyer, F.J. 1990. Competence vs performance: theoretical vs applied; the development and inter-play of two dichotomies in modern linguistics. Historiographia Linguistica, 17. 167–81. Putnam, H. 1967. The ‘innateness hypothesis’ and explanatory models in linguistics. Synthese 17. Saussure, F. de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C.Bally and A.Sechehaye. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) compiler Computer program that translates a higher-level programming language (e.g. FORTRAN, LISP or PROLOG) from a (problem-oriented) notation into an equivalent machine-oriented notation. The higher-level language is called the ‘source code,’ the generated machine language the ‘object code.’ While interpreters immediately execute the program in the process of translation, a compiler first translates an entire source code program, before individual operations are carried out. References Aho, A.V., R.Sethi and J.D.Ulllman. 1985. Compilers. Reading, MA. computational linguistics complement (also argument of a verb or predicate) A constituent X is a complement of a constituent Y, if X is valence-dependent on Y ( valence). Thus, flowers is a complement of the verb in I am picking flowers in the garden, whereas in the garden is a modifier of the verb. In some usage, the terms complement and complementation are limited to relations in which the complement is a clause (He said he enjoyed wine). Within Government and Binding theory, subjects are not considered to be complements, since they are not valence-dependent on the predicate in English (i.e. every predicate or sentence requires a subject). Complements are distinguished from modifiers by the fact that the former may be governed by the verb, whereas the latter are never governed ( government). In addition, complements may be obligatory, as in the examples above, or optional (He was eating an apple), whereas modifiers are always optional. Dictionary of language and linguistics 214 complement clause Subordinate clause which functions syntactically either as a subject (It became clear that he had no intention of coming) or an object (She asked herself if she had said the right thing). Complement clauses for the most part have the same distributional patterns as nominals, which is expressed in generative transformational grammar by a phrase structure rule deriving complement clauses from noun phrases (NP S). References Grosu, A. and S.Thompson. 1977. Constraints on the distribution of NP clauses. Lg 53. 104–51. Koster, J. 1978. Why subject sentences don’t exist. In S.J.Keyser (ed.), Recent transformational studies in European languages. Cambridge, MA. 53–64. Noonan, M. 1985. Complementation. In T.Shopen (ed.), Language typology and syntactic description. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 42–140. complementarity Semantic relation of opposition. Two expressions are in a relation of complementarity when both expressions split their semantic range into disjunct parts. A heuristic test for complementarity can be performed by cross-substituting the given lexemes l1 and l2 in suitable sentences S(…). If S(l1) and S(l2) are strongly contradictory ( contradiction), then the two lexemes are said to be complementaries, in the sense that from S(l1) the negation of S(l2) follows, from S(12) the negation of S(l1) follows, from the negation of S(l1) S(l2) follows, and from the negation of S(l2) S(l1) follows. Contradictory expressions like married vs unmarried and dead vs alive are frequently neither gradable (*to be somewhat dead), nor have comparative forms (*X is more married than Y). Complementarity is a special type of incompatibility. ( also gradable complementaries) References semantic relation, semantics A-Z 215 complementary distribution Concept introduced by N.Trubetzkoy (1939), term for the distribution of two allophones of the same phoneme which never occur in the same phonetic environment. ( also free variation) References Trubetzkoy, N. 1939. Grundzüge der Phonologie. Göttingen. (4th edn 1967.) phonology complementation 1 In transformational grammar, the generation of complements, such as obligatory verb complements that are immediate parts of the verb phrase. The generation of complements with sentential value that in the deep structure are embedded as constituent clauses are regarded as a special case of this general concept of complementation. Their partly obligatory, partly optional realization as that/whether/if-sentences or as infinitive constructions in the surface structure is verb-dependent. ( also complementizer, equi-NP-deletion, raising) References Bresnan, J.W. 1970. On complementizers: toward a syntactic theory of complement types. FL 6. 297–321. Burt, M.K. 1971. From deep to surface structure: an introduction to transformational syntax. New York. Esau, H. 1973. Nominalization and complementation in modern German. Amsterdam. Geest, W.de and Y.Putseys (eds) 1984. Sentential complementation. Dordrecht. Jacobs, R.A. and P.S.Rosenbaum. 1968. English transformational grammar. Waltham, MA. Karttunen, L. 1971. The logic of English predicate complement constructions. Bloomington, IN. Kiparsky, P. and C.Kiparsky. 1970. Fact. In M. Bierwisch and K.E.Heidolph (eds), Progress in linguistics. The Hague. 243–73. Olsen, S. 1981. Problems of seem/scheinen constructions and their implications for the theory of predicate sentential complementation. Tübingen. Rosenbaum, P.S. 1967. The grammar of English predicate complement constructions. Cambridge, MA. Stockwell, R.P. et al. 1973. The major syntactic structures of English. New York. subcategorization 2 complementation and modification Dictionary of language and linguistics 216 complementation and modification (also dependency, determination, operatoroperand relation) Complementation and modification are dependency relations within phrases. Complementation includes the dependency both of nouns on prepositions (the sky in in the sky) and of nouns and other complements on predicators (e.g. the lawn in mows th lawn). Another such relationship is modification. Thus, an attributive adjective is described as modifying the head noun (twinkling in the twinkling stars); so too, a prepositional phrase relative to a modifying verb (e.g. shine in the sky). In the modification structure the twinkling stars, twinkling can be dropped without changing the function of the stars in the larger construction. But in the complementation in the sky neither in or the sky can in general be deleted. Terminological variants include: endocentric construction (modification) vs exocentric construction (complementation) (Bloomfield). Subtypes of complementation are also called predication, or function-argument structure. Subtypes of modifiers are attributes, satellites ( nucleus vs satellite) and adjuncts ( also nexus, valence) References Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. Matthews, P.H. 1981. Syntax. Cambridge. complementizer (also subordinator) A term introduced by Rosenbaum in 1967 to describe a small group of grammatical elements like subordinating conjunctions (e.g. that, whether, because) which indicate the specific function of embedded sentential structures. The abbreviation COMP indicates a node in the tree structure which determines the position of lexical insertion of the complementizer ( COMP position). References Bayer, J. 1984. COMP in Bavarian syntax. LRev 3. 209–74. Bresnan, J.W. 1970. On complementizers: toward a syntactic theory of complement types. FL 6. 297–321. e A-Z 217 Chomsky, N. 1970. Remarks on nominalization. In R.A.Jacobs and P.S.Rosenbaum (eds), Readings in English transformational grammar. Waltham, MA. 170–221. Haider, H. 1986. V-second in German. In H.Haider and M.Prinzhorn (eds), Verb second phenomena in Germanic languages. Dordrecht. 49–76. Reinhart, T. 1979. A second COMP position. In A. Belletti, L.Brandi, and L.Rizzi (eds), The theory of markedness in generative grammar. Pisa. 517–57. Rosenbaum, P.S. 1967. The grammar of English predicate complement constructions. Cambridge, MA. complementation, transformational grammar complete durative vs non-durative complex sentence 1 More narrowly defined, a sentence that is composed of a main clause and one or more dependent clauses introduced by a subordinating conjunction (because, since, although). 2 More broadly defined, a sentence that contains two or more clauses joined either by subordination, as in sense 1 above, or by co-ordination, that is, by a co-ordinating conjunction (and, or). ( also compound sentence) 3 In transformational grammar, a sentence that consists of a matrix sentence as also embedding) well as one or more embedded constituent clauses. ( complex symbol 1 In general, a group of features which completely describes a linguistic unit. For example in phonology, all distinctive features which fully describe a phoneme form a complex symbol, thus [+stop, +bilabial, +voiced] is the description for /b/. 2 In transformational grammar, the context-free and context-sensitive features associated with a category symbol by the phrase structure rules and subcategorization rules. These specify the corresponding category syntactically as well as semantically: for example, the noun people is categorized as [+plural] syntactically and [+living, +human,…] semantically. 3 In X-bar theory, a characterization of category symbols as a group of primary features, e.g. N=[-verbal, +nominal], V=[+verbal, -nominal], A=[+verbal, +nominal], P= [-verbal, -nominal]. The analysis of categories as complex symbols allows reference to natural classes for syntactic processes. As in phonology, the notation N, V, P, A, etc. as Dictionary of language and linguistics 218 complex symbols represent abbreviations for feature bundles. ( Structure Grammar, selectional features, subcategorization) Generalized Phrase Reference Gazdar, G., E.Klein, G.Pullum, and I.Sag. 1985. Generalized phrase structure grammar. Oxford. complexity (also computational complexity) Analysis of algorithms in terms of the time and memory resources they demand. Because algorithms apply to classes of input problems, their complexity is expressed as a function of input size: for example, one can search an ordered list (e.g. a dictionary) in time proportional to a (base 2) logarithm of list size. Because the time and memory used by concrete algorithms vary by a constant factor for irrelevant reasons (e.g. owing to the machine or compiler used), complexity is expressed in abstraction from constant factors. Thus, searching an ordered list of length n is O(log n), i.e. of the order logarithmic. ( also tractable) References Barton, G., R.Berwick, and E.Ristad. 1987. Computational complexity and natural language. Cambridge. Garey, M. and D.Johnson, 1979. Computers and intractability: a guide to the theory of NP completeness. New York. component 1 In semantics, a synonym for semantic feature. 2 In transformational grammar, a level of description of a grammatical model which consists of a syntactic, semantic, and phonological component. A-Z 219 componential analysis (also semantic feature analysis) Description of the meaning of lexemes as well as of the inner structure of the lexicon through (structured) sets of semantic features. Phonological methods of investigation, principally Componential analysis of kinship terms After: Manfred Bierwisch. 1969. ‘Strukturelle Semantik’. DaF 6. 67. those of the Prague School, Hjelmslev’s analysis of meaning levels in figures, and especially the ethnolinguistic investigations of Goodenough and Lounsbury gave impetus to componential analysis and provided a source for a model that parses whole meanings into their smallest elements. Corresponding to the phonological model, componential analysis operates on the assumption that it is possible, even in semantics, to describe the whole lexicon of a language with a limited inventory of universally valid features. The descriptions of categories already subjected to such analyses (color terms, kinship terms, dimensions, military ranks, verbs of motion, among others) are not yet comprehensive enough to confirm this assumption. Above all, the discovery procedures for semantic features are not objectifiable enough and remain problematic since the analysis of semantic units into smaller elements of meaning presupposes an intuitive knowledge of semantic relationships, which are, however, at the same time the empirical aim of the semantic analysis. Further difficulties arise through the fact that only a part of the vocabulary can be described through unstructured bundles of semantic features (as is the case for kinship relationships of ego); yet more complex ways of describing must be developed to account for transitive verbs like kill, for example, which express relations between two arguments (X kills Y). (Generative semantics has suggested and developed such a model.) In this latter type of analysis, the types of combinations can no longer be restricted to the mere conjunction of features. Furthermore, the theoretical status of the semantic features has also been debated. Such features are first indicated by objectlanguage expressions like male, concrete, vertical, to which then a metalinguistic nature Dictionary of language and linguistics 220 is ascribed: [+/−male], [+/−concrete], [+/−vertical]. The semantic features do not correspond directly to physical properties of the real world; rather, they are abstract (theoretical) constructs which represent the cognitive and social conditions according to which the surrounding world is categorized by humans. They may possibly correspond to the basic character of the cognitive and perceptive structure of the human organism. To this extent, the universal claim of componential analysis is justified: every individual language makes use of a universal inventory of features in a manner specifically required by its given historical conditions. The semantic description of componential analysis can be improved by distinguishing different types of semantic features (see Lipka 1979, 1985). Furthermore, componential analysis can even be of use in a holistic conception of meaning by using it to describe stereotypes (see Lutzeier 1981, 1985). Componential analysis as a process of semantic description has been the basis for various models in generative semantics, interpretive semantics, lexical field theory, and transformational grammar. References Bendix, E.H. 1966. Componential analysis of general vocabulary: the semantic structure of a set of verbs in English, Hindi, and Japanese. The Hague. Fillmore, J.C. 1975. An alternative to checklist theories of meaning. In C.Cosen et al. (eds), Proceedings of the first annual meeting of the Berkeley Linguistic Society. Berkeley, CA. 123– 31. Goodenough, W. 1956. Componential analysis and the study of meaning. Lg 32. 195–216. ——1965. Yankee kinship terminology: a problem in componential analysis. AA 67. 129–287. Katz, J.J. 1964. Semantic theory and the meaning of ‘good.’ JP 61. 739–66. ——1966. The philosophy of language. New York. ——1967. Recent issues in semantic theory. FL 3. 124–94. Lipka, L. 1979. Semantic components of English nouns and verbs and their justification. Angol Filológiai Tanulmángok 12. 187–203. 1985. A meeting place for synchrony and diachrony: inferential features in English. In M. Pfister (ed.), Anglistentag 1984 Passau. Giessen. 144–58. Lounsbury, F.G. 1956. Semantic analysis of the Pawnee kinship usage. Lg 32. 158–94. ——1963. The structural analysis of kinship semantics. In H.Lunt (ed.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Linguists. The Hague. 1073–93. Lutzeier, P. 1981. Wort und Feld. Wortsemantische Fragestellen mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Wortfeldbegriffs. Tübingen. ——1985. Linguistische Semantik. Stuttgart. Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics, vol. 1. Cambridge. McNamara, T.P. and R.J.Sternberg. 1983. Mental models of word meaning. JVLVB 22. 449–74. Nida, E. 1975a. Componential analysis of meaning: an introduction to semantic structures. The Hague. ——1975b. Exploring semantic structures. Munich. Osgood, C.E. 1976. Focus on meaning, vol. 1: Explorations in semantic space. The Hague. Putnam, H. 1975. Is semantics possible? In Mind, language, and reality: philosophical papers. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 139–52. Rommetveit, R. 1968. Words, meanings, and messages: theory and experiments in psycholinguistics. New York. A-Z 221 Van Eynde, F. 1981. Some deficiencies of semantic feature analysis: a farewell to bachelorhood of lexical semantics. In G.Hindelang and W.Zillig (eds) Sprache: Verstehen und Handeln. Akten des 15. Linguistischen Kolloquiums Münster 1980. Tübingen. Vol. 2, 3–13. lexicology composition (also compounding) Next to derivation, the most important process of word formation is composition, i.e. combining two or more otherwise free morphemes or series of morphemes (=words) to form a compound in which, as a rule, the last element determines the word class ( juxtaposition for exceptions like good-for-nothing, speakeasy). The productivity of composition varies from language to language (cf. the decreasing order of productivity in German, English, Spanish, French; while, in Latin, composition hardly occurs) and is influenced by the category of first and final element. Compositions of two nominal elements (so-called ‘N+N compositions,’ e.g. beer can), are particularly productive; less frequent are compositions of adjective+noun (darkroom); and even rarer those of verb+verb (step turn). The following types of compositions are distinguished: (a) Synchronically, according to semantic interpretation. (i) Determinative compounds like coffeepot, living room, in which the syntactically dependent, contentspecifying element (the determining word) precedes the base word. They are often called ‘endocentric.’ (ii) Possessive compositions ( bahuvrihi) as a subgroup of determinative compounds, in which the first element again specifies the second semantically, but the compound as a whole refers only to a prominent characteristic of the referent, e.g. redhead, loudmouth, hatchback. Possessive compositions are often called ‘exocentric,’ since they allow for paraphrases, e.g. ‘someone who has a loud mouth.’ (iii) Copulative compositions (or ‘dvandva’ forms) like author-editor, sweetsour in which the individual elements are of semantically equal weight and, as a composition, denote a new concept. (b) Historically and genetically: (i) juxtaposition, i.e. the attaching of individual stems to each other without inflection. Since such formations (e.g. OHG tagaliocht ‘daylight’) are seen as older forms of composition, Grimm (1826) called them ‘actual’ or ‘real’ compositions, in contrast with (ii) so-called ‘case’ compositions, which can be traced back to inflectional endings (e.g. Ger. Tageslicht ‘daylight’; and English compositions containing the possessive case linking morpheme, e.g. women’s liberation, children’s literature). Grimm called the latter ‘artificial’ compositions. (iii) Opaque compositions whose origins cannot be reconstructed sy nchronically owing to sound changes that ha ve rendered the original form of the individual elements unrecognizable or because the etymological transparency has been lost, as in world (OE weorold<Gmc *weraldh- ‘age of man’). The transition from composition to derivation (prefix vs suffix formation) is continuous both synchronically and diachronically, cf. -work in artwork vs bookwork; similarly the transition of fully motivated formation to lexicalized formations: table board, cupboard, blackboard. ( lexicalization) Dictionary of language and linguistics 222 References Allen, M. 1978. Morphological investigations. Dis-sertation, University of Connecticut. Bauer, L. 1983. English word formation. London. Brekle, H.E. 1978. Reflections on the conditions for the coining, use and understanding of nominal compounds. In W.Dressler and W.Meid (eds), Proceedings of the twelfth International Congress of Linguistics. Innsbruck. 68–77. Di Sciullo, A.M. and E.Williams. 1987. On the definition of words. Cambridge, MA. Downing, P. 1977. On the creation and use of English compound nouns. Lg 53. 810–42. Fabb, N. 1984. Syntactic affixation. Dissertation, MIT. Grimm, J. 1826. Deutsche Grammatik, vol. 2. Göttingen. Meyer, R. 1993. Compound comprehension in isolation and in context. Tübingen. Roeper, T. and M.Siegel. 1978. A lexical transformation for verbal compounds. LingI 9. 199–260. Selkirk, E. 1982. The syntax of words. Cambridge. Sproat, R. 1985. On deriving the lexicon. Dissertation, MIT. word formation compositionality of meaning principle of compositionality compound Result of the process of word formation of composition, a linguistic expression that consists of at least two free morphemes or morpheme constructions: bath+room, refrigeration (+) mechanic. The normal pattern of intonation in English is primary stress followed by secondary stress (as opposed to main stress and zero stress in multielemental ‘simple’ compounds: youngster. In determinative compounds with a subordinate relation between the constituents (determining word, base word), the order cannot be changed without changing the meaning (dance step vs step dance). In principle, the relation of co-ordination between constituents of a copulative composition allows free word order (owner-operator, operator-owner), though some forms quickly become lexicalized ( lexicalization) in one order or another: child prodigy vs *prodigy child or chief editor vs *editor chief, in which the first elements have become virtually adjectival. Compounding is syntactically and semantically differentiated from simple word groupings: often, though not necessarily, written as a single word, generally with the primary stress on the first constituent, e.g. bookworm; set order, e.g. child psychology vs the psychology of children; inflection only on the base word, e.g. textbook (pl. textbooks), openness of the semantic relation between the individual elements, e.g. paper trail (‘trail on which paper moves,’ ‘trail of paper’) and the lexicalized idiom, e.g. paper trail (‘documental evidence’). The junction between the two immediate constituents may be characterized by a special linking morpheme. To the extent that its A-Z 223 occurrence is rule-governed, they are dependent on the type of first element, where at least for a number of first constituents, completely different formations may occur, cf. doghouse, dog’sear, or Ger. Rindfleisch (‘beef), Rindsfilet (‘fillet of beef), Rinderbraten (‘roast beef’). References word formation compound bilingualism bilingualism compound sentence A sentence that contains at least two main clauses. Compound sentences differ from asyndeton), i.e. joined without means complex sentences in that they are asyndetic ( of a conjunction, or are conjoined by means of either co-ordinating conjunctions or sentence adverbials (thus, however). Complex sentences, on the other hand, are connected by means of subordinating conjunctions (because, since, although), relative pronouns, etc. Compound sentences can be either copulative (=coordinating) when connected by and or disjunctive when connected by but or or ( co-ordination). compounding composition, compound comprehensibility Collective term for characteristics of text composition that influence the process of comprehending and memorizing a text. ‘Readability formulas’ oriented towards practical demands are based on countable lexical and syntactic features, such as word length, word frequency, or sentence length. Other concepts also take into consideration complex text dimensions comprising semantic and cognitive features such as simplicity, structure, conciseness, stimulance or stylistic simplicity, semantic redundancy, cognitive structuring, conceptual conflict. In the framework of a model of text processing, Dictionary of language and linguistics 224 comprehensibility is not conceived of as a text-immanent property, but as an alternating interaction between text properties and reader characteristics (e.g. pre-knowledge, motivation). computational complexity complexity computational linguistics 1 Discipline straddling linguistics and (applied) computer science that is concerned with the comsputer processing of natural languages (on all levels of linguistic description). Particular areas of interest are (a) the development of formalisms for precisely representing linguistic knowledge or models that can be interpreted by computers ( definite clause grammar, knowledge representation); (b) the development of processes and algorithms for analyzing and generating natural-language texts ( parsing, machine-aided translation, text generation); (c) models for simulating linguistic behavior (e.g. for dialogue strategies or question-answer systems); (d) work benches for grammar models, and the like, that make the testing of rules and rule-based systems possible; and (e) programs for collecting and statistically evaluating large amounts of language data, e.g. for automatic lemmatization (attributing word forms to a particular lexeme), for producing word frequency lists, for automatically indexing according to specific key words, for producing concordances (word lists with contexts). For information regarding the state of education in computational linguistics, see Cohen (1986) and Evans (1986). 2 A more general view of computational linguistics than that above includes the area of speech processing. References Alshawi, H. (ed.) 1992. The core language engine. Cambridge, MA. Bates, M. and R.M.Weischedel (eds) 1992. Challenges in natural language processing. Cambridge. Bátori, S.I., W.Lenders and W.Putschke (eds) 1989. Computational linguistics: an international hand-book on computer oriented language research and applications. Berlin and New York. Bird, S. 1995. Computational phonology. A constraint-based approach. Cambridge. Bridge, P. and S.Harlow. 1995. An introduction to computational linguistics. Oxford. Briscoe, T. and B.Boguraev. 1988. Computational lexicography for natural language processing. London. Butler, C.S. 1985. Computers in linguistics. Oxford. Carberry, S. 1990. Plan recognition in natural language dialogue. Cambridge, MA. Cawsey, A. 1993. Explanation and interaction: the computer generation of explanatory dialogues. Cambridge, MA. A-Z 225 Cohen, R. 1986. Survey of computational linguistics courses. CL 12 (Course Survey Supplement). Evans, M. 1986. Directory of graduate programs in computational linguistics, 2nd edn. CL 12 (Graduate Directory Supplement). Gazdar, G. (ed.) 1985. Computational tools for doing linguistics. Linguistics 23. 185–7. Gazdar, G. and C.S.Mellish. 1989. Natural language processing in PROLOG. Reading, MA. Grosz, B., K.Sparck-Jones, and B.L.Webber (eds) 1986. Readings in natural language processing. Los Altos, CA. Halvorsen, P.-K. 1988. Computer application of linguistic theory. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 1, 187–219. Kronfeld, A. 1990. Reference and computation. Cambridge. Krulee, G.K. 1991. Computer processing of natural language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Moore, J.D. 1993. Participating in explanatory dialogues. Cambridge, MA. Paris, C.L., W.R.Swartout and W.C.Mann. 1991. Natural language generation in artificial intelligence and computational linguistics. Dordrecht. Pennington, M.C. and V.Stevens (eds) 1991. Computers in applied linguistics: an international perspective. Clevedon. Pustejovsky, J. (ed.) 1993. Semantics and the lexicon. Dordrecht. Ristad, E.S. 1993. The complexity of human language. Cambridge, MA. Rosner, M. and R.Johnson. 1992. Computational linguistics and formal semantics. Cambridge. Saint-Dizier, P. and E.Viegas. 1995. Computational lexical semantics. Cambridge. Salton, G. and M.J.McGill. 1983. Introduction to modern information retrieval. New York. Smith, G.W. 1991. Computers and human language. Oxford. Sproat, R. 1992. Morphology and computation. Cambridge, MA. Winograd, T. 1983. Language as a cognitive process, vol. 1: Syntax. Reading. MA. Journals Computational Linguistics Journal of Logic, Language and Information computer translation machine-aided translation conative Semantic aspect of the imperfect tense found, for example, in Latin, which describes an action as an unsuccessful attempt: Lat. Explicabat hanc sententiam ‘She/he tried to explain the sentence.’ Dictionary of language and linguistics 226 concatenation [Lat. catena ‘chain’] 1 Process and product of the rule-ordered, linear placement of linguistic elements or linguistic categories. As a rule (though not necessarily), concatenation is notated by the symbols of connection ‘+’ or . Concatenations connect at least two elements (e.g. NP+VP), whose order is determined by the given concatenational operation. In transformational grammar, concatenations are produced through rules of substitution in the basis part. 2 In Weinreich’s (1966) semantic theory, concatenation refers to a semantic process that results in the formation of subcategorized sets ( cluster) of semantic features, the origin of the features no longer being reconstructible in reference to the individual constituents (in contrast, nesting). According to Weinreich, concatenating constructions are (a) nouns functioning as subjects with main verbs, (b) nouns functioning as subjects with predicate nouns and predicate adjectives, (c) main verbs and adverbials of manner, and (d) descriptive adverbs and adjectives. Reference Weinreich, U. 1966. Explorations in semantic theory. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 3, 395–477. concept notion concession [Lat. concedere ‘to give way’] (also concessio) Figure of speech used in argumentation to concede a point, either to hurt the adversary directly or to prepare for a more important argument: I like disorder, but not a mess. concessive clause Semantically defined subordinate clause functioning syntactically as an adverbial complement ( adverbial) which indicates conditions that, even if they are fulfilled, A-Z 227 still will not result in the state of affairs expressed in the main clause (Even if he apologized in person, she still wouldn’t forgive him). They can also indicate a situation whose expected consequence fails to occur (Even though she responded quickly, she still couldn’t reach him). Concessive clauses are usually introduced by subordinating conjunctions such as although, even though, in spite of the fact that, however much, regardless. conclusion Inference whose truth follows logically from the truth of particular premises; for example, from the premises (a) All humans are mortal and (b) Socrates is human, one arrives at the conclusion (c) Socrates is mortal. References formal logic conclusive concomitance resultative collocation concord 1 In languages with noun class systems, the agreement of adnominals and verbs with the noun according to the noun’s class: e.g. Swahili vi-su vi-wili vi-natosha ‘Two knives are enough,’ wa-tu wa-wili wa-natosha ‘Two people are enough,’ ma-tunda ma-wili yanatosha Two pieces of fruit are enough.’ 2 agreement Dictionary of language and linguistics 228 concrete noun [Lat. concretus ‘solid, dense’] Concretes form a class of nouns that contrasts semantically with abstract nouns; they are divided into proper names ( proper nouns. e.g. Philip, Chomsky), common (or collective generic) nouns (e.g. human, linguist), materials (e.g. ink, iron) and groups ( noun), (e.g. family, cattle). conditional 1 Subcategory of verbal mood which characterizes a state of affairs as ‘conditional.’ While the conditional mood has a developed morphological system in French (the preterite of the future tense), it is expressed in English by would+infinitive: If my boss said something like that to me, I would tell him a thing or two. References Closs-Traugott, E. (ed.) 1986. On conditionals. Cambridge. modality 2 implication conditional clause Semantically defined subordinate clause functioning as an adverbial modifier which indicates the condition on which the action in the main clause is contingent. They are normally introduced by such conjunctions as if, in case, in as far as: If it rains tomorrow, we ‘ll have to cancel our trip. References Haiman, J. 1993. Conditionals. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 923–9. Jackson, F. 1987. Conditionals. Oxford. A-Z 229 conditional implication implication conditional relevance In conversation analysis, the term (introduced by Schegloff) characterizes participants’ expectations with regard to the sequential organization of turns in conversations. The production of a token of an utterance type A establishes the expectation (or relevance) of a token of a particular type B by the next speaker. If B fails to occur, its absence will be noticed; for example, A may be repeated until B is provided. A and B may be parts of an adjacency pair or may be sequences as in mutual greetings (A) and the first topic (B). References Goffman, E. 1976. Replies and responses. LSoc 5. 257–313. Grice, H. 1975. Logic and conversation. In P.Cole and J.Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York. 41–58. Merritt, M. 1976. On questions following answers in service encounters. LSoc 5. 315–57. Schegloff, E. 1968. Sequencing in conversational openings. AA 70.1075–95. (Repr. in J.J.Gumperz and D.Hymes (eds), Directions in sociolinguistics. New York, 1972. 346–80.) Schegloff, E. and H.Sacks. 1973. Opening up closings. Semiotica 8. 289–327. conditioning Theory of learning investigated and developed by the Russian physiologist J.P.Pavlov (1849–1936). A spontaneous (conditioned) reaction, triggered by a particular stimulus can in turn be triggered by another stimulus if this other stimulus is repeatedly combined with the original stimulus; after training, the reaction will occur in response to the second stimulus even if it is given without the original stimulus ( stimulus-response). This form of conditioning was used, influenced by the behaviorist school ( behaviorism; see Skinner 1957), to explain language acquisition. Thus, meanings are purportedly learned by pointing to (unconditioned stimulus) and naming (second stimulus) the given object until such time as merely uttering the word produces reference to the object. Producing such reactions can be accelerated and stabilized or intensified by an appropriate reward. Such cases are known as ‘instrumental’ or ‘operant’ conditioning (in contrast to the ‘classical’ conditioning by Pavlov 1929). Dictionary of language and linguistics 230 References Pavlov, J.P. 1929. Lectures on reflexes. London. Skinner, B.F. 1957. Verbal behavior. London. behaviorism, language acquisition conduction aphasia aphasia configuration In Weinreich’s semantic theory (1966), a relation between semantic features. In contrast to the subcategorized set of features in a cluster, a configuration consists of an ordered set of semantic features. The features of chair, [furniture] and [sitting], form a configuration: [furniture for sitting on], since they stand in a modified relationship to each other and are not merely added together ([furniture] plus [for sitting]). Compare daughter, to which the features [feminine] as well as [offspring] apply. Reference Weinreich, U. 1966. Explorations in semantic theory. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 3, 395–477. Congo congruence Bantu agreement conjugation [Lat. coniugatio ‘connection’] Morphological marking of the verb stem with regard to the verbal grammatical categories of person, number, tense, mood, voice, and (to the extent it is grammaticalized) aspect. A-Z 231 Conjugational patterns differ from language to language. The formal distinction between regular and irregular verbs is a fundamental one in the English conjugational system. ( also inflection, strong vs weak verb) References morphology conjunct [Lat. coniungere ‘to join’] Partial sentence in a sentence with coordinating conjunction. conjunction Class of words whose function is to connect words, phrases, or sentences syntactically, while characterizing semantic relations between those elements. With regard to their syntactic function a distinction is drawn between co-ordinating and subordinating conjunctions: because co-ordinating conjunctions connect elements that are equally ordered with each other, they generally cannot be used sentence-initially (e.g. *For Philip was sick, he didn’t go to work); on the other hand, subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses and can occur sentence initially (e.g. Because Philip was sick, he didn ‘t go to work). The following semantic relations can be expressed with co-ordinating conjunctions: (a) copulative: and, as well as, neither…nor, namely, (b) disjunctive: or, either…or; (c) adversative: but, however, on the contrary; (d) causal: for. Subordinating conjunctions introduce adverbial clauses and characterize causal (since, because), modal (by) and temporal (when, before) relations. References co-ordination 2 co-ordination 3 In formal logic, connection of two elementary propositions p and q by the logical particle ( logical connective) and, the resulting proposition of which is true only if both parts of the proposition (=conjuncts) p and q are true. The compound proposition Tokyo is the capital of Japan, and Tokyo is a European city has a false truth value because the second half of the proposition is false. The following (two-value) truth table represents a definition of conjunction: Dictionary of language and linguistics 232 p q p q t t t t f f f t f f f f In everyday language and is realized as a conjunction by also, as well as, besides, in addition, not only…but also, both…and. In contrast with everyday use, however, the logical conjunction and does not distinguish between and and but nor temporally between the propositions (cf. The horse stumbled and fell down in contrast to The horse fell down and stumbled, that is, p q is equally logical as q p). Nor do both parts of the proposition necessarily have to be semantically related, that is, be in a communicatively relevant relation. The term ‘conjunction’ refers both to the function of the two-place sentence operator and as well as to the resulting proposition defined by it. With the aid of set theory, conjunction can be characterized semantically as the intersection set of both model sets that make the connected propositions true ( set). also formal logic) 4 Synonym for logical connective ( conjunctive co-ordination conjunctive adverb Adverb which occurs as an independent constituent before the finite verb and which has a co-ordinating function, e.g. so in It was raining, so we stayed at home. Conjunctive adverbs can have other semantic and syntactic functions besides co-ordination, such as particles or adverbials. A-Z connecting vowel 233 linking vowel connection 1 In the syntactic model of L.Tesnière’s dependency grammar, a syntactic relation that denotes the abstract dependency relation between syntactic elements regardless of their linear surface order. The set of all connections constitutes the sentence. Thus, Figaro swears not only consists of the sum of the elements (a) Figaro and (b) swears, but also of (c) the abstract connection that relates the two to each other. In the framework of Tesnière’s model, connection is the basic structural relationship between the elements of a sentence, which are represented in a tree diagram by directed branches. Additional semantic connections are marked by dotted lines: Philip loses his magic wand. References dependency grammar 2 The joining of propositions or illocutions by causal, temporal, disjunctive, or other relationships. The relationship can be expressed by a connective or by another asyndetic ( asyndeton) expression. Connection is an important means of cohesion and coherence of texts. References Charolles, M. et al. (eds) 1986. Research in text connexity and text coherence: a survey. Hamburg. Conte, M.E., J.S.Petöfi, and E.Sözer (eds) 1989. Text and discourse connectedness: proceedings of the conference on ‘Text Connexity and Coherence’ (Urbino 1984). Amsterdam. Haiman, J. (ed.) 1988. Clause combining in grammar and discourse. Amsterdam. Halliday, M.A.K. and R.Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London. Petöfi, J.S. and E.Sözer (eds) 1983. Micro and macro connexity of texts. Hamburg. Rudolph, E. 1988. Connective relations—connective expressions—connective structures. In J.S.Petöfi (ed.), Text and discourse constitution. Berlin. 97–133. Van Dijk, T.A. 1977a. Connectives in text grammar and text logic. In T.S.van Dijk and J.S.Petöfi (eds), Grammars and descriptions. Berlin. 11–63. ——1977b. Text and context. London. ——1981. Studies in the pragmatics of discourse. The Hague. Dictionary of language and linguistics 234 Bibliographies Lohmann, P. 1988. Connectedness of texts: a bibliographical survey. In J.S.Petöfi (ed.), Text and discourse constitution. Berlin. 478–501. ——1988–9. Connectedness of texts: A bibliographical survey. Part 1 in: Text and discourse constitution, ed. by J.S.Petöfi. Berlin. 478–501: Part 2 in: al. New York. Connexity and coherence, ed. by W.Heydrich et connectionism Paradigm of research in artificial intelligence that is oriented towards neurology. In contrast to the symbolic processing method of traditional artificial intelligence that uses sequential, globally directed processes, in connectionism processing takes place through numerous local and highly parallel processes. Recent debate between adherents of connectionism and its challengers has centered on whether connectionist approaches represent an alternative to or a complement of symbolic information processing, which is based on the fundamental concepts of rule and representations, eschewed in connectionism. References. Elman, J.L. 1993. Learning and development in neural networks: the importance of starting small. Cognition 48. 71–99. Mikkulainen, R. 1993. Subsymbolic natural language processes. Cambridge, MA. Pinker, S. and J.Mehler ( eds) Cognition 1988. 28: 1-2 (special issue). Plunkett, K. and V.Marchman. 1991. U-shaped learning and frequency effects in a multi-layered perceptron: Implications for child language acquisition. Cognition 38. 43–102. ——1993. From rote learning to system building: acquiring verb morphology in children and connectionist nets. Cognition 48. 21–69. Rumelhart, D. and E.J.McClelland. 1986. Parallel distributed processing, 2 vols. Cambridge, MA. connective 1 Linguistic expression with the function of joining sentences ( connection). Conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs belong to the class of connectives. They join either propositions or states of affairs (semantic connectives) or illocutions (pragmatic connectives): for example, He is happy, because it is raining (joining of states of affairs) vs He is happy, for it is raining (reason for a proposition). A-Z 235 References connection 2 Logical particle. ( logical connective) connexity connex relation connex relation (also connexity) Property of a two-place relation R in a set A that is exactly true if it is the case for any two non-identical elements x and y of A that: R(x, y) or R(y, x), in everyday language: either x is in a relation R to y or y is in a relation R to x. This is the case, for example, for the relation ‘smaller than’ in natural numbers, since for two arbitrary numbers x, y it is the case that: either x is smaller than y, or y is smaller than x. References formal logic, set theory connotation [Lat. con- ‘with,’ notatio ‘definition’] 1 (also affective, associative or occasional meaning). The emotive or affective component of a linguistic expression (such as style, idiolect, dialect, and emotional charge), which is superimposed upon its basic meaning and which—in contrast to the static conceptual meaning—is difficult to describe generally and context-independently. Consider, for example, the emotional charge of Ger. Führer (‘leader’). In contrast, the cognitive, referential aspect of meaning is called denotation. Dictionary of language and linguistics 236 References meaning, semantics 2 (also significative meaning) In logic, the conceptual content or sense, in contrast to denotation which is the reference to extra-linguistic reality. ( also extension, intension, intensional logic) References formal logic, meaning consecutive interpreting interpreting consequence clause Semantically defined dependent clause functioning as an adverbial modifier to describe the consequences of the action expressed in the main clause. They are generally introduced by such conjunctions as that, so that: She was so hoarse that she had to call off her recital. consequent In formal logic, the second part of a com (cf. antecedent). plex proposition in a propositional connection consociation Property of linguistic expressions which always occur in the same combination: year-in, year-out, (sitting on) pins and needles. A-Z 237 consonant [Lat. consonare ‘to sound together’] Phonetically, a speech sound that is not an approximant and, therefore, is either a stop or a fricative. Consonants are initiated with (a) pulmonic (as a rule, expiratory), (b) pharyngeal, or (c) oral air. A corresponding distinction is drawn between (a) expiratory sounds, (b) ejectives and implosives, and (c) clicks. While some approximants are formed with the pulmonic airstream mechanism (vowels and semivowels), no approximants are formed with pharyngeal or oral air. Ejectives are found, for example, in Georgian and in Kera, spoken in Chad, and clicks in, for example, the Khoisan language Nama. In European languages consonants are, as a rule, voiced or voiceless ( voiced vs voiceless). Murmured consonants are found in Miao of Weining ( Miao-Yao), and laryngeal consonants in Lango (language spoken in Nigeria). Consonants are divided into subclasses according to their manner of articulation (stop, fricative, approximant, median, lateral, flap, tap, vibrant), their place of articulation. and any secondary articulation. In order to resolve some of the ambiguity surrounding the term ‘consonant,’ Pike introduced the term ‘contoid’ ( contoid vs vocoid) for these phonetic entities. References phonetics Dictionary of language and linguistics 238 consonantal vs non-consonantal Binary phonological opposition in distinctive feature analysis, based on acoustically analyzed and spectrally defined criteria ( acoustic phonetics, spectral analysis). Acoustic characteristic: decrease vs increase of the total intensity on the spectrum. Articulatory characteristic: presence vs absence of an occlusion of the vocal tract. References Jakobson, R. et al. 1951. Preliminaries to speech analysis. Cambridge, MA. 19–20. (6th edn 1965.) distinctive feature constant variability constant opposition opposition constative utterance [Lat. constare ‘to be manifest; to be an established fact’] In the early stages of J.L.Austin’s philosophy of language, including the first part of his 1958 lectures (see Austin 1963) on speech act theory, this term denoted utterances that describe or depict facts or states of affairs and so (in contrast to performatives ( performative utterance) may be either true or false. In this sense, ‘constative’ corresponds to the philosophical term ‘statement.’ In the latter half of his lectures, Austin virtually abandoned his performative-constative distinction, concluding that constatives also have a performative aspect (the actual uttering of a statement) and, as such, should be considered illocutionary acts ( illocution). Reference Austin, J.L. 1963. Performative—constative. In C.E.Caton (ed.), Philosophy and ordinary language. Urbana, IL. 22–54. A-Z 239 constellation [Lat. constellatio ‘position of the stars’] In glossematics, the relation between two linguistic elements that have some sort of connection with each other, but are not, as in the case of interdependence and determination, in any way dependent on each other, as, for example, away in carry away, as away can also occur in other contexts. Syntagmatic constellation is termed combination, paradigmatic constellation is called autonomy. References glossematics constituency [Lat. constituere ‘to make up (of)’] Basic syntactic relation in the description of the hierarchical structure of sentences: between two elements A and B occurring in a linear fashion there holds the relation of constituency, if and only if they are both dominated by a common element C ( dependency) domination). Constituent structure grammar is based on this relation. ( References immediate constituent analysis, phrase structure grammar, transformational grammar constituent A term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence, Money doesn’t grow on trees, each word is a constituent, as is the prepositional phrase on trees. Constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. If two constituents, A and B, are joined to form a hierarchically Dictionary of language and linguistics 240 higher constituent C, then A and B are said to be immediate constituents of C. ( phrase structure rule, rewrite rule) References immediate constituent analysis constituent clause Term introduced by R.B.Lees for partial sentences which are embedded in matrix sentences. Constituent clauses are expanded constituents which are dominated in the tree diagram by an S-node which is not identical with the initial S-node (embedding). The term ‘constituent clause’ corresponds to the traditional notion of dependent or subordinate clause. Reference Lees, R.B. 1963. The grammar of English nominalizations. Bloomington. IN. (5th edn 1968.) constitutive rule A rule that, by identifying certain manners of behavior as foundational of a definite type of activity, constitutes or creates that activity. For example, kicking a ball around does not constitute a game of soccer until at least the basic rules of the game are followed. One of the constitutive rules of soccer is that kicking the ball through the opposing team’s goalposts counts as a goal. The same principle applies to the movement of chess pieces on the chess board. Regulative rules, in contrast, are those rules that contingently constrain or delimit an antecedently constituted activity. In the case of goal scoring in soccer, a couple of regulative rules are that the ball must be ‘in play’ and that one’s teammate is not permitted to pin down the opposing goalkeeper. Thus, formulations of constitutive rules are analytical statements since they only explicate something that is already contained in the concept of the type of behavior concerned. According to Searle, speech acts are performed in accordance with constitutive rules: an utterance of a particular form is a promise only under certain conditions. ( also speech act theory) A-Z 241 References Searle, J.R. 1969. Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge. speech act theory constraints General conditions for the use and formation of rules which universally restrict the very general phrase structure rules and transformational rules ( transformation) so that they only generate the structures of natural languages. In N.Chomsky’s revisions of his concepts of transformational grammar, constraints make empirical declarations about rules which are in principle possible in the grammars of human languages. Such general declarations about the structure of human languages should also correspond to certain properties of the human capabilities for language. They are interpreted as part of the prestructured, biologically asserted expectations, which can plausibly explain the rapid process of language acquisition in early childhood. Constraints for transformational rules relate above all to the description of structure. Since Ross (1967), an abundance of different, but partly overlapping, suggestions has been formulated in this area, for instance, the A-over-A-principle, the principle of cyclic rule application. the propositional island constraint, the sentential-subject constraint, the specified subject condition, the subjacency condition, as well as the structure-preserving constraint. In their broadest sense, trace theory, binding theory, X-bar theory, and constraints on rule filters are also constraints, since they determine the conditions for wellformedness for various levels of the description of language. References Bresnan, J.W. 1976. On the form and functioning of transformations. LingI 7. 3–40. Chomsky, N. 1973. Conditions on transformations. In S.R.Anderson and P.Kiparsky (eds), Festschrift for Morris Halle. New York. 232–86. ——1975. Reflections on language. New York. ——1976. Conditions on rules of grammar. LingA 2. 303–51. ——1977a. Essays on form and interpretation. New York. ——1977b. On wh-movement. In P.W.Culticover, T.Wasow, and A.Akmajian (eds), Formal syntax. New York. 71–132. ——1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. Emonds, J.E. 1976. A transformational approach to English syntax. New York. Freidin, R. 1978. Cyclicity and the theory of grammar. LingI 9. 519–49. Koster, J. 1978. Locality principles in syntax. Dordrecht. Perlmutter, D.M. 1970. Surface structure constraints in syntax. LingI 1. 182–255. Postal, P.M. 1971. Cross-over phenomena: a study in the grammar of coreference. New York. Ross, J.R. 1967. Constraints on variables in syntax. Dissertation, MIT. (Repr. as Infinite syntax! Norwood, NJ, 1986.) Dictionary of language and linguistics 242 Soames, S. and D.M.Perlmutter. 1979. Syntactic argumentation and the structure of English. Berkeley, CA. Van Riemsdijk, H. and E.Williams. 1986. Introduction to the theory of grammar. Cambridge, MA. constrictive fricative contact assimilation assimilation contact test (also exclusion) Experimental analytical procedure in structural linguistics ( structuralism) for determining syntactic and semantic regularities. Depending on whether the insertion of a linguistic element into a given context yields grammatical or ungrammatical expressions, conclusions can be drawn as to the grammatical properties of the elements brought into contact with each other by this test. For example, the contact test can show whether two linguistic units determined by the substitution test are elements of the same or different constituent classes: thus, for two years and linguistics are substitutable for one another: he studied for two years and he studied linguistics; however, the contact test demonstrates that they are also combinable: he studied linguistics for two years, i.e. that they belong to different constituent classes and functions (object and adverbial, respectively). ( also adjunction) References operational procedures content Term used in various ways for the designation of the meaning of the linguistic sign, in contrast to its material realization, the expression2. Depending on the theoretical concept, content refers to (a) the signified in the extralinguistic reality ( referent, signifier vs signified), (b) the conceptual side of the sign ( meaning), or (c) the linguistic interworld of super-individual views, which are constituted by language. A-Z 243 References meaning content analysis Empirical approach developed by Lasswell (1938) and others for the objective, systematic, and quantifiable analysis of communicative content found in all types of texts (newspaper articles, radio copy, literary texts, etc.). On the basis of a predetermined framework of quantifiable data such as key words, syntactic combinations and the like, different levels of content can be analyzed: pure information, commentary, the speaker’s subjective viewpoint towards this information, and the hearer’s ability to apprehend how all the information interrelates based on his/her knowledge of the context. In this analysis, linguistic data realized in the surface structure play a primary role in that they are classified and analyzed statistically according to predetermined categories. Mahl (1959) pointed out that the communicative context, that is, the specific situation in which the text is produced, can in certain circumstances be more important for the interpretation of its content than the literal meaning of a statement. Content analysis gained attention during World War II, when attempts were made to use it as a tool to determine enemy objectives and plans based solely on remarks made by the enemy. Content analysis has been used with success in journalism, literary arts, culture studies, psychology, and elsewhere. And, with computers, great progress in the level of accuracy and the degree of effectiveness has been made. References Carley, K. and M.Palmquist. 1992. Extracting, representing and analyzing mental models. Social Forces 70. 601–36. Gerbner, G. et al. (eds) 1969. The analysis of communication content. New York. Krippendorff, K. 1980. Content analysis: an introduction to its methodology. Beverly Hills. CA. Lasswell, H.D. 1938. A provisional classification of symbol data. Psychiatry 1. 197–204. ——et al. 1952. The comparative study of symbols. Stanford, CA. Mahl, G.F. 1959. Exploring emotional states by content analysis. In I.De Sola Pool (ed.), Trends in content analysis. Urbana, IL. Neuman, W.R. 1989. Parallel content analysis: Old paradigms and new proposals. Public communication and Behavior 2. 205–89. Roberts, C.W. 1989. Other than counting words: a linguistic approach to content analysis. Social Forces 68. 147–77. Weber, R. 1984. Computer-aided content analysis: A short primer. Qualitative Sociology 7. 126– 41. Dictionary of language and linguistics 244 content-based instruction The incorporation of materials drawn from content areas such as social sciences, literature, the arts, and so forth into language instruction. Proponents criticize other approaches for over-emphasizing skills acquisition in a narrow here-and-now context and claim that such other approaches have led to a marginalization of foreign language instruction in the curriculum. Content-based instruction, as well as cross-disciplinary programs such as FLAC (Forei gn Language Across the Curriculum), seek to realign foreign language instruction with the humanistic and intellectual missions of the academic curriculum. References Brinton, D.M., M.A. Snow, and M.B.Wesche. 1989. Content-based second language instruction. Boston, MA. Krueger, M. and F.Ryan (eds) 1993. Language and context: discipline- and content-based approaches to language study. Lexington, MA. content clause Term for dependent that-clauses which express important meaning relative to the whole utterance: Caroline suspected (that), that the weather would change. The subordinate clause expresses the content of an element of the main clause which can be conceived of as a referential pronoun that. References subordinate clause A-Z content plane 245 expression plane vs content plane content word autosemantic word context [Lat. contextus ‘an ordered scheme; the state of being joined’] As a comprehensive concept in communication theory. ‘context’ refers to all elements of a communicative situation: the verbal and non-verbal context, the context of the given speech situation and the social context of the relation-ship between the speaker and hearer, their knowledge, and their attitudes. Catford distinguishes between linguistic context and situational co-text. References Catford, J.C. 1965. A linguistic theory of translation. London. Duranti, A. and C.Goodwin (eds) 1992. Rethinking context. Cambridge. Firbas, J. 1964. On defining the theme in functional sentence analysis. TLP 1. 267–80. Schiffrin, D. 1987. Discovering the context of an utterance. Linguistics 25. 11–32. cohesion context-free grammar A phrase structure grammar which consists of rules for which no context requirements exist. ( also generative grammar) Dictionary of language and linguistics 246 context-free rule A phrase structure rule which is formulated without any regard for context. ( generative grammar, phrase structure rule, transformational grammar) also context-restricted grammar contextsensitive grammar context-restricted rule context-sensitive rule context-sensitive grammar A phrase structure grammar which comprises rules in which the semantic and syntactic environments are important for rule application. ( also generative grammar) context-sensitive rule A phrase structure rule in which formulation of the context (syntactic-semantic environment) affects its application. ( also generative grammar, phrase structure grammar) A-Z 247 contextual implication contextualism implication Firthian linguistics contextualization Introduced by Gumperz and Cook-Gumperz (1976), ‘contextualization’ refers to the shared construction of contexts (i.e. contexts are not a given) by the participants in the course of their interaction. Contextualization consists of a set of procedures that relate contextualization cues to background knowledge. Such cues can be prosodic ( proxemics), or kinetic ( kinesics); they may consist of prosody), proxemic ( choosing a particular lexical item, syntactic construction, or formulaic expression, or in code-switching, etc. Background knowledge is organized in overlapping and interrelated frames that constrain the interpretation of a cue. The meaning of cues is derived from the co-occurrence of other cues related to the same or different frames: for instance, with regard to the frame of ‘turn-taking’ ( turn), a decrease in loudness and a change in body posture may indicate that the current speaker intends to end his/her turn. The cooccurrence of cues leads to redundancy, which allows one to interpret the behavior of one’s co-participant(s), even if not all cues were clearly understood. Because frames are culturally determined, misunderstandings may result in cross-cultural interactions (see Gumperz 1982). References Goffman, E. 1974. Frame analysis. Cambridge, MA. Gumperz, J.J. 1982. Discourse strategies. Cambridge. Gumperz, J.J. and J.Cook-Gumperz. 1976. Context in children’s speech. In J.J.Gumperz and J.Cook-Gumperz (eds), Papers on language and context. Berkeley, CA. Tannen, D. 1986. That’s not what I meant. New York. contiguity [Lat. contiguus ‘adjacent’] 1 constituency 2 In semantics, a relation between lexemes that belong to the same semantic, logical, cultural, or situational sphere. Such relations of contiguity constitute the semantic Dictionary of language and linguistics 248 structure of a text. Consider, for example, meteorological expressions in a weather report as contrasted with an arbitrary series of lexemes from various contexts. association 3 In psycholinguistics, Continental Celtic Celtic contingent proposition In formal logic, proposition whose truth value is not determined by its logical form. Contingent propositions can have different truth values in different possible worlds or situation semantics), in contrast with tautologies, which are true in every situations ( (classical) possible world or (normal) situation, and in contrast with contradictions. which are false in all (classical) possible worlds or (normal) situations. continuant 1 interrupted vs continuant 2 Speech sound having an incomplete closure of the oral cavity. If there is friction, the sound is a fricative; without friction it is an approximant. continuative 1 Subcategory of aspect synonymous with durative ( 2 progressive durative vs non-durative) A-Z continuous 249 progressive contoid vs vocoid [hybrid formation, from Lat. consonare ‘to sound together,’ and vocalis ‘sounding,’ with Grk eĩdos ‘form’] Terms introduced by K.Pike to differentiate between the various usages of ‘consonant’ and ‘vowel.’ ‘Contoid’ and ‘vocoid’ refer to the phonetically defined speech sounds and ‘consonant’ and ‘vowel’ to their phonological aspects. Thus the [r] in Czech prst skrz krk] ‘stick the finger in the throat’ is phonetically contoid, but phonologically a vowel, since it functions as the nucleus2 of the syllable. References phonetics contraction Process and result of the coalescence of two consecutive vowels into a single long vowel: Gmc *maisōn>OE māra>Mod. Eng. more ( synaeresis). Also generally, every form of lexical shortening, e.g. Eng. don’t for do not, Fr. au for *à le. contradictio in adjecto A term from rhetoric to indicate a contradiction between a noun and its attributes. It is a special kind of oxymoron, e.g. an old child. Often used as a figure of argumentation, contradictio in adjecto couples opposite ideas with persuasive intent, e.g. creeping inflation. Dictionary of language and linguistics 250 contradiction In formal logic a sentence that is false on the basis of its logical form, i.e. in all (classical) possible worlds. For example, p and (simultaneously) not p: It’s raining, and it’s not raining. Contradictions are analytically and logically false propositions. In contrast. tautology. contrast 1 Where ‘contrast’ and ‘opposition’ are not synonymous, ‘contrast’ is the differentiation of elements in a syntagmatic relation, ‘opposition’ the differentiation of elements in a paradigmatic relation. Thus, in/pæt/vs/mæt/, /p/,/æ/, /t/ are in contrast, /p/ and /m/ are in opposition. 2 In American linguistics, synonym for opposition as a semantically significant counterpart for contrast1 on the paradigmatic level. References ( also distributionalism) 3 Stress2, in the sense of contrastive accent. contrastive analysis (also contrastive linguistics) Linguistic subdiscipline concerned with the synchronic, comparative study of two or more languages or language varieties (e.g. dialects). Generally, both differences and similarities in the languages are studied, although the emphasis is usually placed on differences thought to lead to interference (i.e. negative transfer, the faulty application of structures from one’s native language to the second language). Here the role of theoretical linguistics consists primarily in developing suitable grammar models that make it possible to compare languages systematically, especially in view of interference. Contrastive analysis emphasized the study of phonology and morphology. It did not address communicative contexts, i.e. contrasting socio-pragmatic conditions that influence linguistic production. Recent work in error analysis has emphasized errors as a A-Z 251 source of knowledge of a learner’s interlanguage and linguistic hypotheses. ( error analysis, foreign-language pedagogy, language typology) also References Alatis. J.E. (ed.) 1968. Contrastive linguistics and its pedagogical implications. Washington, DC. Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1990. Further insights into contrastive analysis. Amsterdam. James, C. 1980. Contrastive analysis. London. Krzeszowski, T.P. 1990. Contrasting languages: the scope of contrastive linguistics. Berlin. Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics across culture. Ann Arbor, MI. Nehls, D. 1979. Studies in contrastive linguistics and error analysis: studies in contrastive linguistics, vol. 2. Heidelberg. Bibliographies Gottwald, K. 1970. Auswahlbibliographie zur kontrastiven Linguistik. Cologne. Hammer, J.H. and F.A.Rice. 1965. A bibliography of contrastive linguistics. Washington. DC. Journal Papers and Studies in Contrastive Linguistics contrastive distribution contrastive linguistics distribution contrastive analysis control Relationship governing the interpretation of ‘phonetically missing subject expressions’ or of the corresponding PRO element in infinitive constructions. In complement clauses after a verb like try, the PRO of the underlying infinitive construction is controlled by the subject of the matrix sentence. In sentences with verbs like convince, the subject of the infinitive complement is coreferential with the object of the matrix clause. Compare, for example, She tried to fly to London vs She convinced him to fly to London. In the Revised Extended Standard Theory of transformational grammar, binding theory includes a Dictionary of language and linguistics 252 theory of control which governs the reference of the abstract pronominal element PRO, according to the structural configuration and on intrinsic verbal properties. References Abraham, W. 1983. The control relation in German. In W.Abraham (ed), On the formal syntax of the Westgermania. Amsterdam. 217–42. Bouchard, D. 1984. On the content of empty categories. Dordrecht. Iwakura, K. 1985. The binding theory and PRO. LingA 15. 29–55. Jackendoff, R. 1987. The status of thematic relations in linguistic theory. LingI 18. 369–412. Koster, J. 1984. On binding and control. LingI 15. 417–59. Manzini, M.R. 1983. On control and control theory. LingI 14. 421–46. McClosky, J. and P.Sells. 1988. Control and A-chains in modern Irish. NL&LT 6. 143–90. Růžička, R. 1983. Remarks on control. LingI 14. 309–24. Williams, E. 1987. Implicit arguments, the binding theory, and control. NL&LT 5. 151 -80. Control Agreement Principle Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar convention [Lat. conventio ‘agreement’] A regularity in the behavior of members of a given group who repeatedly find themselves confronted by a problem of co-ordination (i.e. in a situation dependent upon co-ordinated behavior), who solve this problem in one of several possible ways, and in return expect the same response by others in the group (see Lewis 1969). Part of the conventionoriented approach to solving such problems of coordination is the fact that members of a given group will prefer another solution, if other members of the group act similarly: for example, drivers in North America who are heading towards each other on a one-lane road will automatically veer to the right. If all other drivers were to veer to the left, then everybody would adopt and adhere to this alternative regulation. Similarly, if one understands linguistic communication as a problem of coordination, then the fundamental behavioral regularities in the use of language and the conventions of a specific language are a solution to the problem of co-ordination, and the conventions of other languages can all be viewed as answers to the same problem. The arbitrariness of the linguistic sign thus arises from the conventionality of language. In their social rootedness, conventions are often contrasted with explanations of linguistic or non-linguistic behavior which claim a natural or genetic basis. A-Z 253 References Lewis, D. 1969. Convention: a philosophical study. Cambridge, MA. Quine, W.V. 1936. Truth by convention. In O.H.Lee (ed.), Philosophical essays for A.N. Whitehead. New York, 90–124. Searle, J.R. 1969. Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge. Shwayder, D. 1965. The stratification of behavior. New York. Strawson, P.F. 1964. Intention and convention in speech acts. PhR. 73. 439–60. speech act theory convergence area transitional area conversation analysis (also ethnomethodological conversation analysis) An area of empirical research developed from ethnomethodology, conversation analysis is represented primarily in the studies of H.Sacks, E.Schegloff, and G.Jefferson. Sacks’ earlier studies emphasized the properties of practical reasoning (see Garfinkel and Sacks 1970), i.e. devices and techniques used by participants in producing and interpreting social events like telling a story or a joke (see Sacks 1972, 1978; Sacks et al. 1974). Later studies concerned with reconstructing the ‘orderliness’ of conversations as participants’ accomplishments have been most influential on discourse analysis. Of interest are recurring patterns and their structural properties in the overall organization of conversations. The most dominant and effective device in organizing interaction is seen in the local, turn-by-turn management ( sequential organization) of turn-taking which reflects the participation of all parties in structuring the interaction. In the way they handle turn-taking and turns, participants display their under-standing of the evolving activities: their interpretation of the preceding turn and their expectations for the following turn(s) ( adjacency pair, conditional relevance, preference, recipient design). Thus, conversations are considered to be products of participants’ work over time. This basic assumption constitutes one of the main differences between conversation analysis and other approaches in discourse analysis, in particular that of discourse grammar and speech act theory (see Streeck 1980; Levinson 1983). References Atkinson, J.M. and J.Heritage (eds) 1984. The structure of social actions. Cambridge. Drew, P. and J.Heritage (eds) 1993. Talk at work: interaction in institutional settings. Cambridge. Dictionary of language and linguistics 254 Garfinkel, H. and H.Sacks. 1970. On formal structures of practical actions. In J.C.McKinney and E.A.Tiryakian (eds), Theoretical sociology. New York. 337–66. Goodwin, C. and M.H.Goodwin. 1991. Interstitial argument. In A.Grimshaw (ed.), Conflict talk. Cambridge. 85–117. Goodwin, C. and J.Heritage. 1990. Conversation analysis. Annual Review of Anthropology 19. 283–307. Levinson, S. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge. Maynard, D. and S.Clayman. 1991. The diversity of ethnomethodology. Annual Review of Anthropology 17. 285–418. McLaughlin, M.L. 1984. Conversation: how talk is organized. London. Nofsinger, R.E. 1991. The conduct of everyday conversation. London. Sacks, H. 1972. On the analyzability of stories by children. In J.J.Gumperz and D.Hymes (eds), Directions in sociolinguistics. New York. 325–45. ——1978. An analysis of the course of a joke’s telling in conversation. In J.Bauman and J. Sherzer (eds), Explorations in the ethnography of speaking. London. 249–69. ——1992. Lectures on conversation. 2 vols. Oxford. Sacks, H., E.Schegloff, and G.Jefferson. 1974. A simplest systematics for the organization of turntaking in conversations. Lg 50. 696–735. Schegloff, E. 1968. Sequencing in conversational openings. AA 70. 1075–95. (Repr. in J.J.Gumperz and D.Hymes (eds), Directions in sociolinguistics. New York, 1972. 346–80.) ——1992. Repair after next turn. American Journal of Sociology 97. 1295–345. ——and H.Sacks. 1973. Opening up closings. Semiotica 8. 289–327. Schenkein, J. (ed.) 1978. Studies in the organization of interaction. New York. Stenström, A.-B. 1994. An introduction to spoken interaction. London. Streeck, J. 1980. Speech acts in interaction: a critique of Searle. DPr 3. 133–54. Sudnow, D. (ed.) 1972. Studies in interaction. New York. ethnomethodology conversational implicature implicature conversational maxim maxim of conversation converse relation 1 conversion 2 In L.Tesnière’s dependency grammar, a special type of semantic relation of dependency ( connection) between linguistic elements, for which there is no A-Z 255 underlying corresponding syntactic relation, such as the semantic relationship between Philip and his in Philip is looking for his magic wand. converseness converse relation conversion 1 Relation of semantic opposition that denotes the polarity between two-place predicates and is defined as an equivalence relation: If Philip is older than Caroline, then Caroline is younger than Philip (and vice versa). Such converse expressions usually take the form of polar adjectives, of verbs that describe relations of exchanging (give: receive, buy: sell, and the like) and of kinship terms (father: son, etc.). 2 Process of word formation brought about by a change in lexical category of a base (to drive>a drive) and also of compound stems (to sandpaper), but also exceptionally those with a prefix or suffix. In contemporary English, denominal verbs are particularly productive ( productivity): (to) bicycle, (to) stamp; similarly, deverbal nouns: hit, buy, and deadjectival verbs: to tidy. Instead of a process of transferring one stem category into the other, Marchand (1960) understands conversion as derivation with the aid of a zero morpheme. References Lieber, R. 1981. Morphological conversion within a restricted theory of the lexicon. In M.Moortgat et al. (eds), The scope of lexical rules. Dordrecht. 161–200. Marchand, H. 1960. The categories and types of present-day English word-formation. Munich. (2nd edn 1969.) Meyers, S. 1984. Zero-derivation and inflection. In M.Speas and R.Sproat (eds), MIT Working papers in linguistics, vol. 7, Cambridge, MA. 53–69. Neeleman, A. and J.Schipper. 1993. Verbal prefixation in Dutch: thematic evidence for conversion. In G.Booij and J.van Marle (eds), Yearbook of morphology 1992. Dordrecht. 57–92. co-occurrence A basic syntactic relation in structuralist taxonomy which signifies the simultaneous incidence of linguistic elements of different classes in sentences. Co-occurrence or distribution of an element is the sum of all syntactic environments in which it can occur. Dictionary of language and linguistics 256 Thus Z.S.Harris defined his transformations as the formal relationship between structures which have the same number of individual co-occurrences. References distributionalism co-ordinate bilingualism co-ordinating conjunction bilingualism conjunction co-ordination (also conjunction, juncture) 1 Syntactic structure which consists of two or more conjuncts (=words, phrases, or clauses). Co-ordination can occur as an asyndetic ( asyndeton) construction, where the individual elements are not connected with conjunctions, or as a syndetic construction where the individual elements are connected by a co-ordinating conjunction (and, or, but). The ‘connection’ established by conjunctions refers to morphological and syntactic as well as to semantic and pragmatic aspects. The syntactic description of co-ordination in the framework of transformational grammar focuses mainly on the typology of coordinating constructions as well as on the assumed deletion procedures and conditions involved (=conjunction reduction, gapping). On co-ordination in formal logic, conjunction3. References Dik, S. 1968. Co-ordination. Amsterdam. Dougherty, R.C. 1970–1. A grammar of coordinate conjoined structures. Lg 46. 850–98; 47. 298– 339. Sanders, G.A. 1977. A functional typology of elliptical coordinations. In F.R.Eckmann (ed.), Current themes in linguistics. Washington, DC. 241–70. Schmerling, S.F. 1975. Asymmetric conjunction and rules of conversation. In P.Cole and J.L.Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York. Van Oisouw, R. 1987. The syntax of coordination. London. A-Z 257 Bibliography Wiese, B. 1980. Bibliographie zur Koordination. Linguistische Arbeiten und Berichte 14. 182–228. connection 2 Synonym for parataxis. Coosan Penutian Copenhagen Linguistic Circle glossematics Coptic Egyptian copular verb Subset of verbs that, in contrast to main verbs, have a mainly grammatical function in that they serve to create the relation between subject and predicate: She is a dancer/unmarried/21 years of age, He has become very handsome. The term ‘copula’ is used only for the verb be, whereas ‘copular verb’ comprises all verbs (be, become, seem, get, and some others) that function in a similar way to be. References Quirk, R. et al. 1985. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London and New York. auxiliary Dictionary of language and linguistics copulative composition 258 composition core grammar A central theme of linguistic description in Chomsky’s Revised Extended Standard transformational grammar). Core grammar includes those universal Theory (1975) ( linguistic facts and principles which tend to appear as unmarked grammatical phenomena in all natural languages. They form at the same time the core of individual competence ( competence vs performance) which comprises the regularities among individual languages of differing natures. The mastery of language-specific irregularities, which belong to the periphery as marked occurrences, also belongs to the field of competence. They complement core grammar and the parameters of individual languages which are available as possible options from universal grammar ( markedness for an explanation of ‘marked’ vs ‘unmarked’). The theory of markedness and the concept of core grammar are motivated by hypotheses about corresponding phenomena in language acquisition. Core grammar and specifically unmarked linguistic phenomena are understood as ‘genetic learning aids’ in language acquisition and do not have to be learned as such. Marked (language-specific) occurrences must be learned gradually. References Chomsky, N. 1975. Reflections on language. New York. ——1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. (7th edn Berlin and New York, 1993.) transformational grammar A-Z core vocabulary coreference 259 basic vocabulary anaphora coreferentiality In generative grammar, coreferentiality is present when different noun phrases have the same extralinguistic reference. Coreferentiality is formalized by numbers or small Roman letters: Philip1 discovered his friend2 and greeted him2 heartily. He1 was glad to have this jovial fellow2 finally nearby. Presumably, the coreferential identity of different noun phrases must be indexed exactly in order to describe transformational processes like pronominalization ( personal pronoun) and reflexivization ( reflexive pronoun). The limitations of coreferentiality are discussed in Wiese (1983). References Comrie, B. 1992. Coreference in grammar and discourse. Oxford. Hintikka, J. and G.Sandu. 1991. On the methodology of linguistics: a case study. Oxford. Wiese, B. 1983. Anaphora by pronouns. Linguistics 21.373–417. Cornish Celtic coronal vs non-coronal Binary phonological opposition in distinctive feature analysis. In the articulation of coronal sounds, the tip of the tongue moves from its neutral position against the hard palate. The distinction describes the opposition between dental or apical vs labial or velar consonants, thus [t] vs [p, k]. ( also phonetics) Dictionary of language and linguistics 260 corpus [Lat. ‘body; collection of facts’] A finite set of concrete linguistic utterances that serves as an empirical basis for linguistic research. The value and quality of the corpus depend largely upon the specific approach and methodology of the theoretical framework of the given study. Note, for example, the different value placed on empirical data in structuralism and in generative grammar. References . Greenbaum, S. and R.Quirk. 1970. Elicitation experiments in English: linguistic studies in use and attitude. London. Kempson, R.M. and R.Quirk. 1971. Controlled activation of latent contrast. Lg 47. 548–72. Kytö, M. et al. (eds) 1994. Corpora across the centuries: proceedings of the first International Colloquium on English Diachronic Corpora. Amsterdam. Labov, W. 1971. Methodology. In W.Dingwall (ed.), A survey of linguistic science. College Park, MD. 412–97. Leech, G. 1970. On the theory and practice of semantic testing. Lingua 24. 343–64. Pilch, H. 1976. Empirical linguistics. Bern. Quirk, R. and J.Svartvik. 1966. Investigating linguistic acceptability. The Hague. Svartvik, J. (ed.) 1992. Directions in corpus linguistics. Berlin and New York. field work correlate dummy symbol correlation Prague School term designating the relationships between pairs or series of phonemes which are distinguished from one another through the same distinctive feature, e.g. /b, d, g/vs/p, t, k/are related to one another through a voicing correlation ( opposition). A-Z 261 References phonetics, phonology correlational bundle Tie between two or more phonologi cal correlations. For example, the phonemes/p, t, k/vs/b, d, g/vs/m, n/form a correlational bundle that is distinguished by the features [voiceless] vs [voiced] and [nasal] vs [oral]. References phonetics, phonology Costanoan Penutian co-text Term coined by Catford (1965) and used to denote the ‘situational context’ of an utterance in contrast to its linguistic context. References Catford, J.C. 1965. A linguistic theory of translation. London. count noun Noun which can be directly combined with a numeral (e.g. apple) as opposed to mass nouns which cannot (e.g. gold). In some cases, nouns can belong to both classes (e.g. fish). Dictionary of language and linguistics 262 counterfactual sentence Conditional sentence with a subjunctive form in the opening clause (e.g. If I were hungry, I would eat something) whose closing clause would be true if the opening clause were true. Counterfactual sentences play an important role with regard to possible worlds in semantic descriptions. References possible world covered vs non-covered Binary phonological opposition in distinctive feature analysis based on articulation. Speech sounds with the feature [+covered] are produced by narrowing and tensing the pharynx and raising the larynx. References distinctive feature, phonetics covert category Term introduced by B.L.Whorf. A covert category is a conceptual category for which the language in question furnishes either no formal elements at all or elements only for specific situations. For example, in English intransitivity ( transitivity) is a covert category of the first type, since intransitive verbs can be characterized only by their absence from particular syntactic constructions (such as passive), while gender is a covert category of the second type, since personal pronouns of the third person singular constitute formal elements for particular situations. The structure of the lexicon of a particular language can reveal covert categories. Thus, in English there is no adjective that serves as a superordinate term ( hyperonymy) for all adjectives of temperature. A-Z 263 References Cruse, D.A. 1986. Lexical semantics. Cambridge. Whorf, B.L. 1956. Grammatical category. In J.B. Carroll (ed.), Language, thought and reality: selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. New York. 87–101. cranberry morph hapax legomenon, pseudomorpheme, semi-morpheme crasis [Grk ‘mixing, blending’] The diachronic collapsing of two vowels into a long vowel, the first of which is in final position, the second of which is in the initial position of the following item, e.g. Lat. cōagō >cōgō ‘I force’ ( hiatus). creativity Essential trait of all natural languages whose functioning is based on the speaker being able to produce and interpret—by means of a finite set of (a) linguistic expressions and (b) combinatory rules—an infinite set of utterances. This ability to command a complex rule apparatus has long intrigued and motivated researchers just as much as its apparent quick learnability in language acquisition. Since Chomsky, creativity is a central notion of transformational grammar, the objective of which is to describe this infinite use of finite resources in a technically appropriate form. Chomsky distinguishes between ‘rulegoverned’ and ‘rule-changing’ creativity. While rule-governed creativity is limited by the pre-given possibilities in the linguistic system, rule-changing creativity affects this system. References Chomsky, N. 1964. Current issues in linguistic theory. The Hague. ——1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. ——1966. Topics in the theory of generative grammar. The Hague. Dictionary of language and linguistics Cree 264 Algonquian creole [‘European born in the West Indies,’ from Span. criollo ‘native’] Creoles are former pidgins whose functional and grammatical limitations and simplification have been eliminated and which now function as full-fledged, standardized native languages. Creoles originated primarily in regions of colonialization where the indigenous people were either enslaved or otherwise made to be highly dependent upon their white masters. The social pressures of assimilation lead originally from bilingualism (indigenous language and pidginized European language) to pidgin monolingualism and eventually to a complete loss of the original native language replaced by the creole. Creoles are characterized by a considerably expanded and altered grammar and vocabulary. According to Bickerton (1981, 1984), this can be traced to the innate linguistic capacities of humans that impose grammatical structure upon the relatively unstructured pidgins. This would explain why creoles have a generally similar grammatical structure, an observation made as early as 1850 by H. Schuchardt. The classification of a creole is based upon its main source of vocabulary, viz. French Creole (Louisiana, French Guyana, Haiti, Mauritius), English Creole (Hawaii), Dutch Creole (Georgetown). References Alleyne, M.C. 1980. Comparative Afro-American: an historical—comparative study of Englishbased Afro-American dialects of the New World. Ann Arbor, MI. Andersen, R. (ed.) 1983. Pidginization and creolization as language acquisition. Rowley. MA. Arends, J. (ed.) 1994. The early stages of creolization. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Arends, J., P.Muysken. and N.Smith (eds) 1995. Pidgins and creoles: an introduction. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Bickerton, D. 1973. The nature of the creole continuum. Lg 49. 640–69. ——1975. Dynamics of a creole system. London. ——1981. Roots of language. Ann Arbor. MI. ——1984. The language biprogram hypothesis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7. 173–221. Bollée, A. 1977. Le Créole français des Seychelles: esquisse d’une grammaire. Tübingen. Decamp, D. and I.F.Hancock (eds) 1974. Pidgins and creoles: current trends and prospects. Washington, DC. Foley, W. 1988. Language birth: the processes of pidginization and creolization. In F.J.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey, vol. 4: Language: the socio-cultural context. Cambridge. 162–83. Hall, R.A. 1966. Pidgin and creole languages. Ithaca, NY. A-Z 265 Hancock, I. 1987. History of research on pidgins and creoles. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Sociolinguistics: an international handbook on the science of language and society. Berlin. 459–69. Holm, J. 1988–9. Pidgins and creoles, 2 vols. London. Hymes, D. (ed.) 1971. Pidginization and creolization of languages. Cambridge. Lepage, R.B. and A.Tabourer-Keller. 1985. Acts of identity. Cambridge. Ludwig, R. (ed.) 1989. Les Créoles français entre l’oral et l’écrit. Tübingen. Meisel, J. (ed.) 1977. Langues en contact: pidgins/ creoles; languages in contact. Tübingen. Mühlhäusler, P. 1986. Pidgin and creole linguistics. Oxford. Muysken, P. and N.Smith (eds) 1986. Substrata versus universals in creole genesis: papers from the Amsterdam Creole Workshop, 1985. Amsterdam. Reinecke, J.E. 1971. Tay Bói: notes on the Pidgin French spoken in Vietnam. In D.Hymes (ed.), Pidginization and creolization of languages. Cambridge. 43–56. Rickford, J.R. 1987. Dimensions of a creole continuum: history, texts, and linguistic analysis of Guyanese Creole. Stanford, CA. Romaine, S. 1988. Pidgin and creole languages. London. Schuchardt, H. 1882–91. Kreolische Studien, 9 vols. Vienna. Stewart, W.A. 1962. Creole languages in the Caribbean. In F.A.Rice (ed.), Study of the role of second languages in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Washington, DC. 34–53. Sutcliffe, D. and Figueroa, J. 1992. System in black language. Clevedon. Thomason, S.G. and T.S.Kaufmann. 1988. Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics. Berkeley, CA. Todd, L. 1975. Pidgins and creoles. London. (2nd edn 1990.) Valdman, A. (ed.) 1977. Pidgin and creole linguistics. Bloomington. IN. Valdman, A. and A.Highfield (eds) 1980. Theoretical orientations in creole studies. New York. Versteegh, K. 1984. Pidginization and creolization: the case of Arabic. Amsterdam. Whinnom, K. 1965. The origin of European-based pidgins and creoles. Orbis 14. 509–27. ——1971. Linguistic hybridization and the special case of pidgins and creoles. In D.Hymes (ed.), Pidginization and creolization of languages. Cambridge. 91–115. Bibliography Reinecke, J.E. et al. 1975. A bibliography of pidgin and creole languages. Honolulu, HI. Black English, classification of languages, pidgin, variational linguistics Dictionary of language and linguistics creolization crest Croatian 266 creole nucleus2 Serbo-Croatian cross-over principle A constraint on transformational rules ( transformation) for the situation in which coreferential constituents would be crossed over. This could occur, for example, in the movement of a wh-element in COMP position over a co-indexed pronoun. In accordance with the current grading of ungrammaticality, one can distinguish between weak crossover and strong cross-over. Thus *Whoi does his1 mother love ti (weak cross-over) is clearly more acceptable than *Whoi did hei love t1 or *Who, did hei say Caroline kissed ti (strong cross-over). The cross-over principle has been the center of interest for many in generative grammar since the early 1970s. In Government and Binding theory, it is simply a descriptive term and relevant cases must be explained by general principles and parameters of the syntactic theory. An example of this would be the assimilation of the empty category ( empty category principle) left by wh-movement to independently referential expressions where principle C of the binding theory would be relevant; as a result the strong cross-over phenomena would be excluded from the grammar, since the pronoun would be excluded from binding the empty category. References Aoun, J. 1986. Generalized binding: the syntax and logical form of wh-interrogatives. Dordrecht. Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. Farmer. A., K.Hale, and N.Tsujimura. 1988. A note on weak crossover in Japanese. NL&LT 4. 33– 42. Freidin, R. and H.Lasnik. 1981. Disjoint reference and wh-trace. LingI 12. 39–53. Koopman, H. and D.Sportiche. 1982. Variables and the bijection principle. LRev 2. 139–61. Koster, J. 1987. Domains and dynasties: the radical autonomy of syntax. Dordrecht. May, R. 1985. Logical form: its structure and derivation. Cambridge, MA. Postal, P.M. 1971. Cross-over phenomena: a study in the grammar of coreference. New York. Van Riemsdijk, H. and E.Williams. 1981. NPstructure. LRev 1. 171–217. Wasow, T. 1972. Anaphoric relations in English. Dissertation. MIT. ——1975. Anaphora in generative grammar. Ghent. A-Z 267 cross-reference Cross-River crytotpe [Grk anaphora Benue-Congo languages ‘crypt, vault,’ krýptein ‘to hide, to cover’] A term coined by B.L.Whorf to describe hidden but available grammatical properties of linguistic expressions. Such class-forming properties have no formal correspondence at the surface: cf., for example, the grammatical genders in German or French. Reference Whorf, B.L. 1956. Language, thought and reality. In Selected writings of B.L.Whorf, ed. J.B.Carroll. Cambridge, MA. CUG categorial unification grammar cuneiform [Lat. cuneus ‘wedge’] Writing system of the Sumerians and Baby-lonians (dating back to about 2900 BC). Its name is derived from the wedge-shaped impressions scratched into clay tablets with styluses. References Edzard, D.O. 1976–80. Keilschrift. In D.O.Edzard et al. (eds), Reallexikon der Assyriologie. Berlin. Vol. 5, 544–68. Jaritz, K. 1967. Schriftarchäologie der altmesopotamischen Kultur. Graz. Meissner, B. and K.Oberhuber. 1967. Die Keilschrift. (3rd, completely rev. edn.) Berlin. writing Dictionary of language and linguistics 268 cursive durative vs non-durative, imperfective vs perfective cursive writing [Lat. cursiva (littera) ‘running script’] A form of writing that connects one character with the following one. In scripts written from left to right (e.g. Latin, Greek, Armenian, Cyrillic), a form of writing that leans towards the right. Cursive characters are used in linguistic texts to denote expressions in the object language ( object language vs meta language) as, for example, in this dictionary. In Chinese, cursive denotes a quick writing style, in which individual marks—depending on personal style and writing speed—are consolidated into a cursive writing. References writing Cushitic Named after Cush, the son of Ham, subgroup of the Afro-Asiatic languages in East Africa with thirty languages and approx. 30 million speakers divided into four main groups (East, Central, North and South Cushitic); the so-called ‘West Cushitic’ is possibly a separate language family (Omotic). The most important languages are Oromo (formerly called Galla, with approx. 15 million speakers) and Somali (national language of Somalia, with approx. 6 million speakers). Characteristics: tonal languages (two or three tones); tones serve as grammatical markers (gender, number, case, mood). Vowel harmony. Often extremely complex verb conjugation (separate paradigms for perfective, imperfective; various clause forms). Word order SOV, marked subject case (often identical with genitive), morphological focus marking. References Bell, C.R.V. 1953. The Somali language. London (Repr. 1969.) A-Z 269 Ehret, C. 1980. The historical reconstruction of Southern Cushitic phonology and vocabulary. Berlin. Hayward, D. 1983. The Arbore language. Hamburg. Lamberti, M. 1986. Somali language and literature. Hamburg. Owens, J. 1985. A grammar of Harar Oromo (North-eastern Ethiopia). Hamburg. Palmer, F.R. 1970. Cushitic. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics, vol. 6: Linguistics in South West Asia and North Africa. The Hague. 571–85. Sasse, H.J. 1981. Die kuschitischen Sprachen. In B. Heine et al. (eds), Die Sprachen Afrikas. Hamburg. 187–215. Stroomer, H. 1987. A comparative study of three Southern Oromo dialects in Kenya: phonology, morphology and vocabulary. Hamburg. Stroomer, H.A. 1995. A grammar of Boraana Oromo. Cologne. Zaborski, A. 1976. Cushitic overview. In M.L.Bender (ed.), The non-Semitic languages of Ethiopia. East Lansing, MI. 67–84. Dictionaries Abraham, R.C. 1962. Somali—English dictionary. London. Gragg. G. 1982. Oromo dictionary. East Lansing, MI. Hudson, G. 1989. Highland East Cushitic dictionary. Hamburg. Sasse, H.-J. 1982. An etymological dictionary of Burji. Hamburg. cybernetics information theory cyclic nodes [Grk kýklos ‘circle’] Categories within morphology, syntax, and phonology that represent a domain for the application of cyclic rules. They are probably language-specific. The application of cyclic rules follows the principle of cyclic rule application. Cyrillic script Writing system based on Greek uncial script, developed by the Greek-Orthodox Slavs, and incorrectly attributed to the Greek missionary to the Slavs, Kyrillos (ninth century) ( Glagolitic script). Under Peter the Great, the Cyrillic script was simplified and adapted to approximate Latin script. Today the Cyrillic script is the basis for the following Slavic orthographic systems (Russian, Belorussian, Ukrainian, Serbian, Dictionary of language and linguistics 270 Bulgarian, Macedonian); for a number of non-Slavic IndoEuropean languages Persian)); as well as a number of (Moldavian, Kurdish, Ossete (Iranian), Tajikich ( non-Indo-European languages of the former Soviet Union (e.g. Bashkirish, Tartar, Turkmenian, Usbeki ( Turkic) Uiguric). References writing Czech West Slavic language with approx. 9 million speakers, primarily in Czechia. The oldest texts date from the eleventh century, with secular texts beginning to appear from the fourteenth century (Alexander tales, Catherine legends). The orthography is based on the Latin alphabet. Jan Hus, in his Orthographia Bohemica (1406) introduced numerous diacritics which can be used to distinguish Czech from other Slavic languages: ‹á›, ‹č›, , ‹ň›, ‹ó›, ‹ř›, ‹š›, ‹t’›, , ‹ú›, ‹ý›, ‹ž›. The written language was ‹d’›, ‹é›, ‹ě›, ‹í›, suppressed by the Hapsburgs after the Thirty Years’ War. Resuscitated two centuries later by Dobrovský on the basis of the old Bible translation, it is quite disjoint from the normal spoken language of today. Specific characteristics: initial word stress which recedes to prepositions; short and long vowels in both stressed and unstressed syllables; syllabic r: strč prst skrz krk ‘stick the finger in the throat’; alveolar voiced fricative trill [r] as in Dvořák); distinctive vocative case; in the masculine, distinction between [±animate]. References Havránek, B. and A. Jedlička. 1960. Česká mluvnice. Prague. (4th edn 1981.) Heim, M. 1982. Contemporary Czech. Columbus, OH. Kavka, S. 1988. An outline of Modern Czech grammar. Uppsala. Kučera, H. 1961. The phonology of Czech. The Hague. Mazon, A. 1952. Grammaire de la langue tchèque, 3rd edn. Paris. Mluvnice češtiny. 1986–7. 3 vols. Prague. Townsend, C. 1990. A description of spoken Prague Czech. Columbus, OH. Dictionaries Machek, V. 1957. Etymologický slovník jazyka českého. Prague. (2nd edn 1968.) Slovník spisovného jazyka českého. 1958–71. 4 vols. Prague. Slavic A-Z 271 D Daco-Rumanian Dagestanian Rumanian North-East Caucasian Danish North Germanic (Scandinavian) language with approx. 5 million speakers, primarily in Denmark. Danish began to develop independently as a written language around AD 1500. It was the written language in Norway from the Reformation (1536) until the midnineteenth century. A spelling reform was conducted in 1948: nouns, except for proper nouns, are no longer capitalized (unlike German, which continues to capitalize all nouns). References Diderichsen, P. 1957. Elementær dansk grammatik. Copenhagen. Holmes, P., R.Allan and T.Lundskaer-Nielsen. 1995. Danish. A Comprehensive Grammar. London. Dictionary Danish dictionary. 1994. London. Scandinavian Dictionary of language and linguistics 272 Dardic Group of about fifteen Indo-Iranian languages in northwestern India; the most significant language is Kashmiri (approx. 3 million speakers). It is still unclear whether the Dardic languages belong to the Indo-Aryan or to the Iranian languages. References Bhat, R. 1987. A descriptive study of Kashmiri. Delhi. Edelman, D.I. 1983. The Dardic and Nuristani languages. Moscow. Fussman, G. 1972. Atlas linguistique des parlers dardes et kafir, 2 vols. Paris. Kachru, B.B. 1969a. Kashmiri and other Dardic languages. In T.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics, vol. 5: Linguistics in South Asia. The Hague and Paris. 284–306. ——1969b. A reference grammar of Kashmiri. Urbana, IL. Koul, M.K. 1986. A sociolinguistic study of Kashmiri. Patiala. Morgenstierne, G. 1973. Irano-Dardica. Wiesbaden. Dictionary Grierson, G.A. 1916–32. A dictionary of the Kashmiri language. 4 vols. (Repr. 1985.) Calcutta. Bibliography Schmidt, R.L. and O.N.Koul. 1981. Kohistani to Kashmiri: an annotated bibliography of Dardic languages. Patiala. Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian Dari Persian data vs facts A terminological distinction made by N. Chomsky which is the forerunner of the distinction competence vs performance. Data are linguistic utterances which form the basis for linguistic investigation. Facts, on the other hand, are inner regularities that one observes from the performance data which form the competence of the ideal speaker/listener. ( also transformational grammar) A-Z 273 dative [Lat. datum ‘given’; trans. of Grk ’case relating to the act of giving’] 1 Morphological case which generally serves to indicate indirect objects. Depending on whether or not a verb requires the dative case, one can distinguish between obligatory datives in the function of indirect objects in the narrower sense, whose deletion can be analyzed as ellipsis (Who’s treating [us to lunch]?), and the so-called free datives. The free datives can be differentiated as follows: (a) ethical dative, which expresses a personal point of view: Ger. Das war mir zu viel ‘That was too much for me’; (b) possessive dative, which expresses a relationship of possession: Ger. Ihm schmerzen die Beine, lit. ‘him are hurting the legs,’ where English uses a possessive pronoun; (c) dative of interest (dativus commodi/incommodi), which designates a person or thing to whose benefit or detriment the action expressed by the verb is carried out: She knitted him a sweater; (d) dativus iudicantis, which indicates the person or thing from whose point of view the statement is expressed: Ger. Er ist mir zu intelligent ‘He is too smart for me.’ The dative can also be required by certain adjectives, such as Ger. Sie ist ihm treu ‘She is faithful to him,’ and occasionally functions as an adnominal (e.g. Ger. der Mutter ihr Haus, lit. ‘(to) the mother her house,’ i.e. ‘the mother’s house’). In languages like English, which do not have a dative case, the term ‘dative’ refers to the function expressed by the dative in case-inflecting languages. References Abraham, W. 1973. The ethic dative in German. In F. Kiefer and N.Ruwet (eds), Generative grammar in Europe. Dordrecht. 1–19. Barnes, B.K. 1980. The notion of ‘dative’ in linguistic theory and the grammar of French. LIS 4. 245–92. Wegener, H. 1985. Der Dativ im heutigen Deutsch. Tübingen. 2 Term in case grammar for the semantic role of animate objects that are affected by a state of affairs or an action, generally to a lesser degree than a patient. case Dictionary of language and linguistics dative movement 274 dative shift dative shift (also dative movement, dativization) Alternation by which an object in another oblique case or a prepositional object is changed into a dative or indirect object: He gave the book to Caroline: He gave Caroline the book. References Dowty, D. 1979. Dative ‘movement’ and Thomason’s extensions of Montague Grammar. In S. Davis and M.Mithun (eds), Linguistics, philosophy and Montague Grammar. Austin, TX. 153– 222. Dryer, M. 1986. Primary objects, secondary objects and antidative. Language 62. 808–45. Fillmore, C. 1965. Indirect object constructions in English and the ordering of transformations. The Hague. Green, G. 1974. Semantics and syntactic regularity. Bloomington, IN. Marchand, H. 1951. The syntactical change from inflectional to word order system and some effects of this change on the relation ‘verb/object’ in English: a diachronic-synchronic interpretation. Anglia 70. 70–89. Oehrle, R. 1986. The English ‘dative’ construction, grammatical form and interpretation. Dordrecht. A-Z dativization 275 dative shift daughter dependency grammar dependency grammar, surface syntax daughter languages Languages which derive from a common language or proto-language and which are at the same developmental stage. For example, French, Italian, and Spanish are daughter languages of (Vulgar) Latin. DCG definite clause grammar de dicto reading de re reading attributive vs referential reading attributive vs referential reading deadjectival Words derived from adjective stems such as (to) harden (<hard), stupidity (<stupid), happily (<happy). Dictionary of language and linguistics 276 Reference word formation debitive [Lat. debere ‘to be obliged to’] Mood that expresses objective necessity to carry out the action denoted by the verb. It is found, for example, in Latvian, where it is encoded by prefixing the particle ja- to the third person indicative of the verb in a construction with the appropriate tense of the copula (optional in non-negative sentences) and the dative of the corresponding agent expression: man (ir) ja-dzied (I dat. sg. (COP) deb. 3rd sg. indic.) ‘I have to sing.’ A possible theme is in the nominative or accusative. Asher (1982) hypothesizes a debitive also for Tamil. References Asher, R.E. 1982. Tamil. Amsterdam. Palmer, F.R. 1986. Mood and modality. Cambridge. declaration A speech act which, if successfully performed, results in the realization of the propositional content ( proposition) of the uttered sentence as a conventional consequence of its merely having been uttered (e.g. The meeting is now in session, said at the appropriate time by the chairperson). According to Searle, as opposed to Bach and Harnish (1992), explicitly performative utterances like I hereby declare this building open to the public are special types of declarations. References Bach, K. and R.M.Harnish. 1992. How performatives really work: a reply to Searle. Ling&P 15. 93–110. Searle, J.R. 1989. How performatives work. Ling&P 12. 535–58. Searle, J.R. and D.Vanderveken. 1985. Foundations of illocutionary logic. Cambridge. A-Z 277 declarative sentence Sentence type whose primary purpose is to give information, as opposed to questions or imperatives. Declarative sentences can be assumed to have an underlying structure containing such verbs as say, assert, maintain: the sentence Prices are rising would be derived from I say to you that prices are rising. This sort of derivation is termed performative analysis. Basic word order in a language is generally determined from the word order of the unmarked declarative sentence. ( also imperative, interrogative, mood) Reference Ross, J.R. 1968. On declarative sentences. In R.A. Jacobs and P.S.Rosenbaum (eds), Readings in English transformational grammar, Waltham, MA, 1970. 222–72. declension [Lat. declinare ‘to change the direction of, to bend’] Type of inflection of nouns, articles, adjectives, numerals, and pronouns that varies according to case, gender, and number. The corresponding inflectional forms of a word constitute the declensional paradigms that are subsumed in declensional classes according to regularities and predictability or practicability. English has largely lost its declensional system, with vestiges apparent only in plural formation (e.g. books), the possessive case (e.g. Caroline’s), and object pronouns (e.g. him, her). Modern languages such as German and Russian have retained more complete declensional systems. ( also paradigm morphology) decoding (also language comprehension, speech recognition) Complementary process to encoding in which the hearer ‘deciphers’ the message encoded by the speaker and correspondingly assigns (conventionalized) meanings to the linguistic signs. Decoding, like encoding, occurs on all descriptive levels of language. Dictionary of language and linguistics 278 decompositum Term introduced by J.Grimm to denote compounds of more than two elements: bedroom lm si pow shespecially ngl geof sublangua ,the w fire nce rctsura gency emer s, adm ment ge ion.Reference rat st ni io eeed gnou adE pe.g. iSuch are and com limin litig bec c in Grimm, J. 1826. Deutsche Grammatik, vol. 3: Von der Wortbildung. Göttingen. (2nd edn. 1878; facsimile printing Hildesheim, 1967.) word formation deep case case grammar, thematic relation deep hypothesis Psycholinguistic hypothesis put forth by Yngve (1960) according to which the development and structure of natural language depends on the limited storage capacity of the short-term memory, which can store only a maximum of seven independent units of information (e.g. names, numbers) at once. On the basis of Yngve’s calculations it turns out that left-branching constructions and self-embedding constructions burden the memory more than right-branching constructions. Reference Yngve, V.H. 1960. A model and an hypothesis for language structures. PAPS 104. 444–66. A-Z 279 deep structure (also underlying structure) A term from transformational grammar, developed by N.Chomsky, to describe the underlying structure of a linguistic utterance. Deep structure specifies the grammatical relations and functions of the syntactic elements, as well as the linguistic meaning of the elements of a sentence which contain the lexemes, the information important for the execution of transformations. The idea of a difference between two levels of structure in language (deep structure vs surface structure) has a long and complex history and can be found in the writings of the Indian grammarian Pānini (fourth century BC), in the seventeenth-century grammar of Port Royal, and in the writings of Humboldt, Wittgenstein, and Hockett. In transformational grammar both structural levels can be represented by tree diagrams. In Chomsky’s (1965) aspects model, meaning-neutral transformations mediate between the basic tree structure of the deep structure and the derived tree structure of the surface structure, so that the syntactic structure can be interpreteted phonetically. This syntactically motivated concept began a great debate between the supporters of Chomsky and the advocates of generative semantics, who regarded the basic structure as semantic. In the various revisions of the standard theory, the level relevant for semantic interpretation was also changed, the structural information of the deep structure being encoded into the surface structure (now S-structure). In this way, the semantic information remains at S-structure, which has been the input for the semantic interpretation since the Revised Extended Standard Theory. ( also logical form) References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. ——1968. Language and mind. New York. ——1971. Deep structure, surface structure, and semantic interpretation. In D.D.Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics. London. 183–216. ——1992. A minimalist program for linguistic theory. Cambridge, MA. Hockett, C.F. 1958. A course in modern linguistics, New York. Lakoff, G. and J.R.Ross. 1968. Is deep structure necessary? Bloomington, IN. Postal, P.M. 1964. Constituent structure: a study of contemporary models of syntactic description. Bloomington, IN. transformational grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics default knowledge 280 default reasoning default reasoning (also default knowledge) In the framework of artificial intelligence, reasoning based on standard assumptions, frame, script). Default especially knowledge about typical objects and situations ( commonsense reasoning). reasoning is an essential element of everyday knowledge ( Among other purposes, default reasoning serves to make a cognitive system functional, by closing gaps in knowledge with the aid of such normality assumptions ( nonmonotonic logic). Such knowledge can be applied, for example, to resolve anaphoric or temporal relations in text comprehension. References Hunt, R. and J.Shelley. 1983. Computers and common sense. London. Reiter, R. 1980. A logic for default reasoning. AI 13. 81–132. defective Term referring to an element which in comparison to other representatives of its class is more limited in its grammatical use or distribution, e.g. certain adjectives which can only be used attributively, such as mere: The mere fact that …vs *The fact is mere. Apart from words, paradigms and distribution patterns that show ‘gaps’ can be termed as defective. A-Z deficit theory definiendum definiens definite clause 281 code theory definition definition definite clause grammar definite clause grammar (abbrev. DCG) Formalism used in computational linguistics that arose around 1980, as a development of logic programming, used to analyze (and also generate) sentences. Definite clause grammar, abbreviated DC G, is based on the metamorphosis grammar of A.Colmerauer, and is as powerful as the universal Turing machine. For the notation of grammatical regularities definite clause grammar uses a formalism similar to first-order predicate logic: the so-called ‘definite clauses.’ Declaratively interpreted, a set of definite clauses (just like a set of phrase structure rules) produces a description in the given language, while a procedural interpretation c an be used to analyze the wellformedness of sentences. In this, the procedure to recognize whether an input sentence is grammatical corresponds to the proof of a theorem in predicate logic, whereby a PROLOG translator ( interpreter) functions as a theorem prover. Definite clause grammars are executable PROLOG programs. The major significance of definite clause grammar is attributed to ‘unification’ ( unification grammar), which makes various things possible, such as checking congruences and constructing representations of syntactic and semantic structure. In this, definite clause grammars are not only recognizing automata, but also so-called transducers. ( also extraposition grammar) References Kowalski, R. 1974. Predicate logic as a programming language. Information Processing 74. 569– 74. McCord, M.C. 1982. Using slots and modifiers in logic grammars for natural language. AI 18. 327– 67. Dictionary of language and linguistics 282 Pereira, F.C.N. and D.H.D.Warren. 1980. Definite clause grammars for language analysis. AI 13. 231–78. Ramsay, A. 1989. Computer and syntactic description of language systems. In S.Bátorí et al. (eds), Computerlinguistik/Computational linguistics. Berlin and New York. 204–18. (definite) description Term used in formal logic that goes back to Frege (1892) and Russell (1905) and denotes expressions that describe certain objects with the aid of the definite article the and a predicate that applies to exactly one entity. For example, the property designated by the propositional form father (x, W.A.Mozart) applies exactly to only one person, namely to Leopold Mozart, who is designated by the definite description of the father of W.A.Mozart. Such definite descriptions, which are used to identify particular entities, are introduced in formal logic by means of the so-called iota operator ( operator2c). References Donnellan, K. 1966. Reference and definite description. PhR 75. 281–304. ——1970. Proper names and identifying descriptions. Synthese 21. 335–58. Frege, G. 1892. Über Sinn and Bedeutung. ZPhK (new series) 100.25–50. (Repr. in Kleine Schriften, ed. I.Angelelli. Darmstadt, 1967. 143–62.) Karttunen, L. 1971. Definite descriptions with cross-ing coreference: a study of the Bach-Peters Paradox. FL 7. 157–82. Kripke, S. 1972. Naming and necessity. In D.Davidson and G.Harman (eds), Semantics of natural language. Dordrecht. 253–355. Russell, B. 1905. On denoting. Mind 14. 479–93. Strawson, P.F. 1950. On referring. Mind 59. 320–44. definiteness In logic, a definite description designates an individual with a property that only he/she has. In more recent linguistic studies definiteness (through the influence of logic) is seen as the localization of a referent in a set of referents which is conveyed to the hearer by the situation ( deixis) as having been previously mentioned in the text or as previous knowledge (see Hawkins 1978). The definiteness of a noun phrase is denoted above all by determiners. Proper names are inherently definite, since they do not require further description by determiners; the definite article (e.g. in The Hague, the Thames) does not indicate any definiteness in proper names since Hague or Thames are never without it. proper noun) ( A-Z 283 References Chesterman, A. 1991. On definiteness: a study with special reference to English and Finnish. Cambridge. Diesling, M. 1992. Indefinites. Cambridge, MA. Donnellan, K. 1966. Reference and definite description. PhR 75. 281–304. Fodor, J.D. and I.Sag. 1982. Referential and quantificational indefinites. Ling&P 5. 355–98. Givón, T. 1978. Definiteness and referentiality. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. Vol. 4, 291–330. Hauenschild, C. 1993. Definitheit. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 988–97. Hawkins, J. 1978. Definiteness and indefiniteness. London. Heim, I. 1982. The semantics of definite and indefinite noun phrases. Constance. ——1991. Artikel und Definitheit. In D.Wunderlich et al. (eds), Semantik/Semantics: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. 487–534. Kramsky, J. 1972. The article and the concept of definiteness in language. The Hague and Paris. Kripke, S. 1972. Naming and necessity. In D.Davidson and G.Harman (eds), Semantics of natural language. Dordrecht. 253–355. Löbner, S. 1985. Definites. JoS 4.279–326. Milsark, G. 1974. Existential sentences in English. Dissertation, MIT. Reichenbach, H. 1947. Elements of symbolic logic. New York. Reuland, E.J. and G.B.ter Meulen (eds) 1987. The representation of (in)definiteness. (Fifth Groningen Round Table.) London and Cambridge, MA. Russell, B. 1905. On denoting. Mind 14.479–93. Safir, K. 1982. Syntactic chains and the Definiteness Effect. Dissertation, MIT. Vater, H. 1984. Determinantien und Quantoren im Deutschen. ZS 3. 19–42. Wright, S. and T.Givón. 1987. The pragmatics of indefinite reference: quantified text-based studies. SLang 11. 1–13. definition A statement about the content of a linguistic expression (ideally based on rules of formal logic). Viewed formally, every scientific definition is a relation of equivalence that consists of an unknown entity to be defined (=definiendum) and a known entity that is used to define (=definiens). The following types of definition and their respective rules of formation are relevant for linguistic and scientific descriptive methods. (a) Real definitions: the definition of an object or of a concrete concept by indicating the genus G (=genus proximum) and the specifying type trait T (=differentia specifica), e.g. A plosive is a consonant that is formed by stopping and releasing two articulators. In traditional logic general rules must be taken into consideration: a definition must encompass the essence of the concept being defined; it may be neither negative nor circular; the defining concepts G and T must be sufficiently clear and sharply delineated. (b) Operational (or genetic) definitions are a special type of real definition that indicate on the basis of which method a concept ‘emerges’ or is verifiable, e.g. the definition Constituents are syntactic units that can be permutated within a sentence ( operational procedures). (c) Dictionary of language and linguistics 284 Nominal definitions: in contrast to a real definitions, which have to do with objects and concrete characteristics, nominal definitions involve designating objects and abstract characteristics, i.e. names, concepts, or linguistic expressions. They are statements that represent a relation of synonymy between the definiens and the (initially meaningless) definiendum. A necessary condition for a concrete nominal definition is that the definiens and the definiendum are expressions of the same category. In particular, variables not found in the definiendum must not be found in the definiens. Explicit definitions are those definitions in which the definiendum next to the sign being defined only contains variables but not already defined logical symbols and the like. Such explicit definitions have the character of abbreviations, i.e. a complex state of affairs is denoted by an abbreviation. With this, the demand for the eliminability of the defined expressions is simultaneously taken into account, i.e. the reducibility of all statements to the basic concept and the axioms. (d) Inductive definitions serve to characterize a class that, as a rule, has an infinite number of objects, by means of a set B of basic elements and a number of linking rules or operations. In grammar theory the set of well-formed (=grammatical) expressions of a language L is typically defined inductively. So, for example, the inductive definition of a well-formed expression (abbreviated ‘WFE’) in propositional logic L reads: (i) every propositional variable A is a WFE of L; (ii) if E is an expression of language L, then not-E is an expression of L; (iii) if E1 and E2 are expressions of L, then E1 E2, E1 E2, E1→ E2, E1↔E2 are also expressions of L; (iv) no expression in L is a WFE, unless it is generated by (i), (ii), or (iii); (v) recursive recursive rules); (vi) for extensional vs intensional definitions definitions ( extension, intension. References Bierwisch, M. and M.Kiefer, 1969. Remarks on definition in natural language. In F.Kiefer (ed.), Studies in syntax and semantics. Dordrecht. 55–79. Borsodi, R. 1967. The definition of definition: a new linguistic approach to the integration of knowledge. Boston, MA. Haas, W. 1955. On defining linguistic units. TPS 1954. 54–84. Kutschera, F.V. and A.Breitkopf. 1971. Einführung in die moderne Logik. Freiburg. Robinson, R. 1954. Definition. Oxford. Schnelle, H. 1973. Sprachphilosophie und Linguistik: Prinzipien der Sprachanalyse a priori und a posteriori. Reinbek. Bibliography Petöfi, J.S. (ed.) 1978. Logic and the formal theory of natural language: selective bibliography. Hamburg. A-Z 285 deglutination aphesis degree (also comparison, gradation) All constructions which express a comparison properly fall under the category of degree; it generally refers to a morphological category of adjectives and adverbs that indicates a comparative degree or comparison to some quantity. There are three levels of degree: (a) positive, or basic level of degree: The hamburgers tasted good; (b) comparative, which marks an inequality of two states of affairs relative to a certain characteristic: The steaks were better than the hamburgers; (c) superlative, which marks the highest degree of some quantity: The potato salad was the best of all; (d) cf. elative (absolute superlative), which marks a very high degree of some property without comparison to some other state of affairs: The performance was most impressive ( equative). Degree is not grammaticalized in all languages through the use of systematic morphological changes; where such formal means are not present, lexical paraphrases are used to mark gradation. In modern Indo-European languages, degree is expressed either (a) synthetically by means of suffixation (new: newer: (the) newest); (b) analytically by means of particles (anxious’. more/most anxious); or (c) through suppletion ( suppletivism), i.e. the use of different word stems: good: better: (the) best. References Hellan, L. 1981. Towards an integrated analysis of comparatives. Tübingen. Klein, E. 1980. A semantics for positive and comparative adjectives. Ling&P 4. 1–45. Pinkham, C. 1982. The formation of comparative classes. Dissertation, Bloomington, IN. Stassen, L. 1985. Comparison and universal grammar. Oxford. Von Stechow, A. 1984. Comparing semantic theories of comparison. JoS 3. 1–77. deictic expression [Grk deiknýnai ‘to show’] (also indexical expression) Term adopted by C.S. Peirce from formal logic for linguistic expressions that refer to the personal, temporal, or spatial aspect of any given utterance act and whose designation is therefore dependent on the context of the speech situation. Among the many different kinds of deictic expressions are the personal pronouns (I, you, etc.), adverbial expressions (here, there, etc.), and the demonstrative pronouns (this, that, etc.). In contrast to proper names ( proper nouns) and definite descriptions, which refer to real objects and Dictionary of language and linguistics 286 states of affairs independent of their context, deictic expressions denote other linguistic signs in a given text or extralinguistic elements in a given speech situation. Among several near-synonymous terms are Russell’s (1940) ‘egocentric particular,’ Bar-Hillel’s (1954) ‘indexical expression,’ Jespersen’s (1923) ‘shifter,’ and Reichenbach’s (1947) ‘token reflexive word.’ References Bar-Hillel, Y. 1954. Indexical expressions. Mind. 63. 359–76. Jespersen, O. 1923. Language: its nature, development and origin. New York. Reichenbach, H. 1947. Elements of symbolic logic. New York. Russell, B. 1940. An inquiry into meaning and truth. London. deixis, pragmatics deixis 1 Act of pointing out or indicating elements of a situation by gesture or linguistic also anaphora) expressions. ( 2 Characteristic function of linguistic expressions that relate to the personal, spatial, and temporal aspect of utterances depending upon the given utterance situation ( deictic expression). In this regard, one speaks of personal deixis, spatial deixis, and temporal deixis. Deictic expressions may also refer to other linguistic signs within a given text ( anaphora, quotative, textual reference). Putnam (1975) has shown that natural languages possess a deictic component. Deixis acts as a link between semantics and pragmatics to the extent that deictic expressions can only be determined within the context of the actual speech situation. Thus, the statements I am hungry, It’s muggy here, There’s a full moon today cannot be assigned truth value out of context, since their interpretation will always depend upon by whom, when, and where they were uttered. The study of deixis in linguistic expressions, which can be traced back to ancient times, has been of major interest to Indo-European linguistics, especially as it concerns the question of the origin of language (see Brugmann 1904). Pragmatics has shown a renewed interest in Bühler’s (1934) statements on the so-called ‘indexical field’ ( index field of language). According to Lyons (1977), deixis is a central linguistic concept ( localist hypothesis). In more recent models of grammar, the description of deixis is a matter of either semantics or pragmatics, depending on the theory in question. References Bragmann, K. 1904. Die Demonstrativpronomina der indogermanischen Sprachen, eine bedeutungsgeschichtliche Untersuchung. Sächsische Abhandlungen 22:6. Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart, 1965.) A-Z 287 Innis, R.E. (trans.) 1982. Karl Bühler: semiotic foundations of language theory. In T.A.Sebeok and J.Umiker-Sebeok (eds), Topics in contemporary semiotics. New York. Jarvella, R. and W.Klein (eds) 1982. Speech, place, and action. Chichester. Kleiber, G. 1981. Problèmes de reference: descriptions définies et noms propres. Paris. Lyons, J. 1975. Deixis as the source of reference. In E.Keenan (ed.), Formal semantics of natural language. Cambridge. 61–83. ——1977. Semantics, 2 vols. Cambridge. Perkins, R.D. 1992. Deixis, grammar and culture. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Putnam, H. 1975. The meaning of meaning. In K. Gunderson (ed.), Language, mind, and knowledge. Minneapolis, MN. 131–93. Rauh, G. (ed.) 1983. Essays on deixis. Tübingen. Schwarz, M. and J.Chur. 1993. Semantik: ein Arbeitsbuch. Tübingen. Weissenborn, J. and W.Klein (eds) 1982. Here and there: cross-linguistic studies on deixis and demonstration. Amsterdam. Wunderlich, D. 1971. Pragmatik, Sprechsituation und Deixis. Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik 1. 153–90. anaphora, deictic expression, pragmatics, reference, topology delabialization unrounding deletion An elementary syntactic operation in transformational grammar. Certain elements are deleted from a phrase or sentence on the way from deep structure to surface structure. The basic condition for the use of deletion transformations is recoverability of the deleted elements. For example, recoverability is guaranteed in gapping, where the deletion occurs under specific conditions of identity with the retained categorical element: for example, Philip plays the flute, and Caroline plays the piano Philip plays the flute and Caroline the piano. In the Revised Extended Standard Theory ( transformational grammar), deletion rules operate according to transformational rules ( transformation). References constraints, operational procedures, transformational grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics delimitative 288 resultative delimitative function boundary marker demarcative feature boundary marker demonstrative pronoun Syntactic category, subgroup of determiners with the semantic function of referring to things either in the speech situation (deixis) or previously mentioned (anaphora). In most Indo-European languages there are two parallel series for indicating distant vs proximate (i.e. ‘near’ vs ‘far’), e.g. Eng. this: that, Ger. dìeser : jener, Fr. celui-ci: celuilà, Lat. hic: ille. References Kleiber, G. 1984. Sur la sémantique des descriptions démonstratives. LIS 8. 63–85. definiteness, deictic expression, deixis Demotic Egyptian, Greek denominal Words derived from nouns, e.g. (to) hammer (< hammer). A-Z 289 References word formation denotation [Lat. denotare ‘to mark, to indicate, to mean’] 1 Denotation vs connotation: denotation refers to the constant, abstract, and basic meaning of a linguistic expression independent of context and situation, as opposed to the connotative, i.e. subjectively variable, emotive components of meaning. Thus, the denotation of night can be described as the ‘period of time from sunset to the following sunrise,’ while the connotation may include such components as ‘scary,’ ‘lonely,’ or ‘romantic.’ 2 Denotation as reference (also designation): when a lexeme ‘denotes’ a particular object or state of affairs, it does so in the sense of an extensional reference ( intension), which refers to characteristics, traits, or extension). Intensional meaning ( features, is distinguished from extensional meaning. 3 Denotation vs designation: following the second definition above, denotation refers to individual elements (e.g. bluegill, pike, trout), whereas by designation, one understands the reference to classes of elements (e.g. freshwater fish). In unique objects (e.g. sun, God) the distinction is more or less moot, since the identity of element and set is one and the same. References meaning, semantics denotatum 1 Generally, any object in reality that is denoted by a sign. 2 Denotatum vs designatum: the denotatum of a linguistic expression (e.g. poets) denotes the single elements of the class, e.g. Shakespeare, Goethe, etc., whereas ‘designatum’ refers to the class as such ( extension). Dictionary of language and linguistics 290 References meaning, semantics dental [Lat. dens ‘tooth’] Speech sound having the upper incisors as the place of articulation, in the broader sense including labio-dental and interdental sounds. In many languages, dental consonants would include ; in most varieties of English, however, the also articulator, articulatory corresponding sounds are alveolar [n, t, d, s, z, l]. ( phonetics, phonetic transcription) References phonetics deontic logic [Grk déon ‘that which is needful, right’] Special type of a philosophical logic that, in addition to logical expressions such as logical particles ( logical connective) (and, or, and others) and operators in formal logic, also introduces operators into the semantic analysis for expressions such as ‘obligation,’ ‘permission,’ and ‘prohibition.’ References Hilpinen, R. (ed.) 1971. Deontic logic: introductory and systematic readings. Dordrecht. Hintikka, J. 1969. Deontic logic and its philosophical morals. In Models for modalities. Dordrecht. 184–214. Meyer, J.-J. Ch. 1989. Using programming concepts in deontic reasoning. In R.Bartsch et al. (eds), Semantics and contextual expression. Dordrecht. 117–45. Rescher, N. (ed.) 1965. The logic of decision and action. Pittsburgh, PA. Wright, G.H.V. 1963. Norm and action. London A-Z 291 Bibliography Petöfi, J.S. (ed.) 1978. Logic and the formal theory of natural language: selective bibliography. Hamburg. deontics deontic logic depalatalization palatalization dependency Syntactic relation of dependence between an element A and an element B, where B can occur without A, but A (the dependent element) cannot occur without B. Thus dependency can be defined as a directional case of concomitance ( collocation). In English some examples of dependency include dependency between adjective and noun ((loud) applause) and between adjective and adverb ((very) loud applause). Dependency as a grammatical relation forms the basis of Tesnière’s dependency grammar. For contrast, see the basic relation of constituency (domination) in constituent grammar. References dependency grammar dependency grammar Syntactic model of natural languages developed by Tesnière (1953, 1959), based on structuralism. Important contributions to this theory were made by Gaifman (1961), Hays (1964). For another direction of dependency grammar, cf. ‘daughter dependency grammar’ (Hudson 1976; Schachter 1980) and ‘word grammar’ (Hudson 1984). The main concern of dependency grammar is the description of dependency structures of sentences, i.e. the structure of dependency relations between the elements of a sentence. In this it is assumed that in a syntactic connection between two elements one is the Dictionary of language and linguistics 292 governing and the other the dependent element. When a governing element is dependent on another governing element, a complex hierarchical dependency order results. Dependency grammar represents these structures with tree diagrams whose central node represents the absolute governer of a linguistic structure (in sentences this is the verb). The dependency relationship to an immediately dependent element is shown by a line to a lower node. The dependency structure of the sentence The goat likes the hay very much is represented by the structure below. The lines symbolize the categorization of linguistic expressions. In this analysis the verb governs two nominal elements and one adverbial element; each noun governs an article; the adverb much governs the adverb very. In addition to the connection, the dependency relation between two elements, the relationship of junction and of translation, is considered as well. Conjunction includes co-ordination as in Philip and Caroline study linguistics; translations describe the case where some particles (translatives) change the syntactic category of an expression and thus allow its connection to the next higher governer: for example, the noun glory in days of glory can become an attribute only with the help of the translative of, when it can be governed by days. Dependency grammar contributed greatly to the development of valence theory. The valence of a verb (its property of requiring certain elements in a sentence) determines the structure of the sentence it occurs in. Tesnière distinguishes between actants, which are required by the valence of the verb, and circonstants which are optional. In the sentence given above, The goat likes the hay very much, the goat and the hay are two actants and very much is a circonstant of the verb like. Diagrams give no indications of the constituent structure of a sentence. Thus, for example, it cannot be gleaned from the diagram below that the goat or likes the hay very much have been joined into more complex units (subject and complex predicate). Although the relationship between dependency structure and serialization ( word order) was already investigated by centrifugal vs centripetal), the diagrams do not take the linear order of the Tesnière ( sentence elements into account. More recent investigations attempt to explain the constituency (Hudson 1976) as well as the serialization of sentences (Heringer et al. 1980) by introducing additional descriptive tools. The descriptive capacity of dependency grammar can also be enhanced by the addition of transformations (Robinson 1970). Although dependency grammar, in the spirit of structuralism, defends the autonomy of syntax, sentence-semantic considerations are also included in its framework. Tesnière assumes that each syntactic connection corresponds to a semantic relation, and in this context he introduces the term nucleus. References Gaifman, H. 1961. Dependency systems and phrase structure systems. Santa Monica, CA. Hays, D.G. 1964. Dependency theory: a formalism and some observations. Lg 40. 511–25. Heringer, H.J. et al. 1980. Syntax: Fragen—Lösun-gen—Alternativen. Munich. Hudson, R. 1976. Arguments for a non-transformational grammar. Chicago, IL. ——1990. English word grammar. Oxford. Mel’čuk, J.A. 1988. Dependency syntax: Theory and practice. Albany, NY. Robinson, J.J. 1970. Dependency structures and transformational rules. Lg 46. 259–85. A-Z 293 Schachter, P. 1980. Daughter-dependency grammar. In E.Moravcsik and J.R.Wirth (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 13: Current approaches to syntax. New York. 267–99. Tarvainen, K. 1981. Einführung in die Dependenzgrammatik. Tübingen. Tesnière, L. 1953. Esquisse d’une syntaxe structurale. Paris. ——1959. Elements de syntaxe structurale. Paris. Vennemann, T. 1977. Konstituenz und Dependenz in einigen neueren Grammatiktheorien. Sprachwissenschaft 1. 259–301. Bibliographies Hays, D.G. 1965. An annotated bibliography of publications on dependency theory. Santa Monica, CA. Schumacher, H. and N.Trautz. 1976. Bibliographie zur Valenz und Dependenz. In H.Schumacher (ed.), Untersuchungen zur Verbvalenz. Tübingen. 317–43. dependency phonology A phonological ( phonology) model developed by J.Anderson which derives the entire phonological description from the dependency relationships between phonological units. ( also accent, distinctive feature, syllable) References Anderson, J.M. and C.J.Ewen. 1987a. Principles of dependency phonology. Cambridge. ——(eds) 1987b. Explorations in dependency phonology. Dordrecht. Anderson, J.M. and C.Jones. 1974. Three theses concerning phonological representations. JL 10. 1– 26. Durand, J. 1986. Dependency and non-linear phonology. London. Ewen, C.J. 1977. Aitkin’s Law and the phonatory gesture in dependency phonology. Lingua 41. 307–29. ——1980. Aspects of phonological structure, with particular reference to English and Dutch. Dissertation, University of Edinburgh. Dictionary of language and linguistics dependent clause 294 subordinate clause deponent verb [Lat. deponere ‘to put down, abandon’] Group of verbs in Latin which only occur in the passive form but have ‘given up’ (lit. ‘deposed’) their passive meaning and have only active meaning: hortari ‘exhort,’ loqui ‘talk,’ pati ‘suffer.’ Deponent verbs are remnants of the middle voice, which is preserved in Greek. derivation 1 In transformational grammar, the process and result of deriving sentences through the use of successive transformations or phrase structure rules. 2 In historical linguistics, the reconstruction of etymological relationships that exist, for example, between Eng. father and Lat. pater. ( also etymology, language change) 3 Process and result of word formation in which new words are created from already existing words through various processes. Derivation is generally distinguished from inflection, which encompasses changes in a word according to its relation to other words in an utterance and consists of declension and conjugation. Derivation covers various processes of word formation, such as the creation of adjectives from nouns (professional<profession), nouns from verbs (computer<compute), adjectives from verbs (conceivable< conceive), and verbs from nouns (eulogize< eulogy). A distinction is drawn between explicit derivation, in which new words are created through the addition of prefixes ( prefixation) and suffixes ( suffixation) to word roots, e.g. common>uncommon, stupid> stupidity or through (diachronic) sound changes (also: inner derivation), sing vs song, and implicit derivation, in which new words are created either as back formations (televise< television) or as conversion2 into another lexical category ((to) calm<calm). Depending on the word class, one speaks of deverbatives (teacher<teach), denominals (fruity<fruit), or deadjectivals (wetness<wet). Similarly, particular suffixes form semantic classes; for example, -ness, -ship, and -dom generally form abstract nouns, -er nomen agentis, -let and -y diminutives, and -ess feminine nouns ( also composition). A-Z 295 References Alsina, A. and S.Mchombo. 1990. The syntax of applicatives in Chichewa: problems for a theta theoretic asymmetry. NL&LT 6. 493–506. Aronoff, M. 1976. Word formation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. Baker, M. 1998a. Incorporation: a theory of grammatical functional changing. Chicago. ——1988b. Theta theory and the syntax of applicatives in Chichewa. NL&LT 6. 353–89. Bierwisch, M. 1989. Event nominalizations. In W. Motsch (ed.), Wortstruktur und Satzstruktur. Berlin. 1–73. Di Sciullo, A.M. and E.Williams. 1987. On the definition of word. Cambridge, MA. Selkirk, E. 1982. Syntax of words. Cambridge, MA. word formation derivational history In transformational grammar, the group of all derivational paths of a sentence which arise through the successive application of phrase structure rules and transformations, and which bring a sentence from deep structure to surface structure. The levels of the derivational history can be illustrated by listing the derived chains or by reconstructing the corresponding tree diagrams for each derivational path. References transformational grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics description descriptive adequacy 296 set levels of adequacy descriptive grammar descriptive linguistics descriptive linguistics 1 In its narrower sense, a term for the approaches in American structuralism represented by L.Bloomfield, Z.S.Harris, H.A. Gleason, and others, in which the label synchrony vs diachrony) ‘descriptive’ accentuates various aspects: (a) synchronic ( linguistics in the sense of de Saussure (1916), i.e. without reference to historical contexts; (b) description of individual languages through generalization from corpus analysis (e.g. F. Boas’ procedures in the investigation of Native American languages), as opposed to the construction of universal grammars; (c) empirical, positivistic procedures ( empiricism), i.e. observationally based objective inventory with distributional analysis ( distributionalism). ( also structuralism) References Saussure, F. de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C.Bally and A.Sechehaye. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) linguistics (history) 2 (also descriptive grammar. In its broader sense, any type of non-prescriptive or nonnormative description of different linguistic varieties, which codifies regularities according to use. ( prescriptive grammar) A-Z 297 descriptivity Tendency in some languages, especially in polysynthetic languages ( polysynthesis) of the Americas, to use highly descriptive terms for names or objects, cf. Iroquoian (Oneida) skahnaks ‘fox,’ literally ‘the one who is bad in reference to his fur.’ ( also incorporating language) designation [Lat. designare ‘to mark, to indicate’] denotation2 2 extension 3 In glossematics, the relation between (linguistic) form and the (extralinguistic) substance on the semantic level. 1 designator In C.W.Morris’ theory of signs (semiotics), signs which refer to observable characteristics of objects in the real world. If the receiver of a sign is convinced that the intended state of affairs actually possesses the characteristics ascribed to it by the designator, then—even if this is actually not the case—informative adequacy has been attained. Reference Morris, C.W. 1946. Sign, language and behavior. New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics designatum 298 denotatum2, referent determination 1 The syntactic-semantic relation between two linguistic elements whereby one element complementation modifies the other, as does scientific in scientific book. ( modification) 2 In glossematics, a term for dependency, i.e. unilateral dependency between two linguistic elements such that one element is a prerequisite for the other, but not vice versa. For example, the relationship between adjectives and adverbs. determinative compound (also endocentric compound) The most frequent type of noun compound in which the second element (the base word) is semantically determined by the first element: coffeehouse, dance hall. The grammatical relations between the individual elements within the compound are largely dissolved, the order of the elements alone determines the inter-pretation: piano player is a player, but a player piano is a piano. In the interpretation of (potentially ambiguous) semantic relations between first and second elements, perceptual categories like appearance, size, function, make-up, among others have a determinative function, cf. Gold Coast (place), gold sand (element), gold chain (composition), gold scale (function), gold finch (comparison). In more recent studies on composition these semantic relations are described on the basis of stereotypes2. References composition, stereotype2, word formation determiner Category of words that specify a noun more closely. In English these include articles, demonstrative pronouns, and other words which previously were grouped with A-Z 299 pronouns. The precise definition of this class ‘of words is still somewhat problematic (see Vater 1986). While determiners were previously seen as constituents of a noun phrase (i.e. co-constituents of N), in binding theory they are now seen as realizations of a functional category D which has a determiner phrase (DP) as a maximal projection and is the bearer of the grammatical features of the DP (person, case, gender, number). Determiners specify the accompanying N semantically and restrict its reference. Thus the determiner makes the N explicit, that is, it makes it ‘known’ through the context, hearer knowledge, or reference to the speech situation (see Hawkins 1978). The word this functions in a similar fashion, but it is limited to deixis (reference to speech situations) and anaphora (reference to something already mentioned in the speech context), and cannot refer to knowledge of the world. Thus it can replace the in I see a village. The/this village is picturesque but not the in I see a village. The/*this church is very picturesque. References Bisle-Müller, H. 1991. Artikelwörter im Deutschen: semantische und pragmatische Aspekte ihrer Ver-wendung. Tübingen. Hawkins, J.A. 1978. Definiteness and indefiniteness: a study in reference and grammaticality prediction. London. Heim, I. 1982. The semantics of definite and indefinite noun phrases. Constance. ——1991. Artikel und Definitheit. In D.Wunderlich et al. (eds), Semantik/Semantics: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. 487–534. Kasher, A. and D.M.Gabbay. 1976. On the semantics and pragmatics of specific and nonspecific indefinite expression. TL 3. 245–90. Kolde, G. 1989. Der Artikel in deutschen Sachverhaltsnominalen. Tübingen. Kramsky, J. 1968. Some ways of expressing the category of determinedness. TLP 3. 241–53. Löbner, S. Definites. JoS 4. 279–326. Van der Auwera, J. 1980. The semantics of determiners. London. Vater, H. 1984. Determiners and quantifiers. Kwartalnik neofilologiczny 31. 305–22. ——1986. Zur Syntax der Determinantien. Tübingen. ——1994. Determination and quantification. In V.Koseka and D.Rytel-Kuc (eds), Semantics and confrontation of languages. Warsaw. determiner phrase (abbrev. DP) Grammatical category (or phrase) which in recent Government and Binding theory is defined as the maximal projection of a functional category D under which the agreement features AGR of the DP (case, gender, number, person) are positioned. A noun phrase (NP) is, in this interpretation, a complement of D, the AGR features of D being passed on to the complement NP by percolation ( percolate). AGR can be realized as a determiner ending, but also as an adjective ending. For example, the word the in the big tree forms the core of the DP, with big tree as its complement. The Dposition can be realized lexically by a determiner or can contain the feature [POSS] Dictionary of language and linguistics 300 (according to Olsen 1991), which gives the specifier-position of the DP the genitive case. Pronouns are Pro-DPs (i.e. intransitive D-elements), since they compose an entire DP. also definiteness) ( References Abney, S.P. 1987. The English noun phrase and its sentential aspect. Dissertation, MIT. Felix, S. 1988. The structure of functional categories. Ms, University of Passau. Olsen, S. 1991. Die deutsche Nominalphrase als ‘Determinansphrase’. In S.Olsen and G.Fanselow (eds), DET, COMP und INFL: zur Syntax funktionaler Kategorien und grammatischer Funktionen. Tübingen. 35–56. determinism Devanāgarī linguistic determinism Hindi-Urdu, Panjabi, Sanskrit developmental aphasia (also childhood aphasia, dysphasia) In neurolinguistics and speech-language pathology, term used in the 1950s and 1960s for specific language impairment in children, contrasting ‘developmental aphasia,’ a congenital disorder, with aphasia. an acquired disorder. ( also developmental dysphasia) References Eisensen, J. 1968. Developmental aphasia (dyslogia): a postulation of a unitary concept of the disorder. Cortex 4. 184–200. Mykleburst, H.R. 1957. Childhood aphasia: an evolving concept. In L.Travis (ed.), Handbook of speech pathology and audiology. New York. 1181–202. (2nd edn 1971). specific language impairment A-Z 301 developmental apraxia apraxia developmental dyslexia (also dyslexia) A subclass of learning disabilities, this term denotes reading and writing disorders in children of at least average intelligence. Debates over causal factors began in the 1960s and still continue, with researchers variously emphasizing (a) perceptual impairments, (b) linguistic impairments, or (c) cognitive disorders in, for example, attention and memory. Developmental dyslexia is often associated with behavior problems which may further impede learning. While sociocultural circumstances may hinder literacy, such difficulties are not generally considered dyslexia. ( also developmental language disorder) References Bakker, D. et al. (eds) 1987. Developmental dyslexia and learning disorders. Basle. Firth, U. (ed.) 1980. Cognitive processes in spelling. London. Grimm, H. and H.Skowronek. 1993. Language acquisition problems and reading disorders: aspects of diagnosis and intervention. Berlin and New York. Hume, C. and M.Snowling. 1993. Developmental dyslexia and cognitive processes. In G.Blanken et al. (eds), Linguistic disorders and pathologies: an international handbook. Berlin and New York. 733–41. Kavanagh, J.F. and R.L.Venetzky (eds) 1980. Orthography, reading and dyslexia. Baltimore, MD. Pavlidis, G. and D.Fisher. 1986. Dyslexia: its neuropsychology and treatment. Chichester. Perlin, P. 1982. Spelling strategies in good and poor readers. APsy 3. 1–14. Snowling, M. 1987. Dyslexia: a cognitive devel-opmental perspective. London. ——1991. Developmental reading disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 32. 49– 77. Snowling, M. and C.Hume. 1993. Developmental dyslexia and language disorders. In G.Blanken et al. (eds), Linguistic disorders and pathologies: an international handbook. Berlin and New York. 724–33. Thomson, M.E. 1984. Developmental dyslexia: its nature, assessment and remediation. London. Vellutino, F.R. 1979. Dyslexia: theory and research. Cambridge. Wimmer, H. 1993. Characteristics of developmental dyslexia in a regular writing system. APsy 14. 1–33. developmental dysphasia An older term for specific language impairment, developmental dysphasia refers to the selective impairment of children’s ability to acquire language. Dictionary of language and linguistics 302 References also developmental language disorder, specific language impairment. developmental language disorder Refers broadly to any pattern of delay or impairment in a child’s first language acquisition and may be caused by neural or emotional trauma during the language acquisition period, but more usually implies a causal agent present before language learning begins. Significant language disorders are found in children with mental retardation, specific language impairment, or autism, as well as in children with impaired hearing or vision. Such disorders entail the delayed onset of speech and certain characteristic patterns of atypical language development and use, which may persist throughout life. When the disorder occurs after the onset of language, there may be virtual recovery due to neural plasticity during the childhood years. The extent of recovery depends upon the nature and severity of the trauma and the degree to which language specialization ( lateralization) has already occurred. Developmental language disorders may affect the ability to understand spoken or written language just as much as the ability to speak or write ( developmental dyslexia), and are frequently associated with articulatory impairments ( phonological disorder, dyslalia) and/or cluttering). Research in developmental language impairments in speech rhythm ( disorders is pursued within the disciplines of psychiatry, neurology, psycholinguistics, developmental psychology, and neurolinguistics, often with the intent of illuminating normal acquisition processes by studying the dissociations which mark these clinical syndromes. Professionals within speech-language pathology, clinical linguistics, and neuropsychology are concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of developmental language disorders and with research on these topics. References Aram, D. and J.Nation. 1982. Child language disorders. St Louis, MO. Ball, M.J. 1988. Theoretical linguistics and disordered language. London. Beitchman, J.H. and A.Inglis. 1991. The continuum of linguistic dysfunction from pervasive developmental disorders to dyslexia. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 14. 95–111. Benthal, J. and N.W.Bankson. 1988. Articulation and phonological disorders, 2nd rev. edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Bishop, D. and K.Mogford (eds) 1988. Language development in exceptional circumstances. Edinburgh. Cantwell, D.P. and L.Baker. 1988. Developmental speech and language disorders. Hillside, NJ. Grunwell, P. 1987. Clinical phonology. London. Johnston, J.R. 1993. Definition and diagnosis of language developmental disorders. In G.Blanken et al (eds), Linguistic disorders and pathologies: an international handbook. Berlin and New York. 574–84. A-Z 303 Lahey, M. 1988. Language disorders and language development. New York. Landau, B. and L.Gleitman. 1985. Language and experience. Cambridge, MA. Mills, A. (ed.) 1983. Language acquisition in the blind child. London. Nelson, N. 1993. Childhood language disorders in context: infancy through adulthood. New York. Nicolosi, L. et al. 1983. Terminology of communication disorder, 2nd edn. Baltimore, MD. Obler, L. and L.Menn (eds) 1982. Linguistics and exceptional language. New York. Rosenberg, S. (ed.) 1987. Advances in applied psycholinguistics: disorders of first-language development. Cambridge. Journals British Journal of Disorders of Communication. Journal of Communication Duisorders. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research. Topics in Language Disorders. Topics in Learning and Learning Disabilities. deverbative Words derived from verbs, such as equipment (<equip) and readable (<read). ( word formation) also References word formation deviance deviation deviation (also deviance) Property of expressions in a natural language which do not agree either explicitly or implicitly with compatible linguistic agreements ( linguistic norms) or with linguistic descriptions ( rule). Deviation can be manifested at the phonetic, phonological, morphological, syntactic, or semantic level. Syntactic-semantic deviations can vary in Dictionary of language and linguistics 304 type, and may be a violation of: (a) the combination of syntactic categories: *Philip can wall; (b) strict subcategorization: *Caroline snores the owl; (c) selection restrictions: *The rock looms over the mountain. The term is also frequently used to describe semantic and pragmatic discrepancies, e.g. the American monarchy. metaphor for forms of deviation with a poetic and stylistic function. References acceptability, grammaticality, linguistic norms dia Prefix derived from Grk diá- (‘through; apart; between; one with another’). Used in linguistic terminology, dia- often denotes the idea of variety or heterogeneity as in diaphasic, diasituative, diastratic, diatopic, which are terms for linguistic conditions differentiated by time, situation, social class, and space, respectively. As a further example, while sociolects are diastratic varieties of language, dialects are diatopical varieties. ( also diachrony, diasystem) diachronic linguistics [Grk chrónos ‘time’] Systematic description and elucidation of all linguistic changes through time (internal historical linguistics) with regard to external facts such as political history, cultural influences, social change, territorial changes, language contact (external historical linguistics) among others ( language change) ( also historical linguistics). References comparative linguistics, historical grammars, historical linguistics, language change, synchrony vs diachrony A-Z 305 diachrony A term introduced by F.de Saussure for the type of historical linguistics conducted nearly exclusively by the Neogrammarians in the nineteenth century, whose atomistic procedure (e.g. study of the development of single sounds or forms without regard to the systemic character of language) was vigorously attacked by de Saussure. In the dichotomy synchrony vs diachrony, diachrony is accorded a subordinate function; at the most it is regarded as complementary to synchronic study. The generally ahistorical, purely descriptive linguistics carried out by the structuralist stream of research largely adopted this view. It is only since the 1960s that problems of language change have moved into the general focus of research again. References historical linguistics, language change, synchrony vs diachrony diacritic [Grk diakritikós ‘separative, distinguishing’] A graphemic addition to a written symbol used to create a new symbol from a preexisting symbol. Economically, diacritics help keep the inventory of basic phonetic signs as small and as comprehensive as possible: for example, in German the diaeresis is used to distinguish between ä, ö, ü for [ε], [ø], and [y] vs a, o, u for [a], [o], and [u]. In the IPA ( phonetic transcription), a little circle set below or above a letter distinguishes , , vs between voiceless and voiced consonants (e.g. voiceless /b/, /d/, /g/ as voiced /b/, /d/, /g/ as [b], [d], [g]). In syllabic writing, where there are basic signs with standardized voicing, diacritics can be used to indicate the rest of the voicings (e.g. o in Siamese, a in Hindu writings). Here are some examples with the Roman alphabet as the basis for new symbols: ā for [a:] in Latvian; ă for in Rumanian; å for [o] in Swedish; in Spanish, ø for [ø] in Norwegian; è for [ε] in á for [aυ] in Icelandic; ñ, Ñ for , respectively, in Igbo. Up to 1976, modern Greek writing French; and o for [ŋ] or was oriented towards ancient Greek such that there were numerous (and virtually superfluous) diacritics. There are also various diacritics in Hebrew as well as in the different orthographies of the Semitic languages. In Indonesian a superscript 2 can indicate reduplication: orang2 for orang-orang (‘persons’) vs orang (‘person’). Diacritics are also used to indicate that the symbol refers to a number as opposed to a sound, e.g. Grk ε’ for 5 vs ε for /e/. ( also acute accent, cedilla, circumflex, diaeresis, grave accent, tilde) Dictionary of language and linguistics 306 References writing diaeresis 1 Separation of two adjacent vowels ( hiatus), dividing one syllable into two, e.g. Eng. i.de.al or Fr. ou.vri.er. This is often accomplished through insertion of a glottal stop or glide. ( also epenthesis, language change, phonology) 2 (also trema). A diacritic ‹¨› used over a Latin, Greek, or Cyrillic letter (a) to indicate the second of two adjacent vowels belonging to distinct syllables (e.g. French naïve [ois] ‘sheep’), (b) to indicate vowel mutation ( umlaut) (e.g. ‘naive’ or Greek Ger. schön ‘pretty’), (c) to indicate alternate pronunciations of syllables (e.g. Spanish güi- [gwi] in lingüística vs -gui- [gi] in guitarra); (d) in Russian to distinguish a regressively palatalized stressed [‘o] vs a palatal [e,] (usually unmarked in writing), i.e. ë vs e. diahyponymy [Grk hypó- ‘under,’ ónyma ‘name’] Paradigmatic semantic relation and special type of hyponymy: two linguistic expressions are in a relation of diahyponymy if they can be distinguished as hyponyms ( hyponymy) from other subordinate terms by a common feature. Thus, in the semantic field of ‘kinship relationships’ ( kinship term) the expressions mother, daughter, and sister are differentiated by the feature [direct relationship] from the expressions aunt and niece or by the feature [female] from father, son, and brother. References hyponymy, semantic relation A-Z 307 dialect [Grk diálektos ‘common language’] A linguistic system (in the sense of langue ( langue vs parole)) that (a) shows a high degree of similarity to other systems so that at least partial mutual intelligibility is possible; (b) is tied to a specific region in such a way that the regional distribution of the system does not overlap with an area covered by another such system; (c) does not have a written or standardized form, i.e. does not have officially standardized orthographic and grammatical rules. Apart from this narrow definition which describes, for example, the situation in Britain, the term ‘dialect’ is used by linguists in various other senses. Note, for example, the broader use of ‘dialects’ to refer to the various languages that stem from a single ancestral language, such as the ‘Romance dialects’ from Latin. In the investigation of the conditions and the origin of the dialectal structure ( dialectology), dialects must be defined as individual languages in which extralinguistic aspects like topography (mountains and rivers as natural borders), trade routes, and political and religious centers are taken into account alongside strictly linguistic criteria. Seen from a genetic and historical perspective, dialects must be considered older than standardized languages and can, therefore, in their modern form, be seen as a reflex of a historical development. Since dialects—owing to their oral tradition and lack of standardization—are ‘more natural’ than standardized languages, they are particularly suited for testing linguistic hypotheses about historical processes, as is evident in both neogrammarian ( Neogrammarians) and structuralist ( structuralism) investigations. More recent investigations of dialect have been increasingly influenced by the sociolinguistic approach. These focus above all on the different uses of dialect and standard language, the greater private use of dialect as well as possible correlations between dialect and social class. ( also sociolinguistics) References Milroy, J. and L.Milroy (eds) 1993. Real English: the grammar of English dialects in the British Isles. London. Noble, C.A.M. 1983. Modern German dialects. New York. Orton, H. 1962. Survey of English dialects: an introduction. Leeds. Orton H. et al. 1962–71. Survey of English dialects: basic material, 4 vols. Leeds. Russ, C.V.J. 1990. The dialects of modern German. London. Trudgill, P. 1983. On dialect: social and geographical perspectives. New York. ——1994. Dialects. London. ——and J.K.Chambers (eds) 1991. English dialects: studies in grammatical variation. London. dialectology Dictionary of language and linguistics 308 dialect dictionary The codification of regional linguistic variants from a synchronic and/or diachronic perspective. There are three principal types of dialect dictionaries: (a) comprehensive, multiregional dialect dictionaries that comprise the vocabulary of several regional dialectal variants; (b) regional dictionaries that comprise the complete dialect of a specific area (town, village, region, and so on); (c) those limited to a specific city or local dialect ( idioticon). ( British English, English) References Adams, R. 1968. Western words: a dictionary of the American West, 2nd edn. Norman, OK. Bailey, R.W. (ed.) 1987. Dictionaries of English: prospects for the record of our language. Ann Arbor, MI. Bickerton, A. 1970. American-English, English-American: a two-way glossary of words in daily use on both sides of the Atlantic. Bristol. Craigie, W. and J.R.Hulbert et al. (eds) 1938–44. A dictionary of American English on historical principles. Chicago, IL. Everhart, J. 1968. The illustrated Texas dictionary of the English language, 2 vols. Lincoln, NE. Grant, W. and D.Murison (eds) 1931. The Scottish national dictionary. Edinburgh. Herman, L.H. and M.S.Herman. 1947. Manual of American dialects for radio, stage, screen and television. Chicago, IL. Schur, N.W. 1987. British English: A to Z. New York. Wentworth, H. (ed.) 1944. American dialect dictionary. New York. Wright, J. 1898–1905. English dialect dictionary, 6 vols. Oxford. (Repr. New York 1963.) dialectology dialect geography (also areal linguistics, linguistic geography) Subdiscipline of dialectology (sometimes equated with it) concerned with the investigation of the geographic distribution of linguistic phenomena. In dialect geography, phonetic, phonological, morphological, and lexical approaches are primarily employed. The comprehensive collection of materials in written records (the mailing of questionnaires), oral data recorded phonetically, on the spot, by the interviewer in a ‘question book,’ and the collection of freely spoken texts form the basis of linguistic geographic analysis. The recorded data are then presented in the form of linguistic maps ( dialect mapping, linguistic atlas) which facilitate the interpretation of the specific geographic distribution and the structure of individual features from a historical, cultural, social (extralinguistic), and language-internal (intralinguistic) point of view. A-Z 309 References Davis, A.L. 1949. A word atlas of the Great Lakes region. Dissertation, Ann Arbor, MI. Kirk, J.M. et al. (eds) 1985. Studies in linguistic geography: the dialects of English in Britain and Ireland. London. Kurath, H. 1939–43. Linguistic atlas of New England, 3 vols. Providence, RI. ——1949. A word geography of the eastern United States. Ann Arbor, MI. ——1972. Studies in area linguistics. Bloomington, IN. Kurath, H. and B.Bloch. 1939. Handbook of linguistic geography of New England. Providence, RI. Lehmann, W. 1962. Broadening of language materials: dialect geography. In Historical linguistics: an introduction. New York. McDavid, R.I. 1957. Tape recording in dialect geography: a cautionary note. Journal of the Canadian Linguistic Association 3. 3–8. Moulton, W.G. 1972. Geographical linguistics. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 9, 186–222. Orton, H. and N.Wright. 1974. A word geography of England. London. Pickford, G.R. 1956. American linguistic geography: a sociological appraisal. Word 12. 211–33. Trubetzkoy, N. 1949. Phonologie et géographie linguistique. In Principes de phonologie. Paris . Trudgill, P. 1974. Linguistic change and diffusion: description and explanation in sociolinguistic dialect geography. LSoc 3. 215–46. ——1975. Linguistic geography and geographical linguistics. In C.Board et al. (eds), Progress in geography, vol. 3. London. Wood, G.R. 1971. Vocabulary change: a study of variation in regional words in eight of the southern states. Carbondale, IL. dialect mapping The documentation of dialectal conditions and developments in the form of a geographic map on which the results of linguistic-geographic analyses are presented either as a nonkeyed text (e.g. individual words in their regional distribution) or in the form of symbols. Currently, the basic methods of representing linguistic data on maps are to key the pertinent linguistic data to each locality of occurrence with dots or to draw boundary lines around areas with the same linguistic features. Maps may be drawn to show individual linguistic levels (e.g. phonetic or phonological, morphological, lexical, or syntactic dialect maps) or to show a combination of features that give a cumulative overview of the dialectal geographic distribution. A linguistic atlas is a comprehensive representation of dialectal features for a whole region or a whole linguistic area. ( also dialect geography) Dictionary of language and linguistics 310 dialectic [Grk ‘discussion by question and answer’] Originally the study of correct argumentation of debatable points involving a method of dialogue developed by Aristotle and Plato for discovering the truth. Part of the linguistic trivium in the middle ages, a logical academic discipline alongside grammar and rhetoric, especially broadened as a method of cognition. Modern rh etoric (see Perelman 1977) defines dialectic according to the classical model as the science of controversy. Reference Perelman, C. 1977. L’Empire rhétorique: rhétorique et argumentation. Paris. dialectology Linguistic subdiscipline concerned with dialects. The origin of dialectology—apart from a few early glossaries and dialect dictionaries—can be traced back to the beginnings of nineteenth-century historical and comparative linguistics. During the Romantic era the ‘dialects of the common people,’ which were up to then held in low esteem, were elevated to the position of ‘more original’ linguistic forms; the comparative method was also used to reconstruct the earlier stages of a language from its dialects. In the investigation of general historical linguistic principles by the Neogrammarians, the dialects were even seen as being superior to the written language, since it was here that ‘consistencies in sound formation’ were genuinely apparent. There have been numerous historical phonetic studies conducted on dialects and many synchronic descriptions of local dialects in which the relationship of the present state of the language to the historical stages of linguistic development is demonstrated. The geographic diffusion of differing forms and varieties and the search for specific dialectal regions represent areas of interest pursued by dialect geography (often understood and used as a synonym for ‘dialectology’ ( dialect mapping and linguistic atlas on methods used in compiling dialect data). Contrary to original assumptions, collected dialect data have shown a definite lack of ‘homogeneity’ inasmuch as the uniform distribution of isoglosses is concerned. Instead one finds a multitude of intersecting and opposite linguistic boundaries. ‘Extralinguistic’ analyses of such isoglosses have discovered the relevance of topographical, political, and sociocultural pre-conditions, i.e. many of the isogloss boundaries correspond to historical trade routes, state and church borders, etc. Sociolinguistic influences ( sociolinguistics) have led to an increased consideration of sociological methods and the development of a sociodialectological approach with various focuses: (a) class-specific distribution of dialect and standard language, e.g. A-Z 311 dialect as a ‘restricted code’ ( code theory) and ‘speech barriers’; (b) covariation of diglossia), social conditions for linguistic, macrosocial, and situative categories ( language variation and language change (see Labov 1975, 1978); (c) communicative function of the conversational use of the different language varieties (cf. contextualization) (see Gumperz 1978). References Allen, H.B. and G.N.Underwood (eds) 1971. Readings in American dialectology. New York. Besch, W. et al. (eds) 1982–3. Dialektologie: ein Handbuch zur deutschen und allgemeinen Dialektforschung, 2 vols. Berlin and New York. Chambers, J.K. and P.Trudgill. 1980. Dialectology. Cambridge. Davis, L. 1983. English dialectology: an introduction. Birmingham, AL. Elert, C. et al. (eds) 1977. Dialectology and sociolinguistics. Umeå. Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1988. Historical dialectology: regional and social. Berlin and New York. Francis, W.N. 1984. Dialectology: an introduction. London. Moulton, W.G. 1968. Structural dialectology. Lg 44. 451–66. Petyt, K. 1980. The study of dialect: an introduction to dialectology. Boulder, CO. Trudgill, P. 1983. On dialect: social and geographical perspectives. New York. ——1986. Dialects in contact. Oxford. Walters, K. 1988. Dialectology. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge Survey. Cambridge. Vol. 4, 119–39. Weinreich, U. 1954. Is a structural dialectology possible? Word 10. 388–400. (Repr. in H.B.Allen and G.N.Underwood (eds), Readings in American dialectology. New York, 1971. 300–13.) Wejnen, A. 1978. Outlines for an interlingual European dialectology. Assen. Journals Dialectologia et Geolinguistica. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik. sociolinguistics, spoken language dialogue system In natural language processing, a system which carries out a dialogue with a human user, normally for the purpose of allowing the user access to a software system such as a database or expert system. Dialogue systems have been the focus of especially intense development because they provide the user with a familiar and efficient interface and thus obviate the usual need for training. ( also computational linguistics, user modeling) Dictionary of language and linguistics 312 Reference Allen, J. 1987. Natural language understanding. Menlo Park, CA. diasystem Term coined by U.Weinreich for a ‘system of systems.’ Two or more linguistic systems with partial similarities are subsumed under a diasystem which reflects the structural similarities or overlappings and differences between them. This concept was applied above all to the description of overlapping phonological systems in multi(dia)lectal linguistic situations, as for example in different, though neighboring and coexisting, regional and social varieties within a speech community. References Cochrane, G.R. 1959. The Australian English vowels as a diasystem. Word 15. 69–88. Weinreich, U. 1954. Is a structural dialectology possible? Word 10. 388–400. (Repr. in H.B.Allen and G.N.Underwood (eds), Readings in American dialectology. New York, 1971, 300–13.) diathesis [Grk diathesis ‘state, condition’] (also voice) Term from Greek for voice (active, passive, middle) as well as for other regular valence shifts such as applicative, accusativization, and dative shift. dichotomy [Grk dichotomía ‘division into two parts’] A bipartite, complementary opposition, such as langue vs parole, synchronic vs diachronic linguistics, competence vs performance. A-Z 313 Reference Markey, T.L. 1976. Studies in European linguistic theory: the dichotomy precept. Grossen-Linden. difference difference hypothesis differentia specifica diffuse set code theory definition compact vs diffuse digital [Lat. digitus ‘finger’] ‘Digital’ is a term used in information processing to refer to a way of representing a definite set of signs (digits) through a code that is applied to the information being processed, such as when fingers are applied to numbers in counting from 1 to 10. Analogue representations are the counterpart of digital representations. digital communication A borrowing from the notion of digital calculators which, unlike analogue calculators, function on the basis of yes/no oppositions and on the representation of information as numbers. This designation of verbal communication based on a conventional verbal sign language was developed by Watzlawick et al. (1967). In contrast to analogue communication, the signs, or ‘names,’ bear no similarity to the facts which they represent (an exception is onomatopoeia). Digital communication serves to transmit Dictionary of language and linguistics 314 knowledge. It employs a logical syntax to produce complex syntactic relations, but lacks sufficiently differentiated semantics for the communication of human relations. Reference Watzlawick, P., J.H.Beavin, and D.D.Jackson. 1967. Pragmatics of human communication: a study of interactional patterns, pathologies and paradoxes. New York. diglossia [Grk prefix dí- ‘two-, bi-’; ‘language’] Term used originally by Grecist scholars for describing the linguistic situation in Greece, with its two (functionally different) varieties Katharévousa and Dhimotiki ( Greek). It was later taken up again by Ferguson (1959). It now describes any stable linguistic situation, in which there exists a strict functional differentiation between a (socially) ‘L(ow)-variety’ and a distinct ‘H(igh)-variety.’ The H-variety is differentiated from the L-variety mostly through a greater degree of grammatical complexity. It is a strictly standardized and codified language whose transmission does not occur in the context of primary socialization, but rather secondarily in schools. It is not used in everyday conversation, but instead in formal speech situations and for written communication. Apart from Greece, characteristic examples of such situations can be found in German-speaking Switzerland (standard High German vs Schwyzerdütsch ( German), in Arabia (classical vs modern Arabic), in Haiti (French vs creole), etc. Gumperz (1964) extends this definition to linguistic societies in which functionally distinct varieties are found, though without being considered ‘bilingual’; Fishman (1967) sees every linguistic society with two functionally distinct varieties as diglossic and also relates the sociolinguistically oriented concept of diglossia to the psycholinguistic concept of bilingualism. For a useful summary of the European perspective, specifically with regard to Romance linguistics, see Kremnitz (1987). For a detailed overview on the change in meaning and use of the term diglossia see Willemyns and Bister (1989). References Ferguson, C. 1959. Diglossia. Word 15. 325–40. Fishman, J.A. 1967. Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues 23. 29–38. ——1968. Sociolinguistic perspectives on the study of bilingualism. Linguistics 39. 21–49. Gumperz, J.J. 1964. Linguistic and social interaction in two communities. AA 66. 137–53. Hymes, D. (ed.) 1964. Language in culture and society: a reader in linguistics and anthropology. New York. A-Z 315 Kremnitz, G. 1987. Diglossie/Polyglossie. In U. Ammon et al. (eds), Sociolinguistics: an international handbook on the science of language and society. Berlin. 208–18. Labov, W. 1966. The social stratification of English in New York City. Washington, DC. Weinreich, U. 1953. Languages in contact: findings and problems. New York. Willemyns, R. and H.Bister. 1989. The language continuum as a pluridimensional concept. In U. Ammon (ed.), Status and function of languages and language varieties. Berlin and New York. 541–51. Bibliography Fernandez, M. 1993. Diglossia: a comprehensive bibliography, 1960–1990 and supplements. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. digraphy [Grk gráphein ‘to write’] The representation of a single phoneme with two graphic signs, e.g. Eng. ‹sh› for [∫]. ( also graphemics) diminutive [Lat. deminuere ‘to lessen’] (also attenuative) 1 Nouns derived by means of certain suffixes like -et(te) (cigarette), -let (booklet), and ie/-y (Billie, kitty) or a prefix like mini- (mini-vac) that as a rule modify ( modification) the meaning of the stem to ‘little,’ but which can also signal an emotional attitude of the speaker (What a cute kitty!, which can be said of a cat of any size). The latter are often called hypocoristics. The opposite derivations are augmentatives, which are not present in all languages. ( also sound symbolism) References word formation 2 A type of verbal aspect which is a subgroup of duratives ( durative vs nondurative). In German, the suffix -In is used with verbs to indicate a lower intensity of the action: hüsteln ‘cough a little’ from husten ‘to cough,’ spötteln ‘to scorn somewhat’ from spotten ‘to scorn.’ Dictionary of language and linguistics Dinka 316 Chari-Nile languages diphthong [Grk díphthongos ‘with two sounds’] Vowel in the articulation of which the articulators move enough so that two separate phonological phases can be distinguished, e.g. [ay], [aυ] in high, how. According to different theoretical criteria, a diphthong can be considered a single (‘unit’) phoneme or a combination of two phonemes. The terms ‘rising’ and ‘falling’ are used to describe diphthongs in two different ways. (a) If the first phase is more open ( closed vs open) than the second, it is a rising diphthong, as in the examples above. If the first phase is more closed, it is falling, e.g. [oa] in Fr. bois ‘woods.’ (b) In a different terminology, a diphthong is said to be rising if the first element carries less stress1 than the second, as in Span. país ‘country’; it is falling if the first element carries greater stress, as in the English examples above. There is much debate about whether diphthongs in English consist of two vowels, or of one vowel and one glide. Numerous orthographic conventions prevail, e.g. [aυ] [au], [āυw]. ( also diaeresis, syllable) References phonetics diphthongization Sound change by which simple (long) vowels turn into variable vowels (diphthongs), due to a shift in articulation or to phonological or phonotactic pressures ( phonology), e.g. in the Great Vowel Shift OE īs [i:s]>Mod. Eng. ice [ays], OE hūs [hu:s] Mod. Eng. house [haυs]. ( also push chain vs drag chain) References Andersen, H. 1972. Diphthongization. Lg. 48. 11–50. Hayes, B. 1990. Dipthongization and coindexing. Phonology 7. 31–71. Rauch, I. 1967. The Old High German diphthongization: a description of a phonemic change. The Hague. A-Z 317 Vennemann, T. 1972. Phonetic detail in assimilation: problems in Germanic phonology. Lg 48. 863–92. historical linguistics, language change, sound change direct method (also natural method) Language-teaching method developed as an outgrowth of the natural method attributed to L. Sauveau (1826–1907) in the 1860s. The direct method, according to which instruction is to take place exclusively in the target language, became established in France and Germany around the turn of the century. Other goals and strategies that characterize this methodology include: the presentation of vocabulary through the use of pantomime, realia and visuals, thus avoiding translation; an inductive approach to grammar; the primacy of the spoken language and the emphasis on correct pronunciation; a reliance on question-answer exercise formats. It was only cautiously and marginally embraced in Britain and North America outside of commercial schools. Recent communicative approaches to language teaching have questioned the theoretical basis and techniques of the direct method, including its teacher-centered strategies, its disregard for process strategies, its lack of emphasis on sociopragmatic competency, etc. ( also language pedagogy, second language acquisition) References Gouin, F. 1882. The art of teaching and studying languages. Trans. by H.Swan and V.Betts. London. Krause, C.A. 1916. The direct method in modern languages. New York. Richards, J.C. and T.S.Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge. Sauzé, E.B. de 1929. The Cleveland plan for the teaching of modern languages with special reference to French. (Rev. edn 1959.) Philadelphia, PA. direct object Syntactic function in nominative languages which, depending on the language, can be expressed morphologically, positionally, or structurally. The most common morphological marker is the accusative, although dative and genitive objects are sometimes treated as direct objects, due to their behavior. A characteristic of direct objects is that they become the subject in passive sentences: Philip is eating the apple The apple is being eaten. In addition, the distinction between transitive (e.g. to see, to love, to meet) and intransitive verbs (e.g. to sleep, to work) depends on whether or not the Dictionary of language and linguistics 318 verb selects a direct object. A direct object can usually be identified positionally by its word order) immediately unmarked position after the subject and in SVO languages ( after the finite verb as well. In the constituent structure of a sentence the direct object is immediately dominated by the verbal or predicate phrase, in contrast to the subject which is immediately dominated by the sentence node. The term ‘direct object’ refers to its usual semantic function of denoting the thing that is directly affected by the action of the verb (patient). References Dryer, M. 1986. Primary objects, secondary objects and antidative. Lg. 62. 808–45. Moravcsik, E.A. 1978. Case marking of objects. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. Vol. 4, 250–89. Plank, F. (ed.) 1984. Objects: towards a theory of grammatical relations. London. syntactic function direct speech direct vs indirect discourse direct vs indirect discourse Form of recounting speech (statements, questions, as well as thoughts or wishes) either through direct quoting or through paraphrase. Indirect discourse is dependent on a previous utterance (either exactly known or reconstructable): She said she wouldn’t be here until tomorrow. The change of direct into indirect discourse is often accompanied with a change in the deictic elements (pronouns, adverbs) and in some languages mood or tense: She said, ‘I will come tomorrow’ vs (Yesterday) she said she would come today. References Banfield, A. 1973. Narrative style and the grammar of direct and indirect speech. FL 10. 1–39. Bertolet, R. 1988. What is said: a theory of indirect speech reports. Dordrecht. Coulmas, F. (ed.) 1986. Direct and indirect speech: reported speech across languages. Berlin. A-Z 319 directive 1 A speech act whose main purpose consists in causing the person addressed to undertake a particular activity. Directives (e.g. requests, commands, and prohibitions) are performed not only by uttering imperatives2, but also with the aid of declarative sentences (You will come here this instant!), gerund phrases (No smoking), elliptical expressions (Quiet!, A cappuccino!, Over here!), the impersonal passive (Hard hats are to be worn on site), non-embedded complements (Just so you don’t forget the milk), and through modal expressions (You ought to come right now!). Reference Searle, J.R. 1975. A taxonomy of illocutionary acts. In K.Gunderson (ed.), Language, mind and knowledge. Minneapolis, MN. (Repr. in Expression and meaning. Cambridge, 1979. 1–29.) 2 Accusative of direction or goal accompanying verbs of motion (e.g. Lat. domum ire ‘to go home’). disambiguation Process and result of clarifying lexical or structural ambiguity (or vagueness) of linguistic expressions by the linguistic or extralinguistic context. (a) Linguistic disambiguation on the lexical level ( polysemy, homonymy) is carried out as a rule by excluding semantically incompatible lexeme combinations: for example, the ambiguity of The chicken is ready to eat can be cleared up by following it with so please serve it or so please feed it, thus disambiguating chicken1 (=meat) from chicken2 (=live animal). (b) Disambiguation of structural ambiguity is carried out by explicit reformulation of the underlying deep structure. Thus, the two readings of the sentence The investigation of the politician was applauded can be disambiguated by the paraphrases P1 That the politician was being investigated was applauded or P2 That the politician undertook the investigation was applauded. Disambiguation through extralinguistic context depends on the particular situation, on prior knowledge, attitudes, expectations of the speaker/hearer as well as on non-verbal cues (gesture ( body language), mimicry). Disambiguated formal languages are often used to describe meaning. Dictionary of language and linguistics 320 References ambiguity discontinuous elements Linguistic elements which belong together, but whose linear concatenation is broken by another element, e.g. a-whole-nother where another is split by the insertion of whole. The description of discontinuous elements presents difficulties for the phrase structure rules, since according to these rules only adjacent constituents can comprise one constituent. In the drawing of discontinuous elements in a tree diagram, there is a crossing of branches which is formally excluded. References transformational grammar discourse Generic term for various types of text2. The term has been used with various differences in meaning: connected speech (Harris 1952); the product of an interactive process in a sociocultural context (Pike 1954); performance (vs ‘text’ as a representation of the formal grammatical structure of discourse) (van Dijk 1974); talk (vs written prose, or ‘text’) (Cicourel 1975); conversational interaction (Coulthard 1977); ‘language in context across all forms and modes’ (Tannen 1981); and process (vs product, or ‘text’) (Brown and Yule 1983). ( also ethnography of speaking, functional grammar) References Brown, G. and G.Yule. 1983. Discourse analysis. Cambridge. Coulthard, M. 1977. An introduction to discourse analysis. London. Coupland, N. (ed.) 1988. Styles of discourse. London. Erdmann, P. 1990. Discourse and grammar: focussing and defocussing in English. Tübingen. Fleischmann, S. and L.R.Waugh. 1991. Discourse pragmatics and the verb: the evidence from Romance. London. Harris, Z. 1952. Discourse analysis. Lg 28. 1–30. Longacre, R.E. 1983. The grammar of discourse. New York. A-Z 321 McCarthy, M. and R.Carter. 1993. Language as discourse. London. Pike, K.L. 1954. Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior. The Hague. (2nd edn 1967). Schriffin, D. 1993. Approaches to discourse. Oxford. Tannen, D. 1979. What’s in a frame? Surface evidence for underlying expectations. In R.Freedle (ed.), New directions in discourse processing. Norwood. NJ. 137–81. Tannen, D. (ed.) 1981. Analyzing discourses. Gurt. Van Dijk, T. 1974. Philosophy of action and theory of narrative. Amsterdam. Journal Discourse and Society. anaphora, conversation analysis, discourse analysis, pragmatics, tense discourse analysis Cover term for various analyses of discourse. Motivated by linguistic terminology and theory ( formal logic, structuralism, transformational grammar) it is used synonymously with text analysis, with a particular interest in wellformedness ( coherence, cohesion) and deductive rules (e.g. rules for speech acts ). While in this strand of research, texts are mainly taken to be static products (discourse grammar, text linguistics), there is another strand influenced by functional grammar, psycholinguistics, and approaches to cognitive science that emphasizes the dynamic character of discourse as construction and interpretation processes by the speaker/writer and the listener/ reader (see Brown and Yule 1983). According to Van Dijk (1985), discourse analysis has become a new cross-disciplinary field of analysis since the early 1970s. It is of interest to disciplines such as anthropology and sociolinguistics (ethnography of speaking), artificial intelligence, cognitive science, philosophy of language (speech act theory), psycholinguistics, sociology of language (conversation analysis), rhetoric (style), and text linguistics. For an overview see van Dijk (1985). References Brown, G. and G.Yule. 1983. Discourse analysis. Cambridge. Coulthard, M. 1977. An introduction to discourse analysis. London. ——(ed.) 1992. Advances in spoken discourse analysis. London. Givón, T. (ed.) 1979. Syntax and semantics, vol. 12: Discourse and syntax. New York. Labov, W. and D.Fanshel. 1977. Therapeutic discourse. New York. Levinson, S. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge. Mann, W.C. and S.A.Thompson (eds) 1992. Discourse description: diverse linguistic analyses of a fund-raising text. Amsterdam. Myhill, J. 1992. Typological discourse analysis. Oxford. Dictionary of language and linguistics 322 Petöfi, J. (ed.) 1987. Text and discourse constitution: empirical aspects, theoretical approaches. Berlin. Potter, J. and M.Wetherell. 1987. Discourse and social psychology: beyond attitudes and behaviour. London. Salkie, R. 1995. Text and discourse analysis. London. Steiner, E.E. and R.Veltmann (eds) 1988. Pragmatics, discourse and text: some syste matically inspired approaches. London. Stubbs, M. 1983. Discourse analysis. Oxford. Stutterheim, C.v. and W.Klein. 1989. Referential movement in descriptive and narrative discourse. In R.Dietrich and C.Graumann (eds), Language processing in social contexts. Amsterdam. 39– 76. Van Dijk, T. (ed.) 1985. Handbook of discourse analysis, 4 vols. London. Journals Discourse and Society. Discourse Processes. discourse grammar, text linguistics discourse grammar An area of investigation within text linguistics, discourse grammar involves the analysis and presentation of grammatical regularities that overlap sentences in texts. In contrast to the pragmatically oriented direction of text linguistics, discourse grammar departs from a grammatical concept of text that is analogous to ‘sentence’. The object of investigation is primarily the phenomenon of cohesion, thus the syntactic-morphological connecting of texts by textphoric, recurrence, and connective. References Greimas, A.J. 1966. Sémantique structurale. Paris. Longacre, R.E. 1983. The grammar of discourse. New York. Petöfi, J.S. and H.Rieser (eds) 1973. Studies in text grammar. Dordrecht. Rieser, H. 1978. On the development of text grammar. In W.Dressler (ed.), Current trends in textlinguistics. Berlin. 6–20. Van Dijk, T.A. 1972. Some aspects of text grammars: a study in theoretical linguistics and poetics. The Hague. A-Z 323 Bibliography Lohmann, P. 1988. Connectedness of texts: a bibliographical survey. In J.S.Petöfi (ed.), Text and discourse constitution. Berlin. 478–501. Part 2 in W.Heydrich et al. (eds), Connexity and coherence. New York. discourse marker (also discourse particle) Linguistic devices that help structure discourse. Among such markers are expressions that are equivalent to sentences such as uh ( interjection), syntactic constructions left vs right disl ocation)and syntactically integrated such as left dislocation ( expressions such as adjuncts or conjunctions. Discourse markers have many functions, some of which overlap. In (a) turn-taking, they help structure the turn (e.g. well in first position and you know in final position), indicate the end of a turn (e.g. uh) ( back channel), or order the next speaker’s turn (e.g. when the current speaker uses a tag question like right?). In (b) topic management, discourse markers foreground a topic (e.g. with syntagms like concerning X or left dislocation) or indicate that the current speaker is digressing from the current topic (e.g. with displacement markers like by the way). Discourse markers also (c) indicate the speaker’s attitude (e.g. with attitudinal disjuncts ( disjunction), or (d) help organize the overall discourse structure, e.g. by indicating the beginning or end of paragraphs or sequences (e.g. with first, then, finally, and then). ( also discourse analysis) References Abraham, W. (ed.) 1990. Discourse particles. Amsterdam. ——(ed.) 1991a. Discourse particles: descriptive and theoretical investigations on the logical, syntactic and pragmatic properties of discourse particles in German and English. Amsterdam. ——(ed.) 1991b. Discourse particles across languages. Berlin and New York. Ameka, F. (ed.) 1992. Interjections (special issue of Journal of Pragmatics) 18. 101–301. Fraser, B. 1990. An approach to discourse marker. JPrag 14. 383–95. Labov, W. and D.Fanshel. 1977. Therapeutic discourse. New York. Maynard, S.K. 1986. On back-channel behavior in Japanese and English casual conversation. Linguistics 24. 1079–108. Redeker, G. 1990. Ideational and pragmatic markers of discourse structure. JPrag 14. 367–81. Sacks, H. and E.Schegloff. 1973. Opening up closings. Semiotica 8. 289–327. Sacks, H., E.Schegloff, and G.Jefferson. 1974. A simplest systematics for the organization of turntaking in conversations. Lg 50. 696–735. Schiffrin, D. 1987. Discourse markers. Cambridge. Wierzbicka, A. (ed.) 1992. Journal of Pragmatics, special issue on particles. 10. 519–645. back channel, conversation analysis, discourse analysis, particle Dictionary of language and linguistics discourse particle 324 discourse marker discourse representation structure discourse representation theory discourse representation theory Variant of discourse semantics developed by H.Kamp which first assigns so-called discourse representation structures (DRS) to simple discourse (namely sequences of declarative sentences) and then assigns truth conditions to them. Often abbreviated as DRT, its central notion is that of ‘discourse referents,’ a type of place-holders for objects to which the various text predications—even those in different sentences (text anaphora)—refer and which are, in the default case, treated as existence-quantifying variables in truth conditions. The scope òf a discourse referent is depicted graphically by a box. While Kamp was formulating his theory, I.Heim independently developed a similar type of discourse semantics in her ‘file change semantics.’ References Asher, N. 1986. Belief in discourse representation theory. JPL 5. 127–89. Heim. I. 1982. The semantics of definite and indefinite noun phrases. Dissertation, Amherst. MA. Kamp, H. 1981. A theory of truth and semantic representation. In J.Groenendijk et al. (eds), Formal methods in the study of language. Amster- dam. 277–322. Kamp, H. and U.Reyle. 1993. From discourse to logic. Dordrecht. Oakhill, J. and A.Garnham. 1992. Discourse representation and text processing (Special issue of Language and Cognitive Processes). Hove. Stirling, L. 1993. Switch reference and discourse representation. Cambridge. model-theoretic semantics discourse semantics A type of semantics that focuses on the semantic relations of sentences within a text. Central concepts include anaphora and cataphora, which extend beyond sentential boundaries, and phenomena such as model subordination. ( also discourse representation theory) A-Z 325 Reference Seuren, P.A.M. 1985. Discourse semantics. Oxford. discovery procedure In general, a procedure used to elicit linguistic regularities ( operational procedure). In particular, methods and operations employed in structural linguistics which seek to ‘reveal’ by means of segmentation and classification the relevant fundamental categories, and their relation to one another, of a given language on the basis of a finite number of sentences. References operational procedures discreteness [Lat. discretus ‘separate’] Fundamental characteristic of linguistically relevant units. Definable boundaries are a prerequisite for linguistic analysis by means of segmentation and substitution. The discrete elements obtained by such procedures have the function of either distinguishing between meanings (=phonemes) or carrying meaning (= morphemes). disjoint reference Reading of pronominal expressions in complex sentences whose reference does not correspond to nouns or denotations present in the sentence. In the ambiguous expression Tanya proudly showed the picture she drew, Tanya and she denote by disjoint reference two different people, e.g. that someone other than Tanya drew the picture that Tanya is showing. On the set theory definition of disjoint reference, coreferentiality, set. Dictionary of language and linguistics 326 References personal pronoun disjunction [Lat. disiunctio ‘separation’] 1 In formal logic the conjunction of two elementary propositions p and q by the logical particle or1 which is true if and only if at least one of the elementary propositions is true. Or1 corresponds to Lat. vel (‘or also’) which can be paraphrased by ‘one or the other, or both.’ This inclusive (i.e. non-exclusive) or, which is basic to disjunction, must be differentiated from the exclusive or2 (Lat. aut…aut…) which means ‘either one or the other, but not both’), compare or1 (Louise is either sad or tired, (or perhaps both)) with or2 (Louise is either older or younger than her friend, (but in no case both)). In everyday usage the exclusive or2 is more common (expressed by either/or or otherwise), since the inclusive reading is usually barred by the pragmatic context. This relation is represented as follows in the (two-place) truth table: p q p t t t f t f t t f t t t f f f f q1 p q2 The term ‘disjunction’ refers to the operation of the two-place sentence operator or as well as to the propositional connective defined by it. The propositions connected by or are not necessarily semantically cohesive. For that reason the connection Socrates is a philosopher or Aristotle is a unicorn is ‘true’ (because the first part of the sentence is true), while it would have to be rejected as an utterance in an actual speech situation as an unsuccessful speech act ( speech act theory). With the aid of set theory, disjunction can be semantically characterized as the union of both model sets that make the propositions connected with each other true. References Pelletier, J.F. 1977. Or. TL 4. 61–74. formal logic 2 In unification grammar the dual of the operation of unification, used, for example, in Functional Unification Grammar (FUG), lexical Unification Gramma (LUG), r and Headdriven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG). The disjunction of two feature structures indicates the unification bundle of the denotata of their two disjuncts. The A-Z 327 disjunctive feature structure (in curly brackets) in the following example stands for the group of all verbs, which are in the plural or in the first or second person singular: Equivalent notations for disjunction: For discussion of the necessity of disjunction in unification grammar, see Karttunen (1984), for algorithms for the implementation of disjunctive unification grammars, see Kasper (1987) and Eisele and Dörre (1988). References Eisele, A. and J.Dörre. 1988. Unification of disjunctive feature descriptions. In ACL Proceedings. New York. 26. 286–94. Karttunen, L. 1984. Features and values. In Coling 84. Stanford, CA. 28–33. Kasper, R.T. 1987. A unification method for disjunctive feature descriptions. In ACL Proceedings. Stanford, CA. 25. 235–42. disjunctive question Interrogative sentence in the form of two yes/ no-questions joined by or (Is Caroline coming today or tomorrow?) which cannot be answered by yes or no. Disjunctive questions are mostly ambiguous but can at the same time be interpreted as yes/noquestions (e.g. Is Caroline coming today? or Is Caroline coming tomorrow? vs Is Caroline coming today or tomorrow?). Dictionary of language and linguistics 328 dislocation Term for syntactic constructions in which sentence elements appear at or outside the sentence boundary. In a broad classification there exist left and right dislocation ( left vs right dislocation). Related constructions are hanging topic, extraposition, exbraciation, apposition. An unambiguous classification of each type is not always possible; criteria for identification include morphological and in tonational characteristics, theme vs typical introductory phrases, pronominal (copies) and theme-rheme ( rheme) considerations. References Altmann, H. 1981. Formen der ‘Herausstellung’ im Deutschen. Tübingen. exbraciation, extraposition, word order dissimilation [Lat. dissimilis ‘unlike’] Process and result of differentiation of two similar sounds with a view to greater clarity, e.g. Eng. pilgrim<Lat. peregrīnus, where the first r has dissimilated into l. The opposite process is known as assimilation. References Dressler, W.U. 1977. Phono-morphological dissimilation. Phonologica 1976.41–8. phonetics, sound change A-Z 329 dissimilation of aspirates law distant assimilation Grassmann’s assimilation distinctive [Lat. distinguere ‘to mark off as separate’] Characteristics of (phonological) features that function to distinguish meaning. ( distinctive feature, phonology) also References distinctive feature distinctive feature Class of phonetically defined components of phonemes that function to distinguish meaning. In contrast to redundant features, distinctive features constitute relevant phonological features. In the structuralist framework, phonemes are described as ‘bundles’ of distinctive features, e.g. /p/ as [+consonant, -voiced, +bilabial, -nasal], with the differentiation from /b/ resting alone on the distinctive feature of [+voiced]. The number of distinctive features is smaller than the number of phonemes, for example Jakobson and Halle (1956) have suggested a universal binary system ( binary opposition) of twelve distinctive features believed to be sufficient to describe all languages of the world. The differentiation of distinctive features is based on spectrally defined and acoustically analyzed criteria such as the position of the formants. Distinctive feature theory, based on the premise that all humans are psychologically and physically the same, is a fundamental concept of structural and generative phonology. It has further applications in other levels of linguistic description, such as semantic primitives, componential analysis, and lexical decomposition in semantics. Dictionary of language and linguistics 330 References Chomsky, N. and M.Halle. 1968. The sound pattern of English. New York. Clements, G.N. 1985. The geometry of phonological features. PY 2. 225–52. Jakobson, R. and M.Halle. 1956. Fundamentals of language. The Hague. (2nd rev. edn. 1975.) Jakobson, R., G.Faist, and M.Halle. 1951. Preliminaries to speech analysis: the distinctive features and their correlates. Cambridge, MA. (7th edn 1967.) Stevens, K.N., S.J.Keyser, and H.Kawasaki. 1986. Towards a phonetic and phonological theory of redundant features. In J.Perkell and D.H.Klatt (eds), Invariance and variability of speech processes. Hillsdale, NJ. 426–49. phonetics, phonology distinctive feature theory In phonology, a system developed to describe the elemental structure of language sounds that are based on articulatory and/or acoustic characteristics or productive mechanisms. ( also distinctive feature, markedness) References Chomsky, N. and M.Halle. 1968. The sound pattern of English. New York. Halle, M. 1983. On distinctive features and their articulatory implementation. NL&LT 1:1. 91–105. Hyman, L.M. 1975. Phonology: theory and analysis. New York. Jakobson, R., G.Fant and M.Halle. 1951. Preliminaries to speech analysis. Cambridge, MA. (7th edn 1967). Jakobson, R. and M.Halle. 1956. Fundamentals of language. The Hague. (2nd rev. edn 1975.) Ladefoged, P. 1971. Preliminaries to linguistic phonetics. Chicago, IL. distinguisher In Katz and Fodor’s (1963) interpretive semantics, a distinguisher is a subgroup of meaning features that denote the specific reading of an expression. In contrast to systematically occurring semantic features such as sex opposition (which systematically denotes the semantic difference in word pairs like man : woman, bride: groom, rooster: hen), distinguishers occur only as non-systematic, idiosyncratic features, i.e. they are linguistically irrelevant. Thus, the various readings of ball can be rendered by the distinguishers [+for the purpose of dancing] and [+spherical]. A-Z 331 Reference Katz, J.J. and J.A.Fodor. 1963. The structure of a semantic theory. Lg 39. 170–210. distribution (also co-occurrence) The collective environments of all established features. In American distributionalism (see Harris 1954), distribution is the primary criterion for determining and classifying linguistic units. On the basis of propositional logic and set theory the following types of distribution can be distinguished. (a) Equivalent distribution: two elements occur in the same environment either in (i) free variation (=free alternation or corr elation ) without distinguishing meaning, e.g. in the alternation of [i:] and [ay] in either; or in (ii) contrastive distribution, i.e. functioning as distinguishers of meaning, e.g. initial /g/, /k/, /t/ game, came, tame ( minimal pair). (b) Partially equivalent distribution: two elements occur largely, but not exclusively, in the same environment, in which either (i) the distribution of the one element includes that of the other, e.g. the distribution of the velar plosives /k/ and /g/ includes that of the velar nasal /ŋ/ since the first two occur word-medially and word-finally, while the last one does not occur word-initially; or (ii) the distribution of two elements overlaps (also: partially complementary), /h/ and /ŋ/, both of which occur word-medially (inherent, angle), while only /h/ occurs word-initially (heart) and only /ŋ/ occurs word-finally (song). (c) Complementary distribution: two elements never occur in the same environment, e.g. [t] and [th] are said to be in a relation of complementary distribution since the latter does not occur after word-initial /s/. Distribution is used to determine and define different basic linguistic elements: equivalent distribution uncovers phonemes functioning as distinguishers of meaning, while complementary distribution uncovers allophones and allomorphs, among others. References Harris, Z. 1954. Distributional structure. Word 10. 146–62. distributionalism distribution class A class of linguistic elements, such as phonemes or morphemes, constituted by means of distribution analysis, i.e. classified and segmented on the basis of occurrence in identical environments. Dictionary of language and linguistics 332 References distributionalism distributionalism (also taxonomic analysis, taxonomic structuralism) Branch of American structuralism in the 1940s and 1950s characterized by the works of Harris, Bloch, Trager, Joos, and others, which superseded the Bloomfield era. Harris’ Methods in Structural Linguistics (1951) is viewed as the standard work of this phase. The goal of distributionalism is an experimentally verifiable, objective description of the relations inherent in the systems of individual languages, exclusive of all subjective and semantic factors (semantics). These relations are the result of the distribution of the individual elements among the various hierarchical linguistic levels (phonology, morphology, syntax), i.e. the derivation and classification of linguistic elements results from their occurrence in the sentence. The structure of each individual language can be described by means of experimental methods, the so-called discovery procedures, in which essentially two analytical steps are applied: (a) segmentation of the material through substitution. i.e. through paradigmatic interchangeability of elements having the same function ( paradigm); and (b) classification of elements as phonemes, morphemes, among others, on the basis of their distribution and environment in the sentence. These analytical methods derive largely from research into Native American languages, which explains the asemantic character of the procedure: since the linguistic analysis had to be carried out without knowledge of the given language (especially its meaning), the purely physical description of distribution was elevated to the highest principle, and meaning was likewise regarded as a function of distribution. Fundamental criticism, revision, and extension, especially with regard to transformational aspects, are found in Postal (1964a). References Bloch, B. 1942. Outline of linguistic analysis. Baltimore, MD. ——1948. A set of postulates for phonetic analysis. Lg 24. 2–46. Chomsky, N. 1964. Current issues in linguistic theory. The Hague. Fries, C.C. 1961. The Bloomfield ‘school.’ In C. Mohrmann et al. (eds), Trends in European and American linguistics 1930–1960. Utrecht. 196–224. Harris, Z.S. 1946. From morpheme to utterance. Lg 22. 161–83. ——1951. Methods in structural linguistics. Chicago, IL. ——1954. Distributional structure. Word 10. 146–62. Nida, E. 1946. Morphology: the descriptive analysis of words. Ann Arbor, MI. (Repr. 1949.) Postal, P.M. 1964a. Constituent structure: a study of contemporary models of syntactic description. Bloomington, IN. A-Z 333 ——1964b. Limitations of phrase structure grammars. In J.A.Fodor and J.J.Katz (eds), The structure of language: readings in the philosophy of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 137–54. Wells, R.S. 1947. Immediate constituents. Lg 23. 71–117. American structuralism, linguistics, structuralism, transformational grammar distributive Subgroup of numerals formed by words or phrases such as apiece, each, per person, where the units in question are distributed to some or all members of a group individually: They will receive six books each. distributive reading distributive vs nondistributive reading distributive vs non-distributive reading In nouns denoting sets, reference to the given set may relate to its individual elements (‘distributive’) or to the set as a whole (‘non-distributive’). In sentences, such reference causes ambiguity if the meanings of the other elements do not exclude a particular reading. Thus, the sentence The team is responsible for the defeat can be understood as both ‘each player is responsible’ and ‘the team as a whole is responsible,’ while the meaning of the verb surround in The police are surrounding the demonstrators is contradictory to the distributive reading. The use of determiners or quantifiers like every and all may disambiguate a sentence, as in Every human dies, All humans die. Reference Scha, R.J. 1981. Distributive, collective, and cumulative quantification. In J.Groenendijk, T.Janssen, and M.Stokhof (eds), Formal methods in the study of language. Amsterdam. 483– 512. Dictionary of language and linguistics 334 dittography Writing error in which a single letter or syllable is written as a double letter or syllable. The inverse is known as haplography. dittology Accidental or conventionalized repetition of a syllable, e.g. dittolology or preventive~preventative. The opposite process is known as haplology. domain 1 Function 2 Term introduced into sociolinguistics by J. Fishman, denoting a bundle of social situations that are characterized by specific settings and role relationships between the interactants, as well as by typical themes (e.g. schonnol, family, workplace, state administration, etc.). Thus, the domain ‘family’ comprises a number of different (‘familiar’) situations with generally accepted norms of behavior. One of these norms relates to the choice of an appropriate—informal—linguistic variety, for example, in the case of diglossic linguistic situations ( diglossia) the choice of the ‘lower,’ nonstandard (e.g. dialectal) variety. References Fishman, J. 1964. Language maintenance and language shift as a field of inquiry. Linguistics 9. 32– 70. ——1965. Who speaks what language to whom and when? La Linguistique 2. 67–88. Mioni, A. 1987. Domain. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Sociolinguistics. An international handbook of the science of language and society. Berlin and New York. 170–8. A-Z 335 domain extension A concept developed by Koster (1986) in Government and Binding theory, whereby prototypical local domains can be extended on the basis of language-specific or lexical factors to less local domains. This makes possible grammatical relations outside the prototypical local domain. The so-called bridge verbs are domain-extending for movement transformations. For example, in Whoi do you think Philip saw t1, the object can be questioned out of the embedded clause. Reference Koster, J. 1987. Domains and dynasties: the radical autonomy of syntax. Dordrecht. domination A term from phrase structure grammar. In a tree diagram a constituent A dominates another constituent B if B is a constituent of A. In other words, A dominates B if A is on the path from B to the root of the tree diagram. That is, domination occurs in phrase structure rules of the form A→…B… References phrase structure grammar dorsal [Lat. dorsum ‘back’] Speech sound classified according to its articulator (dorsum=tongue), e.g. [k], [ŋ], and [g] in king. A distinction is drawn between predorsal, mediodorsal, and postdorsal sounds, especially with regard to the description of the articulation of certain vowels. In such cases one usually speaks of ‘front,’ ‘middle,’ and ‘back’ vowels. Dictionary of language and linguistics 336 References phonetics dorsum The back of the tongue. The articulator used to form dorsal sounds. ( articulation) also double articulation Structural characteristic of natural languages which distinguishes them from other systems of communication. According to Martinet (1965), linguistic expressions can be broken down into two different levels: (a) the smallest meaning-bearing level ( morpheme, or in Martinet’s terminology moneme); this is the smallest segment consisting of form and meaning; and (b) the smallest units which distinguish or contrast meaning ( phoneme); the latter units have form, but no meaning in themselves. The second structuring at the phonological level leads to the infinite productivity of natural language based on a few dozen different sounds (or phonemes) and corresponding combinatory rules. While bird calls, traffic signs, or groans (as an expression of pain) can only be broken down into meaning-bearing units at the first level, and not into any smaller contrasting units, linguistic expressions can be analyzed at both levels: no pet/s allow/ed consists of at least five meaning-bearing units, whereas the expression pet is composed of three phonemes. Thus double articulation is the basis for the economy and creativity of human language. References Martinet, A. 1965. La Linguistique synchronique, études et recherches. Paris. ——1966. Elements of general linguistics; with a foreword by L.R. Palmer, trans. by Elisabeth Palmer. Chicago, IL. Martinet, A., J.Martinet, and H.Walter (eds) 1969. La Linguistique: guide alphabétique. Sous la direction d’André Martinet. Paris. animal communication A-Z 337 double-bind theory Term introduced by G.Bateson and P.Watzlawick in their research on schizophrenia for a pathological behavior pattern in which a speaker A simultaneously directs two contradictory messages to an emotionally dependent hearer B. Because of the asymmetrical relationship between A and B (e.g. parent-child), B is not in a position to criticize the paradoxical manner of behavior or to point out the absurdity of the expression. According to this theory, continued exposure to such contrary messages can lead to schizophrenic symptoms. The contradictory directions can be expressed through both verbal and non-verbal channels, e.g. words of approval combined with a look of rejection. A decisive factor in the double-bind theory is the impossibility of escape from the paradox. References Bateson, G., D.D.Jackson, J.Haley, and J.Weakland. 1956. Toward a theory of schizophrenia. BSci 1. 251–64. Bugental, D.F. et al. 1970. Perception and contradictory meanings, conveyed by verbal and nonverbal channels. JPSP 16. 647–55. Gunderson, J.G., J.H.Autry, and L.R.Mosher. 1974. Special report: schizophrenia 1973. Schizophrenia Bulletin 9. 15–54. Liem, J.H. 1974. Effects of verbal communications of parents and children: a comparison of normal and schizophrenic families. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42. 438–50. Watzlawick, P., J.H.Beavin, and D.D.Jackson. 1967. Pragmatics of human communication: a study of interactional patterns, pathologies, and paradoxes. New York. double consonant geminate downdrift Property of tonal languages where the absolute pitch of the tones gradually sinks from the beginning of the sentence to the end even though the tones still maintain their value relative to one another. Dictionary of language and linguistics 338 References tonology downstep In tonal languages, toneme ( tone) which, after a certain number of syllables, causes the absolute pitch of the following tones to sink, their values relative to one another remaining unchanged. This phenomenon occurs in some West African languages. References tonology DP drag chain determiner phrase push chain vs drag chain Dravidian Language group of South-East Asia with about twenty-five languages and 175 million speakers, primarily in southern and eastern India and Sri Lanka, as well as in Pakistan (Brahui). These languages, probably originally extending over the whole Indian subcontinent, were displaced by the languages of the Indo-Aryan immigrants. The most important languages are Telugu (approx. 53 million speakers), Tamil (approx. 45 million speakers), Malayalam (approx. 28 million speakers), and Kannada (approx. 28 million speakers), and have writing systems with a literary tradition of more than 2,000 years. Ellis (1816) demonstrated the relatedness of the major Dravidian languages; the later work of R.A.Caldwell also was foundational. The Dravidian languages are possibly related to Elamite, a dead language of Iran. They evince numerous lexical borrowings from Indo-Aryan, while Dravidian languages have in turn influenced the Indo-Aryan languages phonologically, morphologically, and syntactically. A-Z 339 Characteristics: strongly agglutinating, suffixal languages with many compound constructions. The gender system points to an original [±masculine] in the singular and [±human] in the plural. Word order SOV; rich case system. The subject of stative verbs and verbs of sensation is frequently in the dative. No clause conjunction; instead, frequent participial constructions (converbs) for subordinating clauses. Complex system of auxiliaries with which the attitude of the speaker can be expressed (e.g. pejorative). diglossia), i.e. The more widely spoken Dravidian languages are largely diglossic ( they distinguish between formal and informal registers. References Andorov, M.S. 1970. Dravidian languages. Moscow. Bloch, J. 1946. Structure grammaticale des langues dravidiennes. Paris. Emeneau, M.B. 1969. The non-literary Dravidian languages. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 5, 334–42. Krishnamurti, B. 1969. Comparative Dravidian studies. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 5, 309–33. McAlpin, D. 1981. Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: the evidence and its implications. Philadelphia, PA. Zvelebil, K. 1977. A sketch of comparative Dravidian morphology. The Hague. ——1990. Dravidian linguistics: an introduction. Pondicherry. Grammars Agesthialingom, S. and N.R.Nair (eds) 1981. Dravidian syntax. Annamalainagar. Bray, D.D.S. 1909–34. The Brahui language, 2 vols. Calcutta (Repr. 1986.) Caldwell, R. 1856. A comparative grammar of the Dravidian South-Indian family of languages. (3rd rev. edn 1913 by J.L.Wyatt and T.R.Pillai. London. Repr. New Delhi 1974.) Ellis, F.W. 1816. Note to the introduction. In A grammar of the Teloogoo language, by A.D. Campbell. Frohnmeyer, L.J. 1913. A progressive grammar of the Malayalam language, 2nd rev. edn. (Repr. 1979.) Mangalore. Krishnamurti, B. and J.P.L.Gwynn. 1985. A grammar of modern Telugu. Delhi. Schiffman, H.F. 1979. A reference grammar of spoken Kannada. Seattle and London. (Repr. 1983.) Sridhar, S.N. (ed.) 1990. Kannada. London. Syamala, K. 1981. An intensive course in Malayalam. Mysore. Dictionaries Kittel, F. 1894. A Kannada-English dictionary. Mangalore and Leipzig. Sankaranarayana, P. 1986. Telugu-English dictionary. 10th rev. and enlarged edn. New Delhi. Malayalam lexicon. 1965–. Published by the University of Kerala. Trivandrum. Vol. 6 1988. Dictionary of language and linguistics 340 Etymological dictionary Burrow, T. and M.B.Emeneau. 1960. A Dravidian etymological dictionary. (2nd edn 1984.) London. Journal International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics. drift Sapir’s (1921) term for intralinguistic tendencies on the basis of which the direction of language change can be predicted. Sapir notes three interdependent grammatical trends in English: (a) loss of case marking; (b) stabilization of word order; and (c) invariability of word forms. These drifts, which are not only characteristic of English, are the result of the loss of final syllables in Germanic which, in turn, is seen as a consequence of Germanic stress relationships. More recent studies (see Vennemann 1975) have attempted to confirm drift as a universal characteristic of language change. References Lakoff, R. 1972. Another look at drift. In R.Stockwell and R.Macaulay (eds), Historical linguistics and generative theory. Bloomington, IN. 172–98. Sapir, E. 1921. Language. New York. Vennemann, T. 1975. An explanation of drift. In C.N. Li (ed.), Word order and word order change. Austin, TX. 269–305. A-Z 341 DRS (discourse representation structure) discourse representation theory DRT discourse representation theory d-structure deep structure dual [Lat. dualis ‘relating to two persons or things’] Subcategory of number which indicates elements appearing in pairs as opposed to single elements (singular) or more than two elements (plural). Remnants of the dual, which was originally fully operative in Indo-European, can be found in Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Gothic in the personal pronouns (e.g. Goth. nominative weis ‘we’ vs wit ‘we two’), as well as in some Slavic languages. References number dummy element Linguistic elements whose only function is to fill empty syntactic positions in certain syntactic structures where the valence of the verb requires that they be filled (e.g. it in It is raining). They are lexically and morphologically unspecified and often do not agree formally with other elements in the sentence. When paraphrased, they can usually be deleted: it in It is impossible for him to come on time vs For him to come on time is impossible ( extraposition). Dictionary of language and linguistics 342 dummy symbol Symbol used in generative transformational grammar which is lexically and morphologically unspecified and has the function of marking the syntactic position of categories. durative vs non-durative (also aterminative/ cursive vs terminative, immutative vs mutative, imperfective vs perfective, incomplete vs complete, telic vs atelic) Fundamental subcategorization of aspect. Durative verbs describe processes which are temporally not delimited (burn, work, read), in contrast to non-durative verbs, whose lexical meaning implies temporal delimitation, an accomplishment, or a change in the process involved (burn down, burn up). This distinction determines the choice of temporal modifiers indicating the duration of the action. Durative verbs can be used with modifiers such as for two hours or for a long time, but not with modifiers such as in an hour: The house has been burning for two hours/*in two hours. Cf. the non-durative verb: The house burnt down in two hours/*for two hours. In addition, non-durative verbs can be recognized as such because their imperfective variants (She was eating an apple when I came in) do not imply the perfective variant: She ate an apple. Durative verbs have numerous subcategories: (a) iterative verbs ( iterative vs semelfactive), which indicate the repetition of a process (e.g. breathe, flutter); (b) diminutive verbs which indicate a low intensity of the action expressed by the verb . Non-durative verbs can be divided into the following categories: (a) ingressive verbs or inchoative verbs, which indicate the beginning of an action (burst into flames, fall asleep); (b) resultative or accomplishment verbs, which denote a process and its final result (burn down, shatter); (c) transformative verbs, which indicate a change from one state into anot her (age, cool off); and (d) punctual or achievement verbs, which imply a sudden change in the situation (explode, find). In the literature on aspect the distinction between durative and non-durative is often equated with that of imperfective vs perfective. In a narrower sense, durative vs non-durative is identified with nonpunctual vs punctual. A-Z 343 References aspect Dutch Germanic language which developed from West Low Franconian and has two historical dialect variants: Flemish (south) and Dutch (north). Dutch is the official language (approx. 20 million speakers) of the Netherlands and its overseas territories and is the second official language of Belgium next to French. Afrikaans, which developed from seventeenth-century dialects, is now an independent language. The oldest literary attestations (Middle Dutch) date from 1150 in the area of Limburg-Brabant (Henric van Feldeke). Since the seventeenth century the dialect of Amsterdam has been considered the written norm (e.g. the official Bible translation of the Statenbijebel, 1626–37), while Dutch is spoken in the south only as the dialect variant ‘Flemish.’ With the signing of the Nederlandse Taalunie (Netherlandic Language Union, 1980) century-long attempts at unifying the Netherlands and Belgium were officially recognized. In its older forms, Dutch was not much farther removed from High German than Low German, and still today shows marked similarities to German, though it has preserved a number of archaic forms in its lexicon (cf. oorlog ‘war’ vs Ger. Krieg, geheugen ‘memory’ vs Ger. Gedächtnis, eeuw ‘century’ vs Ger. Jahrhundert). The nominal inflectional system of Dutch is much more reduced than that of German. References Booij, G. 1995. The phonology of Dutch. Oxford. Brachin, P. 1987. Die niederländische Sprache. Hamburg. Devleeschouwer, J. 1981. Het ontstaan der Nederlandse Franse taalgrens. Naamkunde 13. 188–225. Geerts, G. 1987. Dutch reference grammar, 3rd edn. Leiden. Overdiep, G.S. 1949. Stilistische Grammatica van het moderne Nederlands, 2nd edn. Zwolle. Shetter, W.Z. 1994. Dutch: an essential grammar. London. Van Haeringen, C.B. 1960. Netherlandic language research: men and works in the study of Dutch, 2nd edn. Leiden. Van Loey, A. 1970. Schoenfeld’s Historische Grammatica van het Nederlands, 8th edn. Zutphen. History Donaldson, B.C. 1983. Dutch: a linguistic history of Holland and Belgium. Leiden. Franck, J. 1910. Mittelniederlandische Grammatik. Arnhem. (Repr. 1976.) Van Kerckvoorde, C.M. 1993. An introduction to Middle Dutch. Berlin and New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 344 Dictionaries De Vries, J. 1971. Nederlands etymologisch wordenboek, 2 vols. Leiden. (Repr. 1992.) Renier, F. 1982. Dutch dictionary. London. Woordenboek der nederlandsche taal. 1882–. Vol. 27 1994. ‘s-Gravenhage and Leiden. dvandva Dyirbal composition Australian languages dynamic stative vs active dynamic accent stress accent dynamic stress stress2 dysarthria [Grk dys- ‘un-, mis-’; arthroũn ‘to utter distinctly’] Term denoting any number of speech-motor disorders in the central or peripheral nervous system in which articulation, phonation, or prosody are affected. In contrast with apraxia, in dysarthria consistently recurring errors or substitutions are typical. ( also specific language impairment) References Darley, F. et al. 1975. Motor speech disorders. Philadelphia, PA. aphasia, language disorder A-Z 345 dysfluency (also stammering, stuttering) In speech-language pathology, widely used as a synonym for ‘stuttering.’ As such, it denotes a situation-specific speech production disorder in which fluency of speech is disrupted by a lack of motor co-ordination in the muscles involved in articulation, phonation, or respiration. Two symptoms are generally distinguished: (a) tonic dysfluency (stuttering), characterized by interruptions in articulatory movements due to a spasm in the articulatory muscles; and (b) clonic dysfluency (stammering) due to a quick sequence of contractions of the speech muscles that causes repetitions of sounds, syllables, or words. Both symptoms can occur isolated or combined. Stuttering is more common in male than in female speakers. In North America, stuttering and stammering are not sharply distinguished. The term ‘dysfluency’ can also be used more generally to refer to any sort of breakdown in speech fluency, such as cluttering. References Andrews, G. et al. 1982. Stuttering: a review of research findings and theories circa 1982. JSHD 48. 226–46. Bloodstein, O. 1987. A handbook of stuttering. New York. dysglossia [Grk ‘tongue; language’] Term referring to articulation disorders due to changes (e.g. paralysis or defect) in the peripheral speech organs. Dysglossia is classified anatomically according to the part of the speech organ involved, e.g. ‘labial dysglossia.’ Pharyngeal and laryngeal dysglossia are also classi-fied as voice disorders. Dysglossia is distinguished from dyslalia. a condition in which articulation problems are unrelated to deficiencies in the peripheral mechanism. Neither term is currently used in North America. Dictionary of language and linguistics dysgrammatism 346 agrammatism dyslalia [Grk lalía ‘talk, chat’] In the study of developmental language disorders, term referring to speech production disorders in children, such as syllable reduction, mispronunciation, or substitution of individual sounds (partial dyslalia) or of many sounds (multiple dyslalia) up to the point of unintelligibility (universal dyslalia). A particular kind of dyslalia is known as paralalia. Dyslalia is distinguished from dysglossia, a condition which results from structural defects, and from dysarthria, a condition due to acquired neural impairments. The term ‘dyslalia’ is not currently used in North America. ( also articulation disorder, phonological disorder) dyslexia [Grk léxis ‘word, speech’] Term covering a number of reading disorders with different causes. As with language disorder, acquired dyslexia, often referred to as alexia, and developmental dyslexia are distinguished. References Coltheart, M., K.Patterson, and J.C.Marshall (eds) 1987. Deep dyslexia, 2nd edn. London. Miles, T.R. 1985. Dyslexia: the current status of the term. CLTT 1:1.54–64. Søvik, N., O.Arntzen, and R.Thygeson. Relation of spelling and writing in learning disabilities. PMS 64:1.219–36. A-Z 347 dysphasia developmental aphasia, developmental dysphasia dysphonia [Grk dysphōnía ‘roughness of sound’] In speech-language pathology, term covering a number of voice disorders caused by deficient phonatory techniques, growths or infections in the larynx, or psychological factors, such as stress or depression. ( also aphonia) dyspraxia apraxia dysprosody [Grk prosōidía ‘voice modulation’] In neurolinguistics, term referring to a grave impairment of prosody, such as a disturbance in the contour, intensity, or the temporal structure of the utterance. For instance, differences between main and secondary stress in syllables may be leveled so that all syllables are spoken with the same intensity. ( also language disorder, specific language impairment) References Baltaxe, C. and J.Q.Simmons. 1985. Prosodic development in normal and autistic children. In E. Schoper and G.V.Mesibov (eds), Communication problems in autism. New York. 95–125. Burton, A. 1981. Linguistic analysis of dysprosody: a case study. UCLA Working Papers in Cognitive Linguistics 3. 189–98. Von Benda, U. and H.Amorosa. 1987. Intonation as a potential diagnostic tool in developmental disorders of speech communication. In Academy of Sciences of the Estonian SSR (eds), Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences. Tallinn. Vol. 5, 160–3. articulation disorder, language disorder Dictionary of language and linguistics 348 E East Germanic East Ladinian Germanic Rhaeto-Romance East Sudan languages Chari-Nile languages Eblaite Semitic echo question Interrogative sentence which answers a question by reformulating and repeating it. For example, Who are you looking for?—Who am I looking for?, What is an echo question?—What’s an echo question? In English, echo questions have the same form as the questions they are based on, but in discourse they have different intonation. ( also interrogative, question) A-Z 349 References interrogative echolalia[Grk ‘ringing sound’; laliaí ‘talk’] In neurolinguistics and psychology, term referring to the repetition of one’s utterances or of those of others by autistic persons ( autism), schizophrenic persons, mentally retarded people, and patients with aphasia, among others. The term connotes meaningless, rote repetition, but recent studies with autistic children have shown that ‘echolalia’ may actually have a range of communicative and non-communicative functions. Echolalia is distinguished from the more general term ‘imitation,’ which carries no connotation as to function. References Prizant, B.M.P. and J.F.Duchan. 1981. The functions of immediate echolalia in autistic children. JSHD 46. 241–49. Prizant, B.M.P. and J.Rydell. 1984. Analysis of functions of delayed echolalia in autistic children. JSHR 27. 183–92. Schuler, A.L. 1979. Echolalia: issues and clinical applications. JSHD 44. 411–34. autism, developmental language disorder, language disorder Dictionary of language and linguistics 350 ECM exceptional case marking ECP empty category principle ectosemantic sphere [Grk ektós ‘outside’; ‘sign’] In information theory, all the features of a speech occurrence that are semantically irrelevant for the dissemination of information, such as the social, regional, emotional, stylistic, or gender-specific characteristics of the speaker. editorial we plural of modesty educational language policy policy language effected object [Lat. efficere ‘to cause, to bring about’] Semantic relation between a transitive verb and its object noun phrase. The thing denoted by the object is the result of the action denoted by the verb, e.g. Philip writes a letter. This contrasts with the affected object, which modifies the object. In semantics, such verbs are called ‘existential causatives.’ A semantic analysis must account for the connection of such verbs with their corresponding ‘result-objects.’ A-Z 351 References case, case grammar, semantic relation effective egressive2, resultative EFL Abbreviation, used primarily in Great Britain, for English as a Foreign Language. ( also foreign vs second language) egocentric language [Lat. ego ‘l’] According to J.Piaget (1896–1980), an indication of the inability of children (aged about four to seven years) to change their perspective in order to recognize different aspects of an object or to recognize the difference between one’s own perspective and that of another. Piaget’s interest centered primarily on the development of logical thinking, which develops from autistic via egocentric thinking. Piaget’s concept of egocentric language was challenged by Vygotskij (1934). According to Vygotskij language and thinking develop phylogenetically and ontogenetically from different roots. Language, social in its origin, develops into communicative and internal language (linguistic thinking in differentiation to instrumental thinking). Egocentric language is structurally different from communicative language and has the function of self-guidance in problemsolving. Cf. in this connection also the significance of conversations with oneself as a stimulus for the development of the identity of the self in Mead’s (1934) theory. References Mead, G.H. 1934. Mind, self and society from the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Chicago, IL. Piaget, J. 1923. Le Langage et la pensée chez l’enfant. Paris. Rieber, R.W. and A.S.Carton (eds) 1987/1990. The collected works of L.S. Vygotskij. 2 vols. (transl. N. Minick). New York/London. Vygotskij, L.S. 1934/1962. Thought and language. (Russ. 1934, transl. E.Hanfman and G.Vakar). Cambridge, MA. ——1978. Mind in society. Cambridge, MA. language acquisition Dictionary of language and linguistics egocentric particular 352 deictic expression egressive [Lat. egressus ‘the action of going out’] 1 Outward direction of the airstream mechanism ( pulmonic and glottalic sounds are egressive. ingressive). As a rule, only References articulatory phonetics, phonetics 2 (also finitive, effective, resultative) Verbal aspect which falls under the category of durative vs non-durative verbs. It refers variously to either resultatives or to punctuals. Egyptian Language branch of Afro-Asiatic, consisting of one language which is attested in various stages: Ancient Egyptian (Old Egyptian, 3000–2200 BC), Middle Egyp tian and NeoEgyptian (1300–660 BC), as well as Demotic up to AD 300 and Coptic up until the nineteenth century, still used today as a liturgical language in the Coptic church. Writing systems: hieroglyphics for Old Egyptian, out of which a cursive writing system developed (Hieratic, Demotic); Coptic was written with a modified Greek alphabet. For the older linguistic stages only the consonant values are known. Characteristics: Generally similar to the Semitic type (root inflection, gender); independent form for non-stative sentences (suffixal conjugation with genitive subjects); evidence for ergative sentence constructions in older language stages (the ergative was encoded as the genitive). References Kees, H. (ed.) 1959. Ägyptologie. (Handbuch der Orientalistik, I, vol. 1, 1.) (Repr. 1973.) Leiden. A-Z 353 Grammars Brunner. H. 1967. Adriβ der mittelägyptischen Grammatik. Graz. Edel, E. 1955. Altägyptische Grammatik. Rome. (2nd edn 1964.) Gardiner, A. 1927. Egyptian grammar. Oxford. (3rd edn 1957.) Störk, L. 1981. Ägyptisch. In B.Heine et al. (eds), Die Sprachen Afrikas. Hamburg. 149–70. Vergote, J. 1973. Grammaire copte, 2 vols. Louvain. Bibliography Annual Egyptological Bibliography. Leiden. Dictionary Erman, A. and H.Grapow. 1926–31. Wörterbuch der ägyptischen Sprache. Leipzig. Etymological dictionary Vycichl, W. 1984. Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue copte. Louvain. Journal Journal of Egyptian Language and Archeology. eidetic vs operative sense [Grk eĩdos ‘idea’] Cognitive theoretical distinction made in semiotics (of linguistic signs). The eidetic sense of a sign derives from its semantic relations to objects and states of affairs in the real world (i.e. its semantic function) as well as to other signs; it is determined by the semantics of a language. In contrast, the operative sense derives from the rules of usage (i.e. operations) for linguistic signs, which are established on the level of syntax. This distinction is particularly relevant in the natural sciences, e.g. a scientist may perform operations using signs without a concrete eidetic sense (e.g. in mathematics with negative numbers). On the other hand, computers are only able to work with the operative sense of signs; completely new eidetic senses can be derived from the corresponding (syntactic) operations or at least narrowed down from them. Dictionary of language and linguistics 354 References semiotics ejective [Lat. eicere ‘to throw out’] (also abruptive) Egressive plosive made with a glottalic airstream mechanism. As a rule, the glottal and oral closures are released almost simultaneously. Delayed release of the glottal closure results in a postglottalized plosive ( glottalization). Ejectives are found in Caucasian also languages as well as in many Native American and African languages. ( articulatory phonetics, phonetics) elaborated code code theory elaborative inference Elamite inference2 Dravidian elative [Lat. elatio ‘the act of lifting; elevation’] 1 Superlative form of an adjective used to indicate a high degree of some characteristic, which, in contrast to the relative superlative, has no comparative component; thus elatives are also called absolute superlatives (e.g. It was the greatest!). ( also degree) 2 Morphological case in the Finno-Ugric languages used to indicate a direction of motion from inside to outside. ( also illative) A-Z 355 elective mutism mutism element of style Any linguistic element that determines the stylistic features of a text. In addition to particular stylistic devices like figures of speech, any linguistic phenomenon can have a stylistic function. There are phonetic elements of style, (alliteration, phonostylistics), lexical elements of style (nominalization, archaism), morphological elements of style (genitive ending ‘s), syntactic elements of style (sentence complexity, length of sentence), and textual and pragmatic elements of style (types of cohesion, theme-rheme, thematic development). References stylistics elementary phonetics Method of researching the structure of speech sounds, based exclusively on what the (trained) human ear is capable of distinguishing. This approach has been largely surpassed by the development of experimental phonetics and instrumental phonetics. ( also auditory phonetics) References phonetics elision [Lat. elidere ‘to force out’] In phonetics and phonology. the loss of a vowel, consonant, or syllable. Elision ~[klo:z]), in commonly occurs in complex consonant clusters (e.g. clothes unstressed ( stress) syllables (e.g. probably [prabli]) or syntactically ( syntax) Dictionary of language and linguistics unstressed words (e.g. you and me→you ‘n’ me). ( syncope) 356 also aphesis, apocope, haplology, References language change, phonetics, phonology, sound change ellipsis [Grk élleipsis ‘omission’] Deletion of linguistic elements that are required because of either syntactical rules or lexical properties (e.g. verbal valence). There are various constructions that can be interpreted as ellipsis. (a) Co-ordinating reduction, where identical material is left out: He had too much to drink but I didn’t ( gapping). (b) Lexical ellipsis, which refers to complements required by valence, e.g. It’s your turn to deal (the cards). Lexical ellipses are further divided into indefinite vs definite ellipses, e.g. He’s eating (something) vs Philip finally got up the nerve (for something which must be known from the context). In English, definite ellipsis is rather rare, and the subject cannot normally be omitted (except in the so-called telegram style -arriving tomorrow—and other restricted situations, such as Coming! when answering the door, etc.). In other languages ( Romance languages, Japanese, Chinese), however, the omission of a definite pronominal subject is quite usual: Ital. lavoro ‘(I) work.’ (c) In questions and answers, previously mentioned material is often omitted: Who ‘s coming tomorrow?—Caroline (is coming tomorrow). (d) Infinitive and participial constructions can also be analyzed as regular forms of ellipsis in that the subject must be omitted: Louise stopped smoking ( equi-NP deletion). (e) In imperatives obligatory deletion of the subject occurs: Go home! References Kino, S. 1982. Principles of discourse deletion: case studies from English, Russian and Japanese. JoS 1. 61–93. Klein, W. 1981. Some rules of regular ellipsis in German. In W.K.Levelt and W.Levelt (eds), Crossing the boundaries of linguistics. Amsterdam. 51–78. Lobeck, A. 1995. Ellipsis. Functional heads, licensing and identification. Oxford. Mittwoch, A. 1982. On the difference between ‘eating’ and ‘eating something’: activities vs accomplishments. LingI 13. 113–22. Shopen, T. 1973. Ellipsis as grammatical indeterminacy. FL 10. 65–77. Thomas, A.L. 1979. Ellipsis: the interplay of sentence structure and context. Lingua 47. 43–68. Vennemann, T. 1975. Topics, sentence accent, ellipsis: a proposal for their formal treatment. In E.L. Keenan (ed.), Formal semantics and natural language. Cambridge. 313–28. rhetoric, spoken language A-Z 357 elliptic form In word formation an elliptic determinative compound in which the second element of a three-element compound is dropped, e.g. shoe (repair) shop. In contrast to foreclippings and back-clippings ( clipping), such elliptic forms can develop directly from determinative compounds. -em A Greek suffix used to indicate functional units on the level of langue ( also morpheme, phoneme) parole). ( langue vs References etic vs emic analysis embedding A syntactic relation in transformational grammar in which an independent sentence of surface structure becomes a dependent sentence in the matrix sentence, if the independent sentence is a constituent of the matrix sentence. It is then said to be embedded. Thus the traditional distinction between a main clause and a subordinate clause becomes the distinction between a matrix sentence and a constituent sentence. References complementizer, transformational grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics emic 358 etic vs emic analysis empathetic deixis empathy empathy [Grk empátheia ‘affection’] The speaker’s adoption or occupying of a perspective or standpoint other than his/her own. Normally speakers maintain and reflect their own point of view, but frequently they will shift the perspective (the origo of the deixis) from their own to that of another person or thing (Lyons called this ‘empathetic deixis’ (1977:677). For example, in the pair come: go, come contains the component ‘towards the speaker’ and go the component ‘away from the speaker’; but it is possible to say not only Afterwards I’ll go to the café, but also Afterwards I’ll come to the café, the latter, namely, when one takes the standpoint of the addressee who will be in the café afterwards. Empathy plays an important role in the interpretation of zero anaphora in Japanese in which each predicate selects one of its arguments as the place in which speaker empathy is localized (see Kuno and Kaburaki 1977). References Kuno, S. and E.Kaburaki. 1977. Empathy and syntax. LingI 8. 627–72. Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics, 2 vols. Cambridge. emphasis [Grk émphasis ‘exposition,’ from emphaínein ‘to exhibit; to indicate’] Also known as ‘significatio,’ emphasis means to imply more than is actually stated. This can be accomplished by choosing an exceptionally strong word or phrase: Be a man! Emphasis can also be achieved by saying less than you mean, implying more than you say: for example, He has such charm… Various devices can create emphasis: tautology, pleonasm, cliché, simile, litotes, interjection, and exclamation. A-Z 359 References figure of speech emphatic Term commonly used in Arabic linguistics for pharyngealized ( pharyngeal) or velar) speech sounds. ( also secondary articulation) velarized ( empiricism [Grk émpeiros ‘experienced’] In psychology an approach based on English positivism (Locke, Berkeley, Hume), which views experience as the foundation of all understanding. This contrasts with nativism, which sees innate ideas as the basis for all cognitive development. As a methodological principle, namely ensuring the verifiability of knowledge through observable experience, empiricism plays a decisive role in the behaviorist views of language acquisition. ( also antimentalism, behaviorism, stimulus-response) References behaviorism, language acquisition, stimulus-response empractical use of language Term coined by K.Bühler, denoting communication by means of isolated, syntactically irregular or incomplete linguistic elements whose meaning is determined through ‘practical’ use in the given situation and which in turn is sympractically embedded, e.g. the customer to the café waiter: Bill, please; or the commuter at the ticket counter: San Francisco and back. ( also sympractical field of language) References Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart, 1965.) Dictionary of language and linguistics 360 Innis, R.E. (trans.) 1982. Karl Bühler: semiotic foundations of language theory. New York. empty category principle (abbrev. ECP) A principle of transformational grammar by which traces ( trace theory) must be visible, i.e. they must be identifiable as empty positions in the surface structure, similar to the principle of reconstruction for deletion. Thus an empty category is in a position subcategorized for by a verb. In Government and Binding theory this is known as proper government. Proper government occurs either if the empty position is governed by a lexical category (especially if it is not a subject) or if it is coindexed with a maximal projection which governs it (antecedent government). The ECP has been revised many times and is now a central part of Government and Binding theory. References Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. (7th edn Berlin and New York, 1993). ——1986. Barriers. Cambridge, MA. Kayne, R. 1984. Connectedness and binary branching. Dordrecht. Lasnik, H. and M.Saito. 1984. On the nature of proper government. LingI 15. 235–89. Pesetsky, D.M. 1982. Paths and categories. Dissertation, MIT. Rizzi, L. 1990. Relativized minimality. Cambridge, MA. Sobin, N. 1987. The variable status of COMP-trace phenomena. NL&LT 5. 33–60. noun phrase empty position 1 (also slot) In formal logic, the arguments required by predicates. 2 In linguistics: (a) a position in a sentence which the syntax dictates could be occupied by another element. Depending on the sentence, it may be obligatory or optional that the position be filled: for example, the empty position in the …sky may optionally be filled by an adjective. (b) A position determined by the valence of the verb. ( also dependency grammar) 3 A syntactic category of the Revised Extended Standard Theory ( transformational grammar) which may contain morphological and syntactic features, but no phonological features. These categories include traces of trace theory, the PRO element of control theory, and the pro-element of pro-drop languages. Empty positions are subclassified in various ways in Government and Binding theory and are subject to the binding theory, the empty category principle, and theta criterion. A-Z 361 References Government and Binding theory empty set set empty slot 1 In phonology, designation for presumed gaps in the phonemic inventory of a language in systems assumed to be phonologically symmetrical. An empty slot in the English phonological system would be the absence of the unrounded back vowel counterpart to . /u/, namely References phonology 2 empty position enallage hypallage enclave (also relic area, speech island) 1 Speech community that develops when small groups (e.g. farmers, manual laborers, miners, religious sects, etc.) settle in areas where other languages have already been established. The language of such groups is most usually characterized by its relative conservativeness in respect to the language spoken in the country of origin. For this reason, the investigation of the linguistic conditions surrounding enclaves is particularly suitable for the reconstruction of older stages of the language in question, above all for dating language change. The language of the Amish (a Mennonite sect) in the Midwestern United States, derived from German, and the language of the ‘Hillbillies’ in Appalachia show characteristics of older German and English forms, respectively. The linguistic classification and delineation of the probable area of origin as well as the study Dictionary of language and linguistics 362 of interference between the language of the enclave and other contact languages have become important areas of research in dialectology. 2 In a more general sense, an enclave is every linguistic variety that can be delineated in terms of its geographic location, deviates from the form of the surrounding language, and shows characteristics related to the varieties on the other side of the linguistic border. The most frequent manifestation of such enclaves are, to be sure, the relic areas which, for whatever reasons, did not take part in the process of language change seen in other related dialects. But areas of innovation, which are found beyond the more conservative adjacent dialect areas and in which prestige forms from distant areas have been adopted, are also possible. Frequently such areas are found in the vicinity of cities. References Maher, J. 1986. Contact linguistics: the language enclave phenomenon. DAI 46:8. 2282A. Vasek, A. 1980. On the functioning of the developmental factors of an isolated language in contact and the way in which we come to know them. Makadonski Jasik 31. 91–9. Wiesinger, P. 1980. Deutsche Sprachinseln. In H. Althaus et al. (eds), Lexikon der germanistischen Linguistik. 2nd edn. Tübingen. enclisis [Grk énklisis ‘inclination’] Attachment of a weakly stressed or unstressed word (enclitic) onto the preceding word, generally with simultaneous phonetic weakening, e.g. I’m for I am. For attachment to the following word proclitic. ( also cliticization) References phonetics, phonology enclitic Weakly stressed or unstressed element which attaches itself to a preceding stressed word, e.g. I am>I’m. ( also enclisis, proclitic) A-Z 363 encoding 1 In information theory, the process and result of the association of an inventory of signs with special information from other inventories of signs, through which the same information can be presented. 2 In linguistics, the transfer of thoughts and ideas into the linguistic sign system of the speaker, from which the hearer deciphers meaning by use of decoding. Encoding occurs simultaneously on the lexical, syntactic-morphological, and phonological levels and is guided by the pragmatics of the context. References language production endocentric compound determinative compound endocentric construction [Grk éndon ‘within’] Term introduced by Bloomfield (1933) referring to a syntactic construction which belongs to the same form class/category (i.e. shows the same distribution) as one or more of its constituents. Thus fresh fruit can be replaced by fruit because both can occur as X in the environment He is buying X. Fruit is considered the nucleus (or head, center) and the adjective fresh a satellite ( modifier). On the difference between these terms, see exocentric construction. Bloomfield differentiates between co-ordinate and subordinate endocentric constructions: when two or more immediate constituents belong to the same form class as the entire expression, he speaks of co-ordinate (also: serial) endocentric constructions as in the co-ordination of John and Mary. If only one of several elements belongs to the same form class as the whole expression, then it is a subordinate (also: attributive) endocentric construction: new books. These distinctions also define important dependency relations, upon which dependency grammar and categorial grammar systematically build. ( also complementation and modification). Dictionary of language and linguistics 364 References Barri, N. 1975. Note terminologique: endocentrique-exocentrique. Linguistics 13. 5–18. Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. 194–7. Harris, Z.S. 1951. Methods in structural linguistics. Chicago, IL. Hincha, G. 1961. Endocentric vs exocentric constructions. Lingua 10. 267–74. Hockett, C.F. 1958. A course in modern linguistics. New York. 183–98. categorial grammar, dependency grammar energeia [Grk enérgeia ‘activity’] Concept traceable to Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) viewing language as ‘action’ or ‘effective energy’ rather than a static entity ( ergon). Language is not a ‘material lying there to be surveyed in its entirety,’ but rather must be seen as a ‘continuously selfgenerating’ process (1903–36, vol. 8:58). Language, in this sense, makes ‘infinite use of finite resources’ (p. 99). Numerous linguistic theories appeal to this ‘energetic’ conception of language, including the generative transformational grammar of N.Chomsky, which is concerned with the creative aspect of the energeia concept. This is represented in the framework of his theory as a ‘system of recursive processes.’ References Harris, R. and T.J.Taylor. 1989. Landmarks in linguistic thought. London. Ch. 12. Robins, R.H. 1967. A short history of linguistics. Bloomington, IN. Manchester, M. 1986. The philosophical foundations of Humboldt’s linguistic doctrines. Amsterdam. Von Humboldt, W. 1836. On language: the diversity of human language structure and its influence on the mental development of mankind, trans. P. Heath. Cambridge. (Trans. 1988.) ——1903–36. Gesammelte Schriften, vol. I: Werke, ed. A.Leitzmann. 9 vols. Berlin. (Repr. 1968.) energetic Modal category of verbs used to express a categorial assertion. While Arabic has independent forms of the energetic, English and related languages realize it through paraphrases: She does like him. A-Z 365 References modality Enga Papuan English West Germanic language which has approx. 325 million native speakers, in England (56 million), the United States (232 million), Canada (24 million), and Australia and New Zealand (17 million). It is the sole official language in more than two dozen countries (e.g. South Africa), and is used as a language of commerce in India and Pakistan. Today it is the most important language of commerce and the most widely learned second language. The name ‘English’ comes from the Angles, who together with other tribes (Saxons, Jutes) conquered Britain in the fifth century AD and forced the native Celts ( Celtic) into remote areas (Scotland, Wales, Cornwall). Three main periods in the history of English can be distinguished. (a) Old English (fifth century to 1050), with the dialect of Wessex as the ‘standard language.’ (b) Middle English (1050–1500): during the Norman occupation of England (from the Battle of Hastings in 1066 to the mid fourteenth century England was bilingual English-French). The effects of Norman French are seen especially in the vocabulary, where distinctions between words with similar meanings often rest on coexisting Germanic and Romance roots: e.g. freedom (Gmc.) vs liberty (Rom.). While Old English was an inflectional language with grammatical gender for substantives (masculine, feminine, neuter), four cases, and strong and weak adjectival declension, this structure was simplified as the loss of final syllables increasingly led to the loss of grammatical gender, the simplification of plural formation, and the widespread loss of inflectional morphemes. (c) Modern English, as a result, is virtually without inflection; grammatical relations which were formerly marked morphologically are now expressed by firm word order rules (subject-verb-object). Current orthography of English, with its wide discrepancies between spelling and pronunciation, represents the sound inventory of the late Middle English period at the end of the fifteenth century (cf. the various pronunciations of ‹ou› in through, thousand, thought, though, tough, cough, could). References Baker, C.L. 1988. English syntax. Cambridge, MA. Cheshire, J. (ed.) 1991. English around the world: sociolinguistic perspectives. Cambridge. Crystal, D. 1988. The English language. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 366 ——(ed.) 1995. The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language. Cambridge. Ghadessy, M. 1988. Registers in written English. London. Gramley, S. and K.-M.Pätzold. 1992. A survey of Modern English. London. Greenbaum, S. (ed.) 1985. The English language today. Oxford. Harris, J. 1994. English sound structure. Oxford. Jacobs, R.A. 1995. English syntax. Oxford. McCawley, J.D. 1988. The syntactic phenomena of English, vol. 1. Chicago, IL. McCrum, R., W.Cran, and R.MacNeil. 1986. The story of English. New York. Oxford library of English usage. 1991. Oxford. Pennycook, A. 1994. The cultural politics of English as an international language. London. Pyles, T. and J.Algeo. 1993. The origins and development of the English language, 4th edn. New York. History Barber, C. 1993. The English language: a historical introduction. Cambridge. Bauer, L. 1994. Watching English change: an introduction to the study of linguistic change in standard Englishes in the twentieth century. London. Baugh, A.C. and T.Cable. 1993. A history of the English language, 4th edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. (1st edn. New York 1935.) Brunner, K. 1950–1. Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung, 2 vols. Halle (2nd edn 1960–2 Tübingen. Repr. 1984.) Denison, D. 1993. English historical syntax. London. Dillard, J.L. 1992. A history of American English. London. Görlach, M. 1978. Einführung in das Frühneuenglische. Heidelberg. (Transl. as Introduction to early modern English. Cambridge.) Graddol, D., J.Swann, and D.Leith. 1996. English. History, diversity and change. London. Jones, C. 1989. A history of English phonology. London. Kastovsky, D. (ed.) 1991. Historical English syntax. Berlin and New York. Lass, R. 1994. Old English: a historical linguistic companion. Cambridge. Milroy, J. 1992. Linguistic variation and change: on the historical sociolinguistics of English. Oxford. Rissanen, M. et al. (eds) 1992. History of Englishes: new methods and interpretations in historical linguistics. Berlin and New York. Robinson, O.W. 1994. Old English and its closest relatives. London. Strang, B. 1970. A history of English. London. Modern grammars Greenbaum, S. 1994. The Oxford English grammar. Oxford. Jespersen, O. 1909–49. A modern English grammar on historical principles, 7 vols. London. Leech, G. 1975. A communicative grammar of English. London. Matthews, P.H. 1981. Syntax. Cambridge. Quirk, R. and S.Greenbaum. 1973. A university grammar of English. London. Quirk, R. et al. 1972. A grammar of contemporary English. London. ——1985. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London. Young, D.J. 1981. The structure of English clauses. London. Zandvoort, R. 1969. A handbook of English grammar, 5th edn. London. A-Z 367 Historical grammars Brunner, K. 1942. Altenglische Grammatik: nach der Angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers. (3rd rev. edn 1965.) Tübingen. Campbell, A. 1959. Old English grammar, 3rd edn. Oxford. Hogg, R.M. 1992. A grammar of Old English, vol. I: Phonology. Oxford and Cambridge, MA. Jespersen, O. 1905. The growth and structure of the English language. Leipzig. (10th edn Chicago, 1982.) Mitchell, B. 1985. Old English syntax, 2 vols. Oxford. Mossé, F. 1952. A handbook of Middle English. Baltimore, MD. Mustanoja, T.F. 1960. A Middle English syntax. Helsinki. History of English Hogg, R.M. (gen. ed.) 1991–. Cambridge history of the English language, 6 vols. Cambridge. Etymology Bammesberger, A. 1984. English etymology. Heidelberg. Varieties of English Baumgardner, R.J. (ed.) 1994. The English language in Pakistan. Oxford. Ferguson, C.A. and S.B.Heath. 1981. Language in the USA. Cambridge. Graddol, D. and S.Goodman. 1996. English in a postmodern world. London. Hammarström, G. 1980. Australian English: its origin and status. Hamburg. Hughes, A. and P.Trudgill. 1987. English accents and dialects: an introduction to social and regional varieties of British English, 2nd edn. London. Mencken, H.L. 1919. The American language: an inquiry into the development of English in the United States. New York. (7th rev. edn. 1986.) O’Donnell, W.R. and L.Todd. 1980. Variety in contemporary English. London. Schmied, J.J. 1991. English in Africa. London. Todd, L. and I.Hancock (eds) 1990. International English usage. London. Trudgill, P. 1994. Dialects. London. Trudgill, P. and J.Hannah. 1982. International English: a guide to varieties of standard English. London. (2nd edn 1989.) Upton, C., J.Widdowson, and D.Parry. 1994. Survey of English dialects: the dictionary and grammar. London. Wilkes, G.A. 1991. A dictionary of Australian colloquialisms. Sydney. Bibliographies Glauser, B., E.W.Schneider, and M.Görlach. 1993. A new bibliography of writings on varieties of English, 1984–1992/3. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Dictionary of language and linguistics 368 Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1987. A bibliography of writings for the history of the English language, 2nd edn. Berlin and New York. Reichl. K. 1993. Englische Sprachwissenschaft: eine Bibliographie. Bielefeld and Munich. Viereck, W. 1984. A bibliography of writings on varieties of English, 1965–1983. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Vorlat, E. 1978. Analytical bibliography of writings on Modern English morphology and syntax. Dictionaries Branford, J. 1991. A dictionary of South African English. Oxford. Cassidy, F.G. and J.H.Hall (eds) 1991. Dictionary of American regional English. vol. II: D—H. Cambridge, MA. Lutz, W.D. (ed.) The Cambridge thesaurus of American English. Cambridge. The Oxford English dictionary. 1933. 12 vols. Oxford. (2nd edn 1989.) Ramson, W.S. (ed.) 1989. The Australian national dictionary. Random House unabridged dictionary. 1993. New York. Webster’s third new international dictionary of the English language. 1976. 3 vols. Chicago, IL. Etymological d ictionaries The Oxford dictionary of English etymology. 1966. Oxford. (Repr. with corrections 1967.) Historical dictionaries Bosworth, J. and T.Toller. 1898. The Anglo-Saxon dictionary. London. (Exp. 1921, 1972.) Campbell, A. 1972. Enlarged Addenda and Corrigenda to the supplement by T.N. Toller. Oxford. Dictionary of Old English. 1986– (microfiche edn). Toronto. Kurath, H. et al. (eds) 1956–. Middle English dictionary. Ann Arbor, MI. (Vol. Sm-Sz 1988.) Toller, T.N. 1921. An Anglo-Saxon dictionary: supplement. Oxford. Journals Anglia. English Studies. English Today. English World-Wide. dialect A-Z entailment 369 implication enthymeme [Grk enthymázein ‘to ponder’] An abridged syllogism, the major premise being omitted as understood. Aristotle, who introduced the term, used it to mean a syllogism in which the premises are only generally true, a rhetorical, or probable, syllogism. In contrast to the ‘analytical’ or ‘apodictic’ syllogism, the points of proof of the enthymeme can remain unexpressed, e.g. Socrates is a man, and therefore mortal. They must not necessarily be true, but simply plausible. The characteristic argument of an enthymeme is the topos. References Anderson, A.R. and N.P.Belnap. 1961. Enthymemes. Journal of Philosophy 58. 712–22. Burney, M.C. 1974. The place of the enthymeme in rhetorical theory. In K.V.Erickson (ed.), Aristotle: the classical heritage of rhetoric. Metuchen, NJ. 117–40. rhetoric English for Speakers of Other Languages (abbrev. ESOL) ESL entropy [Grk entropía ‘twist, turn’] In information theory, the mean informational content of a set of signs. The term is derived from thermodynamics and is frequently used as a synonym for information2. Dictionary of language and linguistics enumeration 370 set epenthesis [Grk ‘insertion’] Insertion of transitional sounds without etymological motivation, e.g. the ‹p› in Thompson or the diphthongs found before palatals and velars in some dialects: [bæig] bag. In generative phonology, epenthesis is formulated as a phonological insertion rule. For contrast, epithesis. ( also anaptyxis, prothesis, sound change) References language change, sound change epic preterite Temporal use of the preterite tense, which is the predominant form for epic narrative or narration in general. It constructs a fictitious present and thus can also be modified by adverbials referring to the future: The following week she wrote him a letter. References tense epicene [Grk epíkoinos ‘common’] Noun which can refer to both male and female entities without changing its grammatical gender, e.g. Ger. die Ratte ‘the rat’ (grammatical feminine), Span. el pájaro ‘the bird’ (grammatical masculine). A-Z 371 epiphora [Grk epiphorá ‘bringing to; repetition’] Figure of speech: repetition of a word or expression at the end of a set of sentences or phrases ( anaphora, gemination). Like its opposite, anaphora, epiphora can create an emphatic rhythm that acquires a special emotional change because the repeated word is used to conclude the sentence or passage: I’ll have my bond! Speak not against my bond! I have sworn an oath that I will have my bond! (Shakespeare, Merchant of Venice, 3.3.4). References figure of speech epistemic logic [Grk ‘knowledge’] Special type of philosophical logic that, in addition to the logical expressions such as logical connective) (and, or, and others) and operators in formal logical particles ( logic, also uses expressions of ‘believing’ and ‘knowing’ by introducing appropriate operators into the semantic analysis. Since contexts of believing and knowing that are expressed by ‘epistemic expressions’ like X believes/knows that p, are typical examples of opaque contexts ( opaque vs transparent contexts), epistemic logic plays a decisive role within a logically oriented semantics of natural language, as founded primarily by Montague (1970). References Hintikka, J. 1962. Knowledge and belief. Ithaca, NY. Montague, R. 1970. English as a formal language, I. In B.Visentini et al. (ed.), Linguaggi nella società et nella tecnica. Milan. 189–224. (Repr. in Formal philosophy: selected papers of R.Montague, ed. R.H.Thomason. New Haven CT, 1974. 188–221.) Quine, W.V.O. 1960. Word and object. Cambridge, MA. (4th edn 1965.) Rescher, N. (ed.) 1968. Studies in logical theory. Oxford. Bibliography Petöfi, J.S. (ed.) 1978. Logic and the formal theory of natural language: selective bibliography. Hamburg. 285–96. Dictionary of language and linguistics 372 epithesis [Grk ‘laying on’] Attachment of an etymologically unmotivated sound to a word. For contrast, epenthesis, prothesis. For example, ME soun>Mod. Eng. sound (from Lat. sonus). ( homonymy) References language change, sound change epithets [Grk epítheton ‘that which is added’] A term in rhetoric for attributive adjectives and appositions. The term is used particularly in figures of speech of expansion, especially in unusual semantic collocations or in special characterizations like William the Conqueror or Richard the Lionheart. ( pleonasm) epizeuxis gemination equational sentence Sentence of the form subject+copula+ predicate nominal, e.g. Philip is a busy student. equative [Lat. aequare ‘to make even’] Form of comparison ( degree) which expresses an equal degree of some property or characteristic, e.g. Philip is just as tall as Caroline. A-Z 373 Equatorial languages Language group postulated by Greenberg (1987) with approx. 150 languages in South America, the most important branches being Arawakan and Tupi. References Greenberg, J.H. 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA. North and Central American languages, South American languages equi-NP deletion A deletional transformation in transformational grammar which deletes the subject noun phrase (NP) of an embedded sentence ( embedding) if it is coreferential with an NP of the matrix sentence. Equi-NP deletion is used in the generation of infinitive constructions, e.g. Philip asked Caroline to drive, which can be generated from the two sentences Philip asked Caroline and Caroline drives, The second mention of Caroline is deleted and the form drive is changed to the infinitive. ( also control) Philip asked Caroline to drive. References Chomsky, C. 1969. The acquisition of syntax in children from 5 to 10. Cambridge, MA. Rosenbaum, P.S. 1970. A principle governing deletion in English sentential complementation. In P.S. Rosenbaum and R.A.Jacobs (eds), Readings in English transformational grammar. Waltham, MA. 220–9. Soames, S. and D.M.Perlmutter. 1979. Syntactic argumentation and the structure of English. Berkeley, CA. transformational grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics equipollent opposition 374 opposition equivalence (also biconditional, bilateral implication) In formal logic the conjunction of two elementary propositions p and q that is true if and only if both parts of the sentence have the same truth value (notation: p≡q or p↔q). This relation is represented in the (two-place) truth table: p q p↔q t t t t f f f t f f f t Equivalence refers to the two-place sentence operator if p, then q as well as the propositional connective defined by it. The equivalence corresponds to bilateral implication, i.e. both p→q and q→p are valid: Ralph is Philip ‘s father→ Philip is Ralph ‘s son and vice versa. In everyday usage, equivalences correspond to paraphrases like p, if and only if q or p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q, in which case it frequently remains ambiguous as to whether it is a matter of equivalence or of implication. In the framework of lexical semantics ( meaning, semantics) equivalence corresponds to the conventional truth-functional semantic relation of synonymy. References formal logic equivalence grammars A property of generative grammars. Two grammars are called ‘weakly equivalent’ if they generate the same set of sentences. They are called ‘strongly equivalent’ if they generate the same set of sentences and assign the same structural description to them. A-Z 375 References levels of adequacy equivalent distribution distribution equivocation A form of lexical ambiguity in words of related etymology (e.g. foot (of a human/of a mountain)). Systematic equivocation arises when two meanings occur in various word forms in the vocabulary: take, for example, the meanings ‘action’ or ‘process’ vs ‘result’ in work, drawing, and expression. Equivocation is primarily a lexicological problem. ( also homonymy, lexicology, polysemy) References semantics ergative [Grk ergátēs ‘doer (of an action)’] 1 (also agentive, narrative) Morphological case in ergative languages which indicates the agent of transitive verbs in the basic voice. In contrast to the nominative in nominative languages (e.g. English), which generally also encodes the agent of transitive verbs, the ergative is not the basic (=unmarked) case in languages of this type. Thus the ergative does not usually have a zero form ( zero morpheme) and is not used to mark the ‘subject,’ i.e. the primary syntactic function, which is in the absolutive; instead, it marks a syntactic function which is similar to the direct object in nominative languages. This means that ergative arguments in ergative languages show the syntactic behavior of direct objects in nominative languages. For example, an argument in the ergative only agrees with the predicate in an ergative language if an argument in the absolutive also agrees with the predicate ( hierarchy universal). In addition, the ergative case of an argument is changed into the absolutive in the derived, non-basic voice category of an ergative language, i.e. the antipassive. 2 In case grammar, a deep case for the agent of an action. Dictionary of language and linguistics 376 References Anderson, J.M. 1968. Ergative and nominative in English. JL 4. 1–32. ——1971. The grammar of case: towards a localistic theory. Cambridge. ergative language ergative language (also absolutive language) Language type in relational typology which contrasts with nominative languages and active languages. Assuming that the most important thematic relations in basic transitive and intransitive sentences are those of agent and patient, ergative languages can be defined as follows: the basic (=unmarked) case in these languages, the absolutive, designates the patient of transitive verbs as well as the single argument of intransitive verbs regardless of its thematic relation. The marked case, the ergative serves to express the agent of transitive verbs. This situation can be depicted as follows: The following sentences from Basque serve as an illustration: Mi-k (‘I’ erg.) gizona (‘man’ abs.) ikusi dut (‘have seen’) ‘I saw the man’ vs Gizona (‘man’ abs.) etorri da (‘has come’) ‘The man has come.’ The patient of transitive verbs and the single argument of intransitive verbs are treated alike morphologically and, in a consistent ergative language, syntactically as well. In contrast, nominative languages such as English treat the agent of transitive verbs and the single argument of intransitive verbs in the same way: Ergative languages are frequent among the Caucasian (Georgian, Ubykh), Austronesian ( Malayo-Polynesian) (Tongan), Australian (Dyirbal), and Mayan (Tzeltal) languages. Sometimes ergative languages are split nominative-ergative. Thus in many Australian languages the pronominal system patterns as in a nominative language, while the nouns are case-marked according to the ergative system. In some Asian languages (e.g. in Hindi ( Hindi-Urdu)) sentences in some tenses are ergative, but otherwise the language is nominative. Some authors claim that ergativity is also found in languages such as German and Italian; cf. unaccusative). A-Z 377 References Comrie, B. 1978. Ergativity. In W.P.Lehmann (ed.), Syntactic typology: studies in the phenomenology of language. Austin, TX. 329–94. Dixon, R.M.W. 1979. Ergativity. Lg 55. 59–138. ——(ed.) 1987. Studies in ergativity. Lingua 71 (special issue). ——1994. Ergativity. Cambridge. Mallinson, G. and B.J.Blake. 1981. Language typology. Amsterdam. Moravcsik, A. 1978. On the distribution of ergative and accusative patterns. Lingua 45. 233–79. Plank, F. (ed.) 1979. Ergativity: towards a theory of grammatical relations. London. ——(ed.) 1985. Relational typology. Berlin and New York. Primus, B. 1994. Relational typology. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research, vol. 2. Berlin and New York. 1076–109. Sapir, E. 1917. Review of C.C.Uhlenbeck, Het passieve karakter van het verbum transitivum van het verbum actionis in talen van Noord Amerika. IJAL 1. 82–6. Silverstein, M. 1976. Hierarchy of features and ergativity. In R.M.W.Dixon (ed.), Grammatical categories in Australian languages. Canberra. 112–71. Van Valin, R. 1977. Ergativity and the universality of subjects. CLS 13. 689–705. Bibliography Plank, F. 1979. Bibliography on ergativity. In F. Plank (ed.), Ergativity: towards a theory of grammatical relations. London. 511–54. ergative verb recessive, unaccusative ergon [Grk érgon ‘work’] Concept going back to Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) viewing language as the product of a completed action. Humboldt contrasts this concept of language as a (static) entity with his own view of language as energeia, as ‘action’ or ‘effective energy’. References energeia Dictionary of language and linguistics Eritreic 378 Afro-Asiatic error analysis 1 In second language acquisition, error analysis studies the types and causes of linguistic errors. This sometimes includes the evaluation and correction of errors. Errors may be classified according to (a) modality (i.e. level of proficiency in speaking, listening comprehension, writing, and reading); (b) levels of linguistic description (e.g. phonetics/phonology, orthography, graphemics, morphology, syntax, lexicon, phraseology, or stylistics); (c) form (omission, insertion, substitution, contamination, etc.); (d) type (systematic errors vs occasional errors or errors in competence vs errors in performance); and (e) cause (e.g. interference, development-related errors, interlanguage). In the evaluation of errors, the level of error (norm error vs system error), the degree of communication breakdown, and the tendency towards fossilization play an equally important role. 2 In speech-language pathology error analysis has in part the same object of investigation as error analysis in language pedagogy. ( also language disorder) 3 Error analysis also studies errors made by native speakers without speech disorders and investigates errors in normal speech. Note the intentional use of the term ‘error’ as opposed to ‘mistake,’ which is a prescriptive term. ( also speech error) 4 Studies involving native speaker reactions to errors made by non-native speakers have identified those grammatical and socio-linguistic errors that stigmatize and should be the focus of correction, in contrast to those errors which produce a less negative reaction or no reaction at all. References Corder, S.P. 1981. Error analysis and interlanguage. Oxford. Cutler, A. (ed.) 1982. Slips of the tongue and language production. Berlin. Ensz, K. 1982. French attitudes toward speech errors. MLJ 66. 133–9. Fromkin, V. (ed.) 1973. Speech errors as linguistic evidence. The Hague. Hendrickson, H.M. 1978. Error correction in foreign language teaching: recent theory, research, and practice. MLJ 62. 387–98. Politzer, R.L. 1978. Errors of English speakers of German as perceived and evaluated by German natives. MLJ 62. 253–61. Richards, J.C. (ed.) 1974. Error analysis: perspectives on second language acquisition. London. Schairer, K.E. 1992. Native speaker reaction to nonnative speech. MLJ 76. 309–19. Selinker, L. and J.T.Lamendella. 1979. The role of extrinsic feedback in interlanguage fossilization. Language Learning 29. 363–75. Svartvik, J. (ed.) 1973. Errata: papers in error analysis. Lund. A-Z 379 Bibliography Spillner, B. 1991. Error analysis: a comprehensive bibliography. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. speech error Erythraic Eskimo Afro-Asiatic Eskimo-Aleut Eskimo-Aleut Language group comprised of Aleut (spoken in the Aleutian islands in the Bering Sea, approx. 700 speakers) and Eskimo (with two branches, Yuit (Yupik) in east Siberia and southwest Alaska, and Inuit in north Alaska, northern Canada and Greenland, approx. 100,000), which themselves form dialect continua. The largest linguistic community is found in Greenland with approx. 43,000 speakers. There are possible relationships with Altaic and Yukagir ( Paleo-Siberian). Characteristics: simple sound system; complex morphology (suffixal). Ergative languages: the ergative is identical with the genitive (possessive sentence construction); hardly any indication of a noun-verb distinction. Word order SOV. The verb agrees with the subject and the object. Complex number system (with dual), very productive derivational mechanisms, tendency towards descriptivity. Complex system of spatial demonstrative pronouns. References Bok-Bennema, R. 1991. Case and agreement in Inuit. Berlin and New York. Fortescue, M. 1988. The Eskimo-Aleut-Yukagir relationship: an alternative to the genetic/contact dichotomy. Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 21. 21–50. Fortescue, M. 1984. West Greenlandic. London. Krauss, M.E. 1973. Eskimo-Aleut. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 10, 796–902. ——1979. Na-Dené and Eskirao-Aleut. In L. Campbell and M.Mithun (eds), The languages of native America. Austin, TX. 803–901. Reed, I. et al. 1977. Yup’ ik Eskimo grammar. Fairbanks, AL. North and Central American languages Dictionary of language and linguistics 380 ESL Abbreviation, used primarily in North America, for ‘English as a Second Language.’ This term is gradually being replaced by ‘ESOL’ (English for Speakers of Other Languages). ( also foreign vs second language) ESOL ESL Esperanto Artificial language invented by the Warsaw optometrist L.L.Zamenhof (pseudonym ‘Esperanto’=‘he who hopes’). Thought to be the most successful interlingua of international understanding, Esperanto consists of a very simple phonetic-phonological, morphological, and syntactic structure. Its vocabulary is based on a mixture of Romance and Germanic word stems (originally numbering some 3,500) which can be combined with ten prefixes and twenty-seven suffixes ( also agglutinating language). Its grammar consists of sixteen rules, which have no exceptions. References Courtinat, L. 1964–5. Historio de Esperanto, 3 vols. Agen. Forster, P.G. 1981. The Esperanto movement. The Hague. Zamenhof, L.L. 1929. Lingvo internacia. In J.Dietterle (ed.), Originala verkaro de L.L. Zamenhof. Leipzig. (Original 1887). Bibliography Tonkin, H. 1967. A research bibliography on Esperanto and international language problems. New York. A-Z 381 Estonian Finno-Ugric language closely related to Finnish, spoken mainly in Estonia; approx. 1 million speakers. References Harms, R.T. 1962. Estonian grammar. The Hague. Raun, A. and A.Saareste, 1965. Introduction to Estonian linguistics. Wiesbaden. Tauli, V. 1983. Standard Estonian grammar. Uppsala. Ethiopic Ethiosemitic Ge’ez Semitic ethnography of communication ethnography of speaking ethnography of speaking [Grk éthnos ‘a people’] (also ethnography of communication) This approach, introduced in the 1950s and early 1960s by D.Hymes and J.J.Gumperz (see also Pike 1954), is concerned with the analysis of language use ( usage vs use) in its sociocultural setting. In contrast to the then popular linguistic theories of structuralism and transformational grammar, this approach is based on the premise that the meaning of an utterance can be understood only in relation to the ‘speech event,’ or ‘communicative event,’ in which it is embedded (see Hymes 1962). The character of such speech events (e.g. a sermon, a trial, or a telephone call) is culturally determined. It is believed that the rules governing language use can be established by systematic Dictionary of language and linguistics 382 observation, analysis of spontaneous language, and interviews with native speakers ( field work). Ethnography of speaking led to the ethnographic approach to discourse analysis, in which conversational inferences play a key role: participants link the content of an utterance and other verbal, vocal, and non-vocal cues with background knowledge ( contextualization) in order to come to an understanding about the specific interchange. For example, in a situation involving doctor and patient, code-switching (or even a change in loudness) may indicate whether the doctor is talking to the patient or the nurse. Furthermore, the way in which discourse proceeds may demonstrate how social identities are negotiated (see Erickson and Shultz 1982). The ethnographic approach is close to other current sociological approaches in its methodology and areas of research (see Goffman and Cicourel in discourse analysis; for an overview, see Corsaro 1981). ( also conversation analysis) References Bauman, R. and J.Sherzer (eds) 1989. Explorations in the ethnography of speaking, 2nd edn. (1st edn 1978.) Cambridge. Boden, D. and D.Zimmerman (eds) 1992. Talk and social structure. Cambridge. Cicourel, A. 1975. Discourse and text: cognitive and linguistic processes in studies of social structures. Versus 12. 33–84. ——1980. Three models of discourse analysis. DPr 3. 102–32. ——1987. The interpretation of communicative contexts: examples from medical encounters. Social Psychology Quarterly 50. 217–26. Duranti, A. 1988. Ethnography of speaking: toward a linguistics of the praxis. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 4, 210–28. Erickson, F. and J.Shultz. 1982. The counselor as gate keeper. New York. Goffman, E. 1971. Relations in public. New York. ——1974. Frame analysis. New York. ——1981. Forms of talk. Philadelphia, PA. Grimshaw, A. (ed.) 1991. Conflict talk. Cambridge. Gumperz, J.J. 1982. Discourse strategies. Cambridge. ——(ed.) 1982. Language and social identity. Cambridge. Hymes, D. 1962. The ethnography of speaking. In T. Gladwin and W.C.Sturtevant (eds), Anthropology and human behavior. Washington, DC. 99–138. ——1972. Models of the interaction of language and social life. In J.J.Gumperz and D.Hymes (eds), Directions in sociolinguistics: the ethnography of communication. New York. 35–71. Lindenfeld, J. 1990. Speech and sociability at French urban marketplaces. Amsterdam. Pike, K.L. 1954. Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior. The Hague. (2nd edn 1967.) Saville-Troike, M. 1989. The ethnography of communication, 2nd edn. Oxford. Tannen, D. (ed.) 1981. Analyzing discourse. Gurt. ——1984. Conversational style. Norwood, NJ. ——(ed.) 1984. Coherence in spoken and written discourse. Norwood, NJ. ——1986. That’s not what I meant. New York. contextualization, discourse analysis A-Z 383 ethnolinguistics (also neo-Humboldtianism) Collective term for anthropological and linguistic investigations into the connections between language and ethnically based, sociocultural aspects of the given linguistic community. Most work in ethnolinguistics can be traced to the linguistic philosophy of Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) ( energeia). References Basilius, H. 1952. Neo-Humboldtian ethnolinguistics. Word 8. 95–105. Miller, R.L. 1968. The linguistic relativity principle and Humboldtian ethnolinguistics: a history and appraisal. The Hague. ethnography of speaking, Sapir-Whorf hypothesis ethnomethodological conversation analysis conversation analysis ethnomethodology An area of research in interpretative sociology initiated by H.Garfinkel concerned with the analysis of formal properties of practical reasoning. It investigates the activities whereby members of a sociocultural community produce and manage settings for their everyday lives. These activities are considered to be identical to those which members use to make settings ‘accountable’ (i.e. observable, reportable, and interpretable for themselves and others). Ethnomethodology assumes that members make sense out of their actions by interpreting them against a background of underlying patterns, i.e. they take certain shared commonsense knowledge for granted. One way of finding out about such tacit knowledge that members rely on are ‘quasi-experiments’ designed to disrupt those patterns and induce a break in the subject’s background expectancies. For instance, some students were asked to have an acquaintance explain the meaning of an utterance: Subject (waving cheerfully to experimenter): How are you? —Experimenter: How am I with regard to what? My health, my finances, my school work, my peace of mind, my…? Subject (red in the face and suddenly out of control): Look, I was just trying to be polite. Frankly, I don’t give a damn how you are (Garfinkel 1967). Following Schuetz (1961–2), Garfinkel proposes a number of strategies that members use to make sense out of their actions, such as the retrospective and prospective interpretation of activities (see also Dictionary of language and linguistics 384 Cicourel 1973). For an interpretation of Garfinkel’s approach, see Heritage (1984). One branch of research developed from ethnomethodology is conversation analysis. References Button, G. (ed.) 1991. Ethnomethodology and the human sciences. Cambridge. Cicourel, A. 1973. Cognitive sociology. Harmondsworth. Flynn, P.J. 1991. The ethnomethodological movement: sociosemiotic interpretations. Berlin and New York. Garfinkel, H. 1967. Studies in ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Heritage, J. 1984. Garfinkel and ethnomethodology. Cambridge. Hill, R. and K.Stones Crittenden (eds) 1968. Proceedings of the Purdue Symposium on Ethnomethodology. Purdue, IN. Maynard, D. and S.Clayman. 1991. The diversity of ethnomethodology. Annual Review of Sociology 17. 385–418. Psathas, G. (ed.) 1979. Everyday language studies in ethnomethodology. New York. Schuetz, A. 1961–2. Collected papers, 2 vols. The Hague. Turner, R. (ed.) 1974. Ethnomethodology. Harmondsworth. Watson, G. and R.M.Seiler (eds) 1991. Text in context: contributions in ethnomethodology. New York. etic vs emic analysis Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, this term was introduced into the social sciences by Swadesh (1934) and Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional (= distinctive) aspect. References Pike, K. 1967. Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior. The Hague. (2nd edn 1971.) Siertsma, B. 1959. ‘Etic’ and ‘emic.’ ES 50. 586–8. Swadesh, M. 1934. The phonemic principle. Lg 10. 117–29. A-Z 385 Etruscan Ancient language of northern Italy, known primarily from grave inscriptions; though recorded in a Greek-based alphabet, it is not well known and its genetic affiliation is uncertain. References Bonfante, G. and L.Bonfante. 1983. The Etruscan language: an introduction. Manchester and New York. Rix, H. 1984 La scrittura e la ling ua. In M.Cristofani (ed.), Gli Etruschi, una nuova immagine. Florence. 210–38. Journal Studi Etruschi. etymology [Grk étymos ‘true’; logós ‘word’] The study of the origin, basic meaning, and development of individual words as well as of their relationship to words in different languages of the same origin. In ancient times the search for the original semantic motivation of a word was essentially the search for the essence and origin of the thing denoted by the word, which was believed to be revealed in the original meaning of the word. Diachronic studies in comparative linguistics in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries used the study of etymological relationships to reconstruct a common proto-Indo-European language or as evidence for the relationship of individual languages or words. The existence of lexeme correspondences in different languages was founded on sound laws, processes of word formation and conceptual relationships, historical and sociocultural facts as well as their systematic placement in the given vocabulary. Seebold (1981:316–22) provides a useful list of reference works for individual languages. ( also borrowing, folk etymology, semantic change) References Guiraud, P. 1964. L’Etymologie. Paris. Malkiel, Y. 1993. Etymology. Cambridge. Pisani, V. 1947. L’etimologia. Brescia. Dictionary of language and linguistics 386 Seebold, E. 1981. Etymologie: eine Einführung am Beispiel der deutschen Sprache. Munich. Reference works English Holthausen, F. 1927. Altenglisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg. (Repr. 1963.) Murray, J. 1898–1936. A new English dictionary on historical principles. Oxford. Onions, C.T. et al. (eds) 1977. The Oxford dictionary of English etymology. Oxford. Partridge, E. 1990. Origins: an etymological dictionary of Modern English, 4th edn. London. Skeat, W.W. 1882. A concise etymological dictionary of the English language. Oxford. (Rev. edn 1976.) French Bloch, O. and W.V.Wartburg. 1960. Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française. Paris. (5th edn 1968.) Dauzat, A., J.Dubois, and H.Mitterand. 1971. Nouveau dictionnaire étymologique et historique. Paris. Gamillscheg, E. 1928. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der französischen Sprache. Heidelberg. (2nd edn 1969.) Wartburg, W.V. 1922–. Französisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Bonn, Basle and Tübingen. (Vol. 25, 1992.) German Drosdowski, G. (ed.) 1989. Duden: das Herkunftswörterbuch. Etymologie der deutschen Sprache. Munich. (2nd rev. and exp. edn Mannheim.) Grimm, J. and W.Grimm. 1854/1954. Deutsches Wörterbuch, 16 vols. Leipzig. (Repr. in 33 vols, Munich, 1984.) Hirt, H. 1909. Etymologie der neuhochdeutschen Sprache. Munich. (2nd edn 1921.) Kluge, F. 1883. Etymologisches Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. Berlin. (22nd rev. edn, ed. E. Seebold, Berlin, 1989.) Pfeifer, W. (ed.) 1989. Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutschen. 3 vols. Berlin. Gothic Feist, S. 1939. Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der gotischen Sprache, 3rd edn. Leiden. Lehman, W.P. 1986. A Gothic etymological dictionary. Leiden Schulze, E. 1847. Gotisches Glossar. Magdeburg. A-Z 387 Greek Chantraine, P. 1968–80. Dictionnaire de la langue grecque: histoire des mots. 4 vols. Paris. Frisk, H. 1954–72. Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 3 vols. Heidelberg. Indo-European Buck. C.D. 1949. A dictionary of selected synonyms in the principal Indo-European languages. Chicago, IL. Pokorny, J. 1948–59. Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 2 vols. Bern. (3rd edn Tübingen 1994.) Italian Cortelazzo, M. and P.Zolli. 1990. Dizionario etimologico della lingua italiana. Bologna. Pfister, M. 1979–. Lessico etimologico italiano. Wiesbaden. (Vol. IV 1994.) Latin Alessio.G. 1976. Lexicon etymologicum.Neapel. Ernout, A. and A.Meillet. 1959. Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue latine, 4th edn. Paris. Thesaurus linguae latinae. 1900–58. Leipzig. Walde, A. and J.B.Hofmann. 1959. Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. 4th edn. Heidelberg. Russian Vasmer, M. 1953–8. Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg. etymon The original meaning or form of a word ( etymology). euphemism [Grk euphēmía ‘use of words of good omen’] Dictionary of language and linguistics 388 Rhetorical trope: a pleasant replacement for an objectionable word that has pejorative connotations, e.g. to pass on for ‘to die.’ Euphemisms are common in political language: e.g. a period of negative growth for ‘recession.’ Like hyperbole, euphemisms often lose their semantic significance, so that a new euphemism has to take its place: e.g. graveyard became cemetery became memorial garden. References Allan, K. and K.Burridge. 1991. Euphemism and dysphemism: language used as a shield and weap- on. Oxford. Ayto, J. 1993. Euphemisms: over 3,000 ways to avoid being rude or giving offence. London. Enright, D.J. (ed.) 1985. Fair of speech: the uses of euphemism. Oxford. Holder, R.W. 1985. A dictionary of American and British euphemisms: the language of evasion, hypocrisy, prudery and deceit. Bath. (Rev. edn London 1989.) Lawrence, J. 1973. Unmentionable and other euphemisms. London. figure of speech, slang euphonism [Grk euphōnía ‘excellence of sounds’] An agreeable combination of sounds. Euphonism can lead to assimilation, dissimilation, vowel harmony, or epenthesis so that words are easier to pronounce. Broadly speaking, euphonism also helps account for assonance, onomatopoeia, and rhythm. The antonym is cacophony. European languages The European languages generally belong to the Indo-European language family. Exceptions are Basque in the west (a language isolate), Hungarian and Finnish ( Finno-Ugric, Uralic languages), Turkish (an Altaic language), as well as Maltese in Malta, which is closely related to Arabic and thus belongs to the Afro-Asiatic language group. References Bechert, J., G.Bernini, and C.Buridant (eds) 1990. Toward a typology of European languages. Berlin and New York. A-Z 389 Decsy, G. 1973. Die linguistische Struktur Europas: Vergangenheit, Gegenwart, Zukunft. Wiesbaden. Haarmann, H. 1975. Soziologie und Politik der Sprachen Europas. Munich. Krantz, G.S. 1988. Geographical development of European languages (American university studies, series XI: Anthropology and sociology, vol. 26). New York. Rundle, S. 1946. Language as a social and political factor in Europe. London. Stephens, M. 1976. Linguistic minorities in Western Europe. Llandysul. Stevenson, V. (ed.) 1983. Words, the evolution of Western languages. New York. evaluation procedure A technique for choosing the better of two linguistic descriptions on the basis of criteria like simplicity and elegance. References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. levels of adequacy, transformational grammar evidentiality Structural dimension of grammar that codifies the source of information transmitted by a speaker with the aid of various types of constructions. One’s personal observation is considered the primary source of information; other important sources of information are hearsay (quotative) and the deductive skills of the speaker (inferential). In English, evidentiality is expressed only peripherally as in the special use of mood in indirect discourse ( direct vs indirect discourse) (e.g. the subjunctive of the past tense stem as a quotative: The spokesman said that the president had signed the amendment, derived from the direct quote ‘The president (has) signed the amendment’) and with certain modal expressions (e.g. supposedly as a quotative marker for the subject or third person: Michael is supposedly a descendant of William Shakespeare, i.e. Michael claims to be a descendant of William Shakespeare’, or must and might as a strong, respectively weak, inferential marker: There must/might be a mistake). References Chafe, W. and J.Nichols (eds) 1986. Evidentiality: the linguistic coding of epistemology. Norwood, NJ. Dictionary of language and linguistics 390 Willett, T. 1988. A cross-linguistic survey of the grammaticalization of evidentiality. SLang 12. 51–97. modality exam question Contrasted with ‘genuine’ questions, an exam question is used when the questioner typically already knows what the correct answer is and is instead interested in ascertaining whether the person being questioned knows that correct answer. exbraciation In German, the placement of one or several constituents outside the sentence frame ( brace construction). The tendency towards exbraciation is especially strong in colloquial speech, but is also increasingly observed in the written standard language. In the following cases, exbraciation has become the norm: (a) accumulation of complex constituents that would result in an awkward brace construction: Also zunächst einmal man unterscheiden bei der Reformpolitik zwischen solchen Reformen, die Geld kosten und solchen, die kein Geld kosten ‘Well, to start with, in reform politics one has to distinguish between reforms that cost money and those that don’t’ (instead of placing unterscheiden right at the end of the sentence); (b) subordinate clauses with conjunctions and infinitive constructions ( extraposition); and especially (c) when certain constituents are meant to be emphasized. References Beneš, E. 1968. Die Ausklammerung im Deutschen als grammatische Norm und stilistischer Effekt. Muttersprache 78. 289–98. Engel, U. 1970. Studien zur Geschichte des Satzrahmens und seiner Durchbrechung. Sprache der Gegenwart 6. 45–61. Lambert, P.J. 1976. Ausklammerung in Modern Standard German. Hamburg. Petrovic, V. 1978. Zur Satzmelodie der Ausrahmungsstrukturen. ZPSK 2. 170–82. Rath, R. 1965. Trennbare Verben und Ausklammerung: zur Syntax der deutschen Sprache der Gegenwart. Wirkendes Wort 15. 217–32. brace construction, extraposition, word order A-Z 391 exceptional case marking (abbrev. ECM) The description of a type of construction in Government and Binding theory in which the logical subject of an embedded sentence appears in the objective case. In these constructions the verb of the matrix sentence is an exceptional case marker. So-called ECM verbs correspond to the traditional Latin accusative plus infinitive construction, and to verbs like believe: for example, Philip believes him to be a liar, where him is in the objective case. References case theory exchange interchange exclamatory Basic verbal mood which can formally be described as a statement, question, or command depending on the word order, and whose primary function is to express a strong emotional state in the speaker through intonation, interjections, and/or modal particles: You’re stupid! Isn’t it a shame? Help me! References Elliott, D. 1974. Toward a grammar of exclamations. FL 11. 231–46. Oomen, U. 1980. Structural properties of English exclamatory sentences. FoLi 13. 159–74. Zaefferer, D. 1983. The semantics of non-declaratives: investigating German exclamatories. In R.Bäuerle et al. (eds), Meaning, use, and interpretation of language. Berlin. 466–90. modality Dictionary of language and linguistics exclusion 392 contact test exclusive disjunction In formal logic connection of two elementary propositions p and q by or, such that the propositional connection is true if and only if either p or q is true, but not if both are true disjunction). This relation is represented in the (two(in contrast with inclusive or, place) truth table: p q p q t t f t f t f t t f f f This or (also: exclusive or), which corresponds to Lat. aut…aut… (‘either this one or the other one, but not both of them’) frequently occurs in everyday language. exhortative [Lat. exhortari ‘to encourage’] Sentence type with verb-initial placement in English and many Indo-European languages which expresses a request for joint action, often coded in the first person plural: Let’s meet tomorrow in the park! A-Z 393 existential causative effected object existential operator existential presupposition operator presupposition existential proposition Proposition about at least one element (individual, state of affairs, etc.) of a particular range in contrast with universal propositions that refer to all elements of a particular range. Existential propositions are represented in formal logic with the aid of the sooperator): , read as: ‘There is at least one x called existential quantifier ( for which it is true that x has the property A’ (e.g. ‘being a doctor’). References formal logic Dictionary of language and linguistics 394 existential quantifier operator exocentric compound bahuvrihi exocentric construction [Grk éxō ‘outside’] (also non-headed construction) Term introduced by Bloomfield (1933) indicating a syntactic construction which, in contrast to the more common endocentric construction, neither belongs to the same form class or category as any of its constituents, nor shows the same distribution. Thus the exocentric construction She sells fresh fish as a total construction is neither a noun phrase (she, fresh fish) nor a verb phrase (to sell fresh fish). Other exocentric constructions are prepositional phrases (at the marketplace), constructions with auxiliary and participle (has sold) or copula ( copular verb) and predicate noun (is a salesperson). The term ‘exocentric’ is regularly defined in contrast to endocentric, i.e. its literal translation (‘to have a center outside of itself) is misleading. Reference Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. exophoric pronoun [Grk phérein ‘to carry’] Pronoun that does not refer to the immediately preceding or following noun phrase, but to a more distant one. A-Z experiencer 395 case grammar experimental phonetics Phonetic analysis practiced since the end of the nineteenth century which, in contrast to auditory phonetics (which is based on subjective observations), works with electroacoustic recording and storing machines (such as the oscillograph and spectrograph). Reference Ladefoged, P. 1967. Three areas of experimental phonetics. London. expert system In artificial intelligence, application-oriented knowledge-based system that is meant to solve special tasks in the same way and with the same level of achievement as human ‘experts.’ Currently, the principal areas of application are in medicine, finance, and technical fields. As well as problems faced in representation and reasoning, other general problems, primarily in the acquisition of expert knowledge, remain to be solved. Frequently, natural-language access systems are used to interact with expert systems. References Buchanan, B.G. and E.H.Shortliffe. 1984. Rule-based expert systems. Reading, MA. Hayes-Roth, F., D.A.Waterman, and D.B.Lenat. 1983. Building expert systems. Reading, MA. Jackson, P. 1986. Introduction to expert systems. Wockingham. expiration [Lat. exspirare ‘to breathe out’] Exhaling as a necessary condition for all speech sounds formed with the pulmonic airstream mechanism. ( also articulatory phonetics, phonetics) Dictionary of language and linguistics expiratory accent explanatory adequacy 396 stress accent levels of adequacy explicit derivation derivation explosive [Lat. explodere ‘to eject, to cast out’] Plosive with oral, medial release, e.g. the initial [th] (as opposed to the final unreleased in tat .( also articulatory phonetics, aspiration) References phonetics expression 1 Unclassified linguistic unit of any length: words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc. In contrast to utterance, which is part of parole, an expression belongs to langue ( langue vs parole). 2 In semiotics, the material, perceivable aspect of the (linguistic) sign in contrast to its semantic content, e.g. sound waves, written characters, pictographs. A-Z 397 expression plane vs content plane In L.Hjelmslev’s glossematics and drawing on F.de Saussure’s Cours de linguistique générale, the distinction between the two levels of analysis of the linguistic sign. The expression plane refers to the material aspect of the linguistic sign, the content plane to the semantic aspect, there not necessarily being a one-to-one correspondence between both aspects of the linguistic sign. In analogy to de Saussure’s bilateral model of the sign, the two levels are again subdivided through the dichotomy of ‘form vs substance.’ Derived from the combination of the four levels are the linguistic subdisciplines of phonetics (i.e. the substance of the expression), semantics (the substance of the content), phonology (the form of the expression), and grammar (the form of the content). In Hjelmslev’s autonomous linguistics only the langue-specific form-oriented domains of phonology and grammar are objects of linguistic study, while the substance domains of phonetics and semantics are extralinguistic aspects. ( also langue vs parole) References Hjelmslev, L. 1943. Omkring sprogteoriens grundlaeggelse. Copenhagen. 1961. Prolegomena to a theory of language, trans. F.J.Whitfield. Madison, WI. Saussure, F. de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C.Bally and A.Sechehaye. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) expressive aphasia aphasia, Broca’s aphasia expressive function of language The expressive function of language constitutes one of the three subfunctions of the linguistic sign in K.Bühler’s organon model of language. It refers to the relation between the linguistic sign and the ‘sender,’ whose intention is expressed as a ‘symptom’ by the linguistic sign. ( also appellative function of language, representational function of language) Dictionary of language and linguistics 398 References organon model of language extension [Lat. extensio ‘stretch, span’] (also denotation2, designation, referent) The extension of a linguistic expression is the class of elements that the expression denotes. Therefore, an extensional definition is based on counting all objects to which the expression applies, in contrast with intension (‘sense’), which is determined according to the features by which the concept is defined. Two predicates have the same extension if they apply to the same class of elements, in this sense both expressions evening star and morning star are extensionally identical, since they both denote the planet Venus, even though they both have a different intensional content. In formal logic extension is defined depending on the different categories of expressions. The extension of a singular term (=individual constant) t is the individual to which t refers (e.g. the extension of Mozart is the ‘composer of the “Magic Flute”’). The extension of a predicate p is the set of elements to which this predicate applies, e.g. the extension of larger than is the set of all pairs x, y for which it is true that x is larger than y. The extension of a sentence is its truth value. The extension of a complex sentence can be conveyed truthfunctionally, if the following is true: if in sentence S an element e is replaced by an element of the same extension as e, then the extension of S is unchanged ( principle of compositionality). References intension, semantics extensional [Lat. extendere ‘to stretch’] In formal logic, property of propositional connections whose truth value alone is dependent on the truth values of the elementary propositions, but not on their actual semantic content. This extensional interpretation is fundamental to the logical connections of classical propositional logic and predicate logic, e.g. adjunction, implication, operator, among others. A-Z 399 Reference Asher, N. 1985. The trouble with extensional semantics. PhS 41. 1–14. extensional definition extensional logic extension formal logic extensional reading attributive vs referential reading extraposition Term coined by O.Jespersen indicating a word order variant which is similar in form to right dislocation ( left vs right dislocation). Sentential elements (e.g. infinitive constructions, sentential subject, object and attribute clauses, adverbial clauses) can be shifted rightwards to the end of the sentence: That she came made him glad vs It made him glad that she came. References Bennis, H. 1986. Gaps and dummies. Dordrecht. Emonds, J.E. 1970. Root- and structure-preserving transformations. Bloomington, IN. Higgins, F.R. 1972. On J.Emond’s analysis of extraposition. In J.P.Kimball (ed.), Syntax and semantics. New York. Vol. 2, 149–95. Huck, G.J. and Y.Na. 1990. Extraposition and focus. Lg 66. 51–77. Jacobs, R.A. and P.S.Rosenbaum. 1968. English transformational grammar. Waltham, MA Jespersen, O. 1937. Analytic syntax. Copenhagen. Kohrt, M. 1976. Extraposition in German: evidence for global rules, LingI 7. 729–32. Mallinson, G. 1986. Languages with and without extraposition. FoLi 20. 146–63. Mallinson, G. and B.J.Blake. 1981. Language typology. Amsterdam. Section 5.2.4. Ross, J.R. 1967. Constraints on variables in syntax. Dissertation, MIT. Scherpenisse, W. 1985. The final field in German: extraposition and frozen positions. GAGL 26. exbraciation Dictionary of language and linguistics 400 extraposition grammar Grammatical formalism used in computational linguistics that is derived from definite clause grammar and metamorphosis grammar and that introduces a particular type of rule for treating ‘left extraposition’ (e.g. the unbounded movement found in interrogative sentences and in relative clauses in English and French, trace theory). In extraposition grammar, the description of structure (i.e. a non-terminal (‘motivated’) category, followed by an arbitrary chain, followed by an empty non-terminal category (‘trace’) is placed on the left side of a rule that expands into a chain without a ‘trace.’ Thus, given the rule we may begin with: ‘rel. marker…trace rel. pronoun.’ The mouse rel. marker the cat chased trace squeaks to derive The mouse rel. pronoun the cat chased squeaks (‘rel. marker’ and ‘trace’ are non-terminal categories,’…‘stands for an arbitrary chain). In this way, on the one hand the structural relation between ‘motivated’ categories and ‘traces’ is made clear in a rule, on the other hand it is no longer necessary to expand a non-terminal category into an empty chain. References Pereira, F. 1981. Extraposition grammars. AJCL 7. 243–56. computational linguistics extrasyllabic In metrical phonology, a free-standing segment not incorporated into any syllable, e.g. /s/ in speak, /өs/ in fifths, final /s/ in busts. Reference Clements, G.N. and S.J.Keyser. 1983. CV phonology: a generative theory of the syllable. Cambridge, MA. A-Z 401 extrinsic vs intrinsic ordering of rules [Lat. extrinsecus ‘from without’; intrinsecus ‘from within’] The order in which several rules are put into operation can be determined by an ‘outer,’ extrinsic ordering, which is empirically based on linguistic facts, or an ‘inner,’ intrinsic order which necessarily follows from the formulation of the rules, i.e. the application of one rule depends on that of another. In the Revised Extended Standard Theory ( transformational grammar), a specific ordering of rules is completely dispensed with (i.e. all rules operate optionally), since it can be shown that entire cases of seemingly extrinsic rule ordering can be derived from independently motivated, general principles (e.g. the transformational cycle). In contrast, an extrinsic ordering of rules for phonology appears to be indispensable. ( principle of cyclic rule application. phonology) References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Chomsky, N. and M.Halle. 1968. The sound pattern of English. New York. Koutsoudas, A. 1973. Extrinsic order and the complete NP constraint. LingI 4. 69–81. ——(ed.) 1976. The application and ordering of grammatical rules. The Hague. Koutsoudas, A., G.Sanders, and C.Noll. 1974. The application of phonological rules. Lg 50. 1–28. Pelletier, F.J. 1980. The generative power of rule orderings in formal grammars. Linguistics 18. 17– 72. Pullum, G. 1979. Rule interaction and the organization of a grammar. New York. Ringen, C. 1972. The arguments for rule ordering. FL 8. 266–73. Dictionary of language and linguistics 402 F face politeness face-to-face interaction Communicative behavior in speech situations where the speaker and listener make immediate contact. Research into face-to-face interaction considers linguistic features, but is primarily concerned with non-linguistic features like facial expression, eye contact, gestures, posture as well as paralinguistic features like manner of articulation (whispering, shouting). non-verbal communication References Kendon, A., R.M.Harris, and M.R.Key (eds) 1975. Organization of behaviour in face-to-face interaction. The Hague and Paris. Laver, J. and S.Hutcheson (eds) 1972). Face-to-face interaction. Harmondsworth. non-verbal communication factitive [Lat. facere ‘to make’] 1 Verbal aspect of category of events that are caused by a participant. Factitives comprise verbs (usually morphologically derived forms) that express the idea of ‘cause to,’ such as the deverbal derivations fell ‘cause to fall’ and drench ‘cause to drink’, or the deadjectival derivations redden ‘cause to become/make red’, strengthen ‘cause to become/make strong’ ( causative). 2 In Fillmore’s early version of case grammar (1968), the semantic role (or deep case) of an entity that is the result of the process of state denoted by the verb (e.g. make a suggestion). Occasionally, factitive is still used as a general term for patient-like roles. A-Z 403 Reference Fillmore, C. 1968. The case for case. In E.Bach and R.T.Harms (eds), Linguistic theory. New York. 1–88. factitive verb factive factitive factive predicate factive predicate (also factive) Type of predicate that produces a so-called ‘factive presupposition,’ that is, the speaker (usually) presupposes the truth of the clause depending on the factive predicate, e.g. He is surprised that it is snowing again presupposes It is snowing again. Examples of factive predicates are regret, understand, know, and it is notable/curious/too bad that x. The relation between a fact and its factive predicate is not always straightforward. This is amply evident in the following statement in which the suspect challenges the chief of police: You know, of course, that I murdered him. Contrasting with factive predicates are implicative verbs. References Karttunen, L. 1971. The logic of English predicate complement constructions. Bloomington, IN. Kiparsky, P. and C.Kiparsky. 1970. Fact. In M. Bierwisch and K.E.Heidolph (eds), Progress in linguistics. The Hague. 143–73. Norrick, N.R. 1978. Factive adjectives and the theory of factivity. Tübingen. presupposition Dictionary of language and linguistics factivity 404 factive predicate factorization In general, factorization refers to the division of large sequences into partial sequences. In transformational grammar, factorization refers to the division of the end nodes in a tree diagram with regard to the use of transformational rules. If the division can be undertaken so that there is an element corresponding to every term in the structural description of the rules, then the sentence has a proper analysis. References transformational grammar facultative variation diphthong, intonation falling diphthong falling vs rising free variation diphthong, intonation family tree theory genetic tree theory Faroese North Germanic language with approx. 40,000 speakers, one of the two standard written languages of the Faroe Islands (the other being Danish). ( also Scandinavian) A-Z 405 References Kuspert, K.C. 1988. Vokalsysteme im Westnordischen. Isländisch, Faröisch, Westnorwegisch: Prinzipien der Differenzierung. Tübingen. Lockwood. W.B. 1955. An introduction to modern Faroese. Copenhagen. Scandinavian Farsi Persian faucal [Lat. fauces (p. 2.) ‘throat’] Obsolete term for pharyngeal. faux amis Term (from French meaning ‘false friends’) denoting word pairs from different languages which, in spite of similarities in form, have different meanings. Frequently such similarities lead to interference errors in second language acquisition, e.g. Eng. figure vs Fr. figure (‘face’) or Eng. cold vs Ital. caldo (‘warm’), or Span. presidio ‘prison, imprisonment’ and Ger. Präsidium ‘residence of a president; office of chairman.’ ( also error analysis, contrastive analysis) Reference Hayward, T. and A.Moulin. 1984. False friends invigorated. In R.K.K.Hartmann (ed.), Lexeter ‘83 proceedings: papers from the International Conference on Lexicography at Exeter. Tübingen 190–8. feature Linguistically relevant properties of phonological, semantic, or syntactic units. Features are conceptual representations for linguistically important elements of description which relate to facts of non-linguistic reality, but are not identical to them. As a rule, features Dictionary of language and linguistics 406 are binary, i.e. used in the context of ‘either–or.’ For example, a phoneme is either described as [+nasal] or [-nasal]. In addition, there are features which are graduated, especially phonetic or prosodic features. Graduated features are used to specify different degrees of an attribute. Linguistic description based on features was significantly structuralism), which posited a distinction advanced by structuralist phonology ( between distinctive features and redundant features ( redundancy) in linguistic analysis at all levels of description. Likewise, a distinction is made between inherent features and contextual features, by which contextually independent features are delimited from predictable, contextually dependent features. Chomsky based his hypothesis that there is an unlimited universal inventory of features, from which every language uses a specific assortment and grouping, on the observations of structural phonology. In the notation, features are signified by square brackets or by a feature matrix. ( also componential analysis) References componential analysis. distinctive feature feature bundle (also feature complex) A type of description developed in structural phonology and semantic componential analysis for representing linguistic units on the basis of sets of elementary characteristic components through which such linguistic units are structured, e.g. the (articulatory) phonological description of /p/ as [+stop, −voiced, +bilabial, −nasal]. On the further development of the concept, unification grammar. References phonology A-Z feature complex 407 feature bundle feature structure In unification grammar, a feature bundle with complex values and indexes. References unification grammar felicity conditions feminine speech act theory gender feminist linguistics A research approach initiated by the New Women’s Liberation Movement, which was established in the Anglo-American sphere in the mid-seventies through publications by Key, Lakoff and Thorne/Henley (all 1975). Whereas the mainstream linguistics current then was dominated by structuralist priorities such as language system before language use, homogeneity before heterogeneity, synchrony before diachrony ( synchrony vs diachrony), linguistic competence of an ideal speaker/hearer before language use of individual speakers ( competence vs performance), feminist linguistics studies the gender-typical language use and the gender-specific asymmetries (established through thousands of years of tradition) in the language system and makes a connection between linguistic and social discrimination. In English, the ambiguity of man (for humans in general or for male humans specifically), problems of pronominalization and of the vocabulary (specific terms for females are usually derived from terms for males) are the critical points for departure (see for a summary Baron 1986, Cameron 1985). In German and French. the problems of linguistic inequality are enhanced through the grammatical gender system and its connection with the extralinguistic category of ‘sex”. Particularly the ambiguity of the masculine form, which can refer both to male referents and to Dictionary of language and linguistics 408 referents of both sexes (generic use), has led to many suggestions for change in the language of law and administration, which are by now already being practiced. Empirical studies of language use within the framework of conversation analysis deal mainly with gender-specific discourse behavior as well as with problems of the influence of the sex on linguistic socialization. In order to be able to use verifiable results (not merely uncertain tendencies) as the basis for the changes pursued, greater differentiation in the construction of hypotheses is necessary; especially, the isolation of the variable ‘gender’ must be given up in favor of its interplay with other variables, such as age, status, nationality etc. The comprehensive success of feminist language-political demands is astounding, as here a Europe-wide language change has been set in motion by a decentralized group without any political power. References Cameron, D. 1985. Feminism and linguistic theory. Basingstoke. (2nd edn 1992.) Coates, J. 1986. Women, men, and language: a sociolinguistic account of sex differences in language. London. (2nd edn 1993.) Coates, J. and D.Cameron (eds) (1989). Women in their speech communities. New perspectives on language and sex. London. Crawford, M. 1995. Talking difference. On gender and language. London. Frank, K. 1992. Sprachgewalt. Die sprachliche Reproduktion der Geschlechterhierarchie. Elemente einer feministischen Linguistik im Kontext sozialwissenschaftlicher Frauenforschung. Tübin-gen. Jespersen, O. 1922. Language. Its nature, development and origin. New York. Lakoff, R. 1975. Language and women’s place. New York. Mills, S. 1995. Feminist stylistics. London. Philips, S.U., S.Steele, and C.Tanz. 1987. Language, gender and sex in comparative perspective. Cambridge. Postl, G. 1991. Weibliches Sprechen. Feministische Entwürfe zu Sprache und Geschlecht. Vienna. Pusch, L.F. 1984. Das Deutsche als Männersprache. Frankfurt. Tannen, D. 1991. You just don’t understand: women and men in conversation. London. ——1996. Gender and discourse. Oxford. Thorne, B., C.Kramarae and N.Henley (eds) 1983. Language, gender and society. Rowley, MA. Trömel-Plötz, S. 1982. Frauensprache: Sprache der Veränderung. Frankfurt. State-of-the-art-reports Baron, D. 1986. Grammar and gender. New Haven. Bussmann, H. 1995. DAS Genus. DIE Grammatik und—DER Mensch: Geschlechterdifferenz in der Sprachwissenschatt. In: Genus. Zur Geschlechter-differenz iu den Kulturwissenschaften. ed. by H. Bussmann and R.Hof, 114–160. Stuttgart. McConnell-Ginet. S. 1988. Language and gender. In: Linguistics: The Cambridge survey, ed. by F.J. Newmeyer. Vol. 4: Language: The socio-cultural context. 75–99. Cambridge. Samel, I. 1995. Einführung in die feministische Sprachwissenschaft. Berlin. gender, agreement A-Z 409 field work Methodological process for the collection of linguistic data and texts ( corpus) of spoken language or of a language which is only orally transmitted. The selection of data and the specific way in which the field work is carried out depends upon the particular objectives of the study concerned. The most important techniques comprise the recording of conversations in ‘participatory observation’ or in structured interviews with a subsequent transcription, the questioning of informants by the investigator where all the answers are recorded or transcribed during the process of the interview, linguistic tests, language attitude tests ( matched guise technique), etc. It was primarily in sociolinguistic studies on linguistic varieties in a social context that several procedures were developed to evade the ‘observer’s paradox’ (Labor): the informal, uninhibited everyday language that the linguist wants to study and observe is only used if the speakers do not feel under surveillance. References Labov, W. 1972. Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia, PA. ——1973. Language in the inner city: studies in the Black English vernacular. Philadelphia, PA. Samarin, W.J. 1967. Field linguistics: a guide to linguistic field work. New York. Bibliography Hymes, H.D. 1959. Field work in linguistics and anthropology: annotated bibliography. SiL 14. 82– 91. operational procedures figura etymologica Figure of speech of repetition, a special case of polyptoton: a coupling of words that are etymologically related, e.g. to give a gift, to dance a dance. References figure of speech Dictionary of language and linguistics 410 figure of speech A collective term in rhetoric for all kinds of striking or unusual configurations of words or phrases. The variation can affect all units of the linguistic system (graphic, phonological, morphological. syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic patterns) and occur through (a) repetition, e.g. alliteration, polyptoton, parallelism; (b) extension, e.g. parenthesis, pleonasm; (c) abbreviation, e.g. apocope, ellipsis, zeugma; (d) permutation/transposition, e.g. palindrome, anastrophe, hyperbaton. Certain types of substitution and replacement are also considered figures of speech today, e.g. trope, as well as various pragmatic figures such as the rhetorical question or concession or prolepsis. References Dixon, P. 1971. Rhetoric. London. Fowler, G. 1986. Linguistic criticism. Oxford. Lanham, R.A. 1968. A handlist of rhetorical terms. Berkeley, CA. Leech, G. 1966. Linguistics and the figures of rhetoric. In R.Fowler (ed.), Essays on style and language. London. Leech, N.G. 1969. A linguistic guide to English poetry. London. Murphy, J.J. (ed.) 1983. Renaissance eloquence. Berkeley, CA. Nash, W. 1989. Rhetoric. Oxford. Nowottny, W. 1962. The language poets use. London. Ortony, A. (ed.) 1979. Metaphor and thought. Cambridge. Plett, H.F. 1985. Rhetoric. In T.A.van Dijk (ed.), Discourse and literature. Amsterdam. Quinn, A. 1987. Figures of speech: sixty ways to turn a phrase. Salt Lake City, UT. Vickers, B. 1988. In defense of rhetoric. Oxford. Wine, J.D. 1993. Figurative language in Cynewulf: defining aspects of a poetic style. New York. rhetoric Fijian Malayo-Polynesian filter A constraint in the Revised Extended Standard Theory (REST) of transformational grammar which prevents overgeneration by syntactic rules. Filters are language-specific constraints on wellformedness at the surface structure: for example, in Chomsky and Lasnik (1977), the ungrammatical sentence *Who did we want for to win? is excluded by A-Z 411 the for-to filter. In contrast to the filter formulated by Ross in 1967, the REST filters perform functions which correspond to dependency among the application of transformation) in the early stages of transformational transformational rules ( grammar. References Brame, M. 1981. Lexicon vs filters. In T.Hoekstra, H.van der Hulst. and M.Moortgat (eds). Lexical grammar. Dordrecht. 73–95. Chomsky, N. and H.Lasnik. 1977. Filters and control. LingI 8. 425–504. Heny, F. (ed.) 1981. Binding and filtering. London. Perlmutter, D.M. 1971. Deep and surface structure constraints in syntax. New York. Radford, A. 1981. Transformational syntax: a student’s guide to Chomsky’s Extended Standard Theory. Cambridge. Ross, J.R. 1967. Constraints on variables in syntax. Dissertation, MIT. (Repr. as Infinite syntax! Norwood, NJ, 1986.) constraints, finite state automaton, transformational grammar finite state automaton (abbrev. FSA; also finite automaton) A kind of automaton consisting of a finite number of states connected by transitions. Some states are initial, some final, and the transitions are decorated by symbols (see figure). An automaton accepts a string of symbols whenever one can begin at an initial state and follow transitions designated in the string, arriving at a final state with no further elements to process. Generation is similar. FSAs generate (or accept) exactly the regular, or type 3 languages, the simplest in the Chomsky hierarchy of formal language theory. Center-embedding constructions cannot, in general, be described in FSAs, which led Chomsky to reject them as syntax models. Computational linguists revived interest in finite state transducers, however, as models of morphophonemics. Finite state automata whose transitions are further decorated with probabilities (indicating likelihood of transition) are Markov models ( Markov process) or hidden Markov models. Dictionary of language and linguistics 412 FSA A finite state automaton enforcing nasal assimilation References Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic structures. The Hague. Hopcroft, J. and J.Ullman. 1979. Introduction to automata theory, languages and computation. Reading, MA. f finite state transducer (abbrev. FST) Similar to a finite state automaton, except that its transitions are decorated with pairs of corresponding symbols. In operation, it reads one string and writes a second, always based on the correspondences of transitions. Johnson (1972) showed that the phonology derived from Chomsky and Halle’s Sound pattern of English (1968) could be modeled by FSTs, and that these could operate reversibly—for generation or analysis. References Chomsky, N. and M.Halle. 1968. The sound pattern of English. New York. Johnson, C. 1972. Formal aspects of phonological description. The Hague. Kaplan, R. and M.Kay. 1994. Regular models of phonological rule systems. CL. A-Z 413 finite verb form [Lat. finitus ‘bounded’] (also tensed form) Conjugated verb form marked according to tense, voice, person, number, and mood: She eats vs the non-finite forms (to) eat ( infinitive) and eaten ( participle). finitive effective, egressive2, resultative Finnish Finno-Ugric language (Fin. Suomi) with approx. 5 million speakers; official language of Finland. Literary documents since the sixteenth century. Characteristics: relatively small consonant and large vowel inventory, including distinctive length. Complex morphology with numerous morphophonological changes. Comprehensive case system (fifteen cases), including the noticeably heavy use of the partitive case (partial objects, negation, incomplete actions, etc.); nine locative cases which are systematically related (inside: outside: general; rest : motion towards: motion away). Subject-verb agreement. Four infinitive forms which denote various degrees of subordination. Word order SVO. References Atkinson, J. 1977. A Finnish grammar. Helsinki. Fromm, H. 1982. Finnische Grammatik. Heidelberg. Hakulinen, L. 1957. Handbuch der finnischen Sprache. Wiesbaden. Karlsson, F. 1983. Finnish grammar. Juva. Sulkala, H. and M.Karalainen. 1992. Finnish. London. Finno-Ugric Finno-Ugric Largest branch of the Uralic language family, divided into (a) the Ugric languages (with Hungarian, approx. 14 million speakers, and the Ob-Ugric languages Khanty (Ostyak) Dictionary of language and linguistics 414 and Mansi (approx. 20,000 speakers) and (b) the Finnish languages. The latter consist of the Balto-Finnish languages (with Finnish (approx. 5 million speakers), Estonian (approx. 1 million speakers), Karelian (approx. 86,000 speakers), Veps, Ingrian, Liv, and Vot, the Volgaic languages with Mordva (approx. 1 million speakers) and Mari (Cheremis, approx. 600,000 speakers) and the Permic languages with Udmurt (approx. 900,000 speakers) and Komi (approx. 300,000 speakers) to the north. The Lapp languages in northern Scandinavia are usually considered to belong to the Finnish branch. References Collinder, B. 1960. Comparative grammar of the Uralic languages. Stockholm. ——1965. An introduction to the Uralic languages. Berkeley, CA. ——1969. Survey of the Uralic languages, 2nd edn, Stockholm. Décsy, G. 1965. Einführung in die finnisch-ugrische Sprachwissenschaft. Wiesbaden. Haarmann, H. 1974. Die finnisch-ugrischen Sprachen. Hamburg. Hajdú, P. 1962. Finnugor népek es nyelvek. Budapest. (Finno-Ugrian languages and peoples, trans. G.F.Cushing. London, 1975.) Stipa, G.J. 1990. Finnisch-ugrische Sprachfor-schung: von der Renaissance bis zum Neupositivismus. Helsinki. Dictionary Collinder, B. 1977. Fenno-Ugric vocabulary: An etymological dictionary of the Uralic languages. (Handbook 1.) 2nd, rev. edn. Hamburg. Uralic languages first-sister principle In Roeper and Siegel’s (1978) word formation theory, principle postulated for forming and interpreting verbal compounds. The first-sister principle controls the transformational incorporation of a noun into the immediately adjacent (=first sister) position to the verb in its subcategorization frame. Accordingly, peacemaker, but not *peace-thinker can be derived as a possible compound. Selkirk (1982) assumes a similar principle in word syntax in the ‘firstorder projection principle.’ References Roeper, T. and M.Siegel. 1978. A lexical transformation for verbal compounds. LingI 9. 199–259. Selkirk, E. 1982. The syntax of words. Cambridge. verbal vs root compound, word syntax A-Z 415 Firthian linguistics (also contextualism, London School) British variant of structuralism, which distin-guishes itself from other branches above all through the following. (a) The object of investigation is not primarily the language langue vs parole), but rather language use ( usage vs use) as system (langue) ( part of a more extensive social process. (b) This social process takes place in situations, i.e. each linguistic expression is determined by its situational context as well as by its linguistic context (i.e. its distribution). (c) In contrast to mentalistic approaches ( mentalism), meaning is understood to be a complex relation in the context of situations. Based on the research of the Polish anthropologist B.Malinowski (1884–1942) and developed primarily by J.R. Firth (1890–1960), Firthian linguistics has exerted significant influence on language acquisition theory, due to its orientation towards language use. References Firth, J.R. 1957a. Papers in linguistics, 1934–1951. London. ——1957b. A synopsis of linguistic theory 1930–1955. In Philosophical Society of London (ed.) Studies in linguistic analysis. (Special issue). Oxford, pp. 1–32. ——1968. Selected papers. London. Kühlwein, W. (ed.) 1970. Linguistics in Great Britain. Tübingen. Love, N. 1988. The linguistic thought of J.R.Firth. In R.Harris (ed.), Linguistic thought in England, 1914–1945. London. Malinowski, B. 1935. Coral gardens and their magic, 2 vols. London. Mitchell, T.F. 1975. Principles of Firthian linguistics. Oxford. Robins, H.R. 1963. General linguistics in Great Britain 1930–1960. In C.Mohrmann et al. (eds), Trends in modern linguistics. Utrecht. 11–37. Sampson, G. 1980. Schools of linguistics. Stanford, CA. collocation, linguistics (history), systemic linguistics Dictionary of language and linguistics fixed stress FLAC 416 stress2 content-based instruction flap Speech sound so called because of its flapping motion as it bypasses its obstruction. In the formation of a flap, the tip of the tongue is bent backwards and upwards and moves with a continuous striking motion against its place of articulation (alveolar ridge or hard front palate) before returning to its resting position, e.g. in Amer. Eng. batter ( tap). References phonetics Flemish Belgian variant of Dutch. flexive A bound morpheme used to mark word forms grammatically, e.g. -(e)s in does or works or -(e)s in notches or pens. A-Z 417 References morphology fluent aphasia aphasia, Wernicke’s aphasia focus [Lat. focus ‘hearth, fireplace’] (also comment, psychological object, rheme) Term for the informational content of a sentence which the speaker wishes to express. The main grammatical means used to indicate the focus of a sentence are word order ( topicalization) and intonation. If the question test is applied to a sentence, the focus will be the scope of the most normal question posed. Thus in the sentence We went to the movies yesterday, the most natural question is Who went to the movies yesterday? With different intonation We went to the movies yesterday, the natural question would be Where did you go yesterday? Because a speaker generally emphasizes new information in a sentence, the focus will usually correspond to the rheme or comment. ( also functional sentence perspective) References Chomsky, N. 1969. Deep structure, surface structure and semantic interpretation. In D.D.Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics. London and Cambridge. (Repr. in N.Chomsky, Studies on semantics in generative grammar. The Hague, 1972. 11–61.) Jacobs, J. 1986. The syntax of focus and adverbials in German. In W.Abraham and S.de Meij (eds), Topic, focus and configurationality. Amsterdam. 103–27. König, E. 1993. Focus particles. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 978–88. Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics, 2 vols. Cambridge. Quirk, R. et al. 1985. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. New York. Rochemont, M.S. 1986. Focus in generative grammar. Amsterdam. Taglicht, J. 1984. Message and emphasis: on focus and scope in English. London. ——1993. Focus and background. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 998–1005. theme vs rheme, topic vs comment Dictionary of language and linguistics 418 folk etymology Process of word formation based on a reinterpretation of meaning and a reformation of an archaic, foreign word modeled after a similarsounding known word with a similar meaning. Through this diachronic linguistic process, incomprehensible words are (secondarily) motivated, i.e. their meanings are made transparent through a seemingly plausible interpretation. Analogy and assimilation play an important role in this process, and the original meaning is obscured, cf. Eng. asparagus as sparrow-grass and Fr. choucroute (lit. ‘cabbage crust,’ an assimilated loan word based on Ger. Sauerkraut), or Arawakan hamaka ‘hammock’>Span. hamaca>Fr. hamac became Du. hangmak, hangmat, NHG Hängematte (hängen ‘to hang,’ Matte ‘mat’). References etymology Foot Feature Principle Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar footing Term introduced by Goffman (1981) to characterize a particular type of activity in which participants use framing devices ( frame) that identify their position vis-à-vis themselves and others in the way they manage the production or reception of an utterance. Code-switching, a change in paralinguistic features (in pitch and voice quality) and/or in posture may indicate a new footing, leading to a change in the interpretation of the relationship between participants from a symmetric to an asymmetric relation. According to Goffman, changes in footing are a natural feature of spoken language. References Goffman, E. 1974. Frame analysis. New York. ——1981. Forms of talk. Philadelphia, PA. Tannen, D. 1986. That’s not what I meant! How conversational style makes and breaks your relations with others. New York. A-Z 419 Foreign Language Across the Curriculum content-based instruction foreign-language pedagogy Most common designation for those areas in applied linguistics and language pedagogy that are concerned with the theory and practice of foreign-language instruction. Important areas of foreign-language pedagogy are (a) decisions about instructional goals (type and scope of desired proficiency); (b) studies on the requisites of language learning (motivation, talent, prior knowledge, age of the learner, the organization of language instruction, etc.); (c) research and compilation of instructional materials; and (d) diagnostic methods of evaluating proficiency (proficiency tests, testing procedures). ( also language test, second language acquisition) References Hammerly, H. 1991. Fluency and accuracy: toward balance in language teaching and learning. Clevedon. Kelly, L.G. 1969. Twenty-five centuries of language teaching. Rowley, MA. Larsen-Freeman, D. 1986. Techniques and principles of language teaching. New York. Omaggio-Hadley, A. 1993. Teaching language in context. Boston. Richards, J.C. and T.S.Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge. Stevick, E.W. 1980. Teaching languages: a way and ways. Rowley, MA. ——1982. Teaching and language learning. Cambridge. Stern, H.H. 1983. Fundamental concepts of language teaching. Oxford. applied linguistics foreign vs second language A foreign language is any language that is not officially recognized in a given country or state. In this view, for example, the Spanish language in the United States would be considered a ‘foreign language’ even though it is spoken by approx. 19 million people. In contrast, a second language is an officially sanctioned language spoken by an identifiable population in a given country or state, such as French in Canada. A theoretical distinction is often drawn between the concept of a ‘foreign’ vs a ‘second’ language. In calling a language a ‘second’ language, emphasis is placed equally on the mastery of receptive and productive skills with the goal of making the new Dictionary of language and linguistics 420 language one’s own and of becoming a productive, functioning member in the L2 society. In contrast, ‘foreign’ languages are usually learned with more specific goals in mind, such as learning how to read specific types of written material, acquiring rudimentary listening skills, learning how to make oneself understood as a tourist in a foreign country, and so on. In the United States in recent years, the term foreign language has been rejected by many teachers for political and pragmatic reasons. Among suggested replacements is ‘world languages’, a term that emphasizes internationalism and inclusion rather than the distance and strangeness by the term ‘foreign’. References second language acquisition foreign word The concept of ‘foreign’ words goes back to the middle of the seventeenth century, a foreign word being a linguistic expression adopted from one language into another (usually together with that which it denotes) and which, in contrast to a loan word, has not been phonetically, graphemically, or grammatically assimilated into the new language (e.g. Gemütlichkeit, Sushi). To be sure, the distinction between a foreign word and a loan word is often fuzzy (e.g. independence, culture, lox, cocaine), and foreign-word status is particularly questionable in lexicalized hybrids like anti-aircraft, regretful, megabuck. Criteria for distinguishing foreign words from loan words are (a) the presence of ‘foreign’ morphophonemic structure (e.g. mahi-mahi); (b) the frequency of occurrences or the familiarity of the speaker/hearer with the term and concept, with the ‘life’ of the foreign word being irrelevant: influenza (in use since the mid eighteenth century) would more likely be characterized as ‘foreign’ than radio or diskette, both in currency only in this century; (c) the orthographic representation (bologna vs baloney). The determination of foreign-word status varies; it depends a great deal on a society’s attitude towards other languages and cultures and, hence, ranges from purist judgments (particularly by language associations in the seventeenth century) to prestige value (found particularly in scholarly language). A-Z 421 References borrowing, language contact, language maintenance, stylistics form This term is used in various ways, depending on the terminological context: school grammar), it is the designation for words of the 1 In traditional grammar ( same stem, but different inflection: in this sense run, ran, runs are different word forms of the word run. 2 Since antiquity (Aristotle), form has denoted the sensorily perceptible aspect of the linguistic sign ( signifier vs signified), in contrast to content/meaning or function. 3 In American structuralism, form is an unclassified linguistic utterance to which a meaning is attributed. A distinction is drawn between (a) free forms, which can occur alone, such as the word, which is defined as the smallest free form, and (b) bound forms, such as inflectional or word formation suffixes, which can only occur together with other, i.e. free, forms. Reference Bloomfield, L. 1926. A set of postulates for the science of language. Lg 2. 153–64. 4 In glossematics, form in the opposition ‘form vs substance’ denotes abstract characteristics (which are at the base of all possible substantial realizations of a linguistic expression). Substances represent material linguistic realizations at the level of parole, whereas forms represent units at the level of langue ( langue vs parole). The distinction of form vs substance applies to all levels of description: thus, form on the content level refers to the abstract semantic relations of the lexicon, by which the meaning substance (=unstructured set of thoughts and concepts) is differently structured from language to language. For an impressive example cf. the designation of the basic colors in different languages: the substance (the chromatic spectrum) is structured language, specifically through different formal relations ( color terms). References glossematics Dictionary of language and linguistics form association 422 analogy form class A term introduced by Bloomfield for groups of linguistic expressions with identical format, phonological and morphological structure as well as syntactic properties. Criteria for membership of expressions in a form class are the ability to be substituted in certain contexts and the ability to occur in complex expressions. Similar concepts are proposed by other structuralists such as C.Fries, C.Hockett, and O. Jespersen. References Bloomfield, L. 1926. A set of postulates for the science of languag e. Lg 2. 153–64. American structuralism formal language In contrast with natural languages, a formal language is a linguistic system based on logic and/or mathematics that is distinguished by its clarity, explicitness, and simple verifiability. ( also formal logic, formalization) formal language theory The mathematical study of the form of languages, i.e. divorced from properties such as meanin g and use. The fundamental result of this theory is theChomsky hierarchy: the division of language types into regular languages ( finite state automaton). contextcontext-free grammar), context-sensitive (CS) languages ( free (CF) languages ( context-sensitive grammar), and unrestricted ones. These are often referred to as type 3 languages (regular) and type 0 languages. A set is closed under an operation if applying the operation to appropriate arguments from the set yields an element in the set. Each of these language families is closed under union, concatenation and repetition. In addition, there are deep parallels between formal language theory and automata theory. The following table summarizes these: A-Z Language type 423 Automata type regular → finite-state context-free → (push-down) stack context-sensitive → linear bounded unrestricted → Turing machines In addition, correspondences have been demonstrated with programming theory and the theory of recursive functions. Thus, regular languages are exactly those characterized by finite memory programs, CF by recursive finite domain programs. CS languages are included in those characterized by recursive functions, and unrestricted languages are exactly those characterized by partially recursive functions (thus these languages are just the recursively enumerable sets). Current research in linguistically oriented formal language theory focuses on mildly context-sensitive languages, a language family between CF and CS, which may include all human languages. See Hopcroft and Ullman (1979) for language/automata correspondences and recursive function theory; see Gurari (1989) for programming theory. References Guran. 1989. An introduction to the theory of computation. Rockville. Hopcroft, J. and J.Ullman. 1979. Introduction to automata theory, languages and computation. Reading, MA. formal logic (also extensional/mathematical/ symbolic logic, logistics) As the study of correct and logical thought, logic is fundamental to all theoretical and empirical sciences in that it provides a method for arriving at valid conclusions and at necessarily true sentences required to propose and test scientific theories. To represent the logical form of sentences formal logic uses a formalized artificial language with a distinctive inventory of symbols (see p. xvii) that can represent certain phenomena of natural language, but dispenses with all stylistic variants as well as ambiguity and vagueness. The main focus of formal logic is on (a) the study of logical connections of propositions and their truth values ( propositional logic), (b) the study of the internal structure of propositions ( predicate logic), (c) the theory of concluding and proving, and (d) the description of inferences ( presupposition). Dictionary of language and linguistics 424 References Allwood, J., L.-G. Andersson, and Ö.Dahl. 1977. Logic in linguistics. Cambridge. Cresswell, M.J. 1973. Logics and languages. London. Feys, R. and F.Fitch. 1969. Dictionary of symbols of mathematical logic. Amsterdam. Gabbay, D.M. and F.Guenthner (eds) 1983–9. Handbook of philosophical logic, 4 vols. Dordrecht. Guttenplan, S. 1986. The languages of logic. Oxford. Hodges, W. 1983. Elementary logic. In D.M.Gabbay and F.Guenthner (eds), Handbook of philosophical logic. Dordrecht. Vol. 2, 1–131. Marciszewski, W. (ed.) 1981. Dictionary of logic as applied in the study of language: concepts, methods, theories. The Hague. McCawley, J.D. 1981. Everything that linguists have always wanted to know about logic but were ashamed to ask. Oxford. Moore, R.C. 1993. Logic and representation. Chicago, IL. Quine, W.V.O. 1950. Methods of logic. New York. Reichenbach, H. 1947. Elements of symbolic logic. New York (5th edn 1956.) Van Fraassen, B. 1971. Formal semantics and logic. New York. Wall, R. 1972. Introduction to mathematical linguistics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Zierer, E. 1972. Formal logic and linguistics. The Hague. Bibliographies Partee, B., S.Sabsay, and J.Soper. 1971. Bibliography: logic and language. Bloomington. IN. Petöfi, J.S. (ed.) 1978. Logic and the formal theory of natural language: selective bibliography. Hamburg. formal meaning lexical meaning vs grammatical meaning formal semantics logical semantics formalization Use of formal languages of mathematics and formal logic to describe natural languages. The advantage of formalization as opposed to nonformalized descriptions is the greater explicitness of the vocabulary (=terminology), precision and economy, as well as simpler verification of argumentation. A-Z 425 References Chomsky, N. and G.A.Miller. 1963. Introduction to the formal analysis of natural languages. In R.D. Luce et al. (eds), Handbook of mathematical psychology. New York. Vol. 2, 269–321. Salomea, A. 1973. Formal languages. New York. formant Bundle of sound elements that together form the quality of a sound and are made visible through the frequency stripes of a spectral analysis ( spectrograph). For every vowel four to five formants can be found, of which the first and the second are characteristic for the vowel coloring and the others for individual speech features. Formants are defined according to their frequency, amplitude, and width. In vowels, articulatory resonance characteristics of the resonance chamber correspond to formants. References phonetics formative 1 In word formation, term for bound word-forming morphemes ( affix). 2 In generative grammar, the smallest linear units with syntactic function, a distinction being drawn between lexical formatives ( lexical entry) and grammatical formatives, e.g. table, red in contrast with ‘present tense,’ ‘plural.’ formator In Morris’ theory of signs (1946) ( semiotics), a sign which, in contrast to a designator, has no denotative function, and thus does not refer directly to an object or state of affairs in the real world, and which consequently does not have an independent semantic value ( function word). Weinreich (1963) distinguishes four different types of formators: (a) pragmatic formators, which express the function of an utterance as a command or question; (b) Dictionary of language and linguistics 426 deictic formators (like here, there, tomorrow, I, you, and others), which refer to the deixis); (c) logical constants (like the spatial or temporal context of the utterance ( conjunctions and, or, and others), which connect utterances and determine their truth values ( predicate logic); (d) and quantifiers (like several, all, some, only, and quantification). The problems others), which specify the quantity of sets ( encountered in the semantic description of formators in natural languages have played a central role in many recent grammatical theories. References Morris, C.W. 1946. Sign. language and behavior. New York. Weinreich, U. 1963. On the semantic structure of language. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.). Universals of language. Cambridge, MA. 114–71. quantification. semiotics. formula 1 In formal logic, the result of a formalization process, through which a sentence of a natural language is translated into an appropriate formal-logical target language, e.g. the formula for the sentence Caroline is Philip’s sister: (a) is (Caroline, Philip ‘s sister), (b) is the sister of (Caroline, Philip). 2 A term from phraseology ( idiomatics) for a lexically and syntactically unchangeable group of words that frequently has the value of a sentence and is thematized as a formula of politeness or greeting according to a pragmatic point of view: e.g. good afternoon, to your health, good luck. ( twin formula) fortis vs lenis [Lat. fortis ‘strong’; lenis ‘weak’] Articulatory feature of stops and fricatives that refers to differing degrees of muscle tension. In fortis sounds, the subglottalic air pressure behind the point of articulation is stronger than in lenis sounds. The partially synonymous terms tenuis vs media refer only to stops and denote that aspectof voicelessness vs voicedness ( voiced vs voiceless) that correlates with the features [fortis] vs [lenis] in English. Moreover, the fortis/tenuis sounds [p, t, k] in English are aspirated ( aspiration) to varying degrees depending on their position in the given word (e.g. word-initial, word-medial, word-final). A-Z 427 References phonetics fossilization [Lat. fossilis ‘obtained by digging’] Permanent retention of linguistic habits which, when taken together, constitute a language-learner’s interlanguage (e.g. French uvular /r/ in the English interlanguage of native speakers of French, American English retroflex /r/ in the French of native speakers of American English, German time-place word order in the English interlanguage of native speakers of German, etc.). Fossilization may occur despite optimal learning factors and corrective feedback; it may result, in particular, when a language learner perceives that his communicative strategies are effective and adequate. References Higgs, T. and R.Clifford. 1982. The push toward communication. In T.V.Higgs (ed.). Curriculum, competence, and the foreign language teacher. (The ACTFL Foreign Language Education Series, Vol. 13.) Lincolnwood, IL. Selinker, L. 1979. Interlanguage. In D.Nehls (ed.). Studies in descriptive linguistics. Heidelberg. Vol. 2, 55–77. Selinker, L. and J.T.Lamendella. 1979. The role of extrinsic feedback in interlanguage fossilization. Language Learning 29. 363–75. interlanguage four skills In language instruction and acquisition, listening, speaking, reading, and writing constitute the ‘four skills.’ Developing proficiency in the four skills is one of the primary goals of current foreign-language instruction. Dictionary of language and linguistics 428 frame 1 Schema-based ( schema-based text comprehension) approach of artificial intelligence for knowledge representation that is used particularly for objects, although it provides more general perspectives as well. Many knowledge representation approaches (e.g. KL-ONE) are based on the concept of frames, which, among other things, makes the inheritance of properties within frame hierarchies possible. Frames, which have a strong connection to case frames of Fillmore’s case grammar (though in contrast to these can be seen as conceptual entities), have a number of ‘slots’ through which the elements or aspects of a concept are represented. ( also script) References Brachman, R. and J.Schmolze. 1985. An overview of the KL-ONE knowledge representation system. CSc 9. 171–216. Flickinger, D., C.Pollard. and T.Wasow. 1985. Structure-sharing in lexical representation. ACL Proceedings 262–7. Minsky, M. 1974. A framework for representing knowledge. In P.Winston (ed.), The psychology of computer vision. New York 211–77. 2 In sociological and sociolinguistic approaches to discourse analysis, a principle of organization which governs a participant’s subjective involvement in social events (see Goffman 1974). A frame provides a tacit point of orientation for participants as they make sense of the ongoing interaction: for instance, pitch contour and/or facial expression may represent a frame for an utterance that is to be understood as serious or ironic ( contextualization). Participants may change, break, or exploit frames (e.g. in advertisements (Tannen 1986)). Since frames are tacit, labeling one frame creates another higher-level frame. A particular type of a framing device is footing. ( also ethnography of speaking) References Bateson, G. 1972. Steps to an ecology of mind. New York. Goffman, E. 1974. Frame analysis. New York. ——1981. Forms of talk. Oxford. Tannen, D. 1979. What’s in a frame? Surface evidence for underlying expectations. In R.O.Freedle (ed.), New directions in discourse processing. Norwood, NJ. 137–81. ——1986. That’s not what I meant! How conversational style makes or breaks your relations with others. New York. A-Z 429 frame construction brace construction Franco-Provençal Romance languages Franglais A blend of the words fr(ançais) (‘French’) and anglais (‘English’) for the borrowings from English that are found in French, e.g. un handicapé or le week-end. Franglais can also refer to a comical mixture of French and English. Reference Etiemble, R. 1964. Parlez-vous franglais? Paris. free adjunct [Lat. adiungere ‘to connect, to add’] Syntactic element serving as a modifier which is not required by the valence of the verb, but which can be added freely to a sentence: (He was reading a book) under a tree. ( also complement) Reference Kortmann, B. 1991. Free adjuncts and absolutes in English: problems of control and interpretation. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 430 free alternation distribution free correlation distribution free stress stress2 free variation (also facultative variation) Term introduced by N.S.Trubetzkoy to describe allophones which can occur in the same position without causing a change in meaning, e.g. the pronunciation of /p/ in the word cap in different Eng. dialects as khæph/ khæpº/khæp′/. In this example, free variation occurs at the phonetic level, but there is also free variation on the phonemic level, when a phonemic difference is suspended in certain cases, e.g. as /i:/ or /ay/ in the pronunciation of the initial vowel sound in either. ( also complementary distribution, distribution) References Trubetzkoy, N.S. 1939. Grundzüge der Phonologie. Göttingen. (4th edn 1967.) phonology A-Z 431 Fregean principle principle of compositionality Frege’s principle of meaning principle of compositionality French Language belonging to the Romance language family of Indo-European, native language of about 80 million speakers in France, Canada, Belgium, Luxemburg, Switzerland, and some countries formerly colonized by France. After English, French is one of the most important languages of education today. The term ‘French’ (from the Vulgar Lat. franciscus) refers particularly to the dialect of the Ile-de-France (the region around Paris), which is the basis for the literary language. Early on two separate linguistic regions developed: in the north the langue d’oïl and in the south the langue d’oc ( Occitan); these terms are derived from the different words for ‘yes’: in the north the Old French oïl (from Lat. hoc ille), in the south oc (from Lat. hoc). French is the earliest and most richly attested descendant of Latin; the oldest attestation is the Strasburg Oath from the year 842. Usually three periodizations are undertaken: Old French (until approx. 1350), Middle French (until approx. 1600) and Modern French, whose sound inventory, morphology, and syntax diverge the most from Latin of all the Romance languages. ( also creole) References Battye, A. and M.-A.Hintze. 1992. The French language today. London. Ewert, A. 1943. The French language, 2nd edn. London. Holtus, G., M.Metzeltin, and C.Schmitt (eds) 1991. Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik, vol. 5, 1. Tübingen. Sanders, C. (ed.) 1993. French today: language in its social context. Cambridge. Atlas Gillierón, J. and E.Edmont, 1902–10. Atlas linguistique de France. Paris. Dictionary of language and linguistics 432 Modern grammars Byrne, L.S.R. and E.L.Churchill. 1986. A comprehensive French grammar, 3rd edn completely rev. by G.Price. Oxford. (Reprint with corrections 1987.) Confais, J.P. 1978. Grammaire explicative. Munich. Damourette, J. and E.Pichon. 1911–40. Des mots à la pensée: essai de grammaire de la langue française, 6 vols. Paris. Grevisse, M. 1936. Le bon usage. Gembloux. (12th edn 1986.) Judge, A. and F.G.Healey. 1985. A reference grammar of modern French. London. Togeby, K. 1982–5. Grammaire française, 5 vols. Copenhagen. Von Wartburg, W. and P.Zumthor. 1947. Précis de syntaxe du français contemporain. Bern. (3rd rev. edn 1973.) Wagner, R.L. and J.Pinchon. 1962. Grammaire du française classique et moderne. Paris. (2nd edn 1974.) Historical grammars Einhorn, E. 1974. Old French: a concise handbook. Cambridge. Foulet, L. 1919. Petit syntaxe de l’ancien français. Paris. (3rd rev. edn 1965.) Harris, M. 1978. The evolution of French syntax: a comparative approach. London. Rheinfelder, H. 1936. Altfranzösische Grammatik. Munich. 2 vols (2nd edn 1976.) History Brunot, F. 1913–. Histoire de la langue française des origines à nos jours. Paris. Lodge, R.A. 1993. French: from dialect to standard. London. Pope, M.K. 1952. From Latin to Modern French, with especial consideration of Anglo-Norman, 2nd edn. Manchester. Price, G. 1971. The French language: present and past. London. Rickard, P. 1993. A history of the French language, 2nd edn London. Wartburg, W.V. 1934, Evolution et structure de la langue française. Leipzig. (10th edn Bern 1971.) Dictionaries Grand Larousse de la langue française. 1971–8. 6 vols. Paris. Mel’čuk, I. et al. 1984–92. Dictionnaire explicatif et combinatoire du français contemporain, 3 vols. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Robert, P. 1951–70. Le grand Robert de la langue française: dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue française, 7 vols. Paris. (2nd edn 1985.) Trésor de la langue française: dictionnaire de la langue du XIX et du XX siècle (1789–1960). 1971–. Paris. A-Z 433 Historical dictionaries Bloch, O. and W.von Wartburg. 1968. Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française, 5th rev. edn. Paris. Dauzat, A., J.Dubois, and H.Mitterand. 1971. Nouveau dictionnaire étymologique et historique. Paris. Godefroy, F. 1880–1902. Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue française, 10 vols. Paris. (Repr. 1937– 8.) Greimas, A.J. and T.M.Keane. 1992. Dictionnaire du moyen français. Paris. Huguet, E. 1925. Dictionnaire de la langue française du seizième siècle. Paris. Tobler, A. and E.Lommatzsch. 1925–76. Altfranzösisches Wörterbuch. 10 vols. Berlin and Wiesbaden. Wartburg, W.von. 1922–. Französisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Bonn, Tübingen and Basle. (Vol. 25 1992, Basle.) Bibliographies Heckenbach, W. and F.G.Hirschmann. 1981. Weltsprache Französisch: kommentierte Bibliographie zur Frankophonie (1945–1978). Tübingen. Ineichen, G. 1974. Bibliographische Einführung in die französische Sprachwissenschaft. Berlin. Martin, R. 1973. Guide bibliographique de linguistique française. Paris. Romanische Bibliographie (=supplements for the Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie). Tübingen. Schutz, H. 1978. Gesprochenes und geschriebenes Französisch: bibliographische Materialien (1964–1976). Tübingen. Journal Journal of French Language Studies. frequency dictionary Statistical register of the most frequently encountered words in a language which, on the basis of quantitative criteria, are selected as the words with the greatest degree of use. Such lexicographical investigations of frequency are based upon a wide variety of texts that are believed to be representative of the given language. Linguistic applications may be found in studies on BASIC English. References Brunet, E. 1981. Le Vocabulaire française de 1789 a nos jours: d’après les données du trésor de la langue française. Geneva. Carroll, J.B. et al. 1971. The American heritage word frequency book. Boston. Dictionary of language and linguistics 434 Eaton, H.S. 1940. A semantic frequency list for English, French, German and Spanish. Chicago, IL. Gougenheim, G. 1958. Dictionnaire fondamental de la langue française. Paris. Hindmarsh, R. 1980. Cambridge English lexicon. Cambridge. Jones, L.U. 1966. A spoken word count. Chicago, IL. Josselson, H.H. 1953. Russian word count. Detroit. MI. Juilland, A., D.Brodin, and C.Davidovitch. 1970. Frequency dictionary of French words. The Hague and Paris. Kaeding, F.W. 1898. Häufigkeitswörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. Steglitz. Kučera, H. and W.N.Francis. 1967. Computational analysis of present-day American English. Providence, RI. Kühn, P. 1978. Deutsche Wörterbücher: eine systematische Bibliographie. Tübingen. Meier, H. 1964. Deutsche Sprachstatistik. Hildesheim. (2nd edn 1967.) Morgan. B.Q. 1928. German frequency word book. New York. Roberts, A.H. 1965. A statistical linguistic analysis of American English. London. Rosengren, I. 1972. Ein Frequenzwörterbuch der deutschen Zeitungssprache: Die Well, Süddeutsche Zeitung. Lund. Ruoff, A. 1981. Häufigkeitswörterbuch gesprochener Sprache: gesondert nach Wortarten, alphabetisch. rückläufig alphabetisch und nach Häufigkeit geordnet. Tübingen. Steinfeldt, E. 1973. Russian word count: 2,500 words most commonly used in modern literary Russian. Guide for teachers of Russian, trans. V.Korotky. Moscow. (Orig. 1966.) Thorndike, E.L. 1944. The teacher’s word book of 30,000 words. New York. Wängler, H.-H. 1963. Rangwörterbuch hochdeutscher Umgangssprache. Marburg. West, M. 1953. A general service list of English words. London. (5th edn 1960.) frequentative iterative vs semelfactive Freudian slip speech error fricative [Lat. fricare ‘to rub’] (also spirant) Speech sound classified according to its manner of articulation, namely with pulmonic or pharyngeal air ( ejective), and in which at least in one position the oral cavity forms a narrow passage through which the expired air creates sound through friction. Subclasses of fricatives are formed by labialization, palatalization, velarization, pharyngealization ( secondary articulation), aspiration, nasalization, glottalization. Further classificatory characteristics are phonation, the articulator, and place of articulation ( articulatory phonetics). In English, all fricatives are formed with the pulmonic airstream mechanism. Ejective fricatives are found in Amharic and Caucasian. Unlike (non-nasal) stops, fricatives can function as syllables, e.g. in the A-Z 435 Sino-Tibetan language of Hani. In English, syllabic fricatives occur only paralinguistically, as in References phonetics Frisian West Germanic language with strong dialectal differences: West Frisian, official language along with Dutch of the Dutch province of Frisia (approx. 300,000 speakers); East Frisian, surviving only in the Lower Saxon Saterland with about 1,000 speakers; North Frisian, with various dialects along the west coast of SchleswigHolstein, on the islands of Helgoland, Sylt, Amrum, Föhr and on the northern Halligs, altogether about 10,000 speakers. The oldest written attestations, dating from the thirteenth century (Old Frisian), show a close relationship to Old English. The vocabulary and idiomatic usage show a strong influence from the standard languages which have dominated since the end of the Middle Ages: Dutch, Low German, and, later, High German. Nevertheless, there are still a large number of similarities with English in respect to the vowel and consonant systems and loss of inflectional endings. References Markey, T.L. 1981. Frisian. The Hague. Tiersma, P.L. 1985. Frisian reference grammar. Dordrecht. Dictionary of language and linguistics Friulian Rhaeto-Romance front vowel fronting FUG 436 vowel palatalization Functional Unification Grammar FSA finite state automaton Fula (also Fulani) Largest West Atlantic language (approx. 11.5 million speakers) spoken by the nomadic Fulbe people between Senegal and Lake Chad. References Arnott, D.W. 1970. The nominal and verbal systems of Fula. Oxford. Pelletier, C. and A.Sinner. 1979. Adamawa Fulfulde. Madison, WI. Sylla, Y. 1982. Grammaire moderne du pulaar. Dakar. A-Z Fulani 437 Fula function (also mapping) 1 Basic term in set theory taken from geometry: assignment to each element x of a set A (= domain) exactly one element y=f(x) of a set B (=range) (notation: f: A→B or A→B). In set theory, f frepresents a subset of the product set A ×B, namely the subset of the ordered pairs ‹x, y› with xεA and y=f(x) εB. Types of functions are as follows: (a) Injection: a function f of A into B is injective (or unidirectional), if f is left-directional, that is if the equation f(x) =f(y) consistently yields x=y. (b) Surjection (=mapping onto): a function f of A into B is surjective if every element in B is the value of at least one element x in A under ƒ. (c) Bijection: a function is bijective or unidirectional up if it is both injective and surjective. Dictionary of language and linguistics 438 References formal logic 2 Basic term taken from mathematics and logic for describing structures and systems. Widely used synonymously with function1. ( also formal logic, set theory) 3 In Hjelmslev’s (1943) glossematics, ‘function’ refers to the concept of relation. Hjelmslev uses ‘function’ ‘in a meaning that lies intermediately between the logicalmathematical and the etymological’ (p. 33), i.e. function relates both to the different forms of dependencies of various quantities amongst themselves (which he calls interdependence, determination, or constellation) as well as to the fact that these quantities ‘function’ in certain ways and occupy a certain role in the text. References Hjelmslev, L. 1943. Omkring sprogteoriens grundlaeggelse. Copenhagen. 1961. Prolegomena to a theory of language, trans. F.J.Whitfield. Madison, WI. glossematics 4 syntactic function function verb Subcategory of verbs (such as bring, come, find, stand, take) which in certain contexts have lost their lexical meaning as main verbs. In this usage, these verbs serve mainly a grammatical function in nominal sentences by connecting the subject and the prepositional object as well as by bearing syntactic and morphological features. ( functional verb structure) function word 1 Term for linguistic elements which carry primarily grammatical, rather than lexical, meaning and which fulfill mainly syntactic and structural functions. Function words include articles. pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions. ( also formator) 2 particle synseman word 3 A-Z 439 functional composition Mechanism of argument inheritance studied in categorial grammar and introduced by Moortgat (1981) into word formation. Starting with G.Frege’s principle of compositionality, which says that the interpretation of a complex expression reflects the meaning of the component parts and their manner of composition, Moortgat developed a generalized version of functional composition, which was known in logic, in order to explain correspondence in the argument structure between simple verbs and adjectives and their derivations (cf Eng. to rely on him, reliance on him; willing to go, willingness to go). In word syntax the nominal affix (-ance, -ness) forms a constituent with the base verb or adjective. Semantically, however, it takes as its scope the verb or adjective together with its complement. The operation needed to represent this expanded semantic scope of the affix is, according to Moortgat, functional composition. It causes the derivation to take over the argument of the base category, while the base simultaneously fulfills the argument structure of the affix. Generalized functional composition, in other words, represents a complex function that combines two functions into a compound function, which in turn can be applied to the unsatisfied argument of one of the combined functions (=that of the base). Along with the principle of compositionality, this semantic operation guarantees that on him or to go are complements of the bases (and not derivations), although the derivation arises from the structural unit base+affix. This operation was further adapted to the theories of argument inheritance in Di Sciullo and Williams (1987) and Bierwisch (1989). References Bierwisch, M. 1989. Event nominalizations. In W. Motsch (ed.). Wortstruktur und Satzstruktur. Berlin. 1–73. Di Sciullo, A.M. and E.Williams. 1987. On the definition of word. Cambridge, MA. Moortgat, M. 1981. A Fregean restriction on metarules. In V.Burke and J.Pustejovsky (eds), NELS =Proceedings of the 17th annual meeting of the North Eastern Linguistic Society, ed. by J.McDonough and B.Plunkett. Amherst, MA 1986, pp. 306–25. ——1985. Functional composition and complement inheritance. In G.A.L.Hoppenbrouwers, P.A.M.Seuren, and A.J.M.M.Weijters (eds). Meaning and the lexicon. Dordrecht. 39–48. word formation functional grammar In the broader sense: theoretical approach to the description and explanation of linguistic phenomena based on their various functions. The following functions are generally investigated: topic vs comment, theme vs rheme, definite-ness or animacy (animate vs inanimate) of a noun phrase, the semantic roles ( thematic relations) or syntactic Dictionary of language and linguistics 440 functions of the expressions in question. Semantic roles are the central means of description in case grammar. Lexical Functional Grammar and relational grammar are based on syntactic functions. The basic assumption of functional grammar is that linguistic phenomena cannot be explained without examining their function. Thus functional grammar offers an alternative to (post-)structuralist attempts at describing linguistic phenomena formally (i.e. assuming the autonomy of syntax). These differing assumptions can be seen clearly in their descriptions of verbal agreement. In a non-functional approach this phenomenon is generally described at the level of form by means of morphosyntactic case. Thus the finite verb agrees with the nominative complement of the predicate. This description fits well for English. In a functional approach the influence of semantic roles, animacy, and/or definiteness of the noun phrase on verbal agreement is examined. This approach works better in some cases, e.g. in object-verb agreement in Swahili (see Givón 1984). In this language there is subjectverb agreement as well as object-verb agreement depending on whether the object is a human being or is definite. Functional descriptions are preferred in the empirically oriented research on universals, since the formal (i.e. morphological and topological) means of marking syntactic function vary across languages, while their functions are universal. References Bolkestein, A.M. and C. de Groot. 1990. Functional grammar: new trends and applications. PICL 14. 302–10. Bondarko, A.V. 1991. Functional grammar: a field approach. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Connolly, J. 1991. Constituent order in functional grammar: synchronic and diachronic perspectives. Berlin and New York. Connolly, J.H. and S.C.Dik. 1989. Functional grammar and the computer. Dordrecht. Dik, S.C. 1989. The theory of functional grammar, part 1. Dordrecht. ——1990. Some developments in functional grammar: predicate formation. In F.Aarts and T. van Els (eds), Contemporary Dutch linguistics. Washington. 58–79. ——1992. Functional grammar in Prolog. Berlin and New York. ——1993. Functional grammar. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 368–94. Dirven, R. and V.Fried. 1987. Functionalism in linguistics. Amsterdam. Engberg-Pedersen, E. et al. (eds) 1994. Function and expression in functional grammar. Berlin and New York. Givón, T. (ed.) 1979. Syntax and semantics, vol. 12: Discourse and syntax. New York. ——1984–90. Syntax: a functional-typological introduction, 2 vols. Amsterdam. Grossmann, R.E. et al. (eds) 1975. Papers from the parasession on functionalism. Chicago, IL. Halliday, M.A.K. 1985. Introduction to functional grammar. London. Hengeveld, K. 1992. Non-verbal predication: theory, typology, diachrony. Berlin and New York. Horn, G. 1988. Essentials of functional grammar. Berlin. Keenan, E. 1974. The functional principles: generalizing the notion of ‘subject of.’ CLS 10. 298– 309. Kuno, S. 1980. Functional syntax. In E.Moravcsik and J.R.Wirth (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 13: Current approaches to syntax. New York. 117–35. ——1987. Functional syntax: anaphora, discourse and empathy. Chicago, IL. Levine, R. 1992. Formal grammar: theory and implementation. Oxford. A-Z 441 Nuyts, J. et al. (eds) 1990. Layers and levels of representation in language theory: a functional view. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Siewierska, A. 1991. Functional grammar. London. Van Gelderen, E. 1993. The rise of functional categories. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Van Valin, R.D. Jr (ed.) 1993. Advances in role and reference grammar. Amsterdamand Philadelphia, PA. Van Valin, R.D. and W.A.Foley, 1984. Functional syntax and universal grammar. Cambridge. functional illiteracy The inability to carry out survival-level tasks due to deficiencies in reading and/or writing skills. functional linguistics Prague School functional meaning lexical meaning vs grammatical meaning functional phonetics phonology functional sentence perspective (also theme vs rheme, topic vs comment) Prague School term introduced by Matthesius (1929) for denoting the analysis of a sentence in respect to its communicative function. The basis of the sentence is known information, called the theme (topic, given), while that which is said about the known information is considered to be the rheme (comment, new). This semantic classification, which has both semantic and contextual aspects, is reflected in word order, use of pronouns, articles, and intonation. Dictionary of language and linguistics 442 References Brömser, B. 1982. Funktionale Satzperspektive im Englischen. Tübingen. Dik, S.C. 1989. Theory of functional grammar, part 1. Dordrecht. Firbas, J. 1992. Functional sentence perspective in written and spoken communication. Cambridge. Grewendorf, G. 1980. Funktionale Satzperspektive und deutsche Wortstellung. LingB 66. 28–40. Jacobs, J. 1984. Funktionale Satzperspektive und Illokutionssemantik. LingB 91. 25–58. Lötscher, A. 1984. Satzgliedstellung und funktionale Satzperspektive. JIdS 1983.118–51. Matthesius, V. 1929. Zur Satzperspektive im modernen Englisch. ASNS 84: 202–10. functional uncertainty A term introduced by Kaplan and Zaenen (1989) as a formal means of description for feature structures in the treatment of non-local dependencies in Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG). In feature structures, the list of attributes from the root of the feature structure to an embedded value is called a ‘path.’ The concept of functional uncertainty is based on the use of regular expressions in path names: for example, if during topicalization in English the topicalized element has to be unified with an object position in the matrix sentence, then this can happen through the following feature equation: TOPIC=OBJ. The topicalized object can also be extracted from a multiply embedded complement: Mary1 John claimed that Bill said that Henry telephoned1. Therefore Kaplan and Zaenen suggest the following type of feature equation: TOPIC=COMP* OBJ. The Kleeneoperator ‘*’ at the COMP attribute reveals that any number of COMP attributes can be found in the path. Thus the equation stands for an infinite disjunction of feature structures. Functional uncertainty is also used for the treatment of other non-local dependencies. An algorithm for the implementation of functional uncertainty can be found in Kaplan and Maxwell (1988). References Kaplan, R. and J.T.Maxwell. 1988. An algorithm for functional uncertainty. In COLING 88 Budapest. Vol. 1,297–302. Kaplan, R. and A.Zaenen. 1988. Long distance dependencies, constituent structure, and functional uncertainty. In M.Baltin and A.Kroch (eds), Alternative conceptions of phrase structure. Chicago, IL. 17–42. Netter, K. 1988. Nonlocal-dependencies and infinitival constructions in German. In U.Reyle and C. Rohrer (eds), Natural language parsing and linguistic theories. Dordrecht. 356–410. A-Z 443 Functional Unification Grammar (abbrev. FUG) A generative grammatical formalism developed by Kay (1979) within the family of unification grammars. In FUG, all grammatical representations take the form of feature structures. Feature structures of syntactic units, which represent the phrase structure, comprise two attributes. The value of the attribute CSET contains the immediate constituents; the value of the attribute PATTERN is a (partial) specification of the linear order of these constituents. The rules of FUG are also feature structures. The grammar is the disjunction of all grammar rules and of all lexical entries, which must be in a specific place with respect to the representation of every syntactic unit. FUG forms the basis for numerous experimental natural-language systems. References Appelt, D.E. 1985. Planning English sentences. Cambridge. Kay, M. 1979. Functional grammar. BLS 5. 142–58. ——1984. Functional Unification Grammar: a formalism for machine translation. COLING 84. 75– 8. ——1985. Parsing in Functional Unification Grammar. In D.R.Dowty, L.Karttunen, and A. Zwicky (eds), Natural language parsing. Cambridge. 251–78. McKeown, K.R. and C.R.Paris. 1987. Functional Unification Grammar revisited. ACL Proceedings 25. 97–103. Ritchie, G.D. 1985. Simulating a Turing machine using Functional Unification Grammar. In T. O’Shea (ed.), Advances in artificial intelligence. Amsterdam. 285–94. functional verb structure (also nominal construction) Syntactic structure which consists of a prepositional object and a function verb (e.g. to bring to completion). Functional verb structures are formed in the following manner: the original verbal meaning of completion is realized by nominalization to an abstract noun and by adding a semantically weak verb functioning as an auxiliary which produces the grammatical connection between the subject and the prepositional object. The wide use of functional verb structures, especially in more technical language, is due both to a desire of greater precision and economy as well as to various semantic aspects of functional verb structures: (a) variation of aspect: to flee, to be in flight vs to put to flight; (b) replacement of a passive construction: His proposals were approved by all the participants vs His proposals found approval with all the participants; (c) modification of the theme-rheme ( theme vs rheme) structure of the sentence by placing important Dictionary of language and linguistics 444 meaning-carrying elements at the end of the sentence in order to have a better com municative position: He consented wholeheartedly vs He gave his wholehearted consent. References Esau, H. 1973. Nominalization and complementation in modern German. Amsterdam. nominal style functionalism Prague School functive 1 In glossematics, elements belonging to the substance of language that refer to each other by relations (Hjelmslev 1943, ch. 1 calls them ‘functions’); cf. function. 2 In glossematics, the objects of study are not the functives themselves, but the system of dependency relations holding between them; cf. interdependence, determination, and constellation. References Hjelmslev, L. 1943. Omkring sprogteoriens grundlaeggelse. Copenhagen. (Prolegomena to a theory of language, trans. F.J.Whitfield. Baltimore, MD, 1953.) glossematics A-Z functor Fur 445 logical connective Nilo-Saharan fusion 1 Sound change in morphemes when connected with other morphemes, e.g. umlaut in also collocation, juxtaposition) German: blau vs bläulich ‘blue vs bluish.’ ( References Sapir, E. 1921. Language. New York. morphology 2 blend fusional assimilation assimilation futhark The name given to the Runic alphabet ( letters of the alphabet (fuþark). rune). It stands for the names of the first six future perfect Verb tense which expresses anteriority relative to a future event. It is formed in English with will have+past participle: By the time you come, he will have finished washing the car. The future perfect owes its existence both to the influence of Latin as well as to the desire of many grammarians for a symmetrical analog to the correlation present vs Dictionary of language and linguistics 446 present perfect and past vs past perfect to augment the normal future tense with a relative tense expressing temporal anteriority. References tense future tense Verb tense formed in English with will+ infinitive: She will come. The future tense characterizes the state of affairs expressed by the utterance as lying temporally after the speech act. In English the present progressive often fulfills this function as well, usually supported by an adverbial element referring to the temporal context: She will come tomorrow vs She is coming tomorrow. The temporal aspect is almost always colored by shades of modality, especially when the future tense is used to express reassurance, command, or suspicion: Everything will turn out fine, You WILL be home by seven, You’ll be wanting the car tonight? References tense A-Z 447 G Gaelic (also Goidelic) Branch of Celtic consisting of Irish (West Ireland, approx. 500,000 speakers, official language of the Republic of Ireland) and ScotsGaelic (northern Scotland and the Hebrides, about 90,000, descendants of sixteenth-century Irish settlers). Attested since the eighth century. Belongs to the q-Celtic languages. References Elsie, R. 1986. Dialect relationships in Goidelic: a study in Celtic dialectology. Hamburg. Lehmann, R.P.M. and W.P.Lehmann. 1975. An introduction to Old Irish. New York. O Murchú, M. 1985. The Irish language. Dublin. O’Siadhail, M. 1989. Modern Irish: grammatical structure and dialectal variation. Cambridge. Ternes, E. 1973. The phonemic analysis of Scottish Gaelic. Hamburg. Thurneysen, R. 1946. A grammar of Old Irish. Dublin. (rev. edn 1980). Withers, C.W.J. 1984. Gaelic in Scotland 1698–1981. Edinburgh. Dictionary Quin, E. (ed.) 1983. Dictionary of the Irish language. Dublin. Etymological dictionary Vendryes, J. et al. 1959–. Lexique étymologique de l’irlandais ancien. Paris. Dictionary of language and linguistics 448 Journal Ériu. Celtic Galatian Galician Celtic Portuguese, Spanish Galla Gallego Gallo-Romance Cushitic Portuguese Romance languages game-theoretical semantics A theory of semantics that relates the coherences of an assertion to the postulation of a winning strategy in a semantic game for the proponent of the particular assertion. Expansions comprise utterances other than statements, e.g. questions and commands as moves in a well-defined linguistic game. The intellectual background has its foundation in Wittgenstein’s concept of the language game which provided inspiration for the work of Stenius and Hintikka. Lorenzen’s dialogic interpretation of effective logic can be seen as the precursor to Hintikka’s semantic games and their generalization in Carlson’s dialog games. A-Z 449 References Carlson, L. 1983. Dialogue games: an approach to discourse analysis. Dordrecht. Hintikka, J. 1973. Logic, language games, and information. Oxford. Hintikka, J. and J.Kulas. 1983. The game of language: studies in game-theoretical semantics and its applications. Dordrecht. Lorenzen, P. 1967. Formale Logik. Berlin. ——1969. Normative logic and ethics. Mannheim. Saarinen, E. (ed.) 1979. Game-theoretical semantics: essays on semantics by Hintikka, Carlson, Peacocke, Rantala and Saarinen. Dordrecht. Stenius, E. 1967. Mood and language game. Synthese 17.254–74. Wittgenstein, L. 1953. Philosophical investigations. Oxford. gapping A term coined by Ross (1970) to describe a transformation which creates gaps in a sentence after a conjunction by deleting a verb which would otherwise reappear, e.g. Caroline plays the flute and Louise (plays) the piano. Gapping can work forwards, as above, or backwards as in the deletion of the first mention of the word. According to Ross the direction of gapping depends on the constituent branching in the deep structure, and provides insight into the underlying word order of a language, whether S(ubject)-V(erb)-O(bject) or SOV. ( also co-ordination, ellipsis) References Hudson, R.A. 1976. Conjunction reduction, gapping, and right-node raising. Lg 52. 535–62. Maling, J.M. 1972. On gapping and the order of constituents. LingI 3. 101–8. Nijt, A. 1979. Gapping. Dordrecht. Ross, J.R. 1970. Gapping and the order of constituents. In M.Bierwisch and K.E.Heidolph (eds), Progress in linguistics. The Hague. 249–59. Stockwell, R.P., P.Schachter, and B.Hall Partee. 1973. The major syntactic structures of English. New York. co-ordination, ellipsis, transformational grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics Gascon Gaulish GB theory 450 Occitan Celtic Government and Binding theory Ge’ez (also Ethiopic) Extinct Semitic language attested from the fourth to the ninth centuries AD, precursor of Tigrinya, closely related to Amharic. Still used today as the liturgical language of the Ethiopian church. Independent writing system developed from early South Arabic script. References Dillmann, A. 1907. Ethiopic grammar, 2nd rev. edn, ed. C.Bezold, trans. by J.A.Crichton. London. (Repr. Amsterdam, 1974.) Weninger, S. 1993. Ge’ez (Classical Ethiopic). Munich. Bibliography Leslau, W. 1965. An annotated bibliography of the Semitic languages of Ethiopia. The Hague. Dictionary Leslau, W. 1987. Comparative dictionary of Ge’ez (Classical Ethiopic): Ge’ez—English, EnglishGe’ez, with an index of the Semitic roots. Wiesbaden. (2nd printing 1991.) A-Z 451 geminate [Lat. geminata ‘doubled’] (also double consonant, long consonant) Consonant that is distinguished from another exclusively by its longer period of articulation ( quantity). The difference between simple and long consonants is phonologically relevant in some languages, e.g. in Ital. fato (‘fate’) and fatto (‘done’), but not in others, e.g. English, where double consonant characters/letters serve only orthographically to indicate a preceding short vowel: redden. References phonetics gemination [Lat. geminatio ‘doubling’] 1 Figure of speech (also epizeuxis) featuring the immediate etition rep of an expression or word, e.g. sing softly, softly, softly. Gemination can be used to express strong emotion or to emphasize a nuance, as Ortega y Gasset did in writing Curiosity is almost, almost, the definition of frivolity. ( also anaphora, epiphora) References figure of speech 2 Sound change that brings about a doubling of consonants. Gemination is caused and favored primarily by (a) assimilation, cf. Old Indo-Iranian (Sanskrit) vs Middle IndoIranian (Pali): bhartum>bhattum ‘carry,’ svapna-> soppa- ‘sleep,’ sahasra->sahassa ‘thousand’ (see Hock 1986:65); (b) change in syllabic structure in intervocalic consonant clusters, especially before a following semivowel or sonorant; problems of syllabification that occur here are often solved with the aid of gemination in favor of (universally preferred) ‘strong’ syllable onset. An example of this is found in the West Germanic consonant gemination that occurs before j, w, r, l, m, n, cf. Proto-Gmc *sitjan>*sittjan>OE sittan ‘sit’ References Hock, H.-H. 1986. Principles of historical linguistics. Berlin. (2nd rev. edn 1991.) Dictionary of language and linguistics 452 Murray, R.W. and T.Vennemann. 1983. Sound change and syllable structure in Germanic phonology. Lg 59. 514–28. phonetics, sound change gender [Lat. genus ‘kind, class’] (also grammatical gender) Lexical-grammatical category, which in most languages of the world divides the nominal lexicon into formally and/or semantically motivated groups, the number of classes varying just as the kind of criteria for the division (Royen 1929; Corbett 1992). However, gender systems in the narrower sense are only those classifications which exhibit a limited number of closed classes (as a rule weak semantic transparency) as well as agreement. This definitorial demarcation of gender from classifying languages (which order nouns according to purely semantic qualities such as plant, animal, edible etc., cf. Mandarin Chinese) is based on the syntactic characteristic of the formal agreement of all elements in a noun group with the core noun; in German agreement exists with regard to the three categories gender, number (singular, plural) and case (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative), cf. the noun group in In den meisten indogermanischen, semitischen und afrikanischen Sprachen, ‘In most Indo-European, Semitic and African languages’. The morphological characterization creates cohesion over complex structures and thereby makes possible—for stylistic purposes—a freer word order than is possible in languages without gender and agreement, such as English. With regard to the principles of the classification, a distinction is made between (a) semantic systems (such as, e.g., Tamil, Zande, Dyirbal and some Caucasian languages, (b) formal systems, which are to be found in morphological respect in Russian, Swahili and other Bantu languages, and (c) phonologically predictable systems such as French. Eighty-five per cent of the nouns in the approx. 200 languages studied by Corbett (1992) can be attributed to a specific class through formal criteria; in case of doubt semantic aspects are decisive. In the course of its history, English has lost all morphological signs of the original three-class gender system through the loss of final syllables, but ‘covert’ gender (semantic gender) is to be found in the selection of anaphorical pronouns, and this selection in return is mainly motivated by gender-related analogies (natural gender), cf. the common differentiation between natural gender (mother—she), social gender (lorrydriver—he, nurse—she), and psychological gender (the baby—it; the ship—she). In contrast to German, personal designations are usually gender-neutral (teacher, student, lawyer); a general derivational suffix comparable to German -in is also lacking (-ess is less generally applicable and in many cases already has a pejorative connotation as compared to its male counterpart, cf. mister/ mistress, governor/governess). Where sexual specification is necessary, this takes place through adjectival (female/male citizen) or nominal (woman writer) modification (Baron 1986). On the connection between gender and sex under language-political aspects cf. feminist linguistics. A-Z 453 References Baron, D. 1986. Grammar and gender. New Haven. Brugmann, K. 1897. The nature and origin of the noun genders in the Indo-European languages. A lecture delivered on the occasion of the sesquicentennial celebration of Princeton University. New Allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft 9. 100–9. Bussmann, H. 1995. DAS Genus, DIE Grammatik und—DER Mensch: Geschlechterdifferenz in der Sprachwissenschaft. In H.Bussmann and R.Hof (eds), Genus. Zur Geschlechterdifferenz iu den Kulturwissenschaften. Stuttgart. 114–60. Corbett, G.G. 1991. Gender. Cambridge. Fodor, I. 1959. The origin of grammatical gender. Lingua 8. 1–41, 186–214. Greenberg, J.H. 1978. How does a language acquire gender markers? In Universals of human language, III: Word structure. Stanford. 47–82. Ibrahim, I.M. 1973. Grammatical gender. Its origin and development. The Hague. Jespersen, O. 1922. Language. Its nature, development and origin. New York. Jones, C. 1988. Grammatical gender in English. London. 950–1250. Köpke, K.-M. 1982. Zum Genussystem der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Tübingen. Royen, G. 1929. Die nominalen Klassifikationssysteme in den Sprachen der Erde. Historischkritische Studie, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Indogermanischen. Wien. agreement, feminist linguistics, government, noun class general grammar (also philosophical grammar, universal grammar) The attempt to develop a general model of grammar, based on logical principles and from which the structures and regularities of all languages can be derived. ( also language acquisition device, universal grammar) References Chomsky, N. 1966. Cartesian linguistics: a chapter in the history of rationalist thought. New York. Harris, R. and T.J.Taylor. 1989. Landmarks in linguistic thought. London. Ch. 8. Padley, G.A. 1985. Grammatical theory in Western Europe, 1500–1700: trends in vernacular grammar, vol. I.Cambridge. Ch. 4. Dictionary of language and linguistics general reading 454 generic reading general semantics Founded by the Polish mathematician A.Korzybski in the United States, a semantic conceptualization of language, more ideological than linguistic. General semantics investigates the relationship between speaker, language, and reality, with the notion of freeing humans from the ‘tyranny’ of language (see Chase 1938). In contrast to the materialistically oriented reflection theory, general semantics assumes that, due to the present structure of language, human beings are not able to conceive of reality objectively, since the linguistic transmission of experience is always already determined by certain abstractions and symbolizations ( Sapir-Whorf hypothesis). For pedagogical reasons, therefore, it is necessary to see through the manipulations and distortions of language, i.e. to unmask language as a deceptive likeness of reality. References Chase, S. 1938. The tyranny of words. London. Hayakawa, S.I. 1941. Language in thought and action. New York. Korzybski, A. 1933. Science and sanity: an introduction to non-Aristotelian systems and General Semantics. Lancaster, PA. Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (abbrev. GPSG) A generative grammatical theory from the family of unification grammars. GPSG arose from the work of Gazdar as he attempted to oppose a formally limited grammatical model of the generative Revised Extended Standard Theory ( transformational grammar). GPSG has just one level of representation and no transformations. The syntactic representation is a tree diagram whose non-terminal nodes are syntactic categories in the form of partially specified feature structures. The grammatical formalism of GPSG provides a complex system of rules and conditions which determine the wellformedness of the local trees in the representation of a sentence, and thereby the grammaticality of the sentence. The phrase structure rules of GPSG correspond to a version of X-bar theory. They are annotated with feature descriptions which allow the transmission of features. Many of the syntactic regularities described in transformational grammar by transformations are represented in GPSG by metarules which generate phrase structure A-Z 455 rules from other phrase structure rules: for example, the rules for a passive construction can be derived from the rules for an active construction. Every category in the syntactic structure must satisfy the feature co-occurrence restrictions and the feature specification defaults, i.e. conditions which ensure wellformedness. The transmission of features is achieved through feature unification in the local tree and is guided by three global conditions: (a) the Head Feature Convention provides for the transmission of features like number and gender from the mother constituent to the head constituent; (b) the Foot Feature Principle guarantees the transmission of features which should pass to immediate constituents; (c) the Control Agreement Principle regulates the congruence of constituents on the basis of their semantic properties. GPSG uses the ID/LP format. In contrast to the traditional phrase structure grammar, immediate dominance and linear precedence are described by different types of rules. The lexicon of GPSG contains little information. Subcategorization involves a feature [subcat] whose numeric value selects the ID rule, which introduces the lexical element. Long-distance dependencies, such as those found in wh-questions and topicalization, are handled by the interaction of metarules and the transmission of features. Meanings are represented using formulae from intensional logic in the style of Montague grammar. References Gawron, J.M. et al. 1982. Processing English with a Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar. ACL Proceedings 20. 74–81. Gazdar, G. 1981. Unbounded dependencies and coordinate structure. LingI 12. 155–84. ——1982. Phrase structure grammar. In P.Jacobson and G.K.Pullum (eds), The nature of syntactic representation. Dordrecht. 131–86. Gazdar, G. and G.K.Pullum. 1981. Subcategorization, constituent order and the notion ‘head.’ In M. Moortgat, H.D.V.Hulst, and T.Hoekstra (eds), The scope of lexical rules. Dordrecht. 107–23. Gazdar, G., G.K.Pullum, and I.A.Sag. 1982. Auxiliaries and related phenomena in a restrictive theory of grammar. Lg 58. 591–638. Gazdar, G., E.Klein, G.K.Pullum, and I.A.Sag. 1985. Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar. Cambridge, MA. Gunji, T. 1986. Japanese phrase structure grammar. Dordrecht. Kilbury, J. 1988. Parsing with category cooccurrence restrictions. COLING 88 1. 324–7. Phillips, J.D. and H.S.Thompson. 1985. GPSG: a parser for Generalized Phrase Structure Grammars.Ling 23:2. 245–61. Pollard, C. and I.A.Sag. 1988. An information-based syntax and semantics, vol. 1: Fundamentals. Stanford, CA. Sells, P. 1985. Lectures on contemporary syntactic theories. Stanford, CA. Shieber, S.M. 1986. A simple reconstruction of GPSG. COLING 86. 211–15. Stucky, S. 1986. Order in Makua syntax. New York. Uszkoreit, H. 1986. Word order and constituent structure in German. Stanford, CA. Verheijen, R. 1990. Generalized phrase structure grammar and contrastive analysis. In J.Fisiak (ed.), Further insights into contrastive analysis. Amsterdam. 67–84. Dictionary of language and linguistics 456 generate [Lat. generare ‘to create’] A term coined by N.Chomsky in response to Humboldt’s (1836) linguistic theory. Whereas Humboldt’s term ‘generate’ refers to the historical development of language, Chomsky uses the term in a strictly mathematical-logical way for the listing of sentences on the basis of a recursive rule mechanism. ( also generative grammar, recursiveness) References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Humboldt, W.von. 1836. Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues. Berlin. (Repr. Berlin, 1963.) generative capacity The output of a grammar. If attention is restricted to strings, then one speaks of a weak generative capacity. If trees (or other structures) are included, then of a strong generative capacity. Grammars with the same generative capacity are thus weakly or (strongly) equivalent. ( also formal language theory) generative grammar 1 A blanket term for a grammar model that is based on algorithm and generates sentences. 2 A synonym for Chomsky’s transformational grammar. All sentences of formal and natural languages can be produced by the application of the rules of generative grammar. A-Z 457 References transformational grammar generative phonology phonology generative semantics The name for the counterposition taken by G. Lakoff, J.McCawley, and J.Ross among others in the late 1960s in response to Chomsky’s conception of semantics in his 1965 ‘standard theory’ ( aspects model) of transformational grammar. Chomsky, Katz and Fodor (1963) argued that the syntactically motivated deep structure presents the only structure applicable to the semantic interpretive components of the grammar ( interpretive semantics). In contrast, the proponents of generative semantics maintained that semantic structures are generated in a form of basic (universal) rules similar to those of predicate logic. The meaning of individual lexemes is described as a syntactically structured complex of basic semantic elements ( lexical decomposition). For example, the verb convince (x convinces y to do z) is paraphrased by x does that y wants that z, where do and want are atomic predicates ( semantic primitives) which form more complex predicates through transformations. In addition, the number of syntactic categories is reduced to three: S (=proposition), NP (= argument), and V (=predicate). Since the logical-semantic form of the sentence is now seen as the underlying (generative) structure, the otherwise strict division between syntax and semantics collapses, especially between lexical semantics, word formation and the semantics of propositions. Critics of generative semantics pointed out the ad hoc nature of the descriptive mechanism and the ‘overpowerful’ generative power of this model (cf. global rule), whose apparatus could generate more complex structures than are realized in human languages. Interesting counterperspectives are found in Chomsky (1971) and Katz (1970) (interpretive semantics), Bartsch and Vennemann (1972) (categorial grammar), and Seuren (1985) (generative semantics). References Bartsch, R. and T.Vennemann. 1972. Semantic structures: a study in the relation between semantics and syntax. Frankfurt. (2nd edn 1973.) Chomsky, N. 1971. Deep structure, surface structure, and semantic interpretation. In D.D.Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics. Cambridge. 183–216. ——1972. Studies on semantics in generative grammar. The Hague. Katz, J.J. 1970. Interpretative semantics vs generative semantics. FL 6. 220–59. Dictionary of language and linguistics 458 ——1972. Semantic theory. New York. Katz, J.J. and J.A.Fodor. 1963. The structure of semantic theory. Lg 39. 170–210. Lakoff, G. 1970. Linguistics and natural logic. Synthese 22. 151–271. ——1971. On generative semantics. In D.D. Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics. Cambridge. 232–96. Seuren, P.A.M. 1985. Discourse semantics. Oxford. interpretive semantics, semantics, transformational grammar generic [Lat. genus ‘class, stock, kind’] 1 In predicate logic, property of a proposition which comes about through prefixation of the universal quantifier on a propositional function (i.e. a universal proposition); see Reichenbach (1947). Reference Reichenbach, H. 1947. Elements of symbolic logic. New York. 2 In semantics, (a) a reference of noun phrases to kinds instead of concrete objects, e.g. In 1969 man landed on the moon or Every day at least one species of beetles becomes extinct. (According to Burton-Roberts (1976) and Hawkins (1989), the distinction between definites and indefinites remains valid, however.) (b) The expression of regular or predictable states of affairs, e.g. A Scot drinks whisky or Philip smokes pipes. Both types can occur together, e.g. The typical Scot drinks whisky. References Burton-Roberts, N. 1976. On the generic indefinite article. Lg 52. 427–48. Carlson, G. 1990. Reference to kinds in English. New York. Chur, J. 1993. Generische Nominalphrasen im Deutschen: eine Untersuchung zu Referenz und Semantik. Tübingen. Dahl, Ö. 1975. On generics. In E.Keenan (ed.), Formal semantics of natural language. Cambridge. 99–111. Gerster, C. and M.Krifka. 1993. Genericity. In J. Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 966–78. Hawkins, J. 1978. Definiteness and indefiniteness. London. Heyer, G. 1987. Generische Kennzeichnungen: zur Logik und Ontologie generischer Bedeutung. Munich. Krifka, M. (ed.) 1988. Genericity in natural language. Tübingen. A-Z generic noun 459 common noun generic reading (also general reading) The meaning of linguistic expressions which, as generic concepts independent of context, refer to classes of individual elements, e.g. books in Books are expensive. In sentences of the type A lion is a mammal, the indefinite article (normally) has the generic reading. This contrasts with the indefinite article in A lion is sitting in the cage, which does not have the generic reading. References determiner, feminist linguistics genericity generic genetic definition genetic phonetics definition articulatory phonetics genetic tree theory [Grk genesis ‘race, descent’] (also family tree theory) Conceptual model developed by Schleicher (1861–2) to describe the origin of individual languages which were believed to have ‘branched off from older languages. Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution, Schleicher reconstructed the origin of the individual Indo-European languages from a hypothetical Indo-European ‘proto-language’ in the form of a genetic tree whose branches are meant to correspond to the differentiation of Dictionary of language and linguistics 460 individual languages caused by an interruption in their contact with other languages. Apart from its adoption of biological terminology (‘genetic,’ ‘descendant’) to describe the relationship between languages, which leads to faulty associations, the genetic tree model with its (abrupt) branching cannot depict possible mutual influences or parallel linguistic developments. The principal competing model is the wave theory. References Jankowsky, K.R. 1972. The Neogrammarians: a reevaluation of their place in the development of linguistic science. The Hague and Paris. Pedersen, H. 1931. Linguistic science in the nineteenth century. Cambridge, MA. Pulgram, E. 1953. Family tree, wave theory, and dialectology. Orbis 2. 67–72. Schleicher, A. 1861–2. Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. Weimar. ——1873. Die Darwinsche Theorie und die Sprachwissenschaft. Weimar. Schmidt, J. 1872. Die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der indogermanischen Sprachen. Weimar. Strunk, K. 1981. Stammbaumtheorie und Selektion. In H.Geckeler et al. (ed.), Studia linguistica in honorem Eugenio Coseriu. Berlin and Madrid. Vol. 2, 159–70. Geneva School Direction of structuralist research ( structuralism) based on the posthumously published writings of F.de Saussure (1857–1913) and represented above all by subsequent holders of his chair at the University of Geneva (Bally, Sechehaye, Karcevski, and Frei), as well as the editors of his work and the administrators of his will. In this framework, the ‘Ferdinand de Saussure Circle’ primarily attempts to interpret, defend, and define de Saussure’s position, and publishes its findings in the Cahiers F.de Saussure. References Godel, R. 1969. A Geneva school reader in linguistics. Bloomington, IN. ——1970. L’école saussurienne de Genève. In C. Mohrmann et al. (eds), Trends in European and American linguistics 1930–1960, Utrecht. 294–9. Sechehaye, A. 1927. L'école génévoise de linguistique générale. IF 44. 211–41. linguistics (history), structuralism A-Z 461 genitive Morphological case found in many languages (e.g. Latin, Russian, German) whose primary function is to mark an attribute of a noun. The most usual type of attribute is one of possession, which is why the genitive is often called a possessive marker in the literature on universals. Other syntactic functions of noun phrases in the genitive case include the oblique object of a verb or an adjective (Ger. Philip ist sich seines Fehlers bewusst ‘Philip is aware of his mistake’; for further uses, see Teubert 1979), (Ger. eines Tages ‘one day’), or predicative (Ger. des Teufels sein ‘to be of the devil’). Some prepositions in these languages can require the genitive as well (Ger. wegen des Regens ‘because of the rain’). Genitive attributes are sometimes classified, following Latin grammars according to the semantic relation to the modified noun: (a) subject genitive: the sleep of a child (cf. the subject-predicate relationship in A child sleeps); (b) object genitive: the distribution of goods (cf. the object-predicate relationship: Someone distributes goods); (c) possessive genitive: the senator’s hat (possessive relationship: The senator has a hat); (d) partitive genitive: Ger. die Hälfte meines Kuchens ‘half of my cake’. Historically the use of the genitive case in Indo-European languages has decreased significantly; while it is fully active in the Slavic languages, its use has been reduced in German, and in many Romance languages it has been completely lost. In Old English the genitive case was fully functional, while modern English preserves it mainly in the possessive marker -s: Philip’s book. The term ‘genitive’ is also used for the function expressed by the genitive case, e.g. book of Philip. References Anttila, H. 1983. Zur geschichtlichen Entwicklung des Genitivobjekts im Deutschen. Linguistische Studien 107. 97–113. Debrunner, A. 1940. Aus der Krankheitsgeschichte des Genitivs. Bern. Michaelis, C. 1980. Formale Bestimmung und Interpretation einer syntaktischen Relation: das Genitivattribut im Deutschen. Doctoral dissertation, Berlin. Teubert, W. 1979. Valenz des Substantivs: attributive Ergänzungen und Angaben. Düsseldorf. Wellander, E. 1956. Zum Schwund des Genitivs. In Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin (ed.), Fragen und Forschungen im Bereich der germanischen Philologie. Festgabe für Th. Frings, Berlin. 156–72. case. genotype A term in sem iotics borrowed from genetics by Šaumjan to describe the sum of inherited properties. This contrasts with phenotype, which refers to the external and apparent Dictionary of language and linguistics 462 image. According to Šaumjan, the genotype represents the abstract level of a language model which is a universal semiotic system fundamental to all languages. The genotype is bound to various phenotypes by correspondence rules. The primary goal of linguistic analysis is the description of the genotype, upon which a description of the phenotype can be based. References applicational-generative model Georgian Largest South Caucasian language with 3.5 million speakers and a literary tradition extending back to the fifth century AD. The Georgian writing system seems to be developed on the basis of Aramaic. Characteristics: In comparison to other Caucasian languages, a relatively simple sound system (with glottalized consonants), but with complex consonant clusters. Rich inflectional morphology. Ergative case system when the verb is in the aorist; dative subjects with verbs of perception. Verb agreement with the subject, direct and indirect object. Numerous aspects can be expressed by verbal prefixes. References Aronson, H. 1982. Georgian: a reading grammar. Columbus, OH. Fähnrich, H. 1986. Kurze Grammatik der georgischen Sprache. Leipzig. ——1994. Grammatik der altgeorgischen Sprache. Hamburg. Harris, A.C. 1981. Georgian syntax: a study in relational grammar. Cambridge. Hewitt, G. 1996. Georgian. A learner’s grammar. London. Tshenkéli, K. 1958. Einführung in die georgische Sprache. Zurich. Vogt, H. 1971. Grammaire de la langue géorgienne. Oslo. South Caucasian German Indo-European language belonging to the Germanic branch, spoken as a native language in various dialects by approx. 90 million speakers in Germany (approx. 77 million speakers), Austria (approx. 7 million speakers), Switzerland (approx. 4 million A-Z 463 speakers), Liechtenstein, and elsewhere. It is also either the first or the second language of approx. 40 million people in France (Alsace), Italy (South Tyrol), Belgium, Rumania, Poland and Russia, as well as in non-European countries with German-speaking emigrees (United States, Argentina, Brazil, Canada). German differs from the other Germanic languages due in part to the results of the Old High German consonant shift (also second sound shift) in which the voiceless stops [p, t, k] became either fricatives or , affricates, depending on their position, cf. Eng. ship, foot, book vs Ger. Schiff, Buch; also Eng. apple, sit, vs Ger. Apfel, sitzen. The dialect distinctions between Low German (ik ‘I,’ maken ‘make,’ dorp ‘village,’ dat ‘that,’ appel ‘apple’), Middle German (ich, machen, dorf, das, appel) and Upper German (ich, machen, dorf, das, apfel) are based on the regional distribution of this sound shift. While the nature and duration of the historical stages of German are still debated, the following main periods can be distinguished. (a) Old High German (OHG) (from the beginning of written documentation until AD 1050): linguistically distinguished by the spread of the second sound shift and the beginning of vowel mutation ( umlaut); lexically marked by strong influence from Latin. Written documents in various dialects ste m mainly from monasteries in the form of Latin translations and poems in alliterative verse. (b) Middle High German (MHG) (from 1050 to 1350, divided into Early Middle High German (1050–1170/80), classical Middle High German (1170/80–1250), and late Middle High German (1250–1350): the transition from Old to Middle High German is linguistically marked by the weakening and loss of final syllables (OHG scôno>MHG schône>NHG schon ‘already’), while Middle and New High German (NHG) differ through monophthongization (MHG lieber müeder bruoder>NHG lieber müder Bruder ‘dear tired brother’), diphthongization (MHG mîn níuwes hûs>NHG mein neues Haus ‘my new house’) and lengthening ( lengthening vs shortening) in open syllables (MHG wege [vεgə]>NHG Wege [ve:gə]). The vocabulary of the court epic is strongly influenced by French. The literary tradition was largely maintained by knights. During this period, the German-speaking territory was greatly enlarged due to colonization of areas to the east. (c) Early New High German (1500–1650): this period is marked by Luther and the Reformation, the invention of the printing press, and the rise of the middle class. Several dialectal variants, such as Middle Low German of the Hanseatic league, the ‘Common German’ of the Hapsburg chancery in southern Germany, ‘Meissen German’ in the territory of Wettin competed against one another for supremacy. (d) New High German, arising in the course of the eighteenth century, based on East Middle German, and resulting from leveling processes between north and south. It occurs as a written standard with numerous variants (dialects, sociolects) and levels (idiomatic, technical, etc.) which show primarily phonetic and lexical differences. Grammatical characteristics (compared to other Germanic languages): no voiced stops in the syllable coda (=word-final devoicing), relatively complex inflectional system and productive case sy stem, set rules on the placement of the finite verb with otherwise relatively free word order. Special characters: , ä, ö, ü. ( also brace construction, positional fields) Dictionary of language and linguistics 464 Modern grammars Clément, D. and W.Thümmel. 1975. Grundzüge einer Syntax der deutschen Standardsprache. Frankfurt. Duden. 1995. Grammatik der deutschen Gegenwartssprache, 5th rev. edn, ed. G.Drosdowski et al Mannheim. der deutschen Grammatik, 3rd edn. Stuttgart. Eisenberg, P. 1994. Engel, U. 1977. Syntax der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Berlin. (3rd rev. edn Bielefeld and Munich, 1994.) ——1988. Deutsche Grammatik, 2nd rev. edn. 1991, Heidelberg. Fox, A. 1990. The structure of German. Oxford. Hammer, A.E. 1971. German grammar and usage. London. (2nd rev. edn by M.Durrell 1983.) Heidolph, K.E. et al. 1981. Grundzüge einer deutschen Grammatik. Berlin. (2nd unrev. edn 1984.) Helbig, G. and J.Buscha. 1974. Deutsche Grammatik: ein Handbuch für den Ausländerunterricht. Leipzig. (16th edn 1994, Munich). Lohnes, W.F.W. and F.W.Strohmann. 1967. German: a structural approach. New York. Russ, C.V. 1994. The German language today. London. Weinrich, H. 1993. Textgrammatik der deutschen Sprache. Mannheim. Wiese, R. 1995. The phonology of German. Oxford. History and historical grammars Bach, A. 1938. Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. Leipzig. Bergmann, R., et al. (eds) 1987. Althochdeutsch, 2 vols. Heidelberg. Besch, W., O.Reichmann and S.Sonderegger (eds) 1982–4. Sprachgeschichte: ein Handbuch zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und ihrer Erforschung, 2 vols. Berlin and New York. Braune, W. 1987. Althochdeutsche Grammatik, 14th edn, rev. by H.Eggers. Tübingen. Eggers, H. 1963. Deutsche Sprachgeschlichte. 4 vols. Reinbek. Grimm, J. 1819–1837. Deutsche Grammatik. 4 parts. Göttingen (Facsimile printing of the 2nd edn of Berlin 1870/78. Hildesheim 1967). ——1848. Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. Leipzig. Moser, M. 1950. Deutsche Sprachgeschichte. Stuttgart. (6th rev. edn Tübingen 1969). Moser, H., H.Stopp, and W.Besch (eds) 1970–. Grammatik des Frühneuhochdeutschen. Heidelberg. Paul, H. 1989. Mittelhochdeutsche Grammatik, 23rd. edn, rev. by S.Grosse and P.Wiehl. Tübingen. Voyles, J.B. 1976. The phonology of Old High German. Göttingen. language history Dictionaries Adelung, J.C. 1774–86. Versuch eines vollständigen grammatisch-kirtiischen Wörterbuches der Hochdeutschen Mundart, mit beständiger Vergleichung der fübrigen Mundarten, besonders aber der oberdeutschen, 5 vols. Leipzig. (Repr. Hildesheim, 1970.) Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprace, ed. G.Drosdowski, 6 vols. Duden. 1976–81. Das Mannheim. Paul, H. 1897. Deutsches Wörterbuch. 9th rev. edn, ed. H.Heine et al. Tübingen, 1992. A-Z 465 Historical dictionaries Goebel, U. and O.Reichmann (eds) 1989–. Frühneu-hochdeutsches Wörterbuch. Berlin and New York. Vol. II.3 1993. Grimm, J. and W.Grimm. 1854–60. Deutsches Wörterbuch, 16 vols. Leipzig. (Repr. Munich 1884; new rev. edn by the Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin and Göttingen. Leipzig 1965–.) Lexer, M. 1872–8. Mittelhochdeutsches Handwörterbuch, 3 vols. Leipzig. Splett, J. 1992. Althochdeutsches Wörterbuch, 3 vols. Berlin and New York. Etymological dictionaries Duden Etymologie. 1989. Herkunftswörterbuch der deutschen Sprache, ed. G.Drosdowski. 2nd rev. edn. Mannheim. Kluge, F. 1883. Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutschen. (22nd. edn, rev. by E.Seebold. Berlin and New York, 1989.) Pfeifer, W. et al. 1992. Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutschen, 2nd edn. Berlin. Bibliographies Germanistik. Internationales Referatenorgan mit bibliographischen Hinweisen. Tübingen. Kühn, P. 1978. Deutsche Wörterbücher: eine systematische Bibliographie. Tübingen. Lemmer, M. 1968. Deutscher Wortschatz: Bibliographie zur deutschen Lexikologie. Halle. Piirainen, I.T. 1980. Frühneuhochdeutsche Bibliographie: Literatur zur Sprache des 14.–17. Jahrhunderte. Tübingen. Ronneberger-Sibold, E. 1989. Historische Phonologie und Morphologie des Deutschen: eine kommentierte Bibliographie zur strukturellen Forschung. Tübingen. Varieties of German Ammon, U. 1995. Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Das Problem der nationalen Varietäten. Berlin and New York. Barbour, S. and P.Stevenson. 1990. Variation in German. A critical approach to German sociolinguistics. Cambridge. Noble, C.A.M. 1983. Modern German dialects. New York. Journals Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur. Beiträge zur Namenforschung. Neue Folge. Deutsch als Fremdsprache. Deutsche Sprache. Der Deutschunterricht. English and American Studies in German. The German Quarterly. Dictionary of language and linguistics 466 The German Review. Germanistik. Germanistische Linguistik. LiLi. Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik. Linguistische Berichte. Sprachwissenschaft. Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie. Zeitschrift für deutsche Sprache. Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsche Literature. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik. Zeitschrift für Germanistische Linguistik. Reference works Althaus, H.P., H.Henne, and H.E.Wiegand (eds) 1973. Lexikon der germanischen Linguistik. Tübingen. (2nd rev. edn 1980.) History Bach, A. 1938. Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. Leipzig. Eggers, H. 1963. Deutsche Sprachgschichte, 4 vols. Reinbek. Grimm, J. 1848. Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. Leipzig. Keller, R.E. 1978. The German language. London. Moser, M. 1950. Deutsche Sprachgeschichte. Stuttgart. (6th rev. edn Tübingen, 1969.) German in Austria Kranzmayer, E. 1956. Historische Lautgeographie des gesamtbairischen Dialektraums. Vienna. Österreichisches Wörterbuch. 1979. (Hrg. im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Unterricht und Kultus.) 35th rev. edn. Vienna. Schikola, H. 1954. Schriftdeutsch und Wienerisch. Vienna. Wiesinger, P. (ed.) 1988. Das österreichische Deutsch. Berlin. German in Switzerland Hotzenköcherle, R. 1962–. Sprachatlas der deutschen Schweiz. Bern. einer Grammatik mit Laut-und Formenlehre. Zurich. Stucki, K. 1921. Schweizerdeutsch: A-Z 467 Germanic Member of the Indo-European language family which differs from the other IndoEuropean branches due to Grimm’s law, the fixation of word accent in the first root syllable, reduction of the original variety of cases (from eight to four) and the three number categories to two (loss of the dual), simplification of the verbal morphology (loss of the middle voice, syncre- tism of subjunctive and optative), differentiation between strong vs weak verb formation, as well as the development of strong and weak adjective endings. Vocabulary, inflection, and syntax have developed differently in the various Germanic languages. There have been several suggestions on the grouping of the Germanic languages, most of which do not overtly conflict with each other. Usually they are divided into three groups based on historical and geographical concerns (cf. van Coetsem and Kufner 1972; Hawkins 1987): (a) East Germanic: Gothic and Burgundian; (b) North Germanic: Faroese, Icelandic, and the Scandinavian languages Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish; (c) West Germanic: German (including Yiddish), English (including several related creole languages), Frisian, and Dutch (including Afrikaans). Based on the linguistic correspondences between all the individual Germanic languages, a common protolanguage is assumed. The earliest attestations are Scandinavian runic inscriptions (third century) ( rune) and Wulfila’s Bible translation (Gothic, fourth century). References Abraham, W., W.Kosmeijer, and E.Reuland (eds) 1990. Issues in Germanic syntax. Berlin and New York. Bammesberger, A. 1986. Der Aufbau des germanischen Verbalsystems. Heidelberg. ——1990. Die Morphologie des urgermanischen Nomens. Heidelberg. Brogyányi, B. and T.Krömmelbein (eds) 1986. Germanic dialects: linguistic and philological investigations. Amsterdam. Fullerton, G.L. 1977. Historical Germanic verb morphology. The Hague and Berlin. Haugen, E. 1976. The Scandinavian languages: an introduction to their history. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 468 ——1982. Scandinavian language structures: a comparative historical survey. Tübingen. Hawkins, J.A. 1987. Germanic languages. In B. Comrie (ed.), The world’s major languages. London. 68–76. Hutterer, C.J. 1975. Die germanischen Sprachen: ihre Geschichte in Grundzügen. Budapest. (3rd rev. edn 1990.) König, E. and J.van der Auwera. 1994. The Germanic languages. London. Lehmann, W.P. 1966. The grouping of the Germanic languages. In H.Birnbaum and J.Puhvel (eds), Ancient Indo-European dialects. Berkeley, CA. 13–27. Rauch, I., G.F.Carr, and R.Keyes (eds) 1992. On Germanic linguistics: issues and methods. Berlin and New York. Swan, T., E.Morck, and O.J.Westvik (eds) 1994. Language change and language structure: older Germanic languages in a comparative perspective. Berlin and New York. Grammars Krahe, H. and W.Meid. 1967–9. Germanische Sprachwissenschaft, 7th edn. Berlin. Prokosch, E. 1939. A comparative Germanic grammar. Philadelphia, PA. Streitberg, W. 1954. Urgermanische Grammatik, 4th edn. Heidelberg. Voyles, J.B. 1992. Early Germanic grammar: pre-, proto-, and post-Germanic languages. San Diego, CA. Dialectology Markey, T.L. 1976. Germanic dialect grouping and the position of Ingvaeonic. Innsbruck. Bibliography Germanistik. Internationales Referatenorgan mit bibliographischen Hinweisen. Tübingen. Markey, T.L., R.L.Keyes, and P.T.Roberge. 1978. Germanic and its dialects: a grammar of ProtoGermanic, vol. 3: Bibliography and indices. Amsterdam. Journals American Journal of Germanic Languages and Literature. The Journal of English and Germanic Philology. Zeitschrift für germanistische Linguistik. ablaut A-Z 469 Germanic law of spirants The Indo-European consonant clusters bt, gt, gs, dt occur in Proto-Germanic not—as to be expected from the Germanic sound shift ( Grimm’s law)—as pt, kt, ks, tt, but rather as [ft, χt, χs, s(s)]. Therefore, it may be assumed that in Indo-European the stemassimilation) to the voiceless stops of the following final voiced stops assimilated ( syllable, cf. e.g. Lat. scrībere: scrīptum; regere: rēctus. In the Germanic sound shift these voiceless stops regularly turned into their corresponding voiceless fricatives, cf. IE *skabt-, *reĝ-tos: Proto-Gmc *skaft *reχt; in the case of dt and tt there was an additional assimilatory fricativization of the stops, cf. IE *sedtos>Lat. (ob)sessus: Proto-Gmc *sedstos>*sestos>*sessos. References Prokosch, E. 1939. A comparative Germanic grammar. Baltimore, MD. Wisniewski, R. 1963. Die Bildung des schwachen Präteritums und die primären Berührungseffekte. PBB (T) 85. 1–17. sound change Germanic sound shift Grimm’s law gerund [Lat. gerere ‘to perform, to do’] 1 Impersonally used verbal noun in Latin which replaces the lacking case inflection of the infinitive. Formally the gerund corresponds to a future passive participle; semantically it indicates the action in and of itself: ars libros recte legendi ‘the art of reading books correctly.’ Grammatically the gerund functions as an at tribute to the dominating element (ars) and at the same time its valence determines the form of the dependent elements (libros). 2 In English, a verb in the form of a present participle which is used as a noun: Reading spynovels was his favorite pastime. Dictionary of language and linguistics 470 References nominalization gerundive (also verbal adjective) Verbal adjective in Latin with passive meaning. It is similar in form to the gerund1; semantically it expresses purpose or necessity; pacis faciendae causa ‘for the purpose of making peace’ from the verb facere ‘to make.’ This corresponds in English to attributive constructions such as (There remains) much to be done. ( also supine) References Hettrich, H. 1993. Nochmals zu Gerundium und Gerundivum. In G.Meiser (ed.), Indogermanica et Italica: für Helmut Rix zum 65. Geburtstag. Innsbruck. 190–208. Risch, E. 1984. Gerundium und Gerundivum: Gebrauch im klassischen und älteren Latein. Entstehung und Vorgeschichte. Berlin. Strunk, K. 1962. Über Gerundium und Gerundivum. Gymnasium 69. 445–60. Gheg Gilyak Albanian language isolate, Paleo-Siberian Glagolitic script Alphabetic writing system devised by the Greek missionary to the Slavs, Kyrill, in the ninth century for recording texts in Old Church Slavic. The letters of the Glagolitic script show (virtually) no similarities to those in the Cyrillic script which replaced the Glagolitic script in the centuries that followed. A-Z 471 References writing glide 1 semivowel 2 Speech sound without etymological basis that is inserted epenthetically, such as ‹s› in Ger. Kunst ‘art’ (<können ‘to be able’) and the epenthetical ‹1› in Russ. tomlyú ‘I torture.’ ( also epenthesis) References phonetics global aphasia aphasia global rules Rules in generative semantics introduced by G.Lakoff. They ensure the wellformedness of derivations in that they relate not only to the adjacent tree diagrams in a transformational history but the whole derivation of the sentence. References Lakoff, G. 1970. Global rules. Lg 46.627–39. generative semantics Dictionary of language and linguistics 472 gloss Explications in old manuscripts of unintelligible passages in the text or their translation. Depending on the place of the explication, a distinction is made between interlinear glosses, marginal glosses and context glosses. The philological research into glosses, which are often written in a secret language, yields important insights into linguistic and cultural history and can be viewed as a stage prior to lexicology. glossematics Developed in Denmark by L.Hjelmslev (1899–1965) and others, glossematics is the structural linguistic theory of the so-called ‘Copenhagen Linguistic Circle.’ The term ‘glossematics,’ meaning ‘combination of glossemes’ was coined in 1936 by L. Hjelmslev and H.J.Uldall to delineate their theories from more traditional forms of structural linguistics, especially the Prague School ( structuralism). The linguistic theory of glossematics is understood as a continuation of the fundamental structuralist principles set forth by de Saussure (1916) in his Cours de linguistique générale; however, Hjelmslev, influenced by the logical empiricism of A.Whitehead, B.Russell, R. Carnap, and others, aims to make the theory more axiomatic, which his complex terminological apparatus so aptly reveals. Glossematics is based on the hypothesis that language represents a system of internal relations whose structure can be described exclusively through language-internal criteria, autonomously from other disciplines. In strong accord with the methodological principles of de Saussure, glossematics assumes langue ( langue vs parole) to be the object of linguistic research, investigated independently of parole. Crucial to Hjelmslev’s outline of a general theory of language is his attempt to construct a non-contradictory descriptive language by using abstraction and mathematical logic, which would eliminate the confusion between object language and metalanguage ( object language vs metalanguage). Presumably, however, it is precisely this demanding terminological form which has hindered the broader effectiveness of glossematics. Fundamental to the methodology of glossematics is the delineation of two research planes, expression and content ( expression plane vs content plane), i.e. the distinction between the material aspect of the linguistic sign and its meaningful contents, postulated in accordance with de Saussure. Each plane is further divided by the dichotomy ‘substance vs form,’ resulting in four combinations: (a) phonetics or the (physical) substance of the expression; (b) semantics or the substance of the content (by which is meant the extralinguistic reality); (c) phonology or the form of the expression; and (d) grammar or the form of the content. In glossematics, the investigation of phonology and grammar is understood to be the only task of linguistics, while phonetics and semantics are excluded as being extralinguistic. A-Z 473 The goal of linguistic analysis is not primarily the classification of linguistic objects, but rather the description of the structural relations that exist between them. Hjelmslev calls these relations ‘functions,’ and differentiates, according to the type of relation, between (a) bilateral dependence (interdependence), (b) unilateral dependence (determination), and (c) free constellation. To describe these structural combinatory principles, Hjemslev again draws on de Saussure and distinguishes between paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relations. Here the paradigmatic level refers to the language system and the syntagmatic to the co-occurrence of elements in the text. The connection between the paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations is determined by the commutation test. Glossematics influenced the development of formal linguistic description through its concept of the autonomy of language and through its drafting of an axiomatic-deductive linguistic theory which was to fulfill the demands of completeness, simplicity, and freedom from contradiction. References Hjelmslev, L. 1928. Principles de grammaire générale. Copenhagen. ——1943. Omkring sprogteoriens grundlaeggelse. Copenhagen. (Prolegomena to a theory of language, trans. F.J.Whitfield. Baltimore, MD, 1953.) Saussure, F. de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C.Bally and A.Sechehaye. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London. 1983.) Siertsema, B. 1955. A study of glossematics, part I: General Theory (TCLC 10). Copenhagen. Spang-Hanssen, H. 1961. Glossematics. In C.Mohrmann et al. (eds), Trends in European and American linguistics, 1930–1960. Utrecht. 128–64. linguistics (history) glosseme 1 In L.Bloomfield’s terminology, the smallest meaning-bearing unit. Glosseme functions as the cover term for the (grammatically interpreted) tagmemes and the (lexically interpreted) morphemes. References etic vs emic analysis 2 In glossematics, cover term for minimal linguistic units of langue ( langue vs parole), which on the expression plane consist of phonological features (kenemes) and on the content plane of semantic features (pleremes) ( also expression plane vs content plane). Dictionary of language and linguistics 474 References glossematics glossography The collection, examination, and codification of glosses. glottal [Grk. glõttis ‘mouthpiece of a windpipe, larynx’] Speech sound formed with the pulmonic air-stream mechanism in an on-glide or offon-glide vs off-glide). A distinction is drawn between voiceless on- or offglide ( glide [h], voiced on- or off-glide , laryngealized on- or off-glide , or a breathy on- . These characteristics are, as a rule, interpreted as independent speech or off-glide sounds, especially when the pulmonic air is forced through the resonance chamber with ) is formed when the glottis is closed and opened again great pressure. A glottal stop with a plosive. In preglottalized vowels ( glottalization) there is abrupt onset of voice, articulatory in vowels with voiced onglide there is delayed onset of voice ( phonetics). References phonetics glottal closure Closure of the glottis in the formation of glottalized language sounds. Closing and , e.g. uh-oh. opening of the glottis produces a glottal sound. Notation: A-Z 475 References phonetics glottal stop Stop formed by closing and opening the glottis, e.g. Eng. ‘winter.’ ( also glottal closure) oak, Dan. References phonetics glottalic 1 Of or referring to the glottis. 2 Sounds formed with the glottalic airstream mechanism. glottalic airstream mechanism mechanism airstream glottalization Glottal closure before (=preglottalization) or after (=postglottalization) a speech sound. Preglottalized consonants are closest to implosives, postglottalized are closest to ejectives. Preglottalized vowels can be found occasionally in English when, for example, ‘not at all’ (see Moulton 1962); a speaker attempts to avoid running words postglottalized vowels are found in the Sino-Tibetan language of Tsaiwa-Jingpo. In preglottalized vowels, one also speaks of abrupt onset of voicing, e.g. in in Ger. Dictionary of language and linguistics 476 beachten ‘regard’ (in contrast to delayed onset of voicing, e.g. in Fr. ['ale:] aller ‘to go’). Some English dialects, most notably Cockney, substitute a glottal stop for intervocalic consonants, e.g. bottle. References Moulton, W.G. 1962. The sounds of English and German. Chicago, IL. phonetics glottis The gap between the vocal chords in the larynx of humans and other mammals. The also articulatory phonetics) action of the glottis determines phonation. ( References phonetics glottochronology [Grk ‘language’] Subdiscipline of lexicostatistics founded by M. Swadesh that investigates historically comparable vocabularies using statistical methods. The aim of glottochronology is to determine the degree of relatedness between languages as well as an approximate dating of their common origin and divergent development. This process was developed in analogy to the carbon-14 method, in which the age of organic substances can be determined based on the decay of the radio-active isotopes contained within them. Similarly, glottochronology is used to determine the ‘life span’ of words in their respective vocabularies. So it seems that after 1,000 years from the time of its separation from a common proto-language about 81 percent of the original common basic vocabulary of a language remains intact, and then, after an additional 1,000 years, another 81 percent of the remaining original vocabulary remains intact. The methods and conflicting results of glottochronology have come under criticism. A-Z 477 References Bergsland, K. and H.Vogt. 1962. On the validity of glottochronology. Current Anthropology 3. 115–53. Swadesh, M. 1952. Lexicostatistic dating of prehistoric ethnic contacts. Proceedings of the American Philological Society 96. 452–63. lexicostatistics gnomic [Grk ‘judgment, (general) opinion’] Verbal aspect which expresses ‘eternal’ or ‘timeless’ truths (e.g. Snow is white) and forms a subgroup of iterative verbs ( iterative vs semelfactive). References generic2 Goajiro goal Arawakan case grammar God’s truth vs hocuspocus Facetious term for the controversy within distributionalism over the status of system and structure in language. The hocuspocus position uses W.F.Twaddell’s definition of the phoneme as a ‘fictitious unit,’ which the linguist distills from a body of data on the basis of particular rules and operations. The ‘God’s truth’ linguists, however, maintain that system and structure really do occur in the data and are not merely obtained through sleight of hand. On the one hand, the rules criticized by the hocuspocus supporters are not arbitrary, but rather mechanically and scientifically verifiable; on the other hand, the Dictionary of language and linguistics 478 system of the language is not itself the reality, but only an abstract model of reality. It would seem, therefore, that either position in its extreme form needs revision. References Burling, R. 1964. Cognition and componential analysis: God’s truth or hocuspocus. AA 66. 20–8. Harris, Z.S. 1951. Methods in structural linguistics. Chicago, IL. (Reviewed by F.Householder. IJAL 18(1952). 260–8.) Joos, M. (ed.) 1966. Readings in linguistics, vol. 1: The development of descriptive linguistics in America since 1925. Chicago, IL. (Orig. 1957). Twaddell, W.F. 1935. On defining the phoneme. (Language Monograph 16.) (Repr. in M.Joos (ed.), Readings in linguistics, vol. 1: The develop-ment of descriptive linguistics in America since 1925. Chicago, IL, 1966. 55–80.) Goidelic Celtic, Gaelic Gothic East Germanic language spoken by the Goths, a group of southern Scandinavian tribes which spread out during the second to sixth centuries from the Black Sea over all of southern Europe to Spain. The most important written attestation (which is also the oldest Germanic text in existence) is Wulfila’s (West Gothic) Bible translation from Greek, dating from the fourth century. References Bennett, W.H. 1960. An introduction to the Gothic language. New York. Braune, W. 1981. Gotische Grammatik, 19th edn, rev. E.A.Ebbinghaus. Tübingen. Köbler, W. 1989. Gotisches Wörterbuch. Leiden. Lehmann, W.P. 1986. A Gothic etymological dictionary. Leiden. Mossé, F. and J.W.Marchand. 1950–. Bibliographia Gotica. (Medieval Studies 12.) Wright, J. 1954. Grammar of the Gothic language, 2nd edn, ed. O.L.Sayce. Oxford. A-Z 479 governing category A syntactic domain in binding theory within which a reflexiv e pronoun must have an antecedent. In Chomsky’s Government and Binding theory, the governing category of a node X is defined as a first approximation by Y (=NP or S) is the governing category for X, if Y is the minimal category containing X, a governor of X, and a subject. A category is minimal with respect to P, if it contains P and does not dominate any other category that contains P. References binding theory government 1 Lexeme-specific property of verbs, adjectives, prepositions, or nouns that determines the morphological realization (especially case) of dependent elements. Government can be subsumed under valence in so far as elements with valence govern the morphological form of their ‘governed’ (dependent) elements. The term ‘government’ is used especially with verbs whose differing valence is the primary criterion for distinguishing between transitive and intransitive verbs ( transitivity). The syntactic functions of the elements accompanying the verb are based on the various governing cases. Case can also be determined by genitive or prepositional attributes (Ger. Land des Glaubens (genitive) ‘land of faith,’ Hoffnung auf Frieden (accusative) ‘hope for peace’), adjectives (Ger. dem Vater ähnlich (dative) ‘like the father’), and prepositions (Russ. c (instrumental) ‘with, by means of). The term government is used in some studies to indicate the marking of object functions by means of prepositions rather than case marking: the verb to think governs the preposition of. ( also prepositional object) References Barlow, M. and C.A.Ferguson (eds) 1988. Agreement in natural language: approaches, theories, descriptions. Chicago, IL. Hjelmslev, L. 1939. La notion de rection. Acta Linguistica 1.10–23. Lyons, J. 1968. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Cambridge. Van Valin, R.D. 1987. The role of government in the grammar of head-marking languages. IJAL 53.371–97. 2 In the framework of transformational grammar ( Government and Binding theory), the term government has a more precise use: in order for government to be Dictionary of language and linguistics 480 possible, in a local area in a phrase structure diagram there can be no maximal projection, in the sense of X-bar theory, between the governor and the governed, i.e. there can be no phrasal category which does not dominate both the governor as well as the governed. This local area plays a central role both in case theory as well as in various other theoretical areas, such as governing category and empty category principle. ( also binding theory) Government and Binding theory A variation of generative grammar in Chomsky’s (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding. The essential differences of this theory are the modularity of the syntax and constraints on syntactic processes, particularly the binding theory, the theory of government and the empty category principle. References Borsley, R.D. 1991. Syntactic theory. London. Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. (7th edn Berlin and New York, 1993.) Cinque, G. 1991. Types of A’-dependencies. Cambridge, MA. Cowper, E.A. 1992. A concise introduction to syntactic theory: the Government-Binding approach. Chicago, IL. Haegeman, L. 1991. Introduction to government and binding theory. Oxford. ——1992. Theory and description in generative syntax. Cambridge. Lasnik, H. and J.Uriagereka. 1988. A course in GB syntax. Cambridge. MA. Rizzi, L. 1990. Relativized minimality. Cambridge, MA. Stabler, E.P. Jr. 1992. The logical approach to syntax. Cambridge, MA. Webelhuth, G. (ed.). 1995. Government and Binding Theory. A handbook. Oxford. noun phrase, transformational grammar governor In some grammatical theories (e.g. dependency grammar), ‘governing’ element on which other constituents are dependent. A-Z 481 References government GPSG Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar gradable complementaries A class of complementary expressions ( complementarity) so named by Cruse (1980) because they are both scalar and gradable, e.g. clean vs dirty. In contrast to antonymous antonymy), gradable complementaries divide the conceptual domain expressions ( into two mutually exclusive segments. In order to understand gradable complementaries, one must generally make a value judgment about the degree to which a characteristic is undesirable, e.g. safe vs dangerous or sober vs drunk. References Cruse, D.A. 1980. Antonyms and gradable complementaries. In D.Kastovsky (ed.), Perspektiven der lexikalischen Semantik. Bonn. 14–25. semantic relations gradation Semantic category which indicates various degrees (i.e. gradation) of a property or state of affairs. The most important means of gradation are the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives and some (deadjectival) adverbs. In addition, varying degrees of some property can also be expressed lexically, e.g. especially/ really quick, quick as lightning, quicker and quicker. Dictionary of language and linguistics gradual opposition 482 opposition grammar [Grk grámma ‘letter’] Originally, grammar designated the ancient study of the letters of the alphabet and in the middle ages of the entirety of Latin language, stylistics, and rhetoric. The term ‘grammar’ is presently used to refer to various areas of study. 1 Grammar as the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural language. In this traditional sense, grammar caters to the formal aspects of language, excluding phonetics, phonology and semantics as specialized areas of linguistics. 2 Grammar as a system of structural rules (in the sense of de Saussure’s langue ( langue vs parole) fundamental to all processes of linguistic production and comprehension. 3 Grammar as language theory, and in transformational grammar as a model representing linguistic competence ( competence vs performance). 4 Systematic description of the formal regularities of a natural language in the form of a reference work or textbook. Due to the numerous interpretations of the term grammar, scientific criteria for its classification overlap. The following aspects of grammar are relevant for the typological classification of the concept of grammar: (a) Object of study: depending on the particular focus of study, one can cite competence grammar, belonging to the notion of grammar as a language theory whereby a model provides an explanation of the sub- (or non-)conscious linguistic rule apparatus. This can be distinguished from a corpus grammar, which seeks a comprehensive description of observed regularities of a language or of a representative sample of that language. (b) Depending upon theoretical precepts, one can distinguish between grammatical descriptions of individual languages and those seeking to describe linguistic universals upon which individual languagespecific properties are based. (c) According to methodological premises, one can distinguish between descriptive grammars which objectively elucidate synchronically observed properties of a language and normative grammars. The latter seek to teach ‘proper’ or standardized language ( descriptive linguistics, prescriptive grammar). Distributional grammars serve to classify surface structure elements according to distributional criteria ( distributionalism) whereas operational grammars concentrate on the process of devising rules ( operational procedures). (d) Language view or philosophy: depending on linguistic theories expounded by researchers, other grammars exist, in part opposing one another, such as general grammar, dependency grammar, functional grammar, content-based grammar, case grammar, structural grammar ( structuralism), generative transformational grammar, and valence grammar. (e) The distinction is made between scientific and pedagogical grammars in view of the various uses to which each is put, e.g. reference use by native speakers vs language learners ( contrastive analysis). Grammars are currently evaluated on the basis of applica-bility, A-Z 483 simplicity, completeness, explicitness, coherence, and lack of contradiction. ( levels of adequacy) also References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Covington, M.A. 1984. Syntactic theory in the high middle ages. Cambridge. Droste, F.G. and J.E.Joseph (eds) 1991. Linguistic theory and grammatical description: nine current approaches. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Newmeyer, F.H. 1986. Linguistic theory in America, 2nd edn. Orlando, FL. Padley, G.A. 1985. Grammatical theory in Western Europe, 1500–1700. Cambridge. Riemsdijk, H.van and E.Williams. 1985. Introduc-tion to the theory of grammar. Cambridge, MA. Swiggers, P. 1984. Les conceptions linguistiques des encyclopédistes. Heidelberg. grammar translation method Traditional method of foreign language instruction based on techniques used for the study of Greek and Latin, whereby the foreign language is learned principally by studying its syntax and morphology and by translating from one’s native language into the foreign language and vice versa. The emphasis is on the acquisition of reading and writing skills with the goal of reading literary texts. The grammar translation method, which dominated foreign language instruction for nearly a century until the 1940s, now plays only a limited role in current second language teaching approaches. References Coleman, A. 1929. The teaching of modern foreign languages in the United States. New York. Howatt, A.P.R. 1984. A history of English language teaching. Oxford. Kelly, L.G. 1969. 25 centuries of language teaching. Rowley, MA. Larsen-Freeman, D. 1986. Techniques and principles in language teaching. Oxford. Richards, J.C. and T.S.Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge. Titone, R. 1968. Teaching foreign languages: an historical sketch. Washington, DC. language pedagogy, second language acquisition grammatical alternation English equivalent of J.Grimm’s term for the synchronic alternation between voiceless and voiced sounds (primarily fricatives) within etymologically related words of Dictionary of language and linguistics 484 Germanic, cf. Eng. freeze vs Ger. frieren ( rhotacism). The conditions of this sound Verner’s law) as an exception to the Germanic change were formulated by K.Verner ( sound shift ( Grimm’s law); according to this theory. the placement of word accent played a decisive role in the resulting shift of Indo-European intervocalic stops (voiceless vs voiced fricatives). Since Indo-European had free word accent (the present tense and preterite singular had root stress, and the preterite plural and past participle had final syllable stress), grammatical alternation plays an important role particularly in the inflection of strong verbs. However, this change has been extensively eliminated in modern dialects through analogy, cf. OE cēo-san: coren vs Mod. Eng. choose: chosen. References H.-H.Hock. 1986. Principles of historical linguistics. Berlin. (2nd rev. edn 1991.) language change, sound change, Verner’s law grammatical category [Grk katēgoría ‘predication’] (also syntactic category) Abstract class of linguistic units whose kind, scope, and number depend on the specific language, the level of description, and the grammatical theory being used. The following categories are generally used. (a) Morphological categories, which in traditional grammar include parts of speech and/or their grammatical aspects, i.e. gender, case, and number with nouns; aspect, voice, mood, person, and number with verbs. (b) Syntactic categories: class of linguistic elements/constituents with the same morphosyntactic properties. Such categories (abbreviated with category symbols) are both lexical (N(oun), V(erb), A(djective)) as well as phrasal: NP=Noun Phrase, VP= Verb Phrase. In the framework of structuralism, grammatical categories are linguistic expressions which can be freely substituted for one another in a specific context while preserving grammaticality ( acceptability). In transformational grammar, it is a term for constituent classes, i.e. for classes of expressions which can occupy certain structural positions in a sentence ( syntactic function). (c) Formal logical-semantic categories: in both generative semantics and categorial grammar the number of basic categories are kept to a finite number which correspond to the categories of logic, e.g. sentences, terms (ling.= nominal expressions, log.=arguments) and predicates (ling.=verbal expressions, log.= predicates). References Bloomfield, L. 1926. A set of postulates for the science of language. Lg 2. 153–64. Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge. MA. Edmonds, J.E. 1985. A unified theory of syntactic categories. Dordrecht. A-Z 485 Heine, B. and U.Claudi. 1986. On the rise of grammatical categories. Berlin Hopper, P. and S.A.Thompson. 1984. The discourse basis for lexical categories in universal grammar. Lg 60. 702–52. Kuryłowicz, J. 1964. The inflectional categories of Indo-European. Heidelberg. Langacker, R.W. 1987. Nouns and verbs. Lg 63. 53–94. Sasse, H.-J. 1993. Syntactic categories and subcategories. In J.Jacobs (ed.), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 646–86. Schachter, P. 1985. Parts-of-speech systems. In T. Shopen (ed.), Language typology and syntactic description, vol. 1. Cambridge. 3–61. syntactic function grammatical function syntactic function grammatical gender gender grammatical meaning lexical meaning vs grammatical meaning grammatical relation syntactic function grammaticality A term coined by Chomsky (1965) to indicate the wellformedness of expressions of natural languages. Grammaticality is used for two aspects of the same phenomenon. 1 The property of grammaticality refers to expressions that can be derived by the rules of a generative grammar. It concerns an (abstract) wellformedness with regard to a particular linguistic analysis (e.g. a grammar of standard English), semantic aspects not (necessarily) being taken into account. In this respect, grammaticality is not provable by direct observation or by statistical frequency. 2 ‘Grammaticality vs ungrammaticality’ is also used as a measure by competent speakers of a language who can judge different expressions on the basis of intuitive knowledge of the rules of the language. Of course, regional and social variations Dictionary of language and linguistics 486 (idiolects) provide areas of disagreement. Grammaticality, like acceptability, is a relative term, which corresponds to a scale of greater or lesser deviation of linguistic error analysis) expressions from the underlying rules. ( References Chomsky, N. 1961. On the notion ‘rule of grammar.’ In R.Jakobson (ed.), Proceedings of symposia on applied mathematics, vol. 12: The structure of language and its mathematical aspects, Providence, RI. 255–7. ——1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Greenbaum, S. (ed.) 1977. Acceptability in language. The Hague. Hudson, A. and A.H.Edwards. 1988. Syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic influences on judgements of grammaticality. Texas Linguistic Forum 30. 137–41. Kac, M. 1991. Grammars and grammaticality. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Quirk, R. and J.Svartvik, 1966. Investigating linguistic acceptability. The Hague. Spencer, N.J. 1973. Differences between linguistics and nonlinguistics in intuitions of grammaticalityacceptability. JPsyR 12. 83–98. grammaticalization Term coined by Meillet (1912) to indicate a process of linguistic change whereby an autonomous lexical unit gradually acquires the function of a dependent grammatical category, cf. Lat. habere ‘to have, possess’>Fr. avoir ‘PERFECT TENSE’; Lat. passum ‘step’>Fr. pas ‘NEGATION.’ Semantically, this involves a development from autosemantic (lexical) meaning ( autosemantic word) to synsemantic (grammatical) meaning ( synsemantic word) (on this continuum and its poles, see Sapir 1921; Talmy 1988; Langacker 1989). Seen formally, a loss of syntactic independence and morphological distinctiveness from other elements of the same paradigm occurs (on the developmental steps, agglutination, cliticization, fusion). In addition, the presence of the grammaticalized element becomes increasingly obligatory, with correspondingly increasing dependence on and phonological assimilation to another (autonomous) linguistic unit. This process is accompanied by a gradual disappearance of segmental and suprasegmental phonological features ( segmental feature, suprasegmental feature); as a rule, its absolute conclusion is ‘zero phonological content’ (see Heine and Reh 1984; Lehmann 1985). More recent investigations on grammaticalization have primarily addressed its semantic and pragmatic aspects with regard to the following questions. (a) Is the change of meaning that is inherent to grammaticalization a process of desemanticization (see Heine and Reh 1984), or is it rather a case (at least in the early stages of grammaticalization) of a semantic and pragmatic concentration (see Traugott 1989; Traugott and König 1991? (b) What productive parts do metaphors (see Sweetser 1984; Claudi and Heine 1986) and metonyms play in grammaticalization (Traugott and König 1991)? (c) What role does pragmatics play in grammaticalization? Givón (1979) and A-Z 487 Hopper (1988) see grammaticalization as a process of fossilization of discoursepragmatic strategies. Traugott and König (1991) propose conversational principles (specifically content, relevance) as the cause of changes of meaning in grammaticalization processes. (d) Are there any universal principles for the direction of grammaticalization, and, if so, what are they? Suggestions for such ‘directed’ principles include: (i) increasing schematicization (Talmy 1988); (ii) increasing generalization (Bybee and Pagliuca 1985); (iii) increasing speaker-related meaning (Traugott 1989); and (iv) increasing conceptual subjectivity (Langacker 1989). So far, grammaticalization processes have been studied in reference to the following areas: gender marking (Greenberg 1978), pronouns (Givón 1976), switch reference (Frajzyngier 1986), serial verb constructions (Givón 1975; Lord 1976), modal and epistemic expressions (Shepherd 1982; Sweetser 1984; Traugott 1989), concessive and conditional conjunctions (König 1985, 1986; Traugott 1985), causal conjunctions (Traugott 1982), conjunctions (Traugott 1986; Batzeev Shyldkrot and Kemmer (1988), middle voice and reflexivity (Kemmer 1988), terms for parts of the body (Wilkins 1980). References Axmaker, S. et al. (eds) 1988. Proceedings of the annual meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, vol. 14: General session and parasession on grammaticalization. Berkeley, CA. Batzeev Shyldkrot, H. and S.Kemmer. 1988. Le développement semantique des conjonctions en français: quelques concepts généraux. RLiR 23. 9–20. Bybee, J. and W.Pagliuca. 1985. Cross-linguistic comparison and the development of grammatical meanings. In J.Fisiak (ed.), Historical semantics and historical word formation. Berlin. 263–82. Claudi, G. and B.Heine. 1986. On the metaphorical base of grammar. SLang 10.297–335. Frajzyngier, Z. 1986. Grammaticalization through analysis: a case of switch reference. Proceedings of the second annual meeting of the Pacific Linguistics Conference. ed. by S.Delancey and R.S.Tomlin. Eugene, OR. 125–40. Givón, T. 1975. Serial verbs and syntactic change: Niger-Congo. In C.N. Li (ed.), Word order and word order change. Austin, TX. 47–112. ——1976. Topic, pronoun and grammatical agreement. In C.N.Li (ed.). Subject and topic. New York. 151–88. ——1979. On understanding grammar. New York. Greenberg, J.H. 1978. How does a language acquire gender markers? In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of human language. Stanford. CA. Vol. 3, 47–82. Heine, B. and M.Reh. 1984. Grammaticalization and reanalysis in African languages. Hamburg. Heine, B. and E.C.Traugott (eds) 1991. Approaches to grammaticalization, 2 vols. Amsterdam. Heine, B., U.Claudi. and F.Hünnemeyer. 1991. Grammaticalization: a conceptual framework. Chicago. IL. Hopper, P.J. 1988. Emergent grammar and the a priori grammar postulate. In D.Tannen (ed.), Linguistics in context: connecting observation and understanding. Norwood, NJ. 117–34. Hopper, P.J. and E.C.Traugott, 1993. Grammaticalization. Cambridge. Kemmer, S. 1993. The middle voice: a typological and diachronic study. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. König, R. 1986. Conditionals, concessive conditionals, and concessive: areas of contrast, overlap and neutralization. In E.C.Traugott et al. (eds), On conditionals. Cambridge. 229–46. Dictionary of language and linguistics 488 Langacker, R. 1977. Syntactic reanalysis. In C.N.Li (ed.), Mechanisms of syntactic change. Austin, TX. 57–139. ——1989. Subjectification. San Diego, CA. Lehmann, C. 1985. Grammaticalization: synchronic variation and diachronic change. LeS 20. 303– 18. ——1995. Thoughts on grammaticalization. Munich. Lord, C. 1976. Evidence for syntactic reanalysis: from verb to complementizer in Kwa. In S.B. Steever et al. (eds), Papers from the parassession on diachronic syntax. Chicago, IL. 179–91. Meillet, A. 1912. L’évolution des formes grammaticales. In Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris. 130–48. (2nd edn 1921). Pagliuca, W. (ed.) 1994. Perspectives on grammaticalization. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Sapir, E. 1921. Language: an introduction to the study of speech. New York. Shepherd, S. 1982. From deontic to epistemic: an analysis of modals in the history of English, creoles, and language acquisition. In A.Ahlqvist (ed.). Papers from the fifth International Conference on Historical Linguistics. Amsterdam. 316–23. Sweetser, E. 1984. Semantic structure and semantic change: a cognitive linguistic study of modality, perception. speech acts, and logical relations. Dissertation, Berkeley, CA. Talmy, L. 1988. The relation of grammar to cognition. In B.Rudzka-Ostyn (ed.). Topics in cognitive linguistics. Amsterdam. 165–205. Traugott, E.C. 1982. From propositional to textual and expressive meanings: some semanticpragmatic aspects of grammaticalization. In W.P. Lehmann and Y.Malkiel (eds), Perspectives on historical linguistics. Amsterdam. 245–71. ——1985. Condition markers. In J.Haiman (ed.). Iconicity in syntax. Amsterdam. 239–307. ——1986. On the origins of ‘and’ and ‘but’ connectives in English. SLang 10. 137–50. ——1988. Pragmatic strengthening and grammaticalization. BLS 14. 406–16. ——1989. On the rise of epistemic meanings in English: an example of subjectification in semantic change. Lg 65. 31–55. Traugott. E.C. and E.König. 1991. The semantics-pragmatics of grammaticalization revisited. In B. Heine and E.C.Traugott (eds), Approaches to grammaticalization. Amsterdam. Vol. 1. Wilkins, D. 1980. Towards a theory of semantic change. Dissertation, Canberra. granularity [Lat. granum ‘seed’] Degree of coarseness or precision in the linguistic characterization of a state of affairs. It is preset by the given type of text, but can be raised, or made more precise (in exact terms), or lowered, or made less precise (roughly), with certain expressions. In ascertaining the truth value of a statement, one presupposes that the degree of granularity has already been determined. So, for example, a statement like France is a hexagonal country can be considered true with regard to a rough granularity, though false with regard to a fine granularity. Reference Austin, J.L. 1962. How to do things with words. Oxford. A-Z 489 graph [Grk gráphein ‘to write’] 1 Single letter realized in writing whose relation to a certain grapheme is not determined. Analogous to the phone as a variant of a phoneme on the sound level, the graph is a variant on the level of writing. 2 Geometric representation of a two-place relation defined by a set S, whereby the elements of S are designated as nodes and the connections between the nodes, which are determined by the relation, are designated as branches. A graph is ‘directed,’ once the direction of its branches is set. This is the case, for example, for a special type of graph, the tree diagram that represents phonological, morphological, or syntactic structures in linguistics. ( also formalization) 3 In mathematics and logic the graph of a function ƒ is the set of ordered pairs ‹x,f(x)› for all x in the definition sphere of ƒ. Usually a function is identified with its graph. ( also formal logic) grapheme Distinctive unit of a writing system. Variants of any given grapheme are called allographs. In general, graphemes are considered the smallest distinctive units of a writing system. In alphabetic writing systems, graphemes are a written approximation of phonemes; however, digraphy, ligature. ( also graphemics) Reference Henderson, L. 1985. On the use of the term ‘grapheme.’ Language and Cognitive Processes 1/2. 135–48. graphemics Study of the distinctive units of a writing system or of the writing systems of a particular language ( grapheme). The object of study is written texts in handwritten or typographic form. In alphabetic writing systems, graphemics largely makes use of the methods of analysis developed for phonology because of the close relationship between the spoken and the written language. Generally speaking, this is also the case for syllabic writing systems ( syllabary). Graphemic studies primarily serve as a foundation for prescribed orthographic norms, the comparison between spoken and written language, the Dictionary of language and linguistics 490 deciphering of historical texts, as well as the transfer of writing systems to computerized systems in computational linguistics. References orthography, phonology, writing graphetics Subdiscipline of graphemics. Analogous to the relationship between phonetics and phonology, graphetics is a prerequisite for graphemic investigations, to the degree that it studies different writing and transcription systems from individual, social, historical, or typographic aspects. Graphetics is used in palaeography (= deciphering historical writing systems), typography, instruction in reading and writing, as well as graphology (=the study of the relationship between handwriting and personal character traits) and graphometry (=the identification of handwriting in criminal cases). References orthography, writing graphics The particular manner in which a text or part of a text (e.g. a word) is written or printed. In general, all written characteristics of a text fall under theconcept of ‘graphics.’ graphometry The measure of scripts for comparing and ascertaining the creator (or author) of particular writings, e.g. in criminal cases. A-Z 491 Grassmann’s law (also dissimilation of aspirates) Discovered by Grassmann (1863), sound change occurring independently in Sanskrit and Greek which consistently results in a dissimilation of aspirated stops. If at least two aspirated stops occur in a single word. then only the last stop retains its aspiration, all preceding aspirates are deaspirated; cf. IE *bhebhoudhe> Skt bubodha ‘had awakened,’ IE *dhidhehmi> Grk títhēmi ‘I set, I put.’ This law, which was discovered through internal reconstruction, turned a putative ‘exception’ to the Germanic sound shift ( Grimm’s law) into a law. References Anderson, S.R. 1970. On Grassmann’s law in Sanskrit. LingI 1. 387–96. Collinge, N.E. 1985. The laws of Indo-European. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. 47–61. Grassmann, H. 1863. Über das ursprüngliche vorhandensein von wurzeln deren anlaut und auslaut eine aspriate enthielt. ZVS 12. 110–38. Vennemann, T. 1979. Grassmann’s law, Bartholomae’s law and linguistic methodology. In I.Rauch and G.F.Carr (eds), Linguistic method: essays in Honor of Herbert Penzl, The Hague. 557–84. grave accent [Lat. gravis ‘heavy’] 1 Superscript diacritic serving several purposes. It indicates syllable stress in Italian and accentuated Bulgarian texts. In French a distinction is drawn between è for [ε] and é for [e]; graphemically, grave accent is issued to distinguish between homonyms, cf. où (‘where’) vs ou (‘or’), and à (‘to’) vs a (‘has’); similarly Ital. è (‘is’) vs e (‘and’). Morphologically, a grave accent is used to indicate a short rising tone in Serbo-Croatian dictionaries and, in the Latinized Pīnyīn writing system for falling tone in Chinese. 2 accent2 grave vs acute 1 Binary phonological opposition in distinctive feature analysis, based on acoustically analyzed and spectrally defined criteria ( acoustic phonetics, spectral analysis). Acoustic characteristic: greater or lesser concentration of energy in the lower (grave) or upper (acute) spectral range. Articulatory characteristic ( articulation): grave phones Dictionary of language and linguistics 492 have a larger or less clearly divided resonance chamber than acute phones. The distinction characterizes the opposition between [m, p, b, f] vs [n, t, d, s], as well as between front and back vowels: [i, e] vs [u, o], 2 In the Pīnyīn transcription of Chinese, syllable accent with falling tone (grave) or rising tone (acute). 3 Diacritic mark ‹ ̀› (grave) or ‹´› (acute) as a specification for accentuation or pronunciation. Great Vowel Shift Significant historical event in the development of the Modern English vowel system, beginning around he t fifteenth century, in which the Middle English long low vowels were raised and the long high vowels were lowered, presumably through the effects of a push chain or drag chain ( push chain vs drag chain). The development of the shift and its effects on the phonetic representation of English orthography can be illustrated as follows: Middle English Modern English Examples [i:] > [ay] ride [e:] > [i:] meet [ε:] > [i:] meat [a:] > [e:] take [u:] > [aw] house [o:] > [u:] moon > [o:] foam While the exact causes of the Great Vowel Shift are unknown, it represents one of the most systematic attested sound changes. A thorough analysis of this sound shift can be found in Lass (1984). Reference Lass, R. 1984. Phonology: an introduction to basic concepts. Cambridge. English A-Z 493 Grecism An idiom of the Greek language, or an imitation in English of Greek idiom. Greek (also Hellenic) Branch of Indo-European consisting of a single language with numerous dialects and 10 million speakers. Greek has been well attested for a long period of time and is divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (1500–1150 BC), the language discovered on Cretan tablets and deciphered by M. Ventris in 1952 (Linear B); Classical Greek (800–300 BC), with several dialects, the language of the Homeric epics and the rich classical literature in the Attic-Ionic dialect; Hellenistic or Koinē (‘common’) Greek (300 BC-AD 300), the language of the Alexandrian Empire and its successors, which was used as a trade language in the entire eastern Mediterranean area, as well as in the writings of the New Testament; Middle Greek, including Byzantine Greek (AD 300–1100) and Medieval Greek (AD 1100–1600); and finally Modern Greek. In addition to strong dialectal variation there are two standards: Demotic (Dhímotīkī), the common everyday language, and Katharévusa (lit. ‘purifying’), a written language with archaic forms. The Greek alphabet, used since the Classical Greek period, was developed from the Phoenician writing system. Characteristics: Ancient Greek (=Classical and Hellenistic) had a complex vowel system (distinctive length, diphthongs) and musical stress; in Modern Greek the vowel system is reduced and the musical stress has developed into dy namic stress. The case system has simplified from Mycenaean (seven cases) to Ancient Greek (five) to Modern Greek (four), just like the number system (Ancient Greek had a dual, Modern Greek only singular and plural). Relatively complex tense and aspect system; forms earlier marked synthetically are today to a large extent expressed analytically. The infinitive in Modern Greek, as in other Balkan languages, has been lost, while Ancient Greek still had rich possibilities of expressing clause subordination with infinite and finite verb forms. General and history Blass, F. and A.Debrunner. 1961. Grammatik des neutestamentlichen Griechisch, 9th–10th edns. Göttingen. (A Greek grammar of the New Testament and other early Christian literature. trans. and rev. R.Funk. Cambridge, 1981.) Browning, R. 1982. Medieval and modern Greek. (2nd edn 1983.) Cambridge. Costas, P.S. 1936. An outline of the history of the Greek language, with particular emphasis on the Koiné and subsequent periods. Chicago, IL. Joseph, B. and I.Philippaki-Warburton. 1987. Modern Greek. London. Palmer, L. 1980. The Greek language. Atlantic Heights, NJ. Vilborg, E. 1960. A tentative grammar of Mycenaean Greek. Göteborg. Dictionary of language and linguistics 494 Mycenean Greek Chadwick, J. and L.Baumbach. The Mycenean Greek vocabulary. Glotta 41. 157–271. Hooker, J.T. 1980. Linear B: an introduction. Bristol. Classical Greek Buck, C.D. 1955. The Greek dialects. (Repr. 1973.) Chicago and London. Chantraine, P. 1973. Grammaire homérique, 5th rev. edn. Paris. ——1984. Morphologie historique du grec. Paris. Lejeune, M. 1972. Phonétique historique du mycé-nien et du grec. Paris. Schwyzer, E. and A.Debrunner. 1939/50. Griechische Grammatik. Munich. Threatte, L. 1980. The grammar of Attic inscriptions. Berlin. Hellenistic Greek Brixhe, C. 1993. La koiné grecque antique’. Vol. I: une langue introuvable? Nancy. Gignac, F.T. 1976. A grammar of the Greek papyri of the Roman and Byzantine periods, vol. I: Phonology. Milan. Thumb, A. 1901. Die griechische Sprache im Zeitalter des Hellenismus. Strasburg. Middle Greek Mirambel, A. 1963. Pour une grammaire historique du grec medieval. Actes du XIIe congrès international des études byzantines, 2. Belgrad. 391–403. Psaltes, S.B. 1913. Grammatik der byzantinischen Chroniken. Göttingen. Modern Greek Householder, F.W., K.Kazazis, and A.Koutsoudas. 1964. Reference grammar of literary Dhimotiki. IJAL 30:2, pub. 31. Thumb, A. 1895. Handbuch der neugriechischen Volkssprache: Grammatik, Texte, Glossar. Strasburg. (Engl.: A handbook of the Modern Greek language: grammar, texts, glossary. Chicago, 1964.) Historical grammar Rix, H. 1976. Historische Grammatik des Griechischen. Darmstadt. Dictionary Liddell, H.G. and R.Scott. 1940. A Greek-English lexicon, 9th rev. edn, (reissue 1989.) Oxford. A-Z 495 Etymological dictionaries Andriōtēs, N.P. 1983. Etymologiko lexiko tēs koinēs Neoellēnikēs, 3rd edn. Thessalonica. Chantraine, P. 1968–80. Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue grecque: histoire des mots, 4 vols. Paris. Frisk, H. 1954–72. Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. 3 vols. Heidelberg. Windekens, A.J.van. 1986. Dictionnaire étymologique complémentaire de la langue grecque: nouvelles contributions a I’interprétation historique et comparée du vocabulaire. Leuven. Grimm’s law (also Germanic sound shift) Systematic changes in the Indo-European system of obstruents that led to the development of Germanic and its differentiation from the other Indo-European language families. Differences between Old Norse, Greek, and Latin, discovered by the Danish linguist R.K.Rask, based on language comparisons ( comparative linguistics, reconstruction), were first represented in 1822 by J.Grimm as systematic sound changes. In his comparison, Grimm drew on Sanskrit as the (supposedly direct) successor to Indo-European. Grimm’s law deals primarily with three consonantal changes. (a) The voiceless stops [p, t, k] become voiceless fricatives [f, θ, χ] [IE , Lat. pater, Eng. father; IE , Lat. tres, Goth. þreis, Eng. three’, IE , Lat. centum, Eng. hundred). Regular exceptions to these changes are: (i) the shift does not take effect after IndoEuropean obstruents (Grk steícho, OE stīgan; Lat. spuo, OE spīwan; Lat. piscis, OE fisc; Lat. captus; OE hœft); (ii) Verner’s law supersedes Grimm’s law; thus voiceless or voiced fricatives arise, depending on the placement of word accent; the latter collapse into the group of voiced fricatives that develop from the shift of aspirated stops (see (c) below). (b) The voiced stops [b, d, g] become voiceless stops [p, t, k] (Lat. decem, Eng. ten; Lat. genu, Eng. knee). (c) The aspirated stops [bh, dh, gh] become voiced fricatives , which in turn shift to the stops [b, d, g] (Old Indic bharati, Goth. bairan ‘bear’; Old Indic madhya, Goth. midjis ‘middle’; IE *ghostis, Eng. guest). Much controversy surrounds the dating of the Germanic sound shift; in any case, it is plausible to posit its beginning around 1200–1000 BC and its completion, as evidenced by Celtic loan words, around 500–300 BC. Similarly controversial are hypotheses about the cause(s) and course of the sound shift; recently, the very existence of the Germanic sound shift, in the form described here, has been denied. Among other pieces of evidence adduced is the topological implausibility of the customary reconstruction of the IndoEuropean consonant system (voiceless tenues, voiced mediae, voiced aspirated mediae) which speaks against the prevailing conception of the sound shift. Gamkrelidze and Ivanov (1973) proposed a typologically more realistic reconstruction of Indo-European, according to which the changes occurring in Germanic are to be seen as relatively marginal; however, in this analysis those languages traditionally considered to have been affected by the sound shift would be more closely related to the Indo-European Dictionary of language and linguistics consonantism than those languages that were not so affected. ( sound change, tenuis vs media) 496 also language change, References Collinge, N.E. 1985. The laws of Indo-European. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. 63–71. Fourquet, J. 1948. Les mutations consonantiques du germanique. Paris. ——1954. Die Nachwirkungen der ersten und zweiten Lautverschiebung. ZM 22.1–33. Gamkrelidze, T. and V.Ivanov. 1973. Sprachtypologie und die Rekonstruktion der gemeīnindogerma-nischen Verschlüsse. Phonetica 27.150–6. Gamkrelidze, T.V. 1981. Language typology and language universals and their implications for the reconstruction of the Indo-European stop system. In Y.Arbeitman and A.R.Bomhard (eds), Essays in historical linguistics in honor of J.A.Kerns. Amsterdam. 571–609. Grimm, J. 1819–37. Deutsche Grammatik, 4 parts. Göttingen. (Facsimile printing of the 2nd edn of Berlin 1870/8, Hildesheim, 1967.) Hammerich, L.L. 1955. Die Germanische und die Hochdeutsche Lautverschiebung. PBB (H) 77.1– 29 and 165–203. Hopper, P. 1973. Glottalized and murmured occlusives in Indo-European. Glossa 7.141–66. Rask, R.K. 1818. Untersuchung über den Ursprung der alten nordischen oder isländischen Sprache. (Repr. in L.Hjelmslev (ed.), Ausgewählte Abhandlungen. Copenhagen, 1932.) Schrodt, R. 1976. Die germanische Lautverschiebung und ihre Stellung im Kreise der indogermanischen Sprachen, 2nd edn. Vienna. Vennemann, T. 1984. Hoch- und Niedergermanisch: die Verzweigungstheorie der germanischdeutschen Lautverschiebungen. PBB 106.1–45. Guaraní Largest Tupi language with approx. 3 million speakers; official language of Paraguay (along with Spanish). Used as a trade language for South American Jesuit missions. Characteristics: simple sound system. Syntactically an active language: there are two classes of verbs with distinctive conjugational patterns which are used for the verbal concepts of stative/non-agentive vs agentive. Occasionally a verb stem with a characteristic difference in meaning can be used in both classes (cf. a-karú ‘I am eating’ vs s’e-karú ‘I am a glutton’). With transitive verbs the verb agrees with the highest ranking person in the hierarchy first- second- third person; the thematic relation is expressed by the choice of the agreement prefix (cf. s’e-pete ‘(you/he/she…) hit…me’ vs a-pete ‘I hit (him)’). Syntactic possessive (s’e is also possessive: ‘my’). References Gregores, E. and J.A.Suárez. 1967. A description of colloquial Guaraní. The Hague. South American languages A-Z Guaymi 497 Chibchan-Paezan Gujarati Indo-Aryan Gulf languages Language group of North America postulated by M.Haas (1951). The most important branch is Muskogean in the southeastern United States; in addition, other languages such as Yuki and Wappo in northern California are also included in a larger group, YukicGulf. According to Greenberg (1987), the Gulf languages belong to the Penutian language group. References Greenberg, J.H. 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA. Haas, M.R. 1951. The Proto-Gulf word for ‘water’ (with notes on Siouan-Yuchi). IJAL 17. 71–9. North and Central American languages Guoyu Chinese Gur (also Voltaic) Branch of the Niger-Congo group with approx. eighty languages in West Africa; the most significant language: Mossi (Burkina Faso, approx. 3.6 million speakers). Characteristics: tonal languages, noun classes (marked by suffixes, occasionally together with prefixes) with verb agreement, serial verb constructions. References Bendor-Samuel, J.T. 1971. Niger-Kongo, Gur. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 7, 141–78. Dictionary of language and linguistics 498 Manessy, G. 1979. Contribution à la classification généalogique des langues voltaiques. Paris. African languages Gurage Semitic Gurumukhi Panjabi guttural [Lat. guttur ‘throat’] Outdated designation for velar, uvular, laryngeal, and pharyngeal (and occasionally also for post-alveolar and palatal) consonants. References phonetics Gypsy Romany A-Z 499 H habitual Verbal aspect which characterizes an action as happening habitually over a long period of time: e.g. Caroline works in England. ( also aspect, generic, iterative vs semelfactive) Haida Hamitic Na-Dene Afro-Asiatic Hamito-Semitic Afro-Asiatic hanging topic Term introduced by Grosu (1975) indicating a type of word order in which an element appears to the left of the sentence, as in left dislocation ( left vs right dislocation) and is copied in the following sentence by a coreferential pronoun, hyponym ( hyponymy), hyperonym, or by an expression that has a loose associative relationship to the hanging topic, e.g. As far as meat goes I prefer beef. In contrast to left dislocation, with which a hanging topic is often identified in the literature, the pronominal copy is optional and does not agree with the elements dislocated. A further difference is that the hanging topic is also set apart from the sentence by intonation. ( also dislocation) References Altmann, H. 1981. Formen der ‘Herausstellung’ im Deutschen. Tübingen. Grosu, A. 1975. On the status of positionally-defined constraints in syntax. TL, 2. 159–201. Dictionary of language and linguistics Han’gul 500 Korean hapax legomenon [Grk hápax legómenon ‘said once’] Linguistic expression with only one attested occurrence and whose meaning is often, therefore, difficult to ascertain. Hapax legomena serve as a basis for defining the morphological notion of productivity in Baayer and Lieber (1991). ( also pseudomorpheme, semimorpheme) Reference Baayer, H. and R.Lieber. 1991. Productivity and English derivation. Linguistics 29. 801–3. haplography [Grk haplóos ‘single,’ gráphein ‘to write’] Writing error in which a double letter or syllable is written as a single letter or syllable. The inverse is known as dittography. haplogy haplology haplology [Grk lógos ‘word’] (also haplogy) Special type of dissimilation in which a syllable within a word disappears before or after a phonetically similar or the same syllable, e.g. Lat. *nutrītrīx>nutrīx ‘wet nurse,’ Eng. haplogy for haplology(!) or preventive~preventative. For the reverse process dittology. A-Z 501 References Cardona, G. 1968. On haplology in Indo-European. Philadelphia, PA. Stemberger, J.P. 1981. Morphological haplology. Lg 57. 791–817. Wurzel, W.U. 1976. Zur Haplologie. LingB 41. 50–7. Harari Semitic Hatsa Khoisan Hausa Largest Chadic language with approx. 25 million speakers in northern Nigeria and Niger; important trade language. Characteristics: rich consonant system, simple syllable structure. Two alphabets (Arabic, Latin). Fairly complicated morphology, both with nouns (e.g. plural formation) as well as with verbs (voices). Word order SVO. References Abraham, R.C. 1959. The language of the Hausa people. London. Kraft, C.H. and A.H.M.Kirk-Greene. 1973. Hausa. London. Parsons, F.W. 1981. Writings on Hausa grammar. London. Hawaiian Polynesian head 1 In X-bar theory, the part of a complex constituent X which is a lexical item of the same category type as X. Thus, the head of the noun phrase the bridge to San Francisco Dictionary of language and linguistics 502 is the noun bridge. This lexical item is also known as the lexical head of the noun phrase. The lexical head is not necessarily an immediate constituent of the phrase which it heads. 2 (also nucleus, base) Linguistic element in a complex syntactic structure which either (a) is in a morphologically marked relationship of coreference with the preceding or following coreferential elements or (b) is modified semantically by these coreferential predication). In pronominalization ( personal pronoun), elements as attributes ( the head and its proform are coreferential, as is the case with coreferential pro-forms in some exbraciation structures (e.g. in left vs right dislocation). Heads and attributes ( apposition), however, are related to each other predicatively: The book, fascinating as well as instructive, held her spellbound. ( also coreferentiality, dislocation, textual) References Corbett, G.G., N.M.Fraser, and S.McGlashan (eds) 1993. Heads in grammatical theory. Cambridge. X-bar theory 3 syllable 4 In metrical phonology, that part of the metrical foot which carries the stress. References metrical phonology, syllable Head Feature Convention Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar head grammar A mildly context-sensitive extension ( mildly context-sensitive languages, contextsensitive grammar) of context-free (CF) grammar including operations which ‘wrap’ headed phrases around others. Developed further into Headdriven Phrase Structure Grammar. In the figure below the ‘right-wrap’ operation inserts a second complement into a headed phrase. A-Z 503 Reference Pollard, C. 1984. Head grammars. generalized phrase structure grammars and natural languages. Dissertation, Stanford, CA. Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar (abbrev. HPSG) A generative theory of grammar from the family of unification grammars which combines elements of Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (GPSG), Functional Unification Grammar and PATR Formalism. HPSG uses a comprehensive inventory of descriptive tools from unification grammar. As in Functional Unification Grammar, in HPSG all linguistic units are represented by feature structures, which are called ‘signs’ by de Saussure. They contain features for the encoding of phonological, syntactic, and semantic information ([PHON], [SYN], [SEM]). The links between the values of these features determine the grammatical correspondence between sounds and meaning. The grammar is likewise represented in the form of feature structures, which are linguistic wellformedness constraints on the signs. In contrast to Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar, the grammar of HPSG is heavily lexicalized, i.e. the lexicon, which is structured hierarchically by the unification formalism, contains a large part of the syntactic information. There are only a few syntactic rules. X-bar theory, especially the parallels between verb phrases and noun phrases, is used in such a way that complement binding can be accomplished with just two rules, which connect the head category containing the external argument to the bound argument. Likewise, one rule accounts for adjunct modification. Phrase structure rules are free of redundancy due to the formulation of general (universal) principles which are also encoded as feature structures. Revised versions of some principles of GPSG can be found in HPSG. Subcategorization takes place through the feature [SUBCAT]. Long-distance dependencies are captured by the co-operation of feature transmission and grammatical principles. The organization of the grammar is borrowed from Functional Unification Grammar. The grammar is the disjunction of all rules and all lexical entries, in conjunction with the grammatical principles. Every wellformed sign must be compatible with the grammar. So far there are very few grammatical descriptions using HPSG; however, there are experimental computational linguistics systems which use it. Dictionary of language and linguistics 504 References Nerbonne, J., C.Pollard. and K.Netter (eds) 1994. German in Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. Chicago, IL. Pollard, C. and I.A.Sag. 1988. An information-based syntax and semantics, vol. 1: Fundamentals. Stanford, CA. ——1993. Head Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. Chicago, IL. Proudian, D. and C.Pollard. 1985. Parsing HeadDriven Phrase Structure Grammar. ACL Proceedings 23. 167–71. head-marking vs dependent-marking Typological distinction introduced by J. Nichols which distinguishes languages depending on whether they code syntactic functions on the dependent constituents of a phrase or on the head of the phrase. At clausal level, consistent dependent-marking implies case or adpositional marking of the arguments of the predicate in the absence of predicate agreement, as in Korean and Japanese; consistent headmarking of the syntactic functions of the clause is expressed on the predicate in the absence of case or adpositional marking of the major arguments, as in Abkhaz ( North-West Caucasian) and many American Indian languages, including Wishram, Kiowa ( Uto-Aztecan), and Tzutujil. English and many other European languages have mixed head- and dependent-marking. References Nichols, J. 1986. Head-marking and dependent-marking grammar. Language 62. 56–119. ——1992. Linguistic diversity in space and time. Chicago, IL. Hebrew Semitic language spoken until the third century BC in Palestine (Biblical Hebrew), written language of the Mishnaic texts (‘Rabbinical Hebrew,’ approx. 200 BC), Medieval Hebrew from the sixth century until the thirteenth, today the national language of Israel as Modern Hebrew (Ivrit), approx. 4 million speakers; liturgical language of the Jewish religion. Modern Hebrew was developed out of Medieval Hebrew, which was purely a written language, on the basis of the pronunciation of the Sephardic (Spanish-Portuguese) Jews. An independent writing system developed based on Aramaic, a consonant alphabet, which can be provided with vowel marks. Rich literary tradition in the Old Testament with texts from a period of over 1,000 years in various dialects. Characteristics: Semitic. A-Z 505 References Berman, R. 1978. Modern Hebrew structure. Tel-Aviv. Blau, J. 1976. A grammar of Biblical Hebrew. Wiesbaden. (2nd edn 1993.) Gesenius, W. 1910. Gesenius’ Hebrew grammar. Oxford. (Rev edn, ed. E.Kautsch. 2nd Eng. edn, ed. A.E.Cowley.) Glinert, L. 1993. Modern Hebrew. an essential grammar. London. Joüon, P. 1991. A grammar of Biblical Hebrew, trans. and rev. T Muraoka. Rome. Lambert, M. 1931–8. Traité de grammaire hébraïque. Paris. (Repr. Hildesheim, 1972.) Rosén, H.B. 1977. Contemporary Hebrew. Berlin. Sáenz-Badillos, A. 1993. A history of the Hebrew language, trans. J.Elwolde. Cambridge. Waldmann, M. 1989. The recent study of Hebrew: a survey of the literature with selected bibliography. Cincinnati and Winona Lake. Bibliography Index of articles on Jewish studies. Journals Hebrew Computational Linguistics. Hebrew Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Lešōnēnū (Hebrew with Engl. abstracts). Zeitschrift für Althebraistik. Semitic hedge Term introduced by Lakoff (1973). Hedges provide a means for indicating in what sense a member belongs to its particular category. The need for hedges is based on the fact that certain members are considered to be better or more typical examples of the category, depending on the given cultural background ( prototype). For example, in the central European language area, sparrows are certainly more typical examples of birds than penguins. For that reason, of these two actually true sentences, A sparrow is a bird and A penguin is a bird, only the former can be modified by the hedge typical or par excellence, while the latter can be modified only by the hedges in the strictest sense or technically speaking. Dictionary of language and linguistics 506 References Bolinger, D. 1972. Degree words. The Hague. Lakoff, G. 1973. Hedges: a study in meaning criteria and the logic of fuzzy concepts. JPL 2. 458– 508. prototype Hellenic helping verb Greek auxiliary, modal auxiliary hendiadys [Grk hèn dià dyoĩn ‘one by two’] figure of speech of expansion. 1 The dissection of a compound into two co-ordinated but semantically unequal expressions, e.g. language and shock instead of shocking language. 2 In general, an intensifying combination of two terms that are related in meaning: for example, furious sound becomes sound and fury, nicely warm becomes nice and warm. The most common reason for using a hendiadys is emphasis. ( also twin formula) References figure of speech heteroclitic [Grk heteróklitos ‘having different inflection’] Nouns with an irregular paradigm where either (a) the case and number forms follow at least two different declensional patterns, [e.g. Grk hýdōr (nom. sg.), hýdatos (gen. sg.) ‘water’; or (b) different stem forms are found in one paradigm (e.g. Eng. to be, are, was from three Indo-European roots). ( also suppletivism) A-Z 507 heterography [Grk héteros ‘different,’ gráphein ‘to write’] 1 Use of the same written sign for different sounds, cf. Eng. <gh> in through, enough, ghost. 2 Different writing of words with the same pronunciation or meaning, cf. Amer. Eng. center vs Brit. Eng. centre, or colloquial Amer. Eng. nite for night. 3 Any manner of spelling that differs from the norm. References orthography heteronymy [Grk ónyma (=ónoma) ‘name’] 1 Semantic relation in which expressions belong to the same semantic dimension (e.g. colors, days of the week, numbers) but have different lexical stems (e.g. uncle vs aunt as contrasted with Span. tío vs tía). 2 Synonym for the semantic relation of incompatibility. References semantic relation heterorganic Speech sounds that are not formed with the same articulatory organ ( e.g. the laminal [θ] and the apical [s] are heterorganic. homorganic), Dictionary of language and linguistics 508 hiatus [Lat. ‘an opening, crevice’] Auditorily perceivable distribution of two consecutive (heterosyllabic) monophthongs over two syllables. For example, the two heterosyllabic monophthongs in Ital. ['mjε:i1] ‘mine’ vs the diphthong [ε:ĭ] in the competing [mjε:ĭ] or in Eng. [hay'ĕtəs] hiatus. Hiatus can also occur between words in a sentence (the egg). In English, the insertion of a semivowel1 may be introduced to eliminate hiatus or, in some dialects the insertion of r: Edna-r-interjected. Hiatus bridging can also occur through contraction, crasis, liaison, and synaeresis. References phonetics hidden Markov model (abbrev. HMM) A further elaboration on Markov process, a finite state automaton in which not only transitions are probabilistic, but also output behavior. The symbols consumed (or produced) are not deterministic in a given state, but rather probabilistic. Thus the state itself is ‘hidden.’ Currently the most successful speech recognition techniques are all based on HMMs. Reference Rabbiner, L. 1989. A tutorial on Hidden Markov models and selected applications in speech recognition. Proceedings of the IEEE 77. (Repr. in A. Waibel and K.-F.Lee (eds), Readings in Speech recognition, San Mateo, CA, 1990. 267–96). hierarchy The basic structural principle according to which elements of a set are ordered. The graphic representation of a hierarchy furnishes a tree diagram which branches downwards. Hierarchies may be specified as follows: a two-placed relation R is a hierarchy if and only if the following five conditions are met: (a) there is a point of origin; (b) all elements are connected to this point of origin; (c) there is no upward A-Z 509 branching; (d) R is asymmetric ( symmetric relation); (e) R is transitive ( transitive relation). Hierarchies have a broad range of applications from taxonomic classifications of the human environment to dominance relations in society. In linguistics, hierarchies exist in syntax ( immediate constituent analysis), in lexical semantics hyponymy, taxonomic anlaysis), and in markedness theory. ( References lexicology hierarchy universal Hierarchy universals are universal, usually statistical restrictions which refer to hierarchies of grammatical categories or syntactic functions. Well known are the hierarchy universals formulated in the framework of relational grammar and by E.L.Keenan and B.Comrie and are based on the following hierarchy of syntactic functions: subject>direct object> indirect object>oblique object. One of the most important claims of such a hierarchy universal is the following implicational schema: if a syntactic function A ranks before a syntactic function B, and if B is accessible to a linguistic regularity R, then A is also accessible to R. In other words, if A>B then A is more accessible to a linguistic regularity than B. With regard to verb agreement, for example, this law predicts that subjects are more accessible to verbal agreement than objects, i.e. there is no language in which verbs agree with objects but not with subjects. Hierarchy universals have also been formulated for relative clause constructions, passive, and reflexivization, as well as for hierarchies of other categories, e.g. thematic relations ( case grammar), ani-macy, and topicality ( topic vs comment). References Corbett, G.G. 1983. Hierarchies, targets and controllers: agreement patterns in Slavic. London. Croft, W. 1990. Typology and universals. Cambridge. Edmondson, J. 1978. Ergative languages, accessibility hierarchies, governing reflexives and questions of formal analysis. In W.Abraham (ed.), Valence, semantic case and grammatical relations. Amsterdam. 633–60. Givón, T. 1976. Topic, pronoun and grammatical agreement. In C.N.Li (ed.), Subject and topic. New York. 149–78. Johnson, D.E. 1977. On relational constraints on grammars. In P.Cole and J.M.Sadock (eds), Grammatical relations. New York. 151–78. Keenan, E.L. and B.Comrie. 1977. Noun phrase accessibility and universal grammar. LingI 8. 63– 99. Moravcsik, E.A. 1978. Agreement. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. Vol. 4, 352–74. Dictionary of language and linguistics 510 Primus, B. 1987. Grammatische Hierarchien. Munich. Silverstein, M. 1976. Hierarchy of features and ergativity. In R.M.W.Dixon (ed.), Grammatical categories in Australian languages. Canberra. 112–71. Hieratic Egyptian Hieroglyphic (Luvian) Anatolian hieroglyphics The term hieroglyphics comes from Grk hieroglyphiká grámmata (‘the holy written signs’). In 1822, J.F.Champollion deciphered Egyptian writings dating from the fourth century BC to the fourth century AD.Hieroglyphics united the principle of the ideograph with the concept of phonography and thus developed into phonograms. A hieroglyph is basically a pictogram ( pictography) or an abstract sign de veloped from a pictogram. In the broader sense, the term ‘hieroglyphics’ is used to refer to the writings of the Anatolians, Aztecs, and Maya ( Mayan writing). References Davies, N.M. 1958. Picture writing in ancient Egypt. London. Erman, A. 1912. Die Hieroglyphen. Berlin. Laroche, E. 1960. Les Hiéroglyphes Hittites. Paris. Sethe, K. 1939. Vom Bilde zum Buchstaben. Leipzig. writing High German 1 In the sociolinguistic sense, the (supraregionally valid, normed, codified) standard language, in contrast to the colloquial language, which differs regionally, or to the dialects, which are restricted to smaller regions. 2 In the dialect-geographical sense ( dialect geography), all dialects that underwent the second sound shift ( Old High German consonant shift), in contrast A-Z 511 to the Low German dialects, which did not take part in this sound shift. The border between High German and Low German (with High German-Low German interference especially in the West (Low Franconian) and East (the Brandenburg dialect, Upper Saxon) runs along the so-called ‘maken/machen’ line (the ‘Benrath line’ between Düsseldorf and Cologne). Within High German, there is a further subdivision into Middle German and Upper German, depending on the intensity with which the sound shift occurred. References dialectology, German high variety high vs low variety high vs low variety Synonymous with standard language, high variety is used to refer to any prestige form of spoken or written language. One frequently speaks of a high vs low standard, the latter usually referring to the language of the lower socio-economic classes. References variational linguistics Hindi Hindi-Urdu Hindi-Urdu Indo-Aryan language with several dialects. Hindi, along with English the official language of India, has approx. 200 million speakers; Urdu, the official language of Pakistan, has approx. 30 million speakers. Hindi and Urdu can be seen as dialects of one Dictionary of language and linguistics 512 language, whose differences seem largely a factor of the cultural differences of the speakers (Hindus vs Muslims) and of the use of different writing systems (Devanāgarī vs Persian-Arabic). Characteristics: relatively complex sound system (forty consonants, ten vowels); no distinctive word accent. Two numbers, two genders (masculine, feminine), and three cases. Numerous causative and compound verbs (e.g. kha lena ‘take to eat, eat up’). Aspect is expressed morphologically, tense by auxiliaries. Several classes of verbs must be distinguished (including volitional vs non-volitional, affective vs non-affective), which require syntactically different constructions. Causatives often serve to derive volitional verbs from non-volitional ones. Participial forms are often used instead of subordinate clauses. Word order SOV. References Bahri, H. 1986. Hindi semantics. (New edn, rev. and enlarged.) New Delhi. Beg, M.K.A. 1988. Urdu grammar, history and structure. New Delhi. Bhatia, T.K. 1987. A history of the Hindi grammatical tradition: Hindi—Hindustani grammar, grammarians, history and problems. Leiden. Kachru. Y. 1966. An introduction to Hindi syntax. Urbana, IL. ——1980. Aspects of Hindi grammar. New Delhi. McGregor, R.S. 1972. Outline of Hindi grammar. Oxford. (3rd edn. Delhi, 1995.) Neim, C.M. et al 1975. Introductory Urdu, 2 vols. Chicago, IL. Ohala, M. 1983. Aspects of Hindi phonology. Delhi. Rai, A. 1984. A house divided: the origin and development of Hindi/Hindavi. Delhi. Ucida, N. 1977. Hindi phonology. Calcutta. Dictionaries Abdul Haqim. 1985. The Standard English-Urdu dictionary, 4th edn. Karachi. ——1989. Urdu-English dictionary. Delhi. Bahri, H. 1985. Comprehensive English-Hindu dictionary, 2 vols. (3rd rev. and enlarged edn.) Varanasi. Chaturvedi, M. and B.N.Tiwari. 1980. A practical Hindi-English dictionary. New Delhi. Fallon, S.W. 1879. A new Hindustani-English dictionary. Allahabad. McGregor, R.S. (ed.) 1993. The Oxford Hindi-English dictionary. Oxford and Delhi. Platts, I.T. 1930. A dictionary of Urdu, Classical Hindi, and English. (5th impr. Repr. 1968.) Oxford. Bibliography Aggarwal, N.K. 1978. A bibliography of studies on Hindi language and linguistics. Gurgaon (Haryana). Indo-Aryan A-Z Hiragana 513 Japanese Hispano-Celtic Celtic historical grammars Description of the individual historical stages of a language as well as the representation of the historical relationships between individual languages. The most comprehensive historical grammars of Indo-European and its daughter languages were compiled in the nineteenth century by the Neogrammarians as part of comparative linguistics. References Indo-European Brugmann, K. and B.Delbrück. 1886–1900. der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, 5 vols. Berlin. (Unabridged repr. 1970; English: K.Brugmann, 1888–95. Comparative grammar of the IndoGermanic languages, trans. J.Wright, R.S.Conway and W.H.D.Rouse. 5 vols. Strasburg (Repr. 1972).) Krahe, H. 1943. Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft, 2 vols. Berlin. (5th edn 1966–9.) Lehmann, W.P. 1974. Proto-Indo-European syntax. Austin, TX. Proto-Germanic Hirt, H. 1931–4. Handbuch des Urgermanischen, 3 vols. Heidelberg. Krahe, H. 1942. Germanische Sprachwissenschaft, 2 vols. Berlin. (7th rev. edn, ed. W.Meid, 1969.) Prokosch, E. 1939. A comparative Germanic grammar. Philadelphia, PA. Streitberg, W. 1896. Urgermanische Grammatik. Heidelberg. historical linguistics Subdiscipline of general linguistics concerned with developing a theory of language change in general or of a specific language. This comprises, among others, the following Dictionary of language and linguistics 514 subareas: (a) representation of the origins and development of individual languages and language groups (through internal and, where actual linguistic data are lacking, external reconstruction); (b) development of a typology of processes leading to language change (types of phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic changes); (c) explanation of individual processes of change or universal types of change with special reference to cognitive linguistics), articulatory phonetics, cognitive psychology ( sociolinguistics, and communication theory; and (d) study of the origin and the spread of also comparative linguistics) language-internal and language-external changes. ( References Aertsen, H. and R.J.Jeffers (eds) 1989. Historical linguistics: papers from the ninth International Conference on Historical Linguistics. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Andersen, H. and K.Koerner (eds) 1990. Historical linguistics 1987. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, Anttila, R. 1989. Historical and comparative linguistics, 2nd rev. edn. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Bynon, T. 1977. Historical linguistics. Cambridge. Crowley, T. 1992. An introduction to historical linguistics. Oxford. Davis, G.W. and G.Iverson (eds) 1992. Explanation in historical linguistics. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1990. Historical linguistics and philology. Berlin and New York. Hock, H.H. 1986. Principles of historical linguistics. (2nd edn, rev. and updated 1991.) Berlin and New York. Jones, C. (ed.) 1993. Historical linguistics: problems and perspectives. London and New York. Lehmann, W.P. 1993. Historical linguistics, 3rd edn. London. Marle, J.van (ed.) 1993. Historical linguistics 1991: papers from the tenth International Conference on Historical Linguistics. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Meillet, A. 1921. Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris. Journals Diachronica: International Journal for Historical Linguistics. Folia Linguistica Historica. Historical Linguistics/Historische Sprachforschung. language change, linguistics (history) Hittite Extinct Indo-European language belonging to the Anatolian branch, the language of the Hittite Empire in Asia Minor, dating to the second millennium BC. The language is recorded on cuneiform tablets, mostly from the region around what is today excavated in 1905, and fairly quickly deciphered. Hrozný (1917) recognized that it was A-Z 515 an Indo-European language. Hittite preserved several archaisms ( e.g. laryngeal theory), but on the other hand is much more simply structured than other Indo-European languages of that time (only two genders, animate/non-animate; simple tense system). Hittite is the earliest-attested Indo-European language; Sturtevant (1933) saw Anatolian and Indo-European as independent branches of an Indo-Hittite language group. References Bayun, L. 1991. Hittito-Luvian historical phonology. Journal of Ancient Civilization 6. 97–122. Benveniste, E. 1962. Hittite et indo-européenne. Paris. Friedrich, J. 1960. Hethitisches Elementarbuch. Heidelberg. Held, W.H., W.R.Schmalstieg and J.E.Gertz. 1987. Beginning Hittite. Columbus, OH. Hrozný, B. 1917. Die Sprache der Hethiter. Leipzig. Kammenhuber, A. 1969. Hethitisch, Palaisch, Luwisch und Hieroglyphen-Luwisch. In J.Friedrich et al. (eds), Altkleinasiatische Sprachen (Handbuch der Orientalistik, vol. 2/12). Leiden. 119– 57. Kimball, S. 1995. Historical phonology of Hittite. Innsbruck. Kronasser, H. 1956. Vergleichende Laut- und Formenlehre des Hethitischen. Heidelberg. Oettinger, N. 1979. Die Stammbildung des hethitischen Verbums. Nürnberg. Sturtevant, E.H. 1933. A comparative grammar of the Hittite language. New Haven, CT. (2nd edn 1951). Dictionaries Friedrich, J. and A.Kammenhuber. 1975–. Hethitisches Wörterbuch (vol. 3/12, 1994). Heidelberg. Güterbock, H.G. and G.A.Hoffner. 1980–. The Hittite dictionary. Chicago, IL. Hoffner, H.A. 1967. An English-Hittite glossary. Revue Hittite Asianique (Special issue). Puhvel, J. 1984–. Hittite etymological dictionary, 3 vols. so far. Berlin and New York. Journal Hethitica. Indo-European Dictionary of language and linguistics Hittito-Luvian 516 Anatolian Hokan Language group of North and Central America postulated by Dixon and Kroeber (1919), whose reconstruction is questioned today. The Hokan languages include the Yuman languages (e.g. Mohave, approx. 2000 speakers in California), Tequistlatec, and Huamelultec (southern Mexico, approx. 5000 speakers each). Characteristics: complex consonant system (with glottalized plosives and voiceless nasals); tendency towards ergativity ( ergative language) (Washo). References Dixon, R.B. and A.L.Kroeber. 1913. New linguistic families in California. American Anthropologist 15. 647–55. Gursky, K. 1974. Der Hoka-Sprachstamm: eine Bestandsaufnahme des lexikalischen Beweismaterials. Orbis 23. 170–215. ——1988. Der Hoka-Sprachstamm. Nachtrag I. Nortorf. Jacobsen, W. 1979. Hokan inter-branch comparison. In L.Campbell and M.Mithun (eds), The languages of native America: historial and comparative assessment. Austin, TX. 545–91. Langdon, M. 1970. A grammar of Diegueño. Berkeley, CA. Langdon, M. and S.Silver. 1976. Hokan studies. The Hague. Munro, P. 1976. Mohave syntax. New York. Sapir, E. 1917. The position of Yana in the Hokan stock. University of California publications in American archeology and ethnology 13. 1–34. Watahomigie, L.J. et al. 1982. Hualapai reference grammar. Los Angeles, CA. Waterhouse, V.G. 1962. The grammatical structure of Oaxaca Chontal. Bloomington, IN (=IJAL 28:2, pub. 19). North and Central American languages holophrastic construction [Grk hólos ‘whole’; phrastikós ‘expressive,’ from phrázein ‘to express’] Syntactically non-structured or only partially structured expressions (one-word expressions) with a complex, often polysemic meaning, like thanks, sorry, help. In language acquisition, one-word expressions used in the first half of the second year of life A-Z 517 that refer to more complex complete meanings as the lexical meaning of individual words in adult language. Holophrastic utterances have therefore been interpreted as ‘implicit sentences’ (McNeill 1970). Their lacking syntactic structure is replaced by direct reference to the immediate environment as well as by intonation and gesture. References Barrett, M.D. 1982. The holophrastic hypotheses: conceptual and empirical issues. Cognition 11. 47–76. Dore, J. 1975. Holophrases, speech acts, and language universals. JChL 2. 21–40. Greenfield, P.M. 1982. The role of perceived variability in the transition to language. JChL 9. 1–12. McNeill, D. 1970. The acquisition of language: the study of developmental psycholinguistics. New York. language acquisition homogenetic sound [Grk homós ‘same,’ génos ‘kind’] Speech sound that is formed in the same manner of articulation as another speech sound, e.g. fricatives are homogenetic sounds, as well as all stops [p] and [Φ] are not homogenetic, but [f] and [Φ] are, and so are [p] and [b] ( also articulatory phonetics). References phonetics homography [Grk gráphein ‘to write’] A form of lexical ambiguity and special type of homonymy. Two expressions are homographic if they are orthographically identical but have different meanings. Such expressions usually have different pronunciations, e.g. bass (fish) vs bass (tone) and are not normally etymologically related to one another ( polysemy). Homographs, which are customarily listed as separate dictionary entries, may in some cases be etymologically related: e.g. réfuse vs refúse. Dictionary of language and linguistics 518 References homonymy, semantics homonym clash homonym conflict homonym conflict (also homonym clash) Homonym conflict arises from the phonetic similarity, or homophony, of two or more homonyms and is frequently associated with at least one of the following features: (a) paradigmatic similarity, i.e. homonyms of the same word class are more likely to conflict, e.g. ME heal and hele (‘to cover, hide’); (b) syntactic confusion, i.e. ‘homonyms’ may be created through phonetic similarity brought about in certain syntactic environments, e.g. ME ear and nere (‘kidney’) conflicting in the syntactic environment of an ear vs a nere; (c) occurrence in the same lexical field or domain, e.g. OFr. *gat (‘cat’ and ‘cock’), both agricultural terms. Homonym conflict may be avoided by (a) differentiation of gender in some languages, e.g. Ger. der/das Band (‘volume’/‘ribbon’); (b) orthographic distinction, e.g. plane vs plain ( homography); (c) lexical expansion, e.g. light (in weight)>lightweight vs light (in color)> light-colored; and (d) loss or replacement of one of the conflicting words, e.g. ME quēn (‘queen’) vs (‘harlot’). Apparent aversion to homonym conflict is offset by the fact that a language may at any given time have numerous instances of potentially conflicting homonyms, as illustrated by the English homophonic pairs flower: flour and pray: prey. References Malkiel, Y. 1979. Problems in the diachronic differentiation of near-homophones. Lg 55. 1–36. Menner, R.J. 1936. The conflict of homonyms in English. Lg 12. 229–44. Wartburg, W.von. 1943. Einführung in die Problematik und Methodik der Sprachwissenschaft. Halle. (3rd rev. edn Tübingen, 1970.) Williams, E.R. 1944. The conflict of homonyms in English. New Haven, CT. homonymy, polysemy, semantics A-Z 519 homonymy [Grk ónyma (=ónoma) ‘name’] A type of lexical ambiguity involving two or more different words: Homonymous expressions are phonologically ( homophony) and orthographically ( homography) identical but have different meanings and often distinct etymological origins, e.g. found (‘establish’ or ‘cast’), kitty (‘fund’ or ‘cat’), scour (‘polish’ or ‘search'). Occasionally, homonyms have a common etymological origin, e.g. meter (‘unit of length’ or ‘instrument used to measure’). The etymological criterion is generally problematic, since the point of divergence from a common etymological origin is often unclear. Homonymy is traditionally distinguished from polysemy in that a polysemic expression has several closely related variations in its meaning, e.g. green (‘fresh,’ ‘inexperienced,’ and ‘raw’, among others), while the meanings of homonymous expressions have no apparent semantic relation to one another. Diachronically, homonymy arises through ‘coincidental’ phonetic and semantic developments, through which (a) originally distinct expressions collapse into a single form (e.g. sound1 ‘distinctive noise’<ME sun, soun< MFr. son<Lat. sonus; sound2 ‘healthy; secure’ <ME sund<OE gesund; sound3 ‘channel of water’<ME sound<OE sund; and sound4 ‘probe, investigate’<ME sounden<OFr. sonder; or (b) a single original expression branches into two or more expressions retaining the original orthographic (and phonological) form, e.g. snow1 ‘solid precipitation’ and snow2 ‘cocaine.’ Synchronically, the etymological criterion does not apply in most cases, since the genetic relationships are not generally part of competence ( competence vs performance) of a speaker. Problems in homonymy are often language-specific. Consider morphosyntactic criteria, such as distinct genders in some languages (e.g. Ger. der/das Band (‘volume,’ ‘ribbon’) or different plural forms (e.g. Ger. die Leiter/ Leitern (‘leaders,’ ‘ladders’)). Allan (1986) has established various causes for homonymy in English. Rhyming slang (china1 ‘plates’ vs china2 ‘mate’), euphemisms (bull1 ‘male, bovine’ vs bull2 ‘nonsense’), and dialectal differences or regionalisms (braces Brit. ‘support straps for trousers’) are among the many ways homonyms arise. The most essential, if not sufficiently exact, criterion between homonymy and polysemy is the distinctness of meaning between the expressions in question. References Allan, K. 1986. Linguistic meaning, 2 vols. London. Lipka, L. 1990. An outline of English lexicology. Tübingen. Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics. Cambridge. semantics Dictionary of language and linguistics homophony [Grk 520 ‘sound’] A type of lexical ambiguity in which two or more expressions have an identical pronunciation but different spellings and meanings, e.g. pray vs prey and course vs coarse. Even when homographic expressions ( homography) are disambiguated by a change in spelling (e.g. plain and plane, both derived from Lat. planus ‘flat’), homphony often remains. Homophony is a special type of homonymy. References homonymy, polysemy, semantics homorganic Speech sounds that are formed with the same articulatory organ, e.g. the labials [p] and [f] are homorganic. References phonetics honorative honorific honorific [Lat. honorificus ‘showing honor’] (also honorative) Grammatical encoding of the social position and the level of intimacy between the speaker, the hearer, and others; more specifically, honorifics grammatically encode a higher social status. This can be seen in Romance languages such as French in the choice between vous and tu, German Sie vs du, as well as in English in the choice between first name or title+last name (Bill vs President Clinton vs Mr President). In A-Z 521 many languages there are morphological paradigms for various subcategories, e.g. in also pronominal form of address) Japanese with verb inflection. ( References Brown, P and S.Levinson. 1978. Politeness: some universals in language usage. Cambridge. politeness Hopi Uto-Aztecan language in northern Arizona with approximately 7,000 speakers. Hopi is relatively well known because B.L.Whorf utilized data from it to support his theory of linguistic relativity ( Sapir-Whorf hypothesis). Because Hopi (like many other languages) does not mark tense, a different concept of time for the Hopi culture was assumed. Whorf s grammar of Hopi is still incomplete, and the grammatical presentations which are available are not always reliable. References Kalectaca, M. 1978. Lessons in Hopi. Tucson, AZ. Malotki, E. 1979. Hopi-Raum. Tübingen. ——1983. Hopi time. The Hague. Dictionary Albert, R.A. and D.L.Shaul. 1985. A concise Hopi and English lexicon. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. North and Central American languages Dictionary of language and linguistics hortative HPSG 522 adhortative Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar Hsiang Chinese Huamelultec Huastec Hokan Mayan Hungarian (also Magyar) Largest Uralic language with about 14 million speakers; official language of Hungary. Hungarian has lost many of its Uralic characteristics due to long contact with other unrelated languages. First written documents date from the thirteenth century. Heavy lexical borrowing from numerous Turkic and European languages. ( Finno-Ugric) Characteristics: free syntax, pragmatically oriented word order with a special position for focused constituents (before the finite verb). The verb agrees with the subject in person and number; in addition, the so-called object agreement—the relationship between the person of the subject and the person of the object—is marked. A rich system of verb prefixes serves to mark aspect. Complex case system, including ten spatial cases with oppositions such as at rest-moving, approaching-receding, inside-outside. References Bencédy, J. et al. 1968. A mai magyar nyelv. Budapest. Benkö, L. and S.Imre (eds) 1972. The Hungarian language. The Hague. Keresztes, L. 1992. Praktische ungarische Grammatik. Debreceni Nyári Egyetem. Debrecen. A-Z 523 Kiefer, F. and K.E. Kiss (eds) 1994. Syntax and semantics, vol. 27: The syntactic structure of Hungarian. New York. Szent-Iváyi, B. 1964. Der ungarische Sprachbau: eine kurze Darstellung mit Erläuterungen für die Praxis. Leipzig. Tompa, J. 1972. Kleine ungarische Grammatik. Budapest. hybrid 1 In morphology a compound or derived word ( derivation, composition) whose single elements come from different languages, e.g. bureau+-cracy (French, Greek)>bureaucracy; tele-+vision (Greek, Latin)>television; re-+work (Latin, English)>rework. 2 blend References word formation hybrid language pidgin hydronymy [Grk hýdōr ‘water,’ ónyma ‘name’] Subdiscipline of onomastics concerned with the development, origin, and distribution of names of bodies of water. hypallage Figure of speech for transposition of words. Semantically differing reference of the adjectival attribute in a complex construction. Dictionary of language and linguistics 524 References Bers, V. 1974. Enallage and Greek style. Leiden. figure of speech hyperbaton [Grk hypérbatos ‘transposed inverted’] Any intended deviation from ordinary word order. Kant used hyperbaton in writing From such crooked wood as that which man is made of, nothing straight can be fashioned. Deviation from the expected word order can add emphasis or be used to create a rhetorical effect by violating the reader’s expectations. Rabelais thus wrote Few and signally blest are those whom Jupiter has destined to be cabbage planters. References figure of speech hyperbole [Grk ‘overshouting, exaggeration, overstrained phrase’] Rhetorical trope. An exaggerated description intended to ellicit alienation, revaluation, or also any kind of emotional reaction, e.g. snail’s pace, dead tired, heart of steel. ( litotes) References figure of speech A-Z 525 hypercharacterization redundancy hypercorrection [Grk hypér ‘over’] (also hyperurbanism) Process and result of an exaggerated attempt on the part of a speaker to adopt or imitate linguistic forms or a linguistic variety that he/ she considers to be particularly prestigious. Hypercorrection, which is frequently found in the behavior of social groups aspiring to raise their stature, tends even to exceed the ideal norms of speech of the higher social classes and therefore sounds ‘unnatural.’ In principle, similar mechanisms can be found for every situation in language acquisition and language adoption, where speakers recognize regularities and systematic correspondences in the variety they wish to acquire, but when they cannot adequately apprehend the restrictions on or the exceptions to the rules. The rules that have been abstracted by them in such a manner are accordingly too general and correspondingly generate many ungrammatical forms; note the pronunciation of potato as [pota:to] following tomato [toma:to]. References Labov, W. 1966. Hypercorrection by the lower middle class as a factor in linguistic change. In W. Bright (ed.). Sociolinguistics. The Hague. 81–113. variational linguistics hyperonym hyperonymy hyperonymy [Grk ónoma ‘name’] (also superordination) Semantic relation of lexical superordination (i.e. the converse of lexical subordination, hyponymy) which reflects a hierarchy-like distribution of the vocabulary or lexicon: fruit is a hyperonym, or superordinate, of apple, pear, and plum, because the transition from apple to fruit, for example, is accompanied by a generalization in meaning. A Dictionary of language and linguistics 526 superordinate relation has some similarities to various logical and semantic relations: part—whole relations (nose, head), generals vs specifics (living being vs human), ‘element-of’ relations (book: library). References hyponymy, semantic relation, semantics hyperphoneme Term introduced by Pike (1967) as an umbrella term for all relevant segmental units of phonological structure within an individual language, such as syllables, accent, and pauses. References Pike, K.L. 1967. Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior. The Hague. 364 ff. (2nd edn 1971.) phonology hypersentence Sadock’s (1968) term for explicitly performative matrix sentences, e.g. I hereby assert that X. Such explicit hypersentences show the pragmatic sense in which the embedded sentence is used (assertion, command, promise, etc.). In early generative semantics, Ross, Sadock and others assumed them to be in the deep structure of every sentence and blocked their surface appearance, where necessary, with a subsequent deletion transformation. References Sadock, J.M. 1968. Hypersentences. Dissertation, Urbana, IL. ——1969. Hypersentences. Papers in Linguistics 1:2. 283–370. ——1974. Toward a linguistic theory of speech acts. New York. A-Z hyperurbanism 527 hypercorrection hypocoristic [Grk hypokoristikón ‘pet name’] Expression with a diminutive semantic component that is formed by suffixes (cigarette), also euphemism, short forms (Phil), or syllable doubling (choo-choo), and so on. ( word formation) References word formation hyponymy [Grk hypó ‘under,’ ónyma (=ónoma), ‘name’] (also subordination) Term suggested by Lyons (1963) (in analogy to synonymy) for the semantic relation of subordination, i.e. the specification of semantic content. For example, apple is a hyponym of fruit, since apple has a more specific meaning than fruit. In expressions with extensions, the hyponymy can be viewed as the subset relation: l1 (lexeme1) is subordinate to l2 only if the extension of l1 is contained in the extension of l2. Seen intensionally ( intension) with a view to componential analysis, the relation is the inverse: l1 is subordinate to l2 only if l1 contains at least all semantic features of l2, but not vice versa. Apple, pear, plum are co-hyponyms relative to each other and hyponyms of the generic term fruit ( hyperonymy). Every hyponym is distinguished from its hyperonym, or superordinate, by at least one feature that specifies it further. There are at least two heuristic tests for hyponymy: embedded lexemes in suitable contexts, e.g. l1 is of the type l2, or mutual substitution in suitable sentences S(…), whereby S(l1) implies S(l2) (implication). At closer look, it is necessary (a) to view a particular case of hyponymy relative to a given semantic perspective and (b) to test the hyponymy in terms of the actual use of the expressions (see Lutzeier 1981). Since ‘upward branching’ occurs in hyponymy (consider, for example, the relation of mother, woman, and parent), hyponymy does not constitute a true hierarchy. References Dictionary of language and linguistics 528 Cruse, D.A. 1975. Hyponymy and lexical hierarchies. ArchL 6. 26–31. Lipka, L. 1990. An outline of English lexicology. Tübingen. Lutzeier, P. 1981. Wort und Feld. Wortsemantische Fragestellungen mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Wortfeldbegriffs. Tübingen. Lyons, J. 1963. Structural semantics: an analysis of part of the vocabulary of Plato. Oxford. lexicology, semantics hypotaxis [Grk ‘subjection, submission,’ from hypotássein ‘to arrange under, to subject’] (also subordination) Syntactic relationship of subordination of clauses, as opposed to co-ordinating conjunction ( parataxis). The structural dependency is formally marked by subordinating conjunctions (because, although), relative pronouns (who, which), and infinitive constructions. The subordinate clause can precede, follow, or be embedded in the main clause ( embedding). ( also relative clause) hysteron proteron anastrophe A-Z 529 I Iberian Ibero-Romance Basque Romance languages Icelandic North Germanic (Scandinavian) language, since 1935 the official language of Iceland (approx. 250,000 speak ers). Characteristics: in contrast to Norwegian, good preservation of historical morphological characteristics; purifying tendencies (new words are introduced primarily by new word formations rather than loan words). References Einarsson, S. 1945. Icelandic. Baltimore, MD. (7th edn 1976.) Gordon, E.V. 1927. An introduction to Old Norse. Oxford. (2nd rev. edn, ed. A.R.Taylor, 1957.) Maling, J. and A.Zaenen (eds) 1990. Syntax and semantics, vol. 24: Modern Icelandic syntax. New York. Noreen, A. 1970. Altisländische und altnorwegische Grammatik, 5th edn Tübingen. Valfells, S. and J.E.Cathey. 1981. Old Icelandic: an introductory course. Oxford. Dictionary of language and linguistics ICM icon [Grk 530 prototype ‘image, picture’] In the semiotics of C.S.Peirce, a class of visual or acoustic signs that stand in a directly perceivable relation to the object of reference, by illustratively imitating aspects of the real object and thereby revealing similarities to or features held in common with the object, e.g. charts, graphs, diagrams, traffic signs, maps, as well as the musical representation of sounds like onomatopoeia. ( also index, symbol) References Eco, U. 1972. Introduction to a semiotics of iconic signs. Versus 2:1. 1–15. Wallis, M. 1973. On iconic signs. In J.Rey-Debove (ed.), Recherches sur les systèmes significants. The Hague. 481–98. iconicity, semiotics iconicity 1 Term coined by C.W.Morris that designates the measure of similarity between the icon and the object to which it refers. 2 Concept of text interpretations developed within the framework of semiotics that is based on a correspondence between the characteristics of a particular representation and the characteristics of that which it represents. Thus, under certain stylistic conditions, a report addressed to a hearer or reader is as complex as the event(s) being described in the report. Similarly, the linear structure of a report can be deduced from the natural sequence of the event(s). Iconic text interpretation is not restricted to verbal communication; its success depends primarily on the co-operative behavior of the speaker/hearer, as postulated in Grice’s maxims of conversation. Iconicity plays a major role in cognitive grammar (see Haiman 1985; Givón 1990). References Givón, T. 1990. Syntax: a functional-typological introduction, vol. II. Amsterdam. Grice, H.P. 1975. Logic and conversation. In P.Cole and J.L.Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York, 41–58. (Orig. 1968.) Haiman, J. 1980. The iconicity of grammar. Lg 56. 515–40. A-Z 531 ——1983. Iconic and economic motivation. Lg 59. 781–819. ——(ed.) 1985. Iconicity in syntax. Amsterdam. ——1993. Iconicity. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 896–904. Simone, R. (ed.) 1994. Iconicity in language. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Verhaar, J.W. 1985. On iconicity and hierarchy. SiL 9. 21–76. maxim of conversation, semiotics ictus [Lat. ‘struck; a blow’] The first stressed syllable of a meter. ID rule ID/LP format ideal speaker/listener A term from Chomsky (1965) in which the state of the research into language is idealized. ‘Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker/listener, in a completely homogeneous speech-community, who knows his language perfectly and is unaffected by such grammatically irrelevant conditions as memory limitations, distractions, shifts of attention and interest, and errors (random or characteristic) in applying his knowledge of the language in actual performance’ (p. 3). The goal of the linguistic theory is to describe the competence ( competence vs performance) of the ideal speaker/listener. References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. competence vs performance, transformational grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics idealized cognitive model ideogram 532 prototype ideography ideograph [Grk ideĩn ‘to see,’ gráphein ‘to write’] Type of transcription in which meanings are expressed by graphic signs (ideograms), whereby complex complete meanings are symbolized synthetically by a single conceptual sign. Such conventionalized ideograms (e.g. those found in traffic signs) are not restricted to use in individual languages, since they are not basically signs that express the meaning of linguistic expressions. A special type of ideogram is found in Frege’s (1879) ‘conceptual writing,’ which is one of the first formalized languages for representing predicate logic. ( also pictography) References Frege, G. 1879. Begriffsschrift: eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache des reinen Denkens. Halle. (Repr. ed. I.Angelelli, Darmstadt, 1964.) writing ideophone [Grk ‘sound, voice’] Generally, an onomatopoetic ( onomatopoeia) representation of a concept, often consisting of reduplicated syllables and not adhering to the phonotactic structure of the given language. Examples from Baule (a) sound concepts [kεtεkεtεkεtε] ‘a running elephant,’ [foooooo] ‘the laughter of an elephant’; (b) visual concepts [gudugudu] ‘something large and round,’ [mlãmlãlã] ‘something large and fat’ Reference Timyan, J. 1976. A discourse-based grammar of Baule. Dissertation, New York. 254–61. A-Z 533 idiolect [Grk ídios ‘one’s own, personal,’ Léktos ‘chosen; expression word’] Language use characteristic of an individual speaker. This personal manner of expression is, to varying degrees, apparent in an individual’s pronunciation, active vocabulary, and syntax. The first and most restrictive definition of idiolect was offered by Bloch (1948). References Bloch, B. 1948. A set of postulates for phonetic analysis. Lg 24. 3–46. dialect, lect, sociolect idiom (also colloquial expression, colloquialism, idiomatic expression, set phrase) 1 A set, multi-elemental group of words, or lexical entity with the following characteristics: (a) the complete meaning cannot be derived from the meaning of the individual elements, e.g. to have a crush on someone (‘to be in love with someone’); (b) the substitution of single elements does not bring about a systematic change of meaning (which is not true of non-idiomatic syntagms), e.g. *to have a smash on someone; (c) a literal reading results in a homophonic non-idiomatic variant, to which conditions (a) and (b) no longer apply ( metaphor). Frequently there is a diachronic connection between the literal reading and the idiomatic reading ( idiomatization). In such cases, the treatment of the idiom as an unanalyzable lexical entity is insufficient. Depending upon the theoretical preconception, sayings, figures of speech, nominal constructions, and twin formulas are all subsumed under idioms. References idiomatics 2 The idiosyncratic features of an idiolect, a dialect, or a language. Dictionary of language and linguistics idiomatic expression 534 idiom idiomatics (also phraseology) The compilation, description, and classification of the total corpus of idioms1 in a language. Depending on the theoretical framework, various typologies (based on criteria such as grammatical structure, permutability of individual elements, stability of expressions, distribution. and semantic motivation) were developed, especially by Soviet linguists. Fernando and Flavell (1981) provide an overview with bibliographic references. References Chafe, W.L. 1968. Idiomaticity as anomaly in the Chomskyan paradigm. FL 4. 109–27. Fernando, C. and R.Flavell. 1981. On idiom: critical views and perspectives. Exeter Fraser, B. 1970. Idioms within a tranformational. grammar. FL 6. 22–42. Makkai, A. 1972. Idiom structure in English. The Hague. idiomaticity Characteristic of natural languages to use set word combinations ( meaning cannot be described as the sum of their individual elements. idiom1) whose Reference Makkai, A. 1978. Idiomaticity as a language universal. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals in human language. Stanford, CA. 401–48. idiomatization (also lexicalization) Historical process of semantic change in complex constructions whose complete meaning, originally motivated on the basis of the meaning of its individual components, can no longer be derived from the meaning of these components, cf. cupboard. A-Z 535 Completely idiomatized phrases or expressions form a (new) semantic unit, and the original motivation of this unit can only be reconstructed through historical knowledge. References idiomatics, word formation idiosyncratic feature [Grk idiosynkrāsía ‘peculiar temperament or habit of body’] Phonological, morphological, syntactic, or semantic features of a word that cannot be predicted on the basis of general rules; consequently, they must be represented as separate lexicon entries. In morphology, one speaks of idiosyncratic features especially in regard to phenomena of demotivation ( lexicalization), i.e. development of meaning through elements not based on the meaning of the individual elements. ( also lexicon) References word formation idioticon Dictionary that contains specifically the vocabulary and idiomatic expressions (idiotisms) of a particular dialect or speech area. (In contrast, dialect dictionary.) idiotism In dialectology, a regionally restricted word typical of a certain dialect. Idiotisms were used in dialectology as markers whose occurrence marked the geographic spread of a particular dialectal area, cf. hulp ‘helped’ as a marker for Appalachian English. Dictionary of language and linguistics 536 References Falk, Y. 1983. Constituency, word order and phrase structure rules. LingA 11. 331–60. Gazdar, G. and G.K.Pullum. 1981. Subcategorization, constituent order and the notion ‘head.’ In M. Moortgat, H.van der Hulst, and T.Hoekstra (eds), The scope of lexical rules. Dordrecht. 107– 23. Kay, M. 1979. Functional grammars. BLS 5. 142–58. Pollard, C. and I.A.Sag. 1988. An information-based syntax and semantics, vol. 1: Fundamentals. Stanford, CA. Uszkoreit, H. 1986. Constraints on order. Linguistics 24. 883–906. ID/LP format IE immediate dominance Indo-European IFID (illocutionary force indicating device) illocution Igbo Kwa language (approx. 16 million speakers) in southeastern Nigeria. Characteristics: tonal language (with downstep), vowel harmony; serial verb construction, no inflection. Word order SVO. References Emenanjo, E.N. 1978. Elements of modern Igbo grammar. Ibadan. Green, M.M. and G.E.Igwe. 1963. A descriptive grammar of Igbo. Berlin. Meier, P. et al. 1975. A grammar of Izi, an Igbo language. Norman, OK. Ogbalu, F.C. and E.N.Emananjo (eds) 1982. Igbo language and culture. Oxford. A-Z Ijo 537 Kwa illative (Lat. illatus ‘brought in’] Morphological case in some languages (e.g. Finnish) which expresses the movement of also elative) an object into a location. ( illiteracy literacy illocution [Lat. in ‘in’+loqui ‘to talk, to speak,’ i.e. ‘what one does by speaking’] (also illocutionary act) The fundamental aspect of a speech act in the speech act theory of J.L.Austin and J.R. Searle. According to Searle, a simple illocution consists of an illocutionary force and a propositional content and, thus, has the form f(p), where f and p may vary—within certain limits—independently from one another. If one takes f as the forces of an assertion and a question and p as the proposition that it is cold and that the car will not start, then there are four different illocutions: (a) the assertion that it is cold; (b) the assertion that the car will not start; (c) the question of whether it is cold; and (d) the question of whether the car will not start. Intonation, punctuation, interrogative pronouns, interrogative adverbs, modal auxiliary, and indicators of verb mood, word and clausal order, modal particles, special affixes, special constructions like the A-not-A interrogative in Mandarin, as well as the form of explicit performative utterances all function as illocutionary force indicating devices (IFIDs). The latter types are used in disambiguating an illocution as, for example, in legal contexts (I hereby make a final request that you pay your bill from the 29th of February of 1992). According to Searle, the meaning of the illocutionary force indicating devices is based on the rules for their use (cf. constitutive rules, regulative rules, speech act theory, meaning as use). In every language, one indicator (or a combination of several) serves as a base indicator. An indirect speech act occurs whenever an illocution other than that indicated literally by the base indicator is performed with the utterance of a sentence. Dictionary of language and linguistics 538 References indirect speech act, sentence mood, speech act classification, speech act theory illocutionary act illocutionary force illocution illocution illocutionary force indicating device illocution imitation echolalia immediate constituent analysis A model of sentence analysis developed by the American structuralists. The goal and consequence of immediate constituent analysis is to analyze a linguistic expression into a hierarchically defined series of constituents. This analysis ( segmentation) is supported by various tests, above all the commutation test and the substitution test. If the complex expression to be analyzed is movable or can be replaced in the sentence by a simple expression belonging to the same grammatical category, then it counts as a constituent. Thus a sentence like The professor gives a lecture can be split into two parts, because the professor can be replaced by she (=noun phrase), and gives a lecture can be replaced by teaches (=verb phrase). This can be represented in a tree diagram as follows: A-Z 539 The elements produced in the first stage of the analysis are called immediate constituents: NP and VP are immediate constituents of S, Det and N of NP, and so on. Det, N, and V are irreducible constituents of S. The branching nodes are called constitutes and the relation between the branching nodes and their constituents is called constituency. The results of an immediate constituent analysis can be presented in various ways, using a tree diagram, phrase structure rules, or a box diagram. Immediate constituent analysis is the most basic syntactic organizational principle of transformational grammar. The tests to justify the constituents are only necessary, but not sufficient, for to justify a constituent structure it must be proven that it is necessary for the formulation of syntactic processes. References Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. Harris, Z.S. 1962. String analysis of sentence structure. The Hague. Hockett, C.F. 1958. A course in modern linguistics. New York. Postal, P.M. 1964. Constituent structure: a study of contemporary models of syntactic description. Bloomington, IN. Wells, R.S. 1947. Immediate constituents. Lg 23.71–117. Immediate dominance/linear precedence format (abbrev. ID/LP format) A grammatical format proposed by Gazdar and Pullum for Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar. This format contains separate types of rules to describe immediate dominance and linear precedence. (a) The hierarchical relationships in tree diagrams are determined by immediate dominance rules. Such ID rules are unordered phrase structure rules which express nothing about the order of the daughter constituents. In the notation of ID rules, the absence of linear ordering is indicated by commas between the categorial symbols on the right-hand side of the rule, e.g. VP→V, NP, PP. (b) The order Dictionary of language and linguistics 540 of the sister constituents in a local tree is determined by linear precedence rules, which dictate a partial ordering for the categories of grammar. LP rules are ordered pairs of syntactic categories: for example, the LP rule V <NP states that in every local tree in which a verb and a noun phrase appear as sister nodes, V must precede NP. Immediate dominance allows for local variations in word order; an expansion of this by Uszkoreit (1986) allows for the representation of partially free word order. An extension of immediate dominance is also used by Pollard and Sag in Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar. Other formats for the separation of immediate dominance and linear precedence can be found in Functional Unification Grammar by Kay (1979) and in Falk’s (1983) suggestion for the extension of Lexical-Functional Grammar. immersion Approach in second language pedagogy ( second language acquisition, natural approach), where academic subjects are taught exclusively in the target language. References Lyster, R. 1987. Speaking immersion. CMLR 43:4. 701–17. Singh, R. 1986. Immersion: problems and principles. CMLR 42:3. 559–71. Swain, M. and H.Barik. 1978. Bilingual education in Canada: French and English. In B.Spolsky and R. Cooper (eds), Case studies in bilingual education. Rowley, MA. 22–71. immutative vs mutative durative vs nondurative, imperfective vs perfective imperative [Lat. imperare ‘to order, to command’] Subcategory of verbal mood used primarily to express a request or command: Come here! However, it can also fulfill other functions, such as a conditional: Lose my book and I’ll make you buy me a new one. On the other hand, requests can also be expressed in declarative sentences You’ll keep your mouth shut! or in interrogatives Why don’t you A-Z 541 keep your mouth shut?, where intonation and modal particles contribute to the identification of the speech act in question. While indicative and subjunctive generally have fully developed systems, the imperative has only second person singular and plural forms, the other persons usually being expressed by some other means (cf. Let’s go, Let them try). Other tenses or passive forms cannot be formed from an imperative. Syntactic markers for imperatives for English include initial position of the verb (Come here quick!) and special intonation, as well as (generally) the omission of the subject. In many languages imperative forms are very simple morphologically (typically identical to the verb root); verbs that are often used as commands (come, go) can have suppletive forms. For first person plural adhortative; on third person imperatives, jussive. imperative, Except for modal auxiliaries, all verbs that have an animate subject seem to be able to form an imperative. Since they are used primarily as commands to act, only action verbs generally appear as imperatives. References Davies, E. 1986. The Engish imperatives. London. Hamblin, C. 1987. Imperatives. Oxford. modality imperative transformation In transformational grammar, the derivation of an imperative sentence from a deep structure sentence. The ellipsis of the subject pronoun is described as a transformational deletion in the imperative transformation. For criticism, see work by Fries. In generative semantics and speech act theory, every sentence is embedded in a matrix sentence with a performative verb. In the case of the imperative, this performative matrix clause is I command you. For example, I command you: you should be quiet. Through the application of several transformations, the imperative be quiet is derived. performative analysis for the difficulties of this approach. References generative grammar, performative analysis Dictionary of language and linguistics 542 imperfect [Lat. imperfectus ‘unfinished, incomplete’] (also past tense, preterite) Past tense for events which extend into the present in languages which distinguish between aorist (comparable to French passé simple as a historical perfect), perfect (=term for an action that is completed at a specific point in time), and imperfect. In contrast to preterite, the imperfect is marked in regard to aspect. References tense imperfective vs perfective (also aterminative/cursive vs terminative, durative vs non-durative, immutative vs mutative, incomplete vs complete) Basic subcategorization in terms of aspect which characterizes an event either as temporally unstructured (imperfective) or as having a beginning ( inchoative) or end resultative). Because of this, some see the perfective as indicating an event as point ( a whole while the imperfective describes the continuous part of it. In the literature the pair imperfective-perfective is often equated with durative vs non-durative. In the Slavic languages this distinction is marked morphologically, where entire classes of verbs have perfective and imperfective variants: Russ. pisal vs napisal ‘write’ vs ‘finish writing,’ čital vs pročital ‘read’ vs ‘finish reading.’ There are also perfective forms which describe an action as happening over a short period of time: Russ. my tancevali ‘we danced’ vs my potancevali ‘we danced for a while.’ English lacks a specific formal marker for the imperfective-perfective distinction. Instead, it is indicated by various linguistic features whose function is not primarily aspectual, such as tense, verb type, verbal constructions (e.g. She works in Texas (imperfective) vs She swallowed the gum (perfective)). References Dowty, D.R. 1977. Toward a semantic analysis of verb aspect and the English ‘imperfective’ progressive. Ling&P 1. 45–77. A-Z 543 aspect impersonal construction Syntactic constructions in which the logical subject is not expressed as the grammatical subject, especially in sentences with impersonal verbs: It so happens that…, it’s raining. impersonal verb Verb that can only be used in the third person singular, for which the agent, if one exists at all, cannot appear in the nominative (as the subject). In English, this empty position is generally filled with it or there. Impersonal verbs in English are generally used for weather phenomena ( weather verb) (it was raining, it snowed). implication [Lat. implicatio ‘the action of weaving in; an intertwined system’] The term ‘implication’ is used in everyday language as well as in logic and semantics in different ways, though with much overlap. (a) Material implication (also conditional implication, logical implication, subjunction): quantifier in propositional logic that connects two elementary propositions p and q in a new single proposition that is false if and only if the first part of the proposition is true and the second part is false (notation: p→q): If London is on the Thames, then 3×3=10 (=f(alse)); but: If 3×3=10, then London is on the Thames (= t(rue)). The following (two-value) truth table represents a definition of this type of implication: p q p→q t t t t f f f t t f f t Dictionary of language and linguistics 544 The definition of implication in the truth table is based on the fact that implication is logically equivalent with the expression ¬p q which can be paraphrased as ‘first part false or second part true,’ and which are exactly the truth conditions for implication. Another property of material implication is that both the rule of inference and the rule of negative inference hold true for it (in contrast with presupposition). Material implication is the appropriate quantifier for formalizations of conditional existential propositions in predicate logic. This truth-functional interpretation of implication is purely an extensional one, therefore any presupposed semantic relation between the two parts of the proposition does not come into play in everyday language. The intensional relation between the two parts of the proposition that exists in natural language use is covered below in (d). (b) Logical implication (also entailment): metalinguistic relation between two propositions p and q: q logically follows from p (notation: p→q), if every semantic interpretation of the language that makes p true automatically (i.e. based solely on the logical form of p and q) makes q true. For example, p =All humans are mortal and Socrates is a human, q=Socrates is mortal, then it holds true that p→q. (c) Strict implication (also entailment): implicational relation in modal logic: ‘p necessarily implies q or ‘It necessarily follows from q that p’ With the operator of necessitation □ this relation can be expressed as □ (p→ q) ( modal logic). (d) Semantic implication (also (semantic) entailment, conditional): a narrower (intensional) interpretation of implication in regard to natural languages. In contrast with logical implication, the partial propositions of semantic implication are in a semantic relation and their validity is based on appropriate (lexical) meaning postulates. Cf. Austin’s (1962) example: from The cat is lying on the mat it follows semantically that The mat is underneath the cat. In contrast with presupposition, q will remain true if p is negated: from The cat is not on the mat it does not follow that The mat is underneath the cat. This relation of implication can be checked with the but-test: if a speaker maintains that The cat is on the mat, but the mat is not underneath the cat his/her semantic competence is called into question. The concept of semantic implication plays a basic role in structural lexical semantics: (unilateral) implication corresponds largely to the semantic relation of hyponymy, bilateral implication (=equivalence) corresponds largely to synonymy. (e) Contextual implication: expansion of the concept of implication with pragmatic aspects. Contextual implications are conversational conditions that must be fulfilled so that an utterance can be seen as ‘normal’ under the given circumstances of a specific speech situation. Thus by uttering an assertion, one implies ‘contextually’ that this assertion is also really true, and the speaker must similarly be able to defend him-/herself if the hearer is doubtful. Cf. allegation, implicature, invited inference for other types of implication. References Austin, J.L. 1962. How to do things with words. Oxford. formal logic A-Z 545 implicational analysis (also implicational hierarchy, accessibility hierarchy) Approach developed within the ‘qualitative paradigm’ of variational linguistics for representing linguistic variability in the form of a model. The approach is based on the presumption that linguistic varieties are hierarchically structured and clearly distinguishable from one another. Individual linguistic features that define varieties are ordered in an implicational matrix in such a way that the presence of certain given features allows one to deduce the presence of certain other features, though not vice versa, as represented in the following matrix: Varieties Features V1 F1 F2 F3 V2 F1 F2 F3 V3 F1 F2 V4 F1 F4 The matrix represents an implicational hierarchy and affords a schematic representation of the rule-ordered features among the related varieties. References Bailey, C.-J.N. 1973. Variation and linguistic theory. Arlington, VA. Bickerton, D. 1973. Quantitative versus dynamic paradigms: the case of Montreal que. In C.-J.N. Bailey and R.W.Shuy (eds), New ways of analyz-ing variation in English. Washington, DC. 23– 44. Decamp, D. 1971. Implicational scales and sociolinguistic linearity. Linguistics 73. 30–43. Dittmar, N. and P.Schlobinski. 1988. Implikationsanalyse. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Berlin and New York. 1014–26. Dictionary of language and linguistics implicational hierarchy analysis 546 implicational implicational universal hierarchy universal, universal implicative verb Type of verb with an infinitive complement for which the following relation exists between the whole sentence M (=matrix sentence) and the complementary sentence C (=constituent sentence): M implies C and not-M implies not-C, e.g. Philip took the trouble to fix his old car implies that Philip fixed his old car; Philip didn’t take the trouble to fix his old car implies Philip didn’t fix his old car. Some other verbs in this class are bring about, take the time, and lower oneself; negative implicative verbs are miss and neglect. ( also factive predicate) References Coleman, L. 1975. The case of the vanishing presupposition. BLS 1. 78–89. Karttunen, L. 1971a. Implicative verbs. Lg 47. 340–58. ——1971b. The logic of English predicate complement constructions. Bloomington, IN. presupposition implicature Grice’s (1968) term (see Grice 1975): in uttering a sentence S, a speaker implies that p is the case if, by having been uttered, S suggests as its conclusion p, without p having been literally said. If the conclusion rests exclusively on the conventional meaning of the words and grammatrical constructions that occur in S, then the conclusion is called a ‘conventional implicature.’ Since Karttunen and Peters (1979) most presuppositions are interpreted as conventional implicatures. Conventional implicatures can be elicited by factive predicates like forget (Philip forgot that today is Caroline’s birthday, with the conventional implicature being: ‘Today is Caroline’s birthday’), by certain particles like A-Z 547 only and even (Only Philip is going to London, with the conventional implicature being: ‘No one else is going to London’), and certain types of aspect such as a resultative (The rosebush has wilted, with the conventional implicature: ‘The rosebush was previously thriving’). Conventional implicatures cannot be canceled, i.e. the speaker cannot debate their validity without contradicting or correcting him-/herself, but they can be detached, i.e. there is always a paraphrase that says the same thing without triggering the implicature. Where an implicature rests not only on the conventional meaning of the uttered expression but also on the supposition that the speaker is following or is intentionally breaking certain maxims of conversation then that implicature is called a ‘conversational implicature.’ If it appears in all normal contexts, it is called a ‘generalized conversational implicature’; and if it only appears in certain utterance contexts, it is called a ‘particularized conversational implicature.’ In contrast with conventional implicatures, conversational implicatures can be canceled, but cannot be detached. An indefinite article can trigger conversational implicature: in Philip is meeting a woman this evening, the generalized conversational implicature is that the woman is not Philip’s wife. The reasoning is that speakers ordinarily, and in a co-operative spirit, observe such maxims of conversation as the quantity maxim, which enjoins speakers to supply a contextually appropriate amount of information; the addressee assumes the speaker would not misleadingly refer to Philip’s wife as a’woman’ if reference to his wife were indeed intended; the addressee therefore ‘conversationally implies’ that the speaker intends the reference to be someone other than Philip’s wife. Particularized conversational implicatures are not triggered by certain elements in vacuo, but rather by interaction of utterances and contexts: for example, Mr Smith has an excellent command of his native tongue and attended my seminars regularly (in the context of a letter of recommendation for a college graduate who has applied for a position), may have the (cancelable) particularized conversational implicature that Mr Smith has no other qualities that make him particularly suited for the position sought. References Grandy, R. 1990. On the foundations of conversational implicature, PBLS 16: General session and parasession on the legacy of Grice. Berkeley, CA. 405–10. Grice, H.P. 1975. Logic and conversation. In P.Cole and J.L.Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York. 41–58. (Orig. 1968.) Karttunen, L. and S.Peters. 1979. Conventional implicatures. In C.Oh and D.Dinneen (eds), Syntax and semantics. vol.11: Presuppositions. New York. 1–56. Kemmerling, A. 1991. Implikatur. In A.von Stechow and D.Wunderlich (eds), Semantik: ein internationales Handbuch der zeitgenössischen Forschung (Semantics: an international handbook of contemporary research). Berlin. 319–33. conversation analysis, maxim of conversation Dictionary of language and linguistics implicit derivation 548 derivation implosive [Lat. in ‘in,’ plaudere ‘to make a clapping sound’] 1 Non-nasal stop that is formed with the pharyngeal airstream mechanism by lowering the larynx when the glottis is almost closed. In this process, the air does not literally flow from the outside to the inside, rather the air pressure in the oral cavity is almost the same and in the Chadic language as on the outside of the oral cavity. For example, in Kera ‘surrounded’ vs ‘bury’, ‘to lose its time’ vs ‘to jump off’ 2 Non-nasal stop in which the stop is not released as in the contraction tip’ em [tipm]. ( also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics inchoative Aspect of a verb or verb phrase. Inchoatives belong to the non-duratives ( durative vs non-durative) and indicate the inception or the coming into existence of a state or process, e.g. to bloom, to wilt. Occasionally the term inchoative is also used synonymously for ingressive, which denotes the sudden beginning of an action: to burst into flames. References Newmeyer, F. 1969. The underlying structure of the begin-class verbs. CLS 5. aspect A-Z 549 inclusion Logical relation between classes of sets of elements in which it is the case that every element of class A is also an element of class B: All brothers (=class A) are male relatives (= class B). In the semantic aspect of relations between meanings ( semantic relation), inclusion often corresponds to hyponymy, and in propositional logic to implication. ( also formal logic, set theory) References formal logic, set theory inclusive vs exclusive Distinction in the person system of many languages in which there are different forms for speaker+hearer (inclusive) vs speaker+third person (exclusive): Chinese women lai le ‘we (you and I) came,’ zanmen lai le ‘we (he and I) came.’ incompatibility 1 The most common semantic relation of lexical opposition. Two expressions are incompatible if they are semantically similar yet differ in a single semantic feature. To this extent, cohyponyms ( hyponymy) are incompatible: for example, burgundy and chablis are both hyponyms of wine, but differ according to the single semantic feature of ‘color.’ With incompatibility, it is particularly essential to relativize the terms against a common semantic background: thus, burgundy and chablis, against the background of ‘suitable for drinking,’ are not incompatible. Substitution of one expression l1 and l2 in suitable sentences S(…) is a useful heuristic test for incompatibility. In this test, a contradiction arises between S(l1) and S(l2), in that the negation of S(l2) follows from S(l1) while the negation of S(l1) follows from S(l2). ( antonymy, complementarity, converse relation, reversivity) Dictionary of language and linguistics 550 References semantic relations, semantics 2 In the framework of N.Chomsky’s theory of syntax, the violation of selection restrictions which exist between elements of certain syntactic positions. For example, the verb think is only compatible (i.e. grammatical) in literal uses with a subject having the feature [+ human]: The man is thinking vs *The stone is thinking. References selection restrictions incomplete durative vs non-durative incorporating language [from Late Lat. incorporation; in ‘in,’ corpus ‘body’] Classificational category established by Humboldt (1836) which refers to languages that tend to express syntactic relations in a sentence by compounding lexical and grammatical elements into long complex words. Syntactic functions such as object and adverbial are ‘incorporated’ into the predicate (cf. Greenlandic, Iroquoian, and—occasionally— German, cf. radfahren ‘to ride a bike.’) References Humboldt, W. 1836. Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaus. Berlin. (Repr. 1963.) incorporation, language typology, polysynthesis incorporation Compound consisting of a (usually nominal) word stem with a verb, forming a complex verb. The incorporated stem expresses a concept and does not refer to a specific entity. A-Z 551 Incorporation is a widespread phenomenon among the languages of the world, e.g. the Altaic languages. References Baker, M. 1988. Incorporation. Chicago, IL. Mithun, M. 1984. The evolution of noun incorporation. Lg 60. 847–95. Rosen, S.T. 1989. Two types of noun incorporation: a lexical analysis. Lg 65: 294–317. word formation indefinite pronoun [Lat. indefinitus ‘unlimited’] Subgroup of pronouns which serve to represent a person or thing without specifying gender (one, everyone, someone) and/or number (everyone, some, no one); their reference, however, may be definite (e.g. everyone, no one). Everyone and someone function only as noun phrases, while something, all, and some can occur alone or combined with nouns, e.g. All were present vs All gold glitters. There is a fluid border between indefinite pronouns and indefinite numerals (all, several, few). References determiner, quantification independent clause main clause index [Lat. ‘something that shows, indicator’] In the semiotics of C.S.Peirce, a class of signs in which the relation between the sign and that which it designates does not rest on convention ( symbol) or similarity ( icon), but on a direct real (causal) relationship to the singular object actually present. An index may be thought of as a ‘symptom’ of the object it refers to. The comprehension of a sign as an index may be based on experience: a fever is an index for an underlying illness, while smoke is an index of fire. Dictionary of language and linguistics 552 References semiotics index field of language In K.Bühler’s two-field theory, the person-space-time structure of a particular situation with the I-now-here origo as the origin of the co-ordinates for subjective orientation, which can be realized by various deictic means ( deixis): (a) within the perceptive situation of the speaker and hearer via ‘demonstratio ad oculos’ (visual presentation), such as by means of gesture or the demonstrative and personal pronouns; (b) in the context of speech through anaphora, i.e. through the contextual use of deictic particles; and (c) in the domain of memory and fantasy through the so-called ‘deixis of the fantasm.’ References axiomatics of linguistics indexical expression Indic deictic expression Indo-Aryan indicative Verbal mood which portrays the state of affairs described by the verb as ‘real.’ In contrast to subjunctive and imperative, the indicative is considered the most basic mood and is used to express neutral, objective statements. ( also modality) A-Z 553 References modality indirect interrogative clause [Lat. interrogare ‘to ask’] Relative clause introduced by an interrogative pronoun (who, where, why), as well as such words as if, how, etc., that is dependent on a main clause: He wanted to know why she had called him. In contrast to direct interrogatives, indirect interrogatives cannot occur independently. indirect object Syntactic function which can be expressed morphologically, positionally, and/or structurally, depending on the language type. The most common way to express the indirect object morphologically is through the dative case, although accusative and genitive complements (e.g. when they are treated as second objects) are sometimes treated as indirect objects. In some languages (e.g. English, the Romance languages) the function of the dative is taken over by a preposition (e.g. Fr. à, Span., Ital. a, Eng. to, e.g. I gave it to him). In contrast to a direct object, the indirect object in many languages (e.g. German, French) cannot occur as the subject in passive constructions: Philip hilft ihm ‘Philip is helping him’ vs *Er wurde geholfen ‘He was helped’. In languages where indirect objects are not marked by case or adposition, there are different opinions as to the structural position of indirect objects. Thus, for the sentence John gave Mary the book, one finds analyses where both Mary and the book are considered to be indirect objects (see Ziv and Sheintuch 1979). Some typical semantic functions of indirect objects include the recipient with verbs of giving and taking, the benefactive ( dative), or the experiencer of a state (This occurred to me). Since the formal and semantic criteria for indirect objects are more diverse and heterogeneous than those for subjects and direct objects, the usefulness of this term has been questioned, both in regard to a specific language (Ziv and Sheintuch 1979) as well as for universal grammar (Faltz 1978). ( also syntactic function) References Dryer, M. 1986. Primary objects, secondary objects and antidative. Lg 62. 808–45. Dictionary of language and linguistics 554 Faltz, L.M. 1978. On indirect objects in universal syntax. CLS 14. 76–87. Ziv, Y. and G.Sheintuch. 1979. Indirect objects reconsidered. CLS 15. 390–403. syntactic function indirect speech direct vs indirect discourse indirect speech act Type of speech act, in which the illocution literally expressed by the sentence type (or additional base indicators) of the uttered expression differs from the illocution that was actually performed (i.e. from the ‘primary’ illocution). Thus, the combination of features [main verb in the indicative; verb in second place; lack of question word in stressed position; independent clause; falling intonation] in the sentence There is the door indicates a declarative sentence whose cont seems ent merely to establish a precondition for the performance of some speech act involving a door. Under certain circumstances, however, the utterance of the sentence can be meant and understood as an order for the addressee to leave the room. The command is indirectly performed through the assertion. The interpretation or reconstruction of the indirect speech act is based primarily on the maxims of conversation formulated by Grice (see Grice 1975) and on the mechanism of conversational implicature. ( also speech act theory) References Grice, H.P. 1975. Logic and conversation. In P.Cole and H.L.Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts, New York. 41–58. (Orig. 1968.) Searle, J.R. 1975. Indirect speech acts. In P.Cole and J.L.Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics vol. 3: Speech acts. New York. 344–69. (Orig. 1968.) maxims of conversation, speech act theory Indo-Aryan (also Indic) Branch of Indo-European which belongs to the Indo-Iranian subgroup, with over thirty languages, some of which contain numerous dialects; in total about 650 million speakers. The most significant languages are Hindi-Urdu (over 220 million speakers, official A-Z 555 language of India and Pakistan respectively), Bengali (approx. 150 million speakers, official language of Bangladesh), Panjabi (approx. 45 million speakers), Marathi (approx. 52 million speakers), Bihari (a group of languages, approx. 37 million speakers), Gujarati (approx. 33 million speakers), Rajasthani (approx. 25 million speakers), Assamese (approx. 12 million speakers), Sindhi (approx. 12 million speakers, Pakistan), Singhalese (approx. 11 million speakers, official language of Sri Lanka), Nepali (approx. 9.5 million speakers, official language of Nepal). The oldest known form of Indo-Aryan is Sanskrit (richly attested since about 1200 BC in its oldest stage, Vedic, the language of the religious hymns of the Vedas); the older IndoAryan languages have developed from the corresponding everyday language, Prakrit. ‘Middle Indo-Aryan’ is used to refer to the state of the language between the third century BC and the fourth century AD; the most important documents are the Buddhist writings in Pali, the Ašoka inscriptions. Characteristics: unusual voiced aspirated plosives such as [bh], as well as retroflexes in the sound system. General Bloch, J. 1965. Indo-Aryan from the Vedas to modern times, trans. by A.Master. Paris. Gonda, J. 1971. Old Indian (Handbuch der Orientalistik 2, vol. 1: Die indischen Sprachen, 1). Leiden. Masica, C.P. 1991. The Indo-Aryan languages. Cambridge. Sebeok, T. (ed.) 1969. Current Trends in Linguistics, vol. 5: Linguistics in South Asia: Part I: IndoAryan languages. The Hague and Paris. 3–306. Old Indo-Aryan MacDonell, A.A. 1910. Vedic grammar. Strasburg. Middle Indo-Aryan Elizarenkova, T.Y. and V.N.Toporov, 1976. The Pali language. Moscow. Hinüber, O.von. 1986. Das ältere Mittelindoarische im Überblick. Vienna. Mishra, M. 1986. A comparative and historical Pali grammar. New Delhi. Pischel, R. 1900. Grammatik der Prakrit-Sprachen. (Trans. as: A grammar of the Prakrit languages, by S.Jha. (2nd rev. edn). Delhi, 1981.) Sen, S. 1960. A comparative grammar of Middle Indo-Aryan. Poona. Warder, A.K. 1991. Introduction to Pali, 3rd edn. London. Woolner, A.C. 1928. Introduction to Prakrit, 2nd edn. (Repr. Delhi 1975.) New Indo-Aryan Bahl, K.C. 1972. On the present state of Modern Rajashthani grammar. Jodhpur. Barua, P.N.D. 1980. An intensive course in Assamese. Mysore. Dictionary of language and linguistics 556 Beames, J. 1872–9. Comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Orija and Bangali, 3 vols. London. (Repr. 1970.) Cardona, G. 1965. A Gujarati reference grammar. Philadelphia, PA. ——1974. The Indo-Aryan languages. Encyclopedia Britannica, 15th edn, vol. 9, 439–50. Chatterji, S.K. 1960. Indo-Aryan and Hindi. Calcutta. Clark, T.W. 1977. Introduction to Nepali. Cambridge. Gair, J.W. 1970. Colloquial Sinhalese clause structures. The Hague. Garusinghe, D. 1962. Sinhalese: the spoken idiom. Munich. Geiger, W. 1938. A grammar of the Sinhalese language. Colombo. Grierson, G.A. 1883–6. Seven grammars of the dialects and subdialects of the Bihari language. Calcutta. ——1903–28. Linguistic survey of India, 11 vols. Calcutta. (Repr. Delhi 1968.) Kavadi, N.B. and F.C.Southworth. 1968. Spoken Marathi. Philadelphia, PA. Lambert, H.M. 1971. Gujarati language course. Cambridge. Matthews, D. 1984. A course in Nepali. (2nd edn 1992.) London. Nair, U. 1991. An intensive course in Gujarati. Mysore. Reynolds, C.H.B. 1980. Sinhalese: an introductory course. London. Srivastava, D. 1962. Nepali language: its history and development. Calcutta. Trumpp, E. 1872. Grammar of the Sindhi language. (Repr. Osnabrück 1970.) Dictionaries Barua, H.C. 1965. The Assamese—English dictionary. Sibsagar. Carter, C. 1924. A Sinhalese-English dictionary. Colombo. Childers, R.C. 1875. Dictionary of the Pali language. London. Critical Pali dictionary. 1924–. Begun by V.Trenckner. Vol. III, 1 1992. Copenhagen. Deshpande, P.G. 1984. Gujarati-English dictionary, 3rd edn. Ahmedabad. Moscrop, T. and T.Candy. 1899. A Sinhalese-English dictionary. (Repr. 1987.) Kallupitiya. Rhys Davids, T.W. and W.Stede (eds) 1921. The Pali Text Society’s Pali—English dictionary. (Repr. 1979.) London. Turner, R.L. 1931. A comparative and etymological dictionary of the Nepali language. London. (Repr. New Delhi, 1980.) Turner, R. and D.Rivers. 1966–71. A comparative dictionary of Indo-Aryan languages, 3 vols. London. Etymological dictionaries Mayrhofer, M. 1956–80. etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen/Concise etymological Sanskrit dictionary, 4 vols. Heidelberg. ——1986–. Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen. Vol. II, 17, 1995. Heidelberg. Journals Bulletin of the Philological Society of Calcutta Indian Linguistics Sanskrit A-Z 557 Indo-European (abbrev. IE; also IndoGermanic) Today the most widespread language group in the world. The following branches make up Indo-European: Indo-Iranian, Tocharian, Armenian, Anatolian, Albanian, Greek, Italic (and its modern offshoots, the Romance languages), Slavic, Baltic (the latter possibly form a genetic unity Balto-Slavic), Germanic, and Celtic. Two of these, Anatolian and Tocharian, are now extinct. Numerous older languages are attested merely in fragments or through other languages (e.g. in names, glosses), e.g. Venetic, Messapic, Phrygian, etc., and their affiliation to the above-listed branches is not always clearly determinable due to their fragmentary documentation. The relative position of the branches to one another is still unclear; it has been suggested that they were spoken as dialects of a proto-language, the exact area and time of existence of which, however, still remains under debate (the area north of the Black Sea around 3000 BC has been suggested, but other regions and times equally have been discussed, cf. Lehmann 1990). As yet, it has not been possible to identify the Indo-Europeans for certain with any archeologically attested culture. Many older stages of the language groups are documented, and these form the main subject of Indo-European studies. Characteristics: strongly inflectional, utilizing both affixes and word-internal mutation (ablaut). Eight cases can be reconstructed, as well as a gender system (it is still under debate whether with two or three genders; see also below) and three numbers (singular, dual, plural). Agreement of the noun with the adjective and of the subject with the verb. Tense, mood, and aspect are generally expressed in the verb by inflectional means. There are still some problems concerning the reconstruction of the category of aspect (see also below). Some modern Indo-European offshoots, e.g. English, have developed into very different types of language. History of research: it had long been recognized that some European languages exhibit similarities, and some branches, such as the Romance languages, were accepted as genetic units early on. But the actual beginning of the systematic investigation of IndoEuropean can be traced back to the discovery of the relation of Sanskrit and Persian ( Indo-Iranian) on the one hand and European languages on the other, by Jones in 1788. The nineteenth century witnessed the beginning of academic research, and in the process, the methodology of historical linguistics was developed, especially through attempts at describing systematic sound correspondences and the reconstruction of an IndoEuropean proto-language ( also comparative linguistics). The most influential works were those of Schlegel (1808), Rask (1814–1818), and Bopp (1816), which systematically demonstrate the relatedness of those branches of Indo-European known at that time (based primarily on the consideration of the inflectional systems), as well as the work of Grimm (1819–22), in which systematic sound laws between important individual languages (Sanskrit, Greek, Latin) were postulated. Schleicher (1861–2) was the first to undertake the reconstruction of specific forms of the proto-language; he also did pioneer work on Lithuanian (a Baltic language), which in many ways is especially conservative. The succeeding period was marked by differences between the Neogrammarians (K.Brugmann, B.Delbrück, H.Osthoff, A.Leskien, K.Verner, early Dictionary of language and linguistics 558 F.de Saussure), on the one hand, who assumed sound changes occur without exceptions, i.e. to be inviolable sound laws, and attempted to explain apparent irregularities by analogy, and other scholars, such as H.Schuchardt, who contested this hypothesis. Tocharian was recognized as an Indo-European language in 1908; even though it was centum vs spoken far to the east, it shows some similarities to the western branches ( satem languages). At about the same time, it became clear that Hittite (an Anatolian language) was also related to the Indo-European languages. E.Sturtevant’s suggestion that Hittite occupies a position equal to the rest of the Indo-European languages (‘IndoHittite hypothesis’), remains controversial; the crucial point is at what stage the separation of Hittite (or rather of Anatolian) from the rest of the Indo-European languages took place, and whether it lost or never possessed certain features of the common protolanguage (e.g. a three-gender system or the verbal aspect distinction; see e.g., the contributions in Neu and Meid 1979); in this connection, a temporal stratification of Proto-Indo-European has been proposed by some scholars (see e.g., the contributions in Dunkel et al. 1994). Hittite also played an important role in the reconstruction of the Indo-European sound system ( laryngeal theory). In the first half of the twentieth century, research centered mainly on the phonology and morphology of the Indo-European languages. In more recent times, issues of the syntax of the proto-language have moved into the focus of attention again as well (e.g. Lehmann 1974; Hettrich 1988). But phonology and morphology remain important fields of research: a reconstruction of the plosive system that differs from the traditional system is discussed (see the suggestion of glottalized sounds by Gamkrelidze and Ivanov 1973 and Hopper 1973; see also Gamkrelidze and Ivanov 1984; for a bibliographical overview of this theory see Salmons 1993). According to this view, Old Indic would then be innovative and Germanic especially conservative ( Grimm’s law); however, this theory remains under debate. Also, the role of stress in morphology has been studied more thoroughly; one particular line of research was begun by Kuiper (1942) and terminologically developed by Hoffmann in his lectures (see Eichner 1973; see also, e.g., Narten 1968, Strunk 1985, Schindler 1975; for further bibliographical references see Szemerényi 1990:171). Questions relating to the verbal system, e.g. the development of the moods (e.g. Hoffmann, 1967; Rix 1986) and of the aspect distinction have been investigated, the latter also in connnection with the position of Hittite (see e.g. Cowgill 1974, Strunk 1984). For detailed overviews see Szemerényi 1985, Szemerényi 1990 and Lehmann 1990, all with extensive bibliographies. Pioneer works, general works and overviews Bader, F. (ed.) 1994. Langues indo-européennes. Paris. Baldi, P. 1983. An Introduction to the Indo-European languages. Carbondale, IL. Beekes, R.S.P. 1995. Comparative Indo-European linguistics. An introduction. Amsterdam. Bopp, F. 1816. Über das Conjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache. Frankfurt-am-Main. (Repr. Hildesheim and New York, 1975.) (English: F.Bopp. 1845–1853. A Comparative grammar of the Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Gothic, German, and Sclavonic languages, (trans. E.B. Eastwick; repr. 1985, London.)) A-Z 559 Gamkrelidze, T. and V.V.Ivanov. 1984. Indoevropejskij jazyk i indoevropejcy. Tblisi. (IndoEuropean and Indo-Europeans. trans. J.Nichols, vol. I. Berlin and New York 1995.) Giacolone, A. and P.Ramat. 1996. The Indo-European languages. London. Grimm, J. 1819–37. Deutsche Grammatik, 4 parts. Göttingen (Facsimile printing of the 2nd edn of Berlin 1870/8. Hildesheim, 1967). Lehmann, W.P. 1990. The current thrust of Indo-European Studies. General Linguistics 30. 1–52. (German extended version: Die gegenwärtige Richtung der indogermanistischen Forschung. Transl. by K.Wöbking. Budapest 1992). ——1993. Theoretical bases of Indo-European linguistics. London. Lockwood, W.B. 1972. A panorama of Indo-European languages. London. Meillet, A. 1903. Introduction a l’étude comparative des langues indo-européennes. Paris. (8th edn 1937, repr. 1964.) Rask, R.K. 1818. Undersögelse om del gamle nordiske eller islandske sprogs oprindelse. Copenhagen. (A grammar of the Icelandic or Old Norse tongue, trans. G.W.Dasent. Amsterdam, 1976.) Schlegel, F. 1808. Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier. Heidelberg. (Repr. Amsterdam, 1977.) Schleicher, A. 1861–2. Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. Weimar. (A compendium of the camparative grammar of the Indo-European, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin languages, trans. H.Bendall. London, 1874–7.) Schmalstieg, W.R. 1980. Indo-European linguistics: a new synthesis. University Park. PA and London. Szemerényi, O. 1990. Einführung in die vergleichende Sprachwissenschaft, 4th rev. edn. Darmstadt. (1st edn 1970.) ——1985. Recent developments in Indo-European linguistics. TPS 1–71. Different research areas Cowgill, W. 1974. More evidence for Indo-Hittite: the tense-aspect systems. In L.Heilmann, (ed.) Bologna. vol. 2, 557–70. Dunkel, G.E. et al. (eds) 1994. Früh-, Mittel-, Spätindogermanisch. Akten der IV. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Zürich 1992. Wiesbaden. Eichner, H. 1973. Die Etymologie von heth. mehur. MSS 31. 53–107. Gamkrelidze, T. 1981. Language typology and language universals and their implications for the reconstruction of the Indo-European stop system. In Y.Arbeitman and A.R.Bomhard (eds), Essays in historical linguistics in honor of J.A.Kerns. Amsterdam. 571–609. Gamkrelidze, T. and V.Ivanov. 1973. Sprachtypologie und die Rekonstruktion der geminindogermanischen Verschlüsse. Phonetica 27. 150–6. Hettrich, H. 1988. Untersuchungen zur Hypotaxe im Vedischen. Berlin and New York. Hoffmann, K. 1967. Der Injunktiv im Veda. Heidelberg. Hopper, P. 1973. Glottalized and murmured occlusives in Indo-European. Glossa 7. 141–66. Krahe, H. 1972. Grundzüge der vergleichenden Syntax der indogermanischen Sprachen, ed. W. Meid and H.Schmeja. Innsbruck. Kiparsky, P. 1973. The inflectional accent in IE. Lg 49. 794–849. Kuiper, F.B.J. 1942. Notes on Vedic noun inflection. Amsterdam. Lehmann, W.P. 1974. Proto-Indo-European syntax. Austin, TX. Narten, J. 1964. Die sigmatischen Aoriste im Veda. Wiesbaden. ——1968. Zum ‘proterodynamischen Wurzelpräsens’. In J.C.Heesterman et al. (eds), Pratidānam: Indian, Iranian and Indo-European studies presented to F.B.J.Kuiper on his sixtieth birthday. The Hague. 9–19. Dictionary of language and linguistics 560 Neu, E. and W.Meid (eds) 1979. Hethitisch und Indogermanisch: vergleichende Studien zur historischen Grammatik und zur dialektgeographischen Stellung der indogermanischen Sprachgruppe Altkleinasiens. Innsbruck. Rix, H. 1986. Zur Entstehung des urindogermanischen Modussystems. Innsbruck. Salmons, J.C. 1993. The glottalic theory: survey and synthesis. Mclean, VA. Schindler, J. 1975. L’apophonie des themes indo-europeénnes en -n/n. BSL 70. 1–10. Strunk, K. 1984. Probleme der Sprachrekonstruktion und das Fehlen zweier Modi im Hethitischen. Incontri Linguistici 9. 135–52. ——1985. Flexionskategorien mit akrostatischem Akzent und die sigmatischen Aoriste. In B.Schlerath and V.Rittner (eds). Grammatische Kategorien: Funktion und Geschichte. Akten der VII. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Berlin 1983. Wiesbaden. 490–514. Vennemann, T. (ed.) 1989. The new sound of Indo-European: essays in phonological reconstruction. Berlin. Grammars Brugmann, K. and B.Delbrück. 1886–1900. Grundriβ der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen, 5 vols (in several parts). Strasburg. (English: K.Brugmann, 1888–95. Comparative grammar of the Indo-Germanic languages, trans. J.Wright, R.S.Conway, and W.H.D. Rouse, 5 vols. Strassburg. (Repr. 1972.) Hirt, H. 1921–37. Indogermanische Grammatik. Heidelberg. Indogermanische Grammatik. 3 vols: vol. I: W.Cowgill, Einleitung M.Mayrhofer, , Lautlehre, 1986; vol. II: J.Kuryłowicz, Akzent, Ablaut, 1968; vol. III: C.Watkins, Formenlehre, part 1: Geschichte der Verbalflexion, 1969. Heidelberg. Krahe, H. 1943. Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft. Berlin. (3rd rev. ed. in 2 vols 1958 and 1959; 5th ed. Vol. I 1966). Archeology, culture and history Benveniste, E. 1969. Le Vocabulaire des institutions Indo-Européennes, 2 vols. Paris. (transl. as Indo-European language and society. Coral Gables, FL, 1973.) Gimbutas, M. 1970. Proto-Indo-European culture: the Kurgan culture during the fifth, fourth, and third millennia BC. In G.Cardona et al. (eds), Indo-European and Indo-Europeans. Philadelphia, PA. 155–97. Mallory, J.P. 1989. In search of the Indo-Europeans: language, archaeology and myth. London. Polomé, E. (ed.) 1982. The Indo-Europeans in the fourth and third millennia. Ann Arbor, MI. Polomé, E.C. and Winter, W. (eds) 1992. Reconstructing languages and cultures. Berlin and New York. Renfrew, C. 1987. Archeology and language: the puzzle of Indo-Eruopean origins. London. Scherer, A. (ed.) 1968. Urheimat der Indogermanen. Darmstadt. Schlerath. B. 1973. Die Indogermanen. Innsbruck. Thieme, P. 1953. Die Heimat der indogermanischen Gemeinsprache. Mainz. Dictionaries Buck, C.D. 1949. A dictionary of selected synonyms in the principal Indo-European languages. Chicago, IL. A-Z 561 Pokorny, J. 1948–59. Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Bern. (3rd edn Tübingen, 1994.) Watkins, C. (ed.) 1985. The American Heritage dictionary of Indo-European roots. Boston, MA. Bibliography ‘Indogermanische Chronik’ (Bibliography of Indo-European studies), in Die Sprache, since vol. 13. 1967. Journals Etudes Indo-Européennes Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris Münchener Studien zur Sprachwissenschaft Indogermanische Forschungen (IF) Die Sprache Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung (now: Historische Sprachwissenschaft/Historical Linguistics) The Journal of Indo-European Studies Indo-Germanic Indo-European Indo-Iranian Branch of Indo-European consisting of two main branches, Indo-Aryan and Iranian, as well as Dardic. Characteristics: merger of IE e, o, a to a, which led to the loss of qualitative ablaut and the heavy use of quantitative ablaut (e.g. Skt sádas ‘seat,’ sādáyati ‘he/she sets’) as well as numerous glosses, e.g. the name which the speakers of these languages used for themselves, ‘Aryan.’ References Morgenstierne, G. 1929–56. Indo-Iranian frontier languages, 3 vols. Oslo. Dictionary of language and linguistics 562 Journal Indo-Iranian Journal. Indo-Aryan, Indo-European, Iranian Indonesian Official language of Indonesia, based on Malay ( Malayo-Polynesian), with over 100 million speakers (mostly as a second language). Characteristics: simple sound system, nominal classifiers (e.g. se-ekor ayam ‘one tail hen’); optional expression of plurals by reduplication of the entire word (e.g. potong ‘piece,’ potong-potong ‘pieces’); well-developed honorific markers by means of ‘distinguishing articles’; developed voice system (marking of transitivity), various passive forms (for nouns vs pronouns, statal passive), no clear class differences between verbs and nouns. Word order SVO; strict postspecification in the noun phrase. Numerous loan words from Sanskrit and Arabic. Reference MacDonald, R.R. and S.Dardjowidjojo. 1967. A student’s reference grammar of modern formal Indonesian. Washington, DC. Indo-Pacific Papuan inductive definition definition inessive [formed from Lat. in ‘in’+esse ‘to be’] Morphological case in some languages (e.g. Finnish) which describes an object as being located ‘in’ a place ( adessive). A-Z 563 inference 1 Cognitive process in text processing that involves filling in or expanding the semantic representation of a text ( text basis) by using its implications and presuppositions, i.e. by using content which, though unspoken, is necessary for comprehension (intended inference), and by using one’s own speaker/hearer knowledge (which is stored in a schema) about the content of the text (elaborative inference). Textual content and knowledge about the text added inferentially coalesce in the memory and cannot be clearly distinguished when the text is reconstructed. References Balota, D.A. et al. (eds) 1990. Comprehension processes in reading. Hillsdale, NJ. Garrod, S. et al. 1988. Thematic subjecthood and cognitive constraints on discourse structure. JPrag 12. 519–34. Nicholas, D.W. et al. 1981. Towards a taxonomy of inferences. In F.Wilkening et al. (eds) Information integration by children. Hillsdale, NJ. Rickheit, G. and H.Kock. 1983. Inference processes in text comprehension. In G.Rickheit and M. Bock (eds), Psycholinguistic studies in language processing. Berlin. 182–206. Sperber, S. and D.Wilson. 1986. Relevance: communication and cognition. Cambridge, MA. Van de Velde, R.G. 1988. Inference as (de)compositional principles. In J.S.Petöfi (ed.), Text and discourse constitution. Berlin. 283–314. Van Dijk, T.A. and W.Kintsch. 1983. Strategies of discourse comprehension. Orlando, FL. text processing 2 inference rule inference rule In propositional logic ( formal logic), a rule that indicates which conclusion can be drawn from the given propositions (=premises). ( also rule of inference, rule of negative inference) References formal logic Dictionary of language and linguistics 564 inferential Type of construction that expresses a value for the grammatical parameter of evidentiality and marks the content of a statement as being inferred from various premises. In English, constructions with the modal verb must are sometimes used inferentially, e.g. in That must be Philip, when the doorbell rings and if no one other than Philip is expected. The so-called inferential in Turkish (meaning ‘one says’ or ‘I presume’) is actually both an inferential and a quotative. References evidentiality inferential semantics Collective term for all types of logical and intuitive deductions that can be deduced from a given statement and are the object of logical and/or semantic description. For example, from the sentence Caroline is a woman one may infer ‘Caroline is female,’ ‘Caroline is an adult,’ and ‘Caroline is a human being.’ ( also allegation, equivalence, implication, implicature, presupposition) References Allan, K. 1986. Linguistic meaning, 2 vols. London. semantics infinitive [Lat. infinitivus ‘having no limits,’ ‘not specified’] Nominal verb form which has functional and formal properties of both nouns and verbs: verbal properties are government (the reading of the book), aspect (to read vs to have read), voice (to read vs to be read); because of its nominal properties, the verbal categories person and number are lost. In addition, infinitives can be used as nouns, i.e. A-Z 565 in the syntactic function of a noun phrase (e.g. To eat is to live). On other nominal forms gerund, gerundive, participle, supine. of verbs, infinitive construction Syntactic construction which contains an infinitive, e.g. Philip wants to go. In older forms of transformational grammar, such sentences were formerly derived via equiNP deletion from more complex structures which contain NPs with the same reference: Philip wants/ Philip goes. By deleting the subject of the object clause, the agreement transformation which links the person and number of the subject to the verb is blocked, and the verb of the embedded object clause is realized as an infinitive construction ( complementation). In more recent forms of transformational grammar, the subject of an infinitive is analyzed as a phonetically empty pronoun ( control). Infinitive constructions may function as constituents and thus can be realized as subjects, objects, predicate nominals, adverbials, or attributes. ( also equi-NP-deletion, raising) References transformational grammar infix [Lat. infigere ‘to set firmly into’] Word formation morpheme that is inserted into the stem, e.g. -n- in Lat. iungere ‘to tie’ vs iugum (‘yoke’) or the -t- in the reflexive function between the first and second consonants of the root in the eighth binyan of classical Arabic, cf. ftarag ‘to separate,’ ‘to place before oneself.’ Ablaut and umlaut are often considered infixes. ( also affix) References Matthews, P.H. 1972. Inflectional morphology. Cambridge. McCarthy, J. 1981. A prosodic theory of non-concatenative morphology. LingI 12. 373–418. word formation Dictionary of language and linguistics 566 INFL node An abbreviation for ‘inflection,’ this is an abstract representation of the morphological features of the subject via agreement and the predicate via tense as a syntactic category in a tree diagram. This category was introduced by N.Chomsky in Government and Binding theory and comprises features of agreement (in person and number, and gender for some languages) of the verb and tense. In earlier versions of generative grammar this was accomplished by the auxiliary. The phrase structure rule S→NP INFL VP (earlier versions required S→NP VP) makes it possible to regard the sentences as a projection of INFL, in agreement with X-bar theory, not of NP or VP. Since considering S to be a projection of NP or of VP led to internal theoretical problems, Chomsky postulated the analysis of the category S as a projection of the INFL node. That is to say, S is an element of the same category as INFL, but of greater complexity than INFL. The above-mentioned phrase structure rule is, according to Chomsky, therefore simply an abbreviation for the more explicit rule INFL1 →NP INFL0 VP. References transformational grammar, X-bar theory inflection [Lat. inflexio ‘bending, modification’] (also accidence) Word stems ( lexemes) of particular parts of speech are realized in morphologically different word forms that regularly mark different syntactic and semantic functions: declination (nouns), conjugation (verbs), comparison (adjectives). The complete set of inflectional forms of a word constitute its inflectional paradigm. Such paradigms categorize inflectional classes according to parallels in and predictability of morphological forms. Inflection can occur in different morphological forms in English, such as through a change in the stem (sing>sang) or through the addition of particular endings (worked, dreamt). In some cases, inflectional endings may signal different inflectional categories (e.g. -s in works signals both present tense in the verb and plural in the noun). In other languages (e.g. Greek, Latin, Gothic), reduplication is used as a means for inflection (Goth. haihait ‘was called’). Regardless of certain borderline cases (such as comparatives and participles) a distinction is generally drawn between inflection (=formation of word forms) and word formation (=formation of word stems) as separate areas of study in morphology. In more recent studies on word syntax, the distinctness in function of inflectional vs derivational affixes has been subject to doubt ( word structure). A-Z 567 References Anderson, S. 1982. Where’s morphology? LingI 13. 571–612. Carstairs-McCarthy, A. 1987. Allomorphy in inflection. London. Di Sciullo, A.M. and E.Williams. 1987. On the definition of word. Cambridge, MA. Lapointe, S. 1984. The representation of inflectional morphology within the lexicon. Proceedings of the Northeastern Linguistics Society 14. 190–204. Plank, F. 1991. Paradigms: the economy of inflection. Berlin and New York. morphology inflectional category Semantic syntactic functions that are characterized according to word class and rulegoverned along with the realization of word stems, e.g. gender, case, number, person, tense. These inflectional categories are represented by lexical inflectional features, such as gender and inflectional class, on the one hand, and grammatical features such as number, case, and tense on the other. ( also morphology) inflectional language Classificational category of languages established by von Humboldt (1836) based on morphological criteria. In inflectional languages, the morphemes tend formally towards fusion (i.e. they influence and are influenced by adjoining morphemes); functionally they tend towards polysemy (i.e. one morpheme corresponds to more than one meaning or semantic feature). In contrast to agglutinating languages, an exact segmentation of root and derivational morpheme is not always possible. Many Indo-European and Semitic languages are inflectional languages, e.g. Lithuanian: draug-as ‘friend (nom. sg.),’ drarug-o ‘friend (gen. sg.),’ draũg-ui ‘friend (dat. sg.),’ draug-è ‘friend (loc. sg.),’ draugaĩ ‘friend (nom. pl.),’ draug-ũ ‘friend (gen. pl.),’ draug-áms ‘friend (dat. pl.),’ drauguosè ‘friend (loc. pl.)’ References Humboldt, W.von 1836. Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues. Berlin. (Repr. 1963.) language typology Dictionary of language and linguistics 568 information 1 In the qualitative sense, that which can be deduced from observing a carrier of information (i.e. from perceiving a symptom or sign) about the object of information. For example, a frosty window carries the information that it is freezing outside. 2 In the technically defined sense of information theory, a quantifiable dimension that correlates with the probability that a particular occurrence will take place: the smaller the probability that a particular occurrence will take place, the higher the information value of the occurrence (which is measured in bits). Contrasting with the colloquial use of ‘information’ in the sense of ‘facts’ or ‘details,’ the use of the term in communication technology is abstracted from the semantic content or meaning of the information. The tests and observations of statistical linguistics are based on the concept of information as a dimension of probability of occurrence. References information theory, statistical linguistics information-based instruction based instruction content- information linguistics computational linguistics, information theory information theory (also cybernetics) Mathematical theory that is concerned with the statistical regularities (formal structure and disruptive factors) in the transmission and processing of information2 and which can be viewed as a discipline fundamental to various sciences (among them biology, psychology, theoretical linguistics). Numerous terms that play a role in the description of linguistic regularities are tied to knowledge about and definitions of information ( bit, code, data, entropy, communication, redundancy, sign). The development of a theory of a qualitative concept of information is still in its infancy; it belongs to the A-Z 569 investigational agenda of situation semantics. ( mathematical linguistics) also computational linguistics, References Shannon, C.E. and W.Weaver. 1949. The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, IL. Bibliography Stumpers, F.L. 1953. A bibliography of information theory—communication theory—cybernetics. Cambridge, MA. computational linguistics, mathematical linguistics ingressive [Lat. ingredi ‘to go into,’ ‘to begin’] 1 Verbal aspect, subcategory of non-duratives ( durative vs non-durative), which indicates the sudden start of an action: to burst into flames, to explode. For the term denoting a gradual change of state, inchoative. References aspect 2 Speech sound formed, in contrast with an egressive, when air flows into the initiating air chamber. As a rule, clicks are ingressive; implosives are by definition ingressive. If air flows into the lungs, then the ingressive is said to be an inspiratory sound. ( also phonetics) References phonetics Dictionary of language and linguistics Ingrian 570 Finno-Ugric inherent semantic relation Term coined by Porzig (1934) to denote the syntagmatic relationship of compatibility between pairs of linguistic expressions with a unidirectional semantic implication, such as bark: dog, blond: hair. This type of semantic relation plays an especially significant role in metaphorical transfer (e.g. barking cough). Inherent semantic relations are, in great part, dependent on idiolect. Paradigmatic semantic relations, such as those studied by J.Trier in his lexical field theory, must be distinguished from these contextually dependent semantic relations. ( also selection restriction) Reference Porzig, W. 1934. Wesenhafte Bedeutungsbeziehungen. PBB 58. 70–97. inheritance 1 In word formation, process of transferring morphological and syntactic characteristics of the parts to the whole in a regular fashion. Also, the argument structure of an underlying verb is inherited by a new derivation, cf. to develop pictures—the development of pictures. Selkirk (1982) traces argument inheritance back to lexical operations defined in the lexical analysis of an affix, while Toman (1983) and Lieber (1991) assume the partial transfer of subcategorization features on the basis of the categorial information of the head by means of percolation. For Moortgat (1985) and, following him, Di Sciullo and Williams (1987) and Bierwisch (1989), the derived argument structure arises from the functional composition of the argument structure of an affix with that of its basic category. Fanselow (1988), on the other hand, takes the position that the apparently formal inheritance of arguments really represents a process of the semantic interpretation ( possible word). References Bierwisch, M. 1989. Event nominalizations. In W. Motsch (ed.), Wortstruktur und Satzstruktur. Berlin. 1–73. Borer, H. 1991. The causative-inchoative alternation: a case study in parallel morphology. The Linguistic Review 8. 119–58 Di Sciullo, A.M. and E.Williams. 1987. On the definition of word. Cambridge, MA. A-Z 571 Fanselow, G. 1988. ‘Word syntax’ and semantic principles. In G.Booij and J.van Marle (eds), Yearbook of morphology. Dordrecht. 95–122. Levin, B. and M.R.Hovav. 1991. Wiping the slate clean: a lexical semantic exploration. Cognition 41. 123–51. Lieber, R. 1991. Deconstructing morphology. Chicago, IL. Moortgat, M. 1985. Functional composition and complement inheritance. In G.A.L.Hoppenbrouwers et al. (eds), Meaning and the lexicon. Dordrecht. 39–48. Reis, M. 1988. Word structure and argument inheritance: how much is semantics? LSt (series A) 179. 53–67. Selkirk, E. 1982. The syntax of words. Cambridge, MA. Toman, J. 1983. Wortsyntax. Tübingen. Williams, E. 1981. Argument structure and morphology. LRev 1. 81–114. 2 In artificial intelligence, the assumption of traits from a superordinate concept by a sub-concept. This behavior, which was originally restricted to conceptual hierarchies in semantic networks, was later introduced into other formalisms for knowledge representation, e.g. that of the frame. The most essential problem is in determining if or when default reasoning must be used. Inheritance is an essential principle of unification grammar. References Brachman, M. and J.Schmolze. 1985. An overview of the KL-ONE knowledge representation system. CSc 9. 171–216. Daelmans, W. and G.Gazdar. 1992. Inheritance in natural language processing. CL 18. Touretzky, D.S. 1986. The mathematics of inheritance systems. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics initiation 572 airstream mechanism initive injection ingressive function injective [Lat. inicere ‘to throw in’] Ingressive speech sound formed with the pharyngeal airstream mechanism. While the larynx is raised in an ejective, it is lowered in an injective. As in an ejective, the glottis is closed and the vocal chords are unable to vibrate. Implosives are similar to injectives. ( also articulatory phonetics, speech sound) References phonetics injunctive [Lat. iniungere ‘to impose’] 1 Collective term for all linguistic constructions which express a ‘command’ such as the imperative. 2 In Indo-European linguistics, verb forms which are not specified in respect to tense or mood, e.g. without an augment. It is used in the older Indo-European languages (e.g. in the earliest documents of Indo-Iranian) for the mere mention of an action, for example. A-Z 573 Reference Hoffmann, K. 1967. Der Injunktiv im Veda. Heidelberg. inner derivation derivation I-now-here origo [Lat. origo ‘starting-point, origin’] In Bühler’s (1934) linguistic theory the origin of the co-ordinates of the personal, spatial, and time dimension of utterances in speech situations. In contrast to words of naming, which always denote the same referents, expressions of the I-now-here origo (I, you, yesterday, tomorrow, there, here) can denote different referents in different situations, e.g. I refers to the given user of the word in a given speech act. ( also axiomatics of linguistics, deixis, index field of language) References Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart, 1965.) Innis, R.E. (trans.) 1982. Karl Bühler: Semiotic foundations of language theory. New York. input hypothesis input model natural approach natural approach inspiratory [Lat. inspirare ‘to draw breath’] Speech sound formed by inhaling. Inspiratory sounds occur only paralinguistically ( paralinguistics, ingressive). Dictionary of language and linguistics 574 instrumental 1 Morphological case, e.g. in some IndoEuropean languages, which identifies the means of accomplishing the action expressed in the verb. In languages which lack this case (e.g. English, German, French), this meaning is expressed by prepositional phrases (e.g. work with a hammer) or sometimes the dative. 2 thematic relation case grammar References case instrumental clause Semantically defined clause functioning syntactically as a modal adverbial. Instrumental clauses describe the means by which the state of affairs expressed in the main clause is achieved, and are introduced by conjunctions such as by: By carefully dissolving the paint, the original portrait could be restored. ( also modal clause) instrumental noun Designation for nouns (often derived from verbs) that denote the corresponding instrument: cleanser, humidifier. Frequently, there is an overlap between instrumental nouns and nominal agents ( nomen agentis) such that one must posit a vague -er suffix, cf. (record) player vs (football) player. References word formation instrumental phonetics experimental phonetics, phonetics A-Z 575 instrumentative (also instrumentative verb) Class of denominal verbs that (at least in their literal reading) designate the instrument expressed by the verbal action, e.g. (to) hammer, (to) vacu um, (to) brush . ( also lexical decomposition) References word formation instrumentative verb Insular Celtic instrumentative Celtic integrational linguistics Linguistic theory developed by H.H.Lieb that is based on the following premises. (a) Integrative aspect: grammars of individual languages and the terms for their description (such as syntactic unit, syntactic structure, constituent structure, morphological marking categories, etc.) are to be defined as integrative elements of a general language theory. (b) The object of study in integrational linguistics are homogeneous idiolects as individual means of communication; sets of idiolects yield linguistic varieties such as dialects, sociolects, or individual languages such as English or German. (c) The syntacto-semantic interpretation begins with structures close to the surface (in contrast to transformational grammar); it is thus also termed surface syntax. (d) The syntactic description is based mainly on the traditional syntactic relations of the surface structure, such as subject, object, etc., as well as on the three most important syntactic means of relations of order, morphological marking and sentence intonation. References Lieb, H.H. 1977. Outline of integrational linguistics. Berlin ——1993. Integrational linguistics. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 430–68. Dictionary of language and linguistics intended inference 576 inference2 intensifier [Lat. intendere ‘to make stronger’] Elements that are used with other expressions to indicate an intensification of the meaning denoted by the expression they modify; this can happen in various ways (as amplifiers, emphasizers, downtoners, etc.). Both adjectives and adverbs can be used in this function: a clear victory, clearly wrong. There are some intensifiers that can be used only in this function (e.g. the prefix ultra-). A striking fact is the large number of intensifiers in contemporary speech: dead wrong, super elegant, ultramodern, etc., where they are subject to an unusually high rate of wear and tear, which is due to the probably affective component of these elements. References Bolinger, D. 1972. Degree words. The Hague. Quirk, R. et al., 1985. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London and New York. word formation intension [Lat. intensio ‘a state of tension’] The intension of a concept (or of a set) is defined by indicating the properties or traits that characterize it; the intension corresponds to its content in contrast with its extension, which is defined by counting all the elements that fall under the concept. Two predicates are intensionally identical if they mean the same thing in regard to their content, i.e. if they have the same semantic features when subjected to componential analysis; e.g. car/auto; X is the mother of Y/Y is the child of X. They are extensionally identical if they refer to the same class of countable elements as, for example, evening star/morning star; both expressions refer to Venus, their intensional meaning, however, is different ( connotation). The dichotomy of intensional vs extensional semantic analysis goes back to G.Frege’s distinction between ‘sense’ and ‘meaning.’ It is the same basic distinction between extensional interpretations in referential semantics and intensional theories of meaning (cf. logical semantics), as they pertain to categorial grammar or Montague grammar, for example; there is, however, no agreement about the interpretation of intension or ‘sense.’ A-Z 577 References Carnap, R. 1947. Meaning and necessity. Chicago, IL. ——1947. Meaning and synonymy in natural languages. PhS 6. 33–47. Cresswell, M.J. 1973. Logics and languages. London. Frege, G. 1892. Über Sinn und Bedeutung. ZPhK (new series) 100. 25–50. (Repr. in Kleine Schriften, ed. I.Angelelli. Darmstadt, 1967. 143–62.) Lewis, D. 1970. General semantics. Synthese 22. 18–67. categorial grammar, formal logic, intensional logic, Montague grammar intensional In formal logic, property of propositional connections or contexts whose truth value depends not only on the truth values of the elementary propositions, but also on their nonlogical, semantic content. In contrast to extensional ( extension) propositional connections studied in propositional logic, such as conjunction3, an intensional propositional connection like p because q is true only if both parts of the proposition are true: It’s dark out because there’s a new moon (true) vs It’s dark out, because 7 is a sacred number (not true). References formal logic intensional context A context in which the free substitutability of expressions of the same extension cannot be carried out without exception. For example, both the sentences Miss Marple is looking for the murderer in the garden vs Miss Marple is looking for Roberts in the garden have different truth values if Miss Marple does not know that Roberts is in fact the murderer she is looking for. This is true even though the extension ( reference, denotation) of the murderer in the garden and Roberts is identical in the context of the example and therefore the expressions are substitutable in extensional contexts salva veritate (i.e. without influence on the truth value of the given complete sentence). Intensional contexts are created in natural languages by modal expressions like it is necessary, by predicates that relate to propositional attitudes like believe and know, as well as by some transitive verbs as, e.g. to seek, and tense markers ( intensional verb). Dictionary of language and linguistics 578 References intensional logic intensional definition intension intensional logic Umbrella term for systems of philosophical logic which, in addition to the logical expressions such as logical particles ( logical connective) (and, or, and others) and operators of formal logic, use other expressions (that are also important for naturallanguage semantic analysis) such as it is necessary that, and X believes that. In contrast with mathematical logical systems (like propositional logic and predicate logic), which are based on a purely extensional concept of meaning, intensional logic tries to interpret meaning along intensional lines, i.e. the intension of an expression is to be understood as the function that determines its extension depending on the different possible worlds. For more information on the various systems of intensional logic, deontic logic, epistemic logic, extension, modal logic, Montague grammar, temporal logic. References Anderson, C.A. 1984. General intensional logic. In D.Gabbay and F.Guenthner (eds), Handbook of philosophical logic. Dordrecht. Vol. 2, 355–85. Benthem, J.V. 1986. Manual of intensional logic. Chicago, IL. Carnap, R. 1947. Meaning and necessity. Chicago, IL. Gamut, L.T.F. 1991. Logic, grammar and meaning, vol. 2: Intensional logic and logical grammar. Chicago, IL. Quine, W.V.O. 1953. Quantifiers and propositional attitudes. JP 53. 177–87. Thomason, R.H. (ed.) 1974. Formal philosophy: selected papers of R.Montague. New Haven, CT. modal logic, Montague grammar A-Z 579 intensional reading attributive vs referential reading intensional semantics intensional logic intensional verb Intensional verbs constitute a semantically defined subset of verbs (e.g. assert, believe, seek) with the following properties. (a) In their context, noun phrases are ambiguous, they can be read both attributively as well as referentially ( attributive vs referential reading); for example, in Caroline is looking for a cat with white paws, cat can refer both to any cat with white paws as well as to a particular cat with white paws. (b) In complement clauses, noun phrases of the same extension (which refer to the same referent) cannot be substituted in all contexts without changing the truth value of the superordinate sentence, cf. Philip wants to know if Shakespeare is the author of ‘Macbeth’ vs Philip wants to know if Shakespeare is Shakespeare. References intensional logic intensive Verbal aspect which indicates events characterized by a high degree of intensity: scream, smash. References aspect Dictionary of language and linguistics 580 intentionality According to H.P.Grice and J.Searle a fundamental category of every theory of linguistic meaning; accordingly, linguistic exchanges are essentially acts determined by a definite communicative intention; they are successful to the degree that this intention is recognized. References Cohen, P.R., J.Morgan, and M.E.Pollack (eds) 1990. Intentions in communication. Cambridge, MA. Grice, H.P. 1957. Meaning. PhR 66. 377–88. ——1968. Utterer’s meaning, sentence-meaning, and word-meaning. FL 4. 1–18. (Repr. in J.Searle (ed.), The Philosophy of language. Oxford, 1971, 54–70.) Searle, J.R. 1985. Intentionality. Cambridge. interchange (also exchange) In Goffman’s terminology, a ‘round’ of at least two participants in which each makes a game-theoretical semantics) that refers move. A move is a term from game theory ( to an action in a set of alternatives that leads to concrete advantages and disadvantages for the participants (cf. a move in a game of chess). A move is a unit that is to be identified neither with a speech act nor with a turn, though it may coincide with them. According to Goffman participants use their communicative abilities to stage appropriate selves. Such activities give rise to and are governed by two kinds of ritual constraints: supportive and remedial interchanges. While supportive interchanges (like Thanks for your call) serve to initiate or terminate an interaction, remedial interchanges (like excuses, or explanations) transform the meaning of an action that could be considered an offense or a violation of a constraint. References Corsaro, W.A. 1981. Communicative processes in studies of social organization: sociological approaches to discourse analysis. Text 1. 5–63. Goffman, E. 1967. Interaction rituals. New York. ——1971. Relations in public. London. ——1981. Forms of talk. Philadelphia. PA. A-Z 581 interdental [Lat. inter ‘between,’ dens ‘tooth’] Speech sound classified according to its articulator (blade of the tongue=laminal) and in Icelandic ‘this.’ ( its place of articulation (upper teeth=dental), e.g. [θ], also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics interdependence In glossematics, relation between the mutual precondition of two elements A and B, the presence of A presupposing the presence of B and vice versa. Syntagmatic interdependence (as existing between she and -s in she doe-s) is called solidarity; paradigmatic interdependence (as it exists universally between the occurrence of vowels and consonants) is called complementarity (see Hjelmslev 1943: ch. 9). References glossematics interference The influence of one linguistic system on another in either (a) the individual speaker ( transfer) or (b) the speech community ( borrowing, language contact). In an individual, interference is seen as a source of errors ( error analysis, contrastive analysis); in a speech community, as a cause of language change. For many linguists, the term ‘interference’ has come to include the concept of analogy (as in ‘languageinternal interference’). Dictionary of language and linguistics 582 References borrowing, language contact interjection [Lat. intericere ‘to throw between’] Group of words which express feelings, curses, and wishes or are used to initiate conversation (Ouch!, Darn!, Hi!). Their status as a grammatical category is debatable, as they behave strangely in respect to morphology, syntax, and semantics: they are formally indeclinable, stand outside the syntactic frame, and have no lexical meaning, strictly speaking. Interjections often have onomatopoeic ( onomatopoeia) characteristics: Brrrrr!, Whoops!, Pow! References discourse marker interlanguage (also approximative system, transitional competence) The relatively systematic transition from initial knowledge of age a langu to (near-)native proficiency during the process of language acquisition. Often manifested as an unstable set of productive characteristics, interlanguage includes the rules of both the native language and the target language as well as a set of rules that belongs to neither, but rather manifests universal principles inherent in the language learner’s competence. References Blum-Kulka, S. and G.Kasper (eds) 1993. Interlanguage pragmatics. Oxford. Davies, A., C.Cripper, and A.P.R.Howatt (eds) 1984. Interlanguage, Edinburgh. Dechert, H.W. and M.Raupach (eds) 1989. Interlingual processes. Tübingen. Eisenstein, M.R. 1989. The dynamic interlanguage: empirical studies in second language acquisition. New York. Nehls, D. (ed.) 1987. Interlanguage studies. Heidelberg. Sato, C.J. 1990. The syntax of conversation in interlanguage development. Tübingen. A-Z 583 Selinker, L. 1972. Interlanguage. IRAL 10.209–31. (Repr. in D.Nehls (ed.), Interlanguage studies. Heidelberg.) ——1992. Rediscovering interlanguage. London. Journal Multilingua. second language acquisition interlinear version [MLat. interlinearis, from inter ‘between,’ linearis ‘linear’] The word-for-word translation of a foreign-language text into another language in which the translation is written between the lines of the original text. Reference Lehmann, C. 1980. Guidelines for interlinear morphemic translations: a proposal for standardization. (Institut für Sprachwissenschaft Universität Köln. Arbeitspapier, 37.) Cologne. interlingua [Lat. lingua ‘tongue,’ ‘language’] (also planned language) Either a completely freely (‘a priori’) invented language or (as in most attempts) a language derived from natural languages (‘a posteriori’) through simplification which is used for international communication. In the ‘naturalistic’ type of interlingua (e.g. Esperanto) the vocabulary is based extensively on words of Germanic and Romance languages, in the ‘schematic’ type (e.g. Volapük) the vocabulary is based upon a relatively small inventory of roots and a number of derivational elements. The learnability and the neutrality of an interlingua as com pared to individual natural languages are factors which theoretically determine the acceptance (or non-acceptance) of interlinguas. Dictionary of language and linguistics 584 References interlinguistics interlinguistics The theory and practice of constructing and evaluating ‘artificial’ international languages in the sense of interlinguas. References Aguchi, A. 1989. Towards a clarification of the function and status of international planned languages. In U.Ammon (ed.), Status and function of languages and language varieties. Berlin. Laycock, D.C. and Mühlhäusler, P. 1990. Language engineering: special languages. In N.E.Collinge (ed.), An encyclopedia of language. London. 843–75. Schubert, K. and D.Maxwell (eds) 1989. Interlinguistics: aspects of the science of planned languages. Berlin and New York. Bibliography Ejsmont, H. and T.Ejsmont. 1986. Enkonduka bibliografio al la problemo de internacia lingva komunikado. (Bibliography of interlinguistics). In T.Ejsmont (ed.), Internacia lingva kominikado. Lodž. 135–64. Journal Journal of Planned Languages. A-Z interlude 585 syllable internal inflection [Lat. internus ‘within, inside’] Cover term for all forms of grammatical markings in which the root or word stem is changed, e.g. through ablaut (sing vs sang), umlaut (man vs men), consonant change (think vs thought), or vowel change (drink vs drench). internal language (also private speech) Language form that serves not as verbal communication but rather as a vehicle for thinking. There are different approaches for explaining the function, form, and development of internal language; a detailed discussion can be found in Vygotskij (1934). He characterizes internal language by the ‘tendency for shortening and weakening the syntactic segmentation, and making it more dense’ (p. 341). ( also egocentric language, language acquisition) References Kohlberg, L., J.Yeager, and E.Hjertholm. 1968. Private speech: four studies and a review of theories. CD 39. 691–736. Piaget, J. 1923. Le Langage et la pensée chez l’enfant. Neuchâtel. Vygotskij, L.S. 1934. Denken und Sprechen. Frankfurt. (5th edn 1974.) (English: Thought and language, trans. E.Hanfman and G.Vakar. Cambridge, MA, 1962.) Dictionary of language and linguistics internal reconstruction 586 reconstruction interpolation [Lat. interpolatio ‘touching upon, altering’] Changes made to a text by someone other than the original author. Text criticism is concerned, among other things, with the investigation and evaluation of interpolation. References text criticism interpretant In the semiotics of C.S.Peirce, a sign by which another sign is comprehended. Thus, automobile, sedan, Mercedes Benz, convertible, and others may be interpretants of car. References semiotics interpreter Computer program that translates a higher-level programming language (e.g. BASIC, LISP, PROLOG) from a (problem-oriented) notation into an equivalent lower-level (machine-oriented) notation. In contrast to a compiler, the interpreter reads the ‘source code’ and immediately executes the corresponding operations, which is advantageous for interactively testing parts of programs. A-Z 587 References programming language interpreting The practice of (oral) translation of one language into another. Two types of interpreting are distinguished: (a) simultaneous interpreting, in which smaller semantic units are translated in synchrony with the actual production of the foreign language text; and (b) consecutive interpreting in which a large portion of closed text is translated. ( also translation) interpretive semantics In the framework of generative grammar, position held by N.Chomsky, J.J.Katz, and others according to which syntax is considered an autonomous generative component, while the semantic component has a purely interpretive character in that it interprets the syntactically motivated abstract deep structures through semantic rules, i.e. gives them one or more readings. The aim of interpretive semantics is to describe the competence of the ideal speaker/hearer who ‘can semantically interpret any sentence…under any of its grammatical derivations. He can determine the number and content of the readings of a sentence, tell whether or not a sentence is semantically anomalous, and decide which sentences…are paraphrases of each other’ (Katz and Fodor 1963:182). The semantic representation of interpretive semantics rests initially and above all upon three now widely debated hypotheses: (a) the meaning of linguistic expressions can be completely described on the basis of a limited inventory of semantic features of a largely universal nature; (b) the syntactically motivated deep structure supplies all the necessary semanticsyntactic information for the semantic interpretation; and (c) transformations between deep and surface structures are semantically neutral. The semantic theory of interpretive semantics consists of two components, the lexicon3 and projection rules. The lexicon supplies both syntactic and semantic information. The semantic information is composed of (a) systematic semantic relationships between individual lexemes and the rest of the vocabulary of the language ( semantic feature); (b) the idiosyncratic, non-systematic features ( distinguisher); and (c) selectional features. The lexicon entries are placed polysemy) having a in the syntactic deep structure, with polysemic lexemes ( corresponding number of readings. These potential readings are selected via projection rules on the basis of conditions of grammaticality, and the individual lexical elements are summarized with consideration of their grammatical relations (as depicted in their tree) to the whole meaning of the sentence, that is, they are ‘amalgamated’ ( amalgamation). Dictionary of language and linguistics 588 The concept of interpretive semantics has been criticized on various fronts: for example, D.L. Bolinger questions the status of the distinguisher, Y.Bar-Hillel the claim of universality, and U.Weinreich the whole concept. In addition, interpretive semantics has been vigorously challenged by the proponents of generative semantics. Interpretive semantics has been developed further within the aspects model of generative grammar. References Bierwisch, M. 1967. Some semantic universals of German adjectivals. FL 3. 1–36. Bolinger, D.L. 1965. The atomization of meaning. Lg 41. 555–73. Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. ——1972. Studies on semantics in generative grammar. The Hague. Fiengo, R. 1974. Semantic conditions on surface structure. Dissertation, Cambridge, MA. Fillmore, C.J. 1969. Types of lexical information. In F.Kiefer (ed.), Studies in syntax and semantics. Dordrecht. 109–37. Jackendoff, R.S. 1972. Semantic interpretation in generative grammar. New York. Katz, J.J. 1966. The Philosophy of language. New York. ——1967. Recent issues in semantic theory. FL 3. 124–94. ——1970. Interpretative semantics vs generative semantics. FL 6. 220–59. ——1972. Semantic theory. New York. Katz, J.J. and J.A.Fodor. 1963. The structure of a semantic theory. Lg 39. 170–210. Weinreich, U. 1966. Explorations in semantic theory. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 3, 395–477. anaphora, generative semantics, semantics, transformational grammar interrogative rhetorical question interrogative pronoun (also wh-word) Subgroup of pronouns whose members serve to introduce questions, e.g. who?, what?, which one?, what kind? ( also wh-question) interrogative sentence Class of sentences in which the hearer is requested to give information about something. Interrogatives can usually be identified by one or more of the following syntactic A-Z 589 characteristics: initial position of the verb, interrogative pronoun, question intonation, or modal particle. Interrogatives can be classified as either direct and indirect (dependent, indirect interrogative clause), depending on whether they occur independently or as clauses introduced by interrogative pronouns or interrogative adverbs adverb, interrogative): Is Philip coming today? vs (I don’t know) if Philip is ( coming today. Semantically there are four primary types of interrogative sentences, each of which is denoted by specific characteristics: (a) yes/no questions (in English, with verb-initial and question intonation): Is Philip coming today? or Philip is coming today?; (b) disjunctive question (yes/no questions connected by or): Is Philip coming today or tomorrow? In contrast to yes/no questions, these questions cannot be answered with yes or no; (c) wh-questions (introduced by interrogative pronouns or interrogative adverbs): Who is coming today?, Where are you going?; (d) echo questions. which take question types (a)—(c) and reiterate them into a counter-question to determine whether the first question was correctly understood: first question: Is Philip coming today?—echo question: (Are you asking:) Is Philip coming today? With reference to pragmatics, the relationship between linguistic form and illocutive function is often discussed in the literature, as well as how much weight is to be put on institutional or situational factors as they become important in rhetorical questions or questions in tests. Numerous studies have also treated the relationship between noninterrogative utterances in the form of questions (Are you ever going to listen to me?), as well as between interrogative utterances which are not in the form of a question: He’s coming today? References Chisholm, W.S. Jr (ed.) 1984. Interrogativity. Amsterdam. Enghahl, E. 1986. Constituent questions. Dordrecht. Ficht, H. 1978. Supplement to a bibliography on the theory of questions and answers. LingB 55. 92. Hiz, H. (ed.) 1978. Questions. Dordrecht. Hudson, R.A. 1975. The meaning of questions. Lg 51. 1–31. Kubinski, T. 1978. An outline of the logical theory of questions. Berlin. Meyer, M. (ed.) 1988. Questions and questioning. Berlin and New York. Bibliographies Belnap, N.D. and T.B.Steel, 1976. The logic of questions and answers: bibliography on the theory of questions and answers by Urs Egli and Hubert Schleichert. New Haven, CT. Egli, U. and H.Schleichert. 1976. A bibliography on the theory of questions and answers. LingB 41. 105–28. Dictionary of language and linguistics 590 interrupted vs continuant Binary phonological opposition in distinctive feature analysis, based on acoustically analyzed and spectrally defined criteria ( acoustic phonetics, spectral analysis). Acoustic characteristic: abrupt vs gradual onset as seen in a spectrogram. Articulatory characteristic: abrupt vs gradual onset of phonation. This opposition distinguishes also checked vs unchecked) between stops and continuants. ( References phonetics interruption In conversation analysis. a violation of the smooth (no-gap) functioning of turn-taking due to (a) simultaneous speaking (see Zimmerman and West 1975), (b) short pauses between turns of the same or different speakers, (c) a longer period of silence (lapse) of all participants or (d) a delay in the turn of the designated next speaker (significant pause), which—if options are offered ( preference)—may be interpreted as an indication of a non-preferred option (e.g. the decline of an invitation in the previous turn instead of its acceptance) ( pause). References Bennett, A. 1978. Interruptions and the interpretation of conversation. BLS 4. 557–75. Goodwin, C. 1981. Conversatinal organization: interaction between speakers and hearers. New York. Jefferson, G. 1973. A case of precision timing in ordinary conversation: overlapped tag-positioned address terms in closing sequences. Semiotica 9. 47–96. Philips, S.U. 1976. Some sources of cultural variability in the regulation of talk. LSoc 5. 81–95. Polyani, L. 1978. False starts can be true. BLS 4. 628–39. Sacks, H., E.Schegloff, and G.Jefferson, 1974. A simplest systematics in turn-taking for conversation. Lg 50. 696–735. Tannen, D. and M.Saville-Troike. 1985. Perspectives on silence. Norwood, NJ. Zimmerman, D. and C.West. 1975. Sex roles, interruptions and silences in conversation. In B. Thorne and N.Henley (eds), Language and sex. Rowley, MA. 105–29. conversation analysis A-Z 591 intersection set set interview Method of gathering and exchanging information in the form of a dialogue, for example, in journalism or in dialectology. As a text type of mass communication, the interview can be distinguished from other types of conversation by particularly pragmatic characteristics, among others, multiple addressing (interviewee and audience), degree of openness, and asymmetric directing of the dialogue by the inter-viewer. References Adelswärd, V. 1992. Interviewer styles: on inter-active strategies in professional interviews. In A. Gridstead et al. (eds), Communication for specific purposes. Tübingen. Komter, M. 1991. Conflict and cooperation in job interviews: a study of talk, tasks, and ideas. Amsterdam. conversation analysis intonation 1 In the broad sense, all prosodic characteristics of a linguistic utterance that are not tied to a single sound. Since intonational features are an overlay on the segmentable individual sounds, they are also called suprasegmental features. Three aspects are involved in the description of intonation phenomena: (a) stress2 (=accent) through emphasis placed on a syllable (often accompanied by an increase in volume); (b) pitch; and (c) pausing which can be described only in relation to stress and pitch. Intonation can affect a particular syllable, a word, a phrase, or a sentence. References Bald, W.D. 1975. Englische Intonation in Forschung und Lehre: ein Überblick. In C.Gutsknecht (ed.) Contributions to applied linguistics, I. Bern. 139–63. ——1976. Contrastive studies in English and German intonation: a survey. PSCL 4. 37–47. Bolinger, D. 1978. Intonation across languages. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. 471–524. ——1989. Intonation and its uses. London. Esser, J. 1975. Intonationszeichen im Englischen. Tübingen. Dictionary of language and linguistics 592 Halliday, M.A.K. 1967. Intonation and grammar in British English. The Hague. ‘t Hart, J., R.Collier, and A.Cohen. 1990. A perceptual study of intonation: an experimentalphonetic approach to speech melody. Cambridge. Hirst, D.J. 1977. Intonative features: a syntactic approach to English intonation. The Hague. Lieberman, P. 1967. Intonation, perception, and language. Cambridge, MA. Schmerling, S.F. 1976. Aspects of English sentence stress. London. Scufil, M. 1982. Experiments in comparative intonation: a case-study of English and German. Tübin gen. Bibliography Meier, R. 1984. Bibliographie zur Intonation. Tübin-gen. 2 In the narrow sense (particularly in Slavic studies), the occurrence of pitch as it relates to morphologically defined segments (morphs, words) in tonal languages. The term ‘tone’ is used to refer to distinctive levels of pitch in a language. intonational phrase Unit in an intonational system ( intonation2) that establishes a domain for the operating of the tonal pattern. In every intonational phrase only one tonal pattern (e.g. rising, falling, steady) is selected. Often intonational phrases are separated by pauses. Reference Nespor, M. and I.Vogel. 1986. Prosodic phonology. Dordrecht. 187–221. intralinguistic vs extralinguistic (Lat. intra ‘inside’, extra ‘outside’] Intralinguistic are those linguistic aspects that are covered in the description of linguistic regularities, such as distinctive features of phonemes or semantic features in the analysis of meaning. Extralinguistic, on the other hand, are non-linguistic aspects of communication, such as gestures ( kinesics), non-verbal phonetic sounds ( paralinguistics) as well as sociocultural facts. A-Z intransitivity Inuit 593 transitivity Eskimo-Aleut inversion [Lat. inversio ‘reversal of order’] 1 Term for syntactic process whereby two types of constituents are permuted. Inversion in English is one means of forming a question, e.g. That is true vs Is that true? It can also be used in topicalization: That film I haven’t seen yet. 2 Transformation in relational grammar which exchanges the syntactic functions of two arguments of a predicate. The most common type of inversion involves psychological predicates: Pictures of himself are horrifying to Philip. Because the surface object to Philip has properties that characterize both subjects (e.g. functions as an antecedent for the reflexive) and objects (e.g. lacks verb agreement) it is treated as an underlying subject and the surface subject pictures of himself is analyzed as an underlying object. The inversion exchanges the syntactic functions of the two arguments: the underlying subject turns into an object and the underlying object into a subject. In the framework of transformational grammar such a transformation is called a ‘flip’ or ‘psych-movement.’ References Anderson, S. 1984. On representation in morphology: case marking, agreement and inversion in Georgian. NL&LT 2. 117–218. Bresnan, J. and J.M.Kanerva. 1989. Locative inversion in Chicheŵa: a case study of factorization in grammar. LI 20. 1–50. Coopmans, P. 1989. Where stylistic and syntactic processes meet: locative inversion in English. Lg 65. 728–51. Givón, T. (ed.) 1994. Voice and inversion. Amsterdam. Harris, A. 1981. Georgian syntax. Cambridge. Legendre, G. 1989. Inversion with certain French experiencer verbs. Lg 65. 752–82. Perlmutter, D.M. 1979. Working 1s and inversion in Italian, Japanese and Quechua. BLS 5. 277– 324. Postal, P.M. 1971. Cross-over phenomena: a study in the grammar of coreference. New York. ——1989. Masked inversion in French. Chicago, IL. Rogers, A. 1972. Another look at flip perception verbs. CLS 8. 303–15. Sridhar, S.N. 1976. Dative subjects, rule government and relational grammar. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences 6:1. 130–50. Dictionary of language and linguistics 594 invited inference A subtype of conversational implicature described by M.Geis and A.M.Zwicky. The promise If you mow my lawn, I’ll give you five dollars, generally speaking, ‘invites’ the unexpressed inference If you don’t mow my lawn, I won’t give you five dollars. Invited inferences, which have a pragmatic basis, must be distinguished from logical conclusions. References Zwicky, A.M. and M.Geis. 1971. On invited inferences. LingI 2. 561–6. implication, maxims of conversation, presupposition iota operator iotacism [Grk operator =name for the Greek letter ‹ι›] Term taken from Greek phonetics for the raising of Ancient Greek ēta [e:] to [i:] or the collapsing of Ancient Greek [ei, oi, y] with iōta [i]. IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) phonetic transcription Iranian Branch of Indo-Iranian and thus of Indo-European, composed today of about forty languages with over 80 million speakers; main languages are Persian (Farsī), Pashto, Kurdish, Belochi (esp. in Pakistan), and Ossete in the Caucasus. The oldest known languages are Avestan, the language of the Avesta, a Zoroastrian collection of texts A-Z 595 (approx. 1000 BC (Gāthās)—500 BC (Young Avestan)) and Old Persian, recorded in cuneiform documents from the Persian Empire (approx. 500 BC). Middle Iranian is also well documented in several dialects, e.g. Parthian and Sogdian (300 BC—AD 900), which have been handed down in two different kinds of writing, Pahlavi and Manichean, both developed from Aramaic script. Characteristics: While the older languages show typical Indo-European features, especially a strong similarity to Sanskrit. the modern Iranian languages have developed in new ways. Especially remarkable is the development of an ergative system in the preterite based on the reanalysis of a participial passive as an active verb. This ergative system is still maintained in Kurdish and Pashto, but has become an accusative system in modern Persian. Otherwise the development is marked by continuous simplification of the morphology (e.g. reduction of the case system), addition of analytic structures, and fixing of word order (SOV or SVO). References Abaev, V.I. 1964. A grammatical sketch of Ossetic. Bloomington, IN and The Hague (= IJAL 30:4, pub. 35). Acta Iranica. 1975ff. Leiden and Teheran. Beekes, R.S.P. 1988. A grammar of Gatha-Avestan. Leiden. Brandenstein, W. and M.Mayrhofer, 1964. Handbuch des Altpersischen. Wiesbaden. Dresden, M. 1983. Sogdian language and literature. In E.Yarshater (ed.), The Cambridge history of Iran. Vol. 3(1–2). Cambridge. 1216–29. Encyclopaedia Iranica. 1982–. ed. E.Yarshater. Vol. I–IV 1989–1990 London. Since 1992 Costa Mesa, CA. Vol I–VII (Aa-Daylam). Geiger, W. and E.Kuhn (eds) 1895–1901. Grundriß der iranischen Philologie, 2 vols. Strasburg. Gershevitch, I. 1954. A grammar of Manichean Sogdian. Oxford. Hoffmann, K. 1989. Avestan language. In Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III. 47–62. Jackson, A.V.W. 1892. An Avesta grammar. Stuttgart. Kellens, J. 1984. Le Verbe avestique. Wiesbaden. Kent, R.G. 1953. Old Persian: Grammar, texts, lexicon, 2nd rev. edn. New Haven, CT. Mackenzie, D.N. 1969. Iranian languages. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 5, 450–77. ——1983. Khwarazmian language and literature. In E.Yarshater (ed.), The Cambridge history of Iran. Vol. 3(1–2). Cambridge. 1244–9. Nyberg, H.S. 1964–74. A manual of Pahlavi. 2 vols. Wiesbaden. Oranskij, I.O. 1977. Les Langues iraniénnes, (trans. J.Blau). Paris. Payne, J.R. 1981. Iranian languages. In B.Comrie (ed.), The languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridge. 158–79. Redard, G. 1970. Other Iranian languages. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 6, 97–135. Schmitt, R. (ed.) 1989. Compendium linguarum iranicarum. Wiesbaden. Sebeok, T. (ed.) 1970. Current Trends in Linguistics, vol. 6: Linguistics in Southeast Asia and North Africa: A. Iranian languages. The Hague and Paris. 9–135. Spuler, B. et al. (eds) 1958. Iranistik (Handbuch der Orientalistik I, Vol. 4.1). (Repr. 1967.) Leiden. Dictionary of language and linguistics 596 Dictionaries Bailey, H.W. 1979. Dictionary of Khotan Saka. Cambridge. Bartholomae, C. 1904. Altiranisches Wörterbuch. Strasburg. Benzing, J. 1983. Chwaresmischer Wortindex. Wiesbaden. Gharib, B. 1995. Sogdian dictionary (Sogdian-Persian-English). Teheran. Kanga, K.E. 1909. An English—Avesta dictionary. Bombay. MacKenzie, D.N. 1971. A concise Pahlavi dictionary. London. Miller, W. 1927–9. Ossetisch-russisch-deutsches Wörterbuch, 3 vols. Leningrad. (Repr. The Hague, 1972.) Journal Studia Iranica. Indo-Iranian Irish Celtic, Gaelic irony [Grk eirōneía ‘dissimulation, i.e. ignorance purposely affected’] Rhetorical trope: the replacement of an expression that is meant by its opposite. Characteristic of ironical speech are ambiguous structures or structures that contain contradictory expressions, which implicitly point to the opposite by polysemy, homonymy, or antonymy, e.g. You are charming=You are mean, or by ambiguous illocution, e.g. Just keep it up. In order to make irony recognizable and therefore effective, the contrast between the spoken and the intended meaning should be as large as possible. Blatant contradictions often indicate irony, e.g. What beautiful weather, when it is pouring with rain. Various other linguistic signals can be used, e.g. modal particles, hyperbole, exclamative sentences, and intonation. References Booth, W.C. 1974. A rhetoric of irony. (6th ed. 1987.) Chicago, IL. Grice, H.P. 1968. Logic and conversation. In P.Cole and J.L.Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York. 41–58. Handwerk, G.J. 1986. Irony and ethics in narrative: from Schlegel to Lacan. New Haven, CT. Muecke, D.C. 1982. Irony and the ironic. London. A-Z 597 Sperber, D. et al. 1981. Irony and the use-mention distinction. In P.Cole (ed.), Radical pragmatics. New York. 295–318. Swearingen, C.J. 1991. Rhetoric and irony: Western literacy and Western lies. New York. figure of speech Iroquoian Language group in eastern North America with eight languages. Greenberg (1987) assigns it, along with Siouan and Caddoan, to the Macro-Siouan languages; the largest language is Cherokee (approx. 20,000 speakers). Characteristics: simple sound system, but complex morphophonemic changes. Strong tendency towards polysynthesis, incorporation, and descriptivity. No formal differences between nouns and verbs, the only tenable word class distinction is between main words and particles (e.g. the word for the animal ‘bear’ in Oneida, o-hkwalí, can be analyzed as the reference marker o- and the predicate hkwalí, literally ‘it “bears” him,’ where the predicate hkwalí, as in other polysynthetic languages, cannot occur alone). Complex verb morphology, including various voices, aspects, reflexive forms, spatial distinctions. Distinction between active and inactive verbs. Four genders (masculine, feminine, animal, neuter, with differences in the individual languages). References Chafe, W.L. 1970. A semantically based sketch of Onondaga. Baltimore, MD. Greenberg, J.H. 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA. Lounsbury, F.G. 1953. Oneida verb morphology. London. Mithun, M. 1976. A grammar of Tuscarora. New York. ——1979. Iroquoian. In L.Campbell and M. Mithun (eds), The languages of native America: historical and comparative assessment. Austin, TX. 133–212. Sasse, H.-J. 1988. Der irokesische Sprachtyp. ZS 7. 173–213. Journal Algonquian and Iroquoian Linguistics Newsletter. North and Central American languages Dictionary of language and linguistics 598 irregular verb 1 Type of verb present in all languages which has paradigms that deviate from regular patterns. In English (as a Germanic language), these include (a) historically ‘strong’ verbs which form the past tense by some other means than the suffix -ed (eat: ate vs work: worked); (b) suppletive verbs ( suppletivism), which form the past tense and past participle by suppleting them with different roots (to be, are, is, was, been); (c) modals (can, should, may), many of which trace back to preteritepresents; (d) the auxiliaries will, have; (e) so-called rückumlaut verbs, which are historically weak but have vowel and consonant alternations in the past and participle (bring-brought-brought, think-thought-thought). 2 For English, any verb that does not form its past tense and past participle by adding d or -ed. island A term in transformational grammar for syntactic structures which limit the scope of transformational rules ( transformation) and interpretation rules so that they can only be used within certain domains. For example, (a) adnominal sentences, (b) sentential subjects, and (c) co-ordinated structures are islands. For certain rules, this term, coined by Ross in 1967, suggests that it is impossible to leave an island with a transformational movement. References Goodluck, H. and M.Rochemont, eds 1992. Island constraints. Dordrecht. Grosu, A. 1981. Approaches to island phenomena. Amsterdam. Ross, J.R. 1967. Constraints on variables in syntax. Dissertation, Cambridge, MA. (Repr. as Infinite syntax! Norwood, NJ, 1986.) constraints, subjacency, transformational grammar isogloss [Grk ísos ‘same,’ ‘language’] In dialectology, boundary lines on language maps that show the geographical spread of a certain word. In contrast, cf. isophones, which refer to the sound inventory. A-Z 599 References linguistic atlas isolated opposition opposition isolating language (also analytic language, root-isolating language) Classificational category established by Schlegel (1818) and Humboldt (1836) which refers to languages that do not use morphological means (i.e. inflection) to express syntactic relations, but rather independent grammatical units (particles, words) and/or word order. Isolating languages contrast with synthetic languages, which make use of inflection and other morphological means to express syntactic relations. Examples of isolating languages include Classical Chinese and Vietnamese. References Humboldt, W.von 1836. Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues. Berlin. (Repr. 1963.) Schlegel, A.W.von 1818. Observations sur la langue et la littérature provençales. Paris. language typology isolect [Grk ísos ‘equal,’ léktos ‘chosen, picked out; expression, word’] Term used in dialectology to describe varieties that differ from each other by only one feature. An isolect may designate the speech of an individual or of many individuals using the same style. ( also lect, variety) Dictionary of language and linguistics isomorphism [Grk 600 ‘form, shape’] 1 In set theory, fundamental concept of a general structural theory that denotes structural equivalence in regard to certain relations between elements of two (or more) sets. Isomorphism can be comprehended with the help of bijective mapping ( function) that maintains the structure: for example, the set of natural numbers {1,2,3,4,…} is isomorphic to the set of natural even numbers {2,4,6,…} with regard to the relation of ‘greater than’ (notation: >), since the function f(n)=2xn is a subjective function between the sets in question, and n> m is equivalent to f(n)>f(m). References formal logic, set theory 2 Concept introduced by J.Kuryłowicz (1949) into linguistics that refers to the structural parallelism between different levels of description (phonology, morphology, etc.). The assumption of isomorphism is meant to justify the use of the same investigative or descriptive methods, a hypothesis that has been only partly confirmed in the transfer of phonological concepts (distinctive features) to semantic concepts (componential analysis). References Kuryłowicz, J. 1949. La notion de l’isomorphisme. TCLC 5. 48–60. isophone [Grk ‘sound, voice’] In dialectology, border line on language maps that indicates the geographic range of a particular phonetic phenomenon. For contrast, isogloss, which refers to the border line of lexical occurrence. References linguistic atlas A-Z 601 isotopy [Grk ísos tópos ‘the same place’] A term used in text linguistics that was taken from chemistry. The repetition of words of the same area of meaning in a text, e.g. doctor, fever, injection, fee. Isotopy is based on the repetition of a semantic feature and is therefore a particular kind of recurrence and thus a text-forming tool of cohesion or coherence. The thematic complexity of a text is reflected in the number of levels of isotopy. In its broadest sense, isotopy also refers to the repetition of syntactic and phonological elements in a text. References Bellert, I. 1970. On the semantic interpretation of subject—predicate relations in the sentences of particular reference. In M.Bierwisch and K.E. Heidolph (eds), Progress in linguistics. The Hague. 9–26. Greimas, A.J. 1966. Semantique structurale. Paris. issue Thematic proposition for which no assumptions are made about its truth or falseness in a given discourse. Istro-Rumanian Rumanian Italian Language belonging to the Romance language family of the Indo-European language family, spoken as a native language by about 55 million speakers in Italy, Switzerland, Corsica, Istria, and Monaco. Its numerous dialects can be divided into three major groups: (a) the north Italian dialects in Piedmont, Lombardy, Emilia Romagna, Liguria, and Venice; (b) the south Italian dialects (south of Pescara-Rome); and (c) the central Italian dialects (including Corsican and Toscan) whose rich literary tradition (Dante, Boccaccio, Petrarch) has formed the basis for the standard Italian written language since the sixteenth century. The issue of regional expressions of the standard language (‘la questione della lingua’) is still debated. In general, Italian varies little from Vulgar Latin, Dictionary of language and linguistics 602 as can be seen in the well-preserved inflectional system, only slightly reduced by the loss of final syllables. The loss of final consonants (Lat. dormis>dormi ‘you sleep’) and the preservation of intervocalic voiceless stops (Lat./Ital. vita ‘life’) in standard Italian show it to belong to the eastern Romance languages. References Holtus, G., M.Metzeltin, and C.Schmitt (eds) 1988. Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik. Tübingen. Vol. 4, 1–798. Jaberg, K. and J.Jud. 1928–40. Sprach- und Sachatlas Italiens und der Südschweiz, 8 vols. Zofingen. Lepschy, A.L. and G.C.Lepschy. 1977. The Italian language today. London. (2nd edn 1988.) History and dialectology Cortelazzo, M. 1969–72. Avviamento critico allo studio della dialettologia italiana, vols 1 and 3. Pisa. Maiden, M. 1994. A linguistic history of Italian. London. Migliorini, B. 1988. Storia della lingua italiana, 2 vols. Milan. Migliorini, B. and T.G.Griffith. 1984. The Italian language, 2nd edn. London. Rizzi, L. 1982. Issues in Italian syntax. Dordrecht. Rohlfs, G. 1949–54. Historische Grammatik der italienischen Sprache und ihrer Mundarten, 3 vols. Bern. (Grammatica storica della lingua italiana e dei suoi dialetti. Turin, 1966–9.) Tekavčić, P. 1972. Grammatica storica della lingua italiana, 3 vols. (2nd edn Bologna, 1980.) Grammars Dardano, M. and P.Trifone. 1985. La lingua italiana. Bologna. ——1990. Grammatica italiana con nozioni di linguistica, 2nd edn. Florence. Regula, M. and J.Jernei. 1965. Grammatica italiana descrittiva su basi storiche e psicologiche, 2nd edn. Bern. Renzi, L. and G.Salvi (eds) 1988–93. Grande grammatica italiana di consultazione, 3 vols. Bologna. Serianni, L. and A.Castelvecchi. 1988. Grammatica italiana: italiano commune e lingua letteraria. Turin. Dictionaries Battaglia, S. 1961. Grande dizionario della lingua italiana. 3 vols. Turin. Nuovissimo Dardano: dizionario della lingua italiana. 1986. Rome. Vocabolario della lingua italiana. 1986. Istituto della enciclopedia italiana edn. Rome. A-Z 603 Etymological dictionaries Battisti, C. and G.Alesso. 1950–7. Dizionario etimologico italiano, 5 vols. Florence. Cortelazzo, M. and P.Zolli. 1990. Dizionario etimologico della lingua italiana. Bologna. Pfister, M. 1979–. Lessico etimologico italiano. (Vol. V 1995.) Wiesbaden. Bibliographies Hall, R.A., Jr 1958–69. Bibliografia della linguistica italiana. Florence. ——1973. Bibliografia essenziale della linguistica italiana e romanza. Florence. Italic Language branch of the Indo-European family with numerous dialects on the Italian peninsula, all now extinct. The classification of the Italic languages poses numerous difficulties (such as Latin-Faliscan, and Oscan-Umbrian). Included in this group is Latin, the former dialect of Rome, whose various regional variants (e.g. Vulgar Latin) have developed into the modern Romance languages. References Buck, C.D. 1928. A grammar of Oscan and Umbrian. Boston, MA. Pisani, V. 1964. Le lingue dell’Italia antica oltre il latino, 2nd edn. Turin. Prosdocimi, A.L. (ed.) 1978. Lingue e dialetti dell’ Italia antica. Rome. Pulgram, E. 1958. The tongues of Italy. Cambridge, MA. item-and-arrangement grammar Term introduced by C.F.Hocket t for the grammar concept ofAmerican Structuralism, distributionalism) which is conceived of as a static system especially that of Harris ( of unambiguously delimited items, or more precisely, morphemes, and certain arrangements, which are to be understood as rules for the ordering of these elements. The limits of this approach are to be seen where no unambiguous allocation of morpheme and meaning is possible, e.g. in drink vs drank’. in contrast to link vs linked, the morpheme ‘preterite’ in drank cannot be isolated from the meaning of the stem by segmentation. The interpretation suggested for drank as a portmanteau morpheme runs counter to the basic principle of the unambiguous segmentability of the items. For a critique of the item- Dictionary of language and linguistics 604 and-arrangement concept as well as for a new approach by Hockett, see item-andalso paradigm morphology) process grammar. ( Reference Hockett, C.F. 1954. Two models of grammatical description. Word 10. 210–34. item-and-process grammar (abbrev. IP) Term coined by C.F.Hockett for a grammar concept that was later systematically developed in transformational grammar (as well as in stratificational grammar). In contrast to the static item-and-arrangement grammar, IP is founded on a dynamic principle. The basic elements are not the morphemes of surface structure, but underlying abstract forms that are transformed ( transformation) into their actual form by processes of change: drank is thus the result of an abstract basic form ‘drink’ and a transformation that changes the stem vowel from /i/ to /a/. Reference Hockett, C.F. 1954. Two models of grammatical description. Word 10. 210–34. iterative vs semelfactive [Lat. iterum ‘again, twice,’ semel ‘once’] (also frequentative, habitual) Aspect distinction: iteratives describe durative ( durative vs non-durative) events that occur repeatedly or regularly, while semelfactive verbs refer to one individual occurrence. Iteratives and intensives and diminutives overlap. Iteratives are also often equated with habituals; cf., however, She kept hugging her cat vs She likes to hug her cat (repetition vs habitual activity). An example of an iterative with habitual meaning is She used to go to work by car. A-Z 605 References Mønnesland, S. 1984. The Slavonic frequentative habitual. In C.De Groot and H.Tommola (eds), Aspect bound. Dordrecht. 53–76. aspect Itonama Chibchan-Paezan Ivrit Hebrew Dictionary of language and linguistics 606 J Jacaltec Mayan languages Japanese Official language of Japan, spoken by over 120 million speakers. Its genetic affinity is unclear; a relationship with Korean and the Altaic languages as well as with MalayoPolynesian is often suggested. Ryukyu, the language of Okinawa, is closely related to Japanese. Japanese has many dialects; the standard is based on the dialect of Tokyo. Written documents date from the eighth century. The writing system of modern Japanese is a combination of the Chinese logographic writing Kanji (for expressing lexical morphemes) and two independent syllabaries, Hiragana, originally a writing system for women, now used, among other things, for marking grammatical morphemes and functional words, and Katakana, now used, among other things, for foreign words. A normalized writing system in the Latin alphabet, Romaji, also exists. The syllabaries contain forty-six characters each; in everyday language about 2,000 Kanji characters are used. Characteristics: relatively simple sound system and syllable structure, but numerous morphophonemic alternations (palatalization, affrication). Musical stress. Morphological type: agglutinating. Rich verbal inflection (tense, aspect, mood, voice, negation, politeness. but no agreement). No number distinction; in number constructions, classifiers are employed. Numerous ‘cases’ are indicated by postpositions. The topic is marked by the postposition -wa and does not have to be an argument of the verb; this led to the erroneously named ‘double subject’ sentences such as sakana wa tai ga ii ‘fishTOP red snapper-SUBJ good’ (= ‘As far as fish are concerned, red snappers taste good’). Nominal sentential elements can often be omitted if the reference is clear from the context (so-called ‘zero anaphors’); one result of this is that pronouns are rarely used and can be derived from nouns, for which numerous forms are available for marking social position. Word order SOV; dependent clauses marked by participial forms of the verb. References Choi, S. 1993. Japanese/Korean linguistics, vol. 3. Chicago, IL. A-Z 607 Clancy, P. 1993. Japanese/Korean linguistics, vol. 2. Chicago, IL. Hinds, J. 1986. Japanese. London. Hoji, H. 1993. Japanese/Korean linguistics. Chicago, IL. Kuno, S. 1973. The structure of the Japanese language. Cambridge, MA. Lewin, B. et al. 1989. Sprache und Schrift Japans. (Handbuch der Orientalistik 5, vol. 1, 2.) Leiden. Miller, R.A. 1967. The Japanese language. Chicago, IL. ——1980. The origin of the Japanese language. Washington, DC. Shibatani, M. 1976. Syntax and semantics, vol. 5: Japanese generative grammar. New York, San Francisco, and London. ——1990. The languages of Japan. Cambridge. Twine, N. 1991. Language and the modern state: the reform of written Japanese. London. Wenck, G. 1966. The phonemics of Japanese: questions and attempts. Wiesbaden. Dictionary Hepburn, J.C. 1988. A Japanese and English dictionary with an English and Japanese index. Rutland. jargon [French, prob. of imitative origin] 1 Language which is inaccessible to non-specialists. Jargon entails an extended and terminologically normalized vocabulary, and correspondingly different uses of morphological rules, e.g. compounds, special prefixed forms, foreign words, technical terms, metaphor are characteristic of jargon ( catachresis). Jargon is often characterized by the nominal style and impersonal constructions in syntax as well as the explicit characteristic of structure and semantic coherence on the level of text, e.g. through connectives, recurrence, and other means of cohesion. General characteristics of modern jargon in technology, science, and government include its standardization over large regions, its exactness and economy in transmitting information and its introduction into the general language, for example into slang or advertising language. References Brennan, R.P. 1992. Dictionary of scientific literacy. New York. Nash, W. 1993. Jargon: its uses and abuses. Oxford. Dictionary of language and linguistics 608 Bibliographies Schröder, H. 1991. Linguistic and text-theoretical research on languages for special purposes: a thematic and bibliographical guide. In H.Schröder (ed.), Subject-oriented texts: languages for special purposes and text theory. Berlin. UNESCO (ed.) 1961. Bibliography of interlingual scientific and technical dictionaries, 4th edn. Paris. cliché, slang 2 In neurolinguistics, term referring to fluent but unintelligible utterances, usually those associated with Wernicke’s aphasia. One distinguishes between semantic and phonological jargon: utterances either consist of a meaningless sequence of words, neologisms, and stereotypic coinages (‘semantic jargon’), or the sound sequences themselves, though following the phonotactic rules of the language, do not form conventional sequences (‘phonological jargon’). References Wernicke’s aphasia Javanese Largest Malayo-Polynesian language spoken in central and eastern Java (approx. 66 million speakers). Javanese has a highly developed hierarchy of stylistic levels (honorific, derogatory, etc.). Written attestations since approx. AD 750 in an alphabet derived from Sanskrit. References Errington, J.J. 1988. Structure and style in Javanese: a semiotic view of linguistic ettiquette. Philadelphia. Horne, E.M.C. 1961. Beginning Javanese. New Haven, CT. ——1963. Intermediate Javanese. New Haven, CT. Suharo, I.A. 1982. A descriptive study of Javanese. Canberra. A-Z 609 Je Language group in central Brazil with about twelve languages. References Davis, I. 1968. Some Macro-Je relationships. IJAL 34. 42–7. Popies, J. and J.Popies. 1986. Canela-Kraho. In D.C. Derbyshire and G.Pullum (eds), Handbook of Amazonean languages. Berlin. 128–99. South American languages journalistic language Term for languages used specifically by journalists in newspapers or in news broadcasts. Journalistic language is not a uniform variety in the sense of a linguistic subsystem; rather, its features are conditioned by the structure of mass communication and depend individually on the intended audience (sensational newspapers, political magazines), frequency of publication (daily, weekly), circulation (regional, national, international), covered topics (sports, business), types of texts (commentaries, weather reports), among other factors. Journalistic language has long been part of text-critical studies owing to its distinct stylistic features such as nominalization and the creation of neologisms. Today, journalistic language is seen as an important factor in language change, since it is often responsible for the introduction, maintenance, and changing of linguistic norms (such as the spread of neologisms and jargon). ( also sublanguage) References Bell, A. 1991. The language of news media. Oxford. Hicks, W. 1993. English for journalists. London. Lüger, H.-H. 1983. Pressesprache. Tübingen. Simon-Vandenbergen, A.M. (ed.) 1986. Aspects of style in British newspapers. Ghent. Wandruszka, U. 1994. Zur Semiotik der Schlagzeile: Der Kommunikationsakt ‘Meldung’. In A.Sabban and C.Schmitt (eds), Der sprachliche Alltag. Festschrift für Wolf-Dieter Stempel. Tübingen. advertising language, mass communication, stylistics Dictionary of language and linguistics Jukunoid 610 Benue-Congo languages junction [Lat. iungere ‘to connect’] 1 In L.Tesnière’s dependency grammar, junction is both a two-place syntactic relationship of subordination, as well as the process of explaining linguistic combinations that are possible when nodes of the same syntactic function are connected with coordinating conjunctions (and, or). Junction, together with the subordinating relationships of connection and translation, form the basis of dependential linguistic description, where translation and junction serve to form and describe complex sentence structures. ( also co-ordination) 2 In O.Jespersen’s terminology, a syntactic type of attributive concatenation (e.g. the expensive book), which Jespersen distinguishes from nexus (predicative concatenation). References Jespersen, O. 1937. Analytic syntax. Copenhagen. dependency grammar junctive In L.Tesnière’s dependency grammar, class of co-ordinating conjunctions (and, or, but). Junctives are ‘empty words’ (Fr. mots vides) with a purely syntactic function, which connect ‘full words’ (Fr. mots pleins) and/or their nodes with the same syntactic function ( junction). References dependency grammar A-Z 611 juncture [Lat. iunctura ‘joint, link’] In structural phonology, suprasegmental, and distinctive feature, frequently (but not neces-sarily) realized as a pause. Juncture (notation: +) refers to the boundary between two morphemes which, among other things, prevents regular application of phonetic processes which would otherwise occur between two neighboring sounds. With juncture, Good day! is pronounced [gυd+dey], as opposed to [gυdey]. A distinction is generally drawn between open (=realized) and closed juncture. ( also boundary marker) References Moulton, W.G. 1947. Juncture in modern standard German. Lg 23. 212–26. suprasegmental features Junggrammatiker Neogrammarians jussive [Lat. iussum ‘a command, order’] 1 Term introduced by O.Jespersen and used by J.Lyons to denote sentences functioning as ‘mands,’ i.e. commands and requests (Will you keep quiet, (please)?). In terms of grammatical mood, jussives are usually either imperative1 or interrogative. 2 Verb mood occurring alongside the imperative’ with a related but different meaning, for example in Amharic. Its precise function seems to vary from language to language. References Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics, 2 vols. Cambridge. modality Dictionary of language and linguistics 612 juxtaposition [Lat. iuxta ‘close by,’ ponere ‘to place, set’] 1 Concatenation of morphemes without any phonetic changes, typical of agglutinating languages. ( also fusion, morphology) Reference Sapir, E. 1921. Language. New York. 2 In general, the placement of individual elements in a row. Appositional constructions ( apposition) like King George and Ms Jones are known as ‘determinative juxtapositions.’ A-Z 613 K Kabard North-West Caucasian Kadugli Niger-Kordofanian Mayan languages Kakchiquel Kalenjin Chari-Nile languages Kam Austro-Thai Kan-Hakka Kanji Kannada Chinese Japanese Dravidian, Marathi Dictionary of language and linguistics Kanuri Karelian Kartvelian 614 Saharan Finno-Ugric South Caucasian Kashmiri Dardic Kashubian (also Cassubian) West Slavic language now spoken only by a few thousand speakers in the area around Gdansk, Poland. Often considered a dialect of Polish, although it no longer maintains any palatalization distinction. References Atlas językowy kaszubszczyzny i dialektów sąsiednich. 1964–78. 15 vols. Warsaw. Lorentz, F. et al. 1935. The Cassubian civilization. London. Popowska-Taborska, H. 1980. Kaszubszczyzna: zarys dziejów. Warsaw. Sychta, B. 1967–76. Słownik gwar kaszubskich, 7 vols. Warsaw. Topolinska, Z. 1974. A historical phonology of the Kashubian dialects of Polish. The Hague. Dictionary Lorentz, F. 1958–83. Pomoranisches Wörterbuch, 5 Vols. Berlin. A-Z Katakana 615 Japanese Katharévusa Kekchi Greek Mayan languages keneme [Grk kenós ‘empty’] In glossematics, the smallest ‘empty’ units of the content plane (=phonological features) that together with the semantic features ( plereme) are subsumed under the term glosseme. References glossematics Keresan Keresiouan Caddoan Caddoan kernel sentence [OE cyrnel, diminutive of corn] In the terminology of Z.S.Harris, a simple sentence that cannot be further reduced structurally or semantically. These minimal sentences form the syntactic nucleus of a language, and all other sentences can be derived from them using transformations. Thus Dictionary of language and linguistics 616 kernel sentences form the basis for transformational derivations. In the early phases of transformational grammar (represented by Chomsky 1957), kernel sentences are declarative sentences that are generated by rewrite rules and obligatory transformations and from which non-kernel sentences can be derived using optional transformations. For example, kernel sentences are those simple, active positive statements from which passives or negative statements and questions can be derived using optional transformations. The difference between kernel sentences and non-kernel sentences is discussed in the revised versions of the aspects model and is replaced by the concept of deep structure and surface structure. References Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic structures. The Hague. Harris, Z.S. 1957. Co-occurrence and ansformation tr in linguistic structure. Lg 33. 283–340. transformational grammar Ket Asiatic languages, language isolate, Paleo-Siberian Khanty Finno-Ugric Khmer Mon-Khmer Khoikhoin Khoisan Khoisan Language group comprised of about thirty languages in southwestern Africa (with two isolates, Hatsa and Sandawe, in East Africa). The largest languages are Nama (approx. 120,000 speakers) and Sandawe (approx. 35,000 speakers); the other languages are gen- A-Z 617 erally dying out. The Khoisan languages have traditionally been divided on culturalanthropological grounds into Khoikhoin (socalled ‘Hottentots,’ cattle herders) and San (‘Bushmen,’ hunter-gatherers); linguistic reconstructions, however, point to three branches (South, North, and Central Khoisan). Khoisan languages were previously spread over large parts of southern Africa and were driven into remote areas by Bantus and Cape Dutch. Characteristics: clicks, borrowed into neighboring Bantu languages and otherwise not used as phonemes in any other language; exceptionally comprehensive sound systems (often over 100 phonemes). Gender or noun class systems, agreement, complex number formation (including dual). Word order mostly SOV. References Schapera, I. 1965. The Khoisan peoples of South Africa. London. Stopa, R. 1972. The structure of Bushman and its traces in Indo-European. Warsaw. Winter, J.C. 1981. Khoisan. In B.Heine et al. (eds), Die Sprachen Afrikas. Hamburg. 329–74. Vossen, R. (ed.) 1988. New perspectives on the study of Khoisan. Hamburg. kinemics kinesics [Grk kinesics ‘movement’] (also kinemics) In the area of non-verbal communication, the investigation of structure and function of nonphonetic means of communication like facial expressions, gestures, mimicry, body language, eye contact, and others. The observation of such signals of movement plays a role in the interpretation of meaning, insofar as, for example, knitting one’s brow or a movement of the hand (can) decisively influence the interpretation of an utterance. ( also paralinguistics) References Bates, B.L. and R.N. St Clair. 1981. Developmental kinesics, the emerging paradigm. Baltimore, MD. Key, M.R. 1975. Paralanguage and kinesics, with a bibliography. Metuchen, NJ. face-to-face interaction, non-verbal communication, sign language, transcription Dictionary of language and linguistics 618 kinship term Kinship terms belong to the basic vocabulary of a language. Although kinship terms can be uniformly fixed in genealogical categories according to their relationship to an Ego, languages show great diachronic and synchronic differences in kinship terms. Objective differentiations (e.g. patrilineage vs matrilineage or older vs younger siblings) are normally reflected in the kinship terms of a language community only if they are relevant for the given community. The closest relatives (e.g. parents) also appear to be uniformly denoted with morphologically simple forms. The study of kinship terms is an interdisciplinary field, in which both anthropologists and sociologists are involved. ( also componential analysis) References Benveniste, E. 1969. Le vocabulaire de la parenté. In Le vocabulaire des institutions indoeuropéennes, vol. 2. 203–76. Paris. Goodenough, W. 1956. Yankee kinship terminology: a problem in componential analysis. AA 67. 129–287. Heath, J. et al. (eds) 1978. Languages of kinship in Australia. Canberra. Hettrich, H. 1985. Indo-European kinship terminology in linguistics and anthropology. AnL 27. 453–80. Jones, W.J. 1990. German kinship terms (750–1500). Berlin. Kay, P. 1977. Constants and variables of English kinship semantics. In R.W.Fasold and R.W.Shuy (eds), Studies in language variation: semantics, syntax, phonology, pragmatics, social situations, ethnographic approaches. Washington, DC. 294–311. Lounsbury, F.G. 1956. The semantic analysis of Pawnee kinship usage. Lg 32. 158–94. ——1963. The structural analysis of kinship semantics. In H.Lunt (ed.), Proceedings of the ninth International Congress of Linguists. The Hague. 1073–93. Szemerényi, O. 1977. Studies in the kinship terminology of the Indo-European languages, with special reference to Indian, Iranian, Greek and Latin. Acta Iranica 16. 1–240. White, H.C. 1963. An anatomy of kinship. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. componential analysis A-Z 619 Kinyarwanda Kiowa Bantu Uto-Aztecan Klamath Penutian knowledge representation Area of artificial intelligence in which formal methods of representation and processing of knowledge—in particular everyday knowledge ( commonsense reasoning), suitable for computer processing—are developed. For example, everyday knowledge may be employed to support inferences needed in language processing. Within artificial intelligence, knowledge representation and meaning representations are usually realized within the same descriptive system. ( also default reasoning, frame, non-monotonic logic, script, semantic network) References Cercone, N. and G.McCalla (eds) 1987. The knowledge frontier. New York. Mylopoulos, J. and H.J.Levesque. 1984. An overview of knowledge representation. In M.L.Brodie, J.Mylopulos, and J.W.Schmidt (eds), On conceptual modelling. New York. artificial intelligence, machine-aided translation koiné [Grk koinós ‘common’] 1 The common trade language of classical Greece. Developed from the dialect of Athens, it lost its specifically Attic features and consequently its strictly local flavor. Through this process, koiné became the accepted panregional variety, with various dialectal differences, in the other Greek city-states from about the fourth century BC on. Dictionary of language and linguistics 620 References Greek 2 Term for every ‘deregionalized’ variety that develops from a group of several regionally related varieties of equal stature and becomes the generally accepted panregional ‘standard’ of those varieties. ( also standard language) Koman Komi Nilo-Saharan Finno-Ugric Kordofanian Language group belonging to the Niger-Kordofanian family with about thirty languages in the Nuba Mountains area in Sudan. Noun class systems as in the Niger-Congo languages. Reference Schadeberg, T. 1981. A survey of Kordofanian, 2 vols. Hamburg. Korean Official language of Korea with approx. 60 million speakers. Its genetic affiliation is still unclear, though it is possibly related to the Altaic languages and/or Japanese. Continuous written documentation since 1446 in the Han’ gul script, a syllabary developed from Chinese which, like Japanese writing, combines syllabic signs with Chinese logographic characters. Numerous lexical borrowings from Chinese. Characteristics: relatively complex consonant system with three kinds of articulation for voiceless plosives (simple, aspirated, glottalized). Numerous morphophonemic changes with vowels and consonants, relatively complex syllable structure. Except for the A-Z 621 phonology, Korean resembles Japanese fairly closely, which can probably be attributed to the long contact these two languages have had. References Choi, S. 1993. Japanese/Korean linguistics, vol. 3. Chicago, IL. Clancy, P. 1993. Japanese/Korean linguistics, vol. 2. Chicago, IL. Hoji, H. 1993. Japanese/Korean linguistics. Chicago, IL. Kim, C.-W. 1974. The making of the Korean language. Honolulu, HI. Lee, H.H.B. 1989. Korean grammar. Oxford. Lukoff, F. 1982. An introductory course in Korean. Seoul. Martin, S. 1969. Beginning Korean. New Haven, CT. O‘Grady, W. 1991. Categories and case: the sentence structure of Korean. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Ramstedt, G.J. 1949. Studies in Korean etymology. Helsinki. Sohn, H. 1994. Korean. London. Kru Kufi Kwa Arabic Kurdish Iranian language with numerous dialects and approx. 10 million speakers in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and the former Soviet Union. The closely related language Belochi (approx. 2 million speakers) is spoken over a wide area extending to Pakistan. References Bedir Khan, E.D. and R.Lescot. 1986. Kurdische Grammatik (Kurmanči-Dialekt). Bonn. Blau, J. 1980. Manuel de Kurde, dialecte Sorani. Paris. MacKenzie, D.N. 1951–62. Kurdish dialect studies. London. Elfenbein, J.H. 1966. The Baluchi language. London. Dictionary Dictionary of language and linguistics 622 Wahby, T. and C.J.Edmonds. 1966. A Kurdish-Engllsh dictionary. Oxford. Iranian Kwa Branch of the Niger-Congo languages with about eighty languages, spoken in the West African coastal area; most important languages: Yoruba (approx. 19 million speakers) and Igbo (approx. 16 million speakers) in Nigeria, Akan (Twi-Fante, approx. 9 million speakers) in Ghana; an important subgroup includes the Kru languages in Liberia. Characteristics: tonal languages (up to four tones, sometimes downstep); rich vowel system, vowel harmony; syntactically isolating, tendency towards monosyllables, serial verb constructions. Word order SVO with the exception of Ijọ in the Niger delta (SOV). References Koopman, H. 1984. The syntax of verbs: from verb movement in the Kru languages to universal grammar. Dordrecht. Stewart, J.M. 1971. Niger-Kongo, Kwa. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguisics. The Hague. Vol. 7, 179–212. Trutenau, H. (ed.) 1976. Languages of the Akan area: papers in Western Kwa linguistics and on the linguistic geography of the area of ancient Begho. Basel. creole Kwakiutl Wakashan A-Z 623 L L1 vs L2 L1 is used in applied linguistics, second language acquisition, and error analysis to designate a speaker’s ‘first language,’ ‘native language,’ or ‘mother tongue.’ In contrast, L2 designates the second or target language. labelled bracketing Writing convention adopted by linguistics on the model of mathematical representations for illustrating syntactic structures. Labelled bracketing is equivalent to the representation in tree diagrams (see example there). References glossematics labial [Lat. labium ‘lip’] 1 Speech sound classified according to its articulator (lower lip), in contrast to a lingual, e.g. [f], [m] in . 2 Speech sound classified according to its place of articulation (upper lip) e.g. [b], . [m], and [p] in 3 Speech sound classified according to its articulator (lower lip) and its place of articulation (upper lips). A more exact classification distinguishes between bilabials [p, b, m], labiodentals [f, v], and labio-velars [w], among others. ( also articulatory phonetics, phonetics) Dictionary of language and linguistics 624 References phonetics labialization (also rounding) 1 Articulation with rounded lips, as in the vowels [u, o, y, ø], as opposed to the articulatory unrounded [i, e]. Labialization can also refer to a secondary articulation ( phonetics), involving any noticeable lip-rounding, as in the initial [k] or [∫] in [ku] coo and [∫u] shoe, as opposed to [k] and [∫] in [ki] key, [∫i] she. There are also labialized consonants in some languages, in which the labialization of the consonant has phonemic status, such as the labiovelar kw in Indo-European, as well as labialized consonants in many native languages of the northwest coast of America or in Caucasian languages. References phonetics 2 Diachronic ( synchrony vs diachrony) sound change through which an originally unrounded sound is rounded in assimilation to a labial sound, e.g. MHG leffel>NHG Löffel ‘spoon.’ The opposite process is called delabialization. ( unrounding) References sound change labio-dental [Lat. dens ‘tooth’] Speech sound classified according to its articulator (lips=labial) and its place of in Ital. ‘nymph.’ ( also phonetics) articulation (teeth=dental), e.g. [f], References phonetics A-Z LAD 625 language acquisition device Ladinian Rhaeto-Romance Lakhota Lako-Dargwa Siouan North-East Caucasian lambda operator operator laminal [Lat. lamina ‘a thin sheet’] Speech sound classified according to its articulator (blade of the tongue=lamina). ( also articulatory phonetics, phonetics) References phonetics Dictionary of language and linguistics lamino-alveolar lamino-dental 626 articulation interdental lamino-palatal Speech sound classified according to its articulator (blade of the tongue=lamina) and its place of articulation (palate), e.g. in Chinese ‘to learn.’ Lamino-palatals are called alveolo-palatals in the IPA (see chart, p. xix). ( also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics lamino-post-alveolar Speech sound classified according to its articulator (blade of the tongue=lamina) and its place of articulation (behind the alveolar ridge=post-alveolar), e.g. measure. Lamino-post-alveolars are called palatoalveolars in the IPA (see chart, p. xix). ( also articulatory phonetics, phonetics) References phonetics A-Z Landsmål 627 Norwegian langage [Fr. ‘language’] An umbrella term used by F.de Saussure for langue and parole. The ‘faculté de langage’ signifies general human linguistic and language ability, that is to say, the ability to communicate using a system of sounds and symbols. ‘Taken as a whole, speech is manysided and heterogeneous; straddling several areas simultaneously—physical, physiological, and psychological—it belongs both to the individual and to society’ (Saussure 1916/1983:11). References Saussure, F.de 1916. Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C.Bally and A.Sechehaye. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) langue vs parole language Vehicle for the expression or exchanging of thoughts, concepts, knowledge, and information as well as the fixing and transmission of experience and knowledge. It is based on cognitive processes, subject to societal factors and subject to historical change and development. In this definition, language refers to a specific form of expression that is restricted to humans, and differs from all other possible languages, such as animal communication and artificial languages through creativity, the ability to make conceptional abstractions, and the possibility of metalinguistic reflection. ( also linguistic theory, origin of language, philosophy of language) 1 In linguistics, the ambiguity of the term language (to be understood as ‘language,’ ‘linguistic competence,’ and ‘individual language’) is differentiated and clarified depending on the given theoretical concept and interest through abstraction and delimitation of subaspects. In this process the following concepts are distinguished (with varying terminology). (a) A specific system of signs and combinatory rules which are arbitrary but passed on as conventions. Such linguistic systems, which F.de Saussure calls langue ( langue vs parole), are the object of structural investigations, while research oriented towards a generative understanding of language attempts to describe the underlying linguistic competence of a speaker as well as the speaker’s creative ability to produce a potentially infinite number of sentences, depending on his/her communicative Dictionary of language and linguistics 628 needs. Transformational grammar is based on this kind of dynamic understanding of language. (b) Language as an individual activity, as a concrete speech act, undertaken on the basis of (a). In this sense one also speaks of ‘parole’ (de Saussure) or ‘performance’ (N. Chomsky). On the theoretical justification of these differentiations langue vs parole, competence vs performance. To what extent single speech acts form the empirical basis for linguistic studies on the description of the underlying grammatical system depends on the respective theoretical conception or on the extent of idealization of the object of study. For the differentiation of language under idiolectal, regional, social, and other aspects dialectology, sociolinguistics, and variational linguistics. References linguistics 2 Genetically innate human capacity based on neurophysiological processes for directing cognitive and communicative processes (corresponding to de Saussure’s ‘faculté de langue’). This is the primary object of study of neurophysiology, psychology, and others. Linguistic investigations in this area (such as problems of language acquisition and aphasia) are perforce of an interdisciplinary nature, as can be seen in such terms as psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics. References language acquisition, language disorder 3 An individual national language, such as English, Russian, Japanese, etc. References classification of languages, language change, language typology, universals 4 In semiotics and information theory, a system of signs used for communication. This includes, in addition to natural languages, artificial languages such as programming languages, formal languages of logic and mathematics, semaphore, and animal languages. References animal communication, information theory, planned language A-Z 629 language acquisition Umbrella term for (a) the natural acquisition of one’s first language, (b) the natural acquisition of a second or multiple languages, (c) second language acquisition in a formal learning environment, and (d) the relearning of one’s first language in therapy ( language disorder). It is the basic concept of language which, in the approaches to (a)– (d), determines the individual hypotheses as to which linguistic skills are acquired, under what conditions, in which way, when the process begins, and how long it lasts. Research in this area has been strongly influenced by current linguistic, psycholinguistic, and sociological theories. From 1950 to 1980 research brought forth four main hypotheses regarding first language acquisition: (i) the behavioristic hypothesis ( behaviorism, empiricism) propounded by Skinner (1957), which traces language-learning processes back to experience, imitation, and selective conditioning; (ii) the nativistic hypothesis ( nativism), arising from Chomsky’s criticism of Skinner (see Chomsky 1959, 1975) and according to which language acquisition is considered to be a more or less autonomous process of maturation based on an inborn mechanism of language acquisition. This hypothesis places emphasis on the development of linguistic competence ( also transformational grammar); (iii) the cognition competence vs performance) ( hypothesis, which takes into account the relationship between the developing cognitive and intellectual abilities (see Rice and Kemper 1984, also Bowerman 1989); and (iv) the social constitution hypothesis, which gives priority to the importance of the child’s socialization and interaction (Miller 1980). In this hypothesis, the child’s desire for experience and communication with others provides the principal impetus for the development of linguistic abilities. In the 1980s, research in language acquisition turned more strongly towards the acquisition of grammar. This is evidenced by the following two positions. The first, which was clearly influenced by more recent linguistic theories (e.g. Government and Binding theory and Lexical-Functional Grammar), can be seen as a further development of the nativistic hypothesis. It holds that there are specific inherent abilities and specific acquisition mechanisms, and discusses to what extent child grammars at any given time are true grammars in terms of a universal grammar (see Pinker 1984; Hyams 1986; Felix 1987; for an over-view see Weissenborn and Schriefers 1987). The second position, which was strongly influenced by functional language models (functional grammar, discourse analysis), generally ascribes an important role to input and views language acquisition, among other things, as embedded in general cognitive processes. This position encompasses learning processes (see (i), and its further development, connectionism), cognitive abilities (see (iii)), as well as socialization and interactive experiences (see (iv)) (e.g. Maratsos and Chalkley 1980; Slobin 1985; McWhinney 1987). Issues currently under debate also between both positions are, for example, the acquisition of regular and irregular verb morphology (e.g. Rumelhart and McClelland 1986; Marcus et al 1992; Plunkett and Marchman 1993). An essential test for all approaches are cross-linguistic studies (see Slobin 1985–93; Hyams 1986; McWhinney and Bates 1989), and possible explanations offered by individual learning styles or learning strategies (see Nelson 1981; Peters 1983). Here it is a matter of styles, such as Dictionary of language and linguistics 630 the pronominal or holistic, in which children begin with memorized sentences that, for example, also contain pronouns, and the (hitherto more thoroughly researched) nominal or analytical style, in which children begin with individual words, especially nouns or noun combinations. References Bates, E. et al. 1988. From first words to grammar. Cambridge. Berko-Gleason, J. 1989. The development of language. Columbus, OH. Bloom, L. 1991. Language development from two to three. Cambridge. Bloom, P. (ed.) 1994. Language acquisition: core readings. Cambridge, MA. Bowerman, M. 1989. Learning a semantic system: what role do cognitive predispositions play? In M. Rice and R.L.Schiefelbusch (eds), The teachability of language. Baltimore, MD. 133–69. Chapman, R.S. (ed.) 1992. Child talk: processes in language acquisition and disorders. Chicago, IL. Chomsky, N. 1959. Verbal behaviour. (A discussion of B.F.Skinner, 1957). Lg 35.26–58. ——1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. ——1975. Reflections on language. New York. Clark, E. 1993. The lexicon in acquisition. Cambridge. Cromer, R. 1991. Language and cognition in normal and handicapped children. Oxford. Donaldson, M. 1978. Children ‘s minds. Glasgow. Dromi, E. (ed.) 1992. Language and cognition: a developmental perspective. Hillsdale, NJ. Ervin-Tripp, S.M. 1971. An overview of theories of grammatical development. In D.Slobin (ed.), The ontogenesis of grammar: a theoretical symposium. New York. 189–212. Felix, S. 1987. Cognition and language growth. Dordrecht. Fletcher, P. and M.Garman, 1986. Language acquisition, 2nd edn. Cambridge. Fletcher, P. and B.McWhinney. 1994. The handbook of child language. Oxford. Gallaway, C. and B.J.Richards. 1994. Input and interaction in language acquisition. Cambridge. Gleitman, L.R. et al. 1984. The current status of the motherese hypothesis. JChL 11. 43–79. Goodluck, H. 1991. Language acquisition: a linguistic introduction. Oxford. Harris, M. 1993. Language experience and early language development: from input to uptake. Hillsdale, NJ. Hornstein, N. and D.Lightfoot. 1981. Explanation in linguistics: the logical problem of language acquisition. London. Howe, C. 1993. Language learning: a special case for developmental psychology? Hillsdale, NJ. Hyams, N.M. 1986. Language acquisition and the theory of parameters. Dordrecht. Ingram, S. 1989. First language acquisition. Cambridge. Jakobson, R. 1944. Kindersprache, Aphasie und allgemeine Lautgesetze. Uppsala. (English: Child language, aphasia and phonological universals, trans. by A.Keiler. The Hague and Paris 1968. (Repr. Berlin and New York, 1980.)) Karmiloff-Smith, A. 1979. A functional approach to child language. Cambridge. ——1992. Beyond modularity: a developmental perspective on cognitive science. Cambridge, MA. Kessel, F. (ed.) 1988. The development of language and language researchers: essays in honor of R. Brown. Hillsdale, NJ. Krasnegor, N. et al. (eds) 1991. Biological and behavioral determinants of language development. Hillsdale, NJ. Levy, Y. et al. 1988. Categories and processes in language acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ. Locke, J. 1993. The child’s path to spoken language. Cambridge, MA. McWhinney (ed.) 1987. Mechanisms of language acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ. A-Z 631 McWhinney, B. and E.Bates. 1989. Functionalism and the competition model. In B.McWhinney and E.Bates (eds), The cross-linguistic study of sentence processing. Cambridge. 3–73. McWhinney, B. et al. 1989. Language learning: cues or rules? JMemL 28. 255–77. Malave, L.M. and G.Duquette (eds) 1991. Language, culture and cognition: a collection of studies in first and second language acquisition. Clevedon. Maratsos, M. and A.Chalkley. 1980. The internal language of children’s syntax: The ontogenesis and representation of syntactic categories. In K. Nelson (ed.), Children’s language. New York. Vol. 2, 127–214. Marcus, G. et al. 1992. Overgeneralization in language acquisition. (MRCD 57/4.) Chicago, IL. McTear, M. 1985. Children’s conversation. London. Miller, M. 1980. Sprachliche Sozialisation. In K. Hurrelmann and D.Ulrich (eds), Handbuch der Sozialisation. Weinheim. Muma, J.R. 1986. Language acquisition: a functionalist perspective. Austin, TX. Nelson, K. 1981. Individual differences in language development: implications for development and language. Developmental Psychology 17. 170–87. Ochs, E. and B.Schiefelin (eds) 1979. Developmental pragmatics. New York. Peters, A. 1983. The units of language acquisition. Cambridge. Piatelli-Palmerini, M. (ed.) 1979. Theories du langage, théories de l’aprentissage. Paris. (English: Language and learning: the debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky. Cambridge, MA, 1980.) ——1989. Evolution, selection and cognition: from learning to parameter setting in biology and in the study of language. Cognition 31. 1–44. Pinker, S. 1984. Language learnability and language development. Cambridge, MA. ——1989. Learnability and cognition: the acquisition of argument structure. Cambridge, MA. Plunkett, K. and V.Marchman. 1993. From rote learning to system building: acquiring verb morphology in children and connectionist nets. Cognition 48. 21–69. Rice, M. and S.Kemper. 1984. Child language and cognition. Baltimore, MD. Rice, M. and R.Schiefelbusch (eds) 1989. The teachability of language. Baltimore, MD. Richards, B. 1990. Language development and individual differences: a study of auxiliary verb learning. Cambridge. Roeper, T. 1988. Grammatical principles of first language acquisition: theory and evidence. In F. Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 35–52. Rumelhart, D. and E.J.McClelland. 1986. Parallel distributed processing, 2 vols. Cambridge, MA. Sinclair, A.W. and J.M.Levelt (eds) 1978. The child’s conception of language. Berlin. Skinner, B.F. 1957. Verbal behavior. London. Slobin, D.I. 1985. Cross-linguistic evidence for the language making capacity. In D.I.Slobin (ed.), The cross-linguistic evidence of language acquisi-tion. Hillsdale, NJ. Vol. 2, 1157–256. ——1985–93. The cross-linguistic study of language acquisition, 3 vols. Hillsdale, NJ. Tracy, R. and E.Lattey (eds) 1994. How tolerant is Universal Grammar? Essays on language learnability and language variation. Tübingen. Wannder, E. and L.R.Gleitman. 1982. Language acquisition: the state of the art. Cambridge. Weissenborn, J. and J.Meisel (eds) 1986. Studies on morphological and syntactic development. Linguistics 24 (special issue). Weissenborn, J. and H.Schriefers. 1987. Psycholinguistics. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Berlin and New York, 470–87. Bibliographies Leopold, W.F. 1972. Bibliography of child language. Bloomington, IN. Dictionary of language and linguistics 632 Slobin, D.I. 1972. Leopold’s blbliography of child language, revised and augmented. Bloomington, IN. Journals Child Development. First Language. Journal of Child Language. developmental language disorder, language acquisition device, language disorder, psycholinguistics, universal grammar language acquisition device (abbrev. LAD) Specifically human mechanism postulated by N.Chomsky, in connection with the linguistic interpretation of rationalism, to explain the phenomenon that children— although the linguistic utterances of their environment represent only deficient and incomplete input—gain a command of the syntactic rules of their mother tongue in a relatively short time and can produce and understand an almost unlimited number of grammatical expressions. Every child is equipped with an innate schema for valid grammars ( universals) and with a system of cognitive procedures for developing and checking hypotheses about the input. Thus, a child formulates hypotheses about the grammatical structure of the given sentences, makes predictions about them, and checks these predictions with new sentences. He/she eliminates those sentences that contradict the evidence and validates those that were not eliminated through the criterion of simplicity. This mechanism is engaged with the very first input. The child essentially forms a theory, comparable to that of a linguist who constructs a descriptively and explanatorily adequate theory of a language. This parallel, at the same time, justifies linguists in considering problems of language acquisition with linguistic methods of investigation. See Levelt’s (1975) critique of the language acquisition device. References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. ——1975. Reflections on language. New York. Katz, J.J. 1966. The philosophy of language. London. Levelt, W.J.M. 1975. What became of LAD? The Hague. McNeill, D. 1970. The acquisition of language: the study of developmental psycholinguistics. New York. Piatelli-Palmarini, M. (ed.) 1980. Language and learning. London. language acquisition, mentalism, psycholinguistics, universals A-Z 633 language and brain Study of the relationships between components of language processing and regions of the brain. Evidence for such relationships is provided by studies of lateralization and of language disorders in neurolinguistics, neurology, neuropsychology, and psychology. The relationships have been conceptualized in two principal ways: The ‘localistic’ view holds that particular, narrowly defined regions of the brain are specialized for particular functions in language processing ( language area). Classic representatives of this view are P.Broca, C.Wernicke, K.Kleise. The ‘holistic’ view, on the other hand, posits complex neural systems and a closer relationship between various processing components (e.g. hierarchical structures, or factors such as attention and motivation working in concert), and thus questions a one-to-one relationship. Classic representatives of this view are J.H.Jackson, H.Head, and K.Goldstein. Localistic and holistic views are integrated in Luria’s (1973) approach. The discussions about the nature of language and brain relationships continue as models of language processing evolve. Improved methodologies (e.g. tomographic imagery and psychometric procedures) have recently made it possible to study such relationships more precisely: for example, some patients with global Broca’s aphasia or Wernicke’s aphasia have failed to demonstrate a unique relationship between linguistic symptom and location of lesion (see de Bleser 1988). Studies of the relationship between language and brain are of particular interest in current discussions of the modular make-up of cognitive systems and their biological foundations (see Chomsky 1980; Fodor 1983). References Bleser, R. de. 1987. From agrammatism to paragrammatism: German aphasiological traditions and grammatical disturbances. Cognitive Neuropsychology 4. 187–256. ——1988. Localization of aphasia: science or fiction. In G.Denes, C.Semenza, and P.Bisiacchi (eds), Perspectives on cognitive neuropsychology. Hove and London. 161–85. Caplan, D. 1987. Neurolinguistics and linguistic aphasiology. Cambridge. Chomsky, N. 1980. Rules and representations. Oxford. Cresson, B. 1985. Subcortical functions in language: a working model. B&L 25. 257–92. Dingwall, W.O. 1981. Language and the brain: a bibliographical guide, 2 vols. New York. Fodor, J.A. 1983. The modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA. Gibson, K.R. and A.C.Peterson (eds) 1991. Brain maturation and cognitive development. Berlin and New York. Kean, M.L. 1988. Brain structures and linguistic capacity. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 74–95. Kertesz, A. (ed.) 1983. Localization in neuropsychology. New York. Luria, A. 1966. Higher cortical functions in man. New York. ——1973. The working brain. New York. Neville, H., D.L.Mills, and D.S.Lawson. 1992. Fractionating language: different neural subsystems with different sensitive periods. Cerebral Cortex 2. 244–58. Popper, K. and J.Eccles. 1977. The self and its brain. Berlin. Posner, M. et al. 1988. Localization of cognitive operations in the human brain. Science 240. 1627– 31. Dictionary of language and linguistics 634 Sejnowski, T.J. and P.S.Churchland. 1989. Brain and cognition. In M.I.Posner (ed.), Foundations of cognitive science. Cambridge, MA and London. 301–56. connectionism, developmental language disorder, language acquisition, language disorder, language processing, lateralization, modularity language and cognition Cognition is knowledge or understanding in its broadest sense. Therefore, studies in cognition concern all mental processes through which an organism becomes conscious of objects of thought or gains an understanding of its environment. Since the symbolic representation of a thing is an important means of understanding, language constitutes a principal object of investigation for cognitive approaches. In this respect, linguistics can also be construed as a cognitive science, which heretofore has been most clearly realized in cognitive grammar. The human brain is viewed, in analogy to the construction of a computer, as a structured system. As far as linguistic abilities are concerned, much controversy surrounds the question as to what degree a special module in the whole system should be hypothesized. Representing the one extreme is Chomsky who, in his theory of language, provides an autonomous module for language that interacts only loosely with other modules, while Langacker, in his cognitive grammar (which probably represents the other extreme), understands language only as one among many different expressions of a general abstract capacity. Interdisciplinary approaches will, no doubt, bring about further developments in this area. The relationship of language and cognition has been of particular interest for the cognition hypothesis in language acquisition as well as for studies in language processing. References Anderson, J.R. 1983. The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA. Chomsky, N. 1980. Rules and representations. Oxford. ——1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. (7th edn Berlin and New York 1993). Fodor, J.A. 1983. The modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA. Gentner, D. and A.L.Stevens. 1983. The mind’s new science: a history of the cognitive revolution. New York. Higginbotham, J. 1995. Language and cognition. Oxford. Jackendoff, R. 1987. Consciousness and the computational mind. Cambridge, MA. ——1993. Languages of the mind: essays on mental representation. Cambridge, MA and London. Jorna, R. et al. 1992. Semiotics of cognition and expert systems. Berlin and New York. Langacker, R.W. 1987. Foundations of cognitive grammar, vol. 1: Theoretical perspectives. Stanford, CA. ——1992. Concept, image, and symbol: the cognitive basis of grammar. Berlin and New York. Lindsay, P.H. and D.M.Norman, 1972. Human information processing: an introduction to psychology. New York. (2nd edn 1977.) Lycan, W.G. (ed.) 1990. Mind and cognition. Oxford. A-Z 635 Rudzka-Ostyn, B. (ed.) 1987. Topics in cognitive linguistics. Amsterdam. Schank, R. 1980. Language and memory. CSc 4. 243–84. Stillings, N.A. et al. 1987. Cognitive science: an introduction. Cambridge, MA. Journals Cognitive Linguistics. Language and Cognitive Processes. language acquisition, language processing language and gender feminist linguistics, gender language area (also language center) Term denoting a specific region (or area) in the brain that has been ascribed a particular function or specialization in language processing. Our understanding of such areas is based on studies showing correlations between certain language disorders and specifically situated brain lesions. The most well-known areas are the motor area (or Broca’s area) and the sensory area (or Wernicke’s area). This ‘localization’ view of the relationship between language and brain, however, continues to be subject to debate. References Bleser, R. de. 1988. Localization of aphasia: science or fiction. In G.Denes, C.Semenza, and P. Bisiacchi (eds), Perspectives on cognitive neuropsychology. Hove and London, 181–85. Caplan, D. 1987. Neurolinguistics and linguistic aphasiology. Cambridge. Cresson, B. 1985. Subcortical functions in language: a working model. B&L 25. 257–92. Luria, A. 1973. The working brain. New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics language center 636 language area language change In historical linguistics, the study of the diachronic process(es) of change in language diachronic linguistics). Language change takes elements and language systems ( place on all levels of linguistic description: (a) in phonology, depending on conditioning factors, a distinction is drawn between phonetic and phonological change and changes motivated by analogy or by extralinguistic factors ( sound change). (b) In morphology, a distinction is drawn between changes in the inflectional system and changes in word formation. (i) In inflectional morphology, such processes involve the occurrence and classification of morphological categories (e.g. in the development of the Indo-European languages several categories have disappeared: most frequently the dual, but also case, gender, mood, and tense differentiations); on the other hand, the realization of different categories has been retained, for example, by substituting inflected forms for periphrastic forms ( periphrasis). (ii) In word formation, language change concerns above all the change from compositional to derivational regularities ( composition, derivation) as well as the process of back formation. (c) In syntax, language change involves, among other things, regularities in word and phrase order ( word order). In such cases, there is an interrelation between the changes on the individual levels (e.g. the phonological decay of case endings from Old English to Middle English which led to fundamental changes in English morphology and syntax; syncretism) that results in an increase in stricter rules for word and phrase order. (d) In semantics, semantic change and borrowing. The causes of language change are sought primarily in internal or external conditions, depending on the theoretical viewpoint. Internal conditions for language change are motivated in general by economy, i.e. the tendency towards simplification of the language system. Studies of such linguistic changes refer either (a) to physiological conditions, i.e. to problems of articulatory-phonetic simplification like assimilation, or (b) to functional aspects, i.e. to problems of the functional load or balance of individual expressions in the system with regard to the differentiation of important contrasts or to structural conditions such as the tendency towards symmetric distribution of elements and characteristics in linguistic systems through which empty slots or doubleoccupied positions are leveled out. Among external conditions are interference from foreign (neighboring) languages or from different language varieties within a linguistic community ( bilingualism, language contact, substratum, superstratum), historically conditioned changes in forms of communication, sociological changes, and others. ( also drift, reconstruction, synchrony vs diachrony) A-Z 637 References Aitchison, J. 1981. Language change: progress or decay? London. (2nd edn Cambridge, 1991.) Andersen, H. 1973. Abductive and deductive change. Lg 49. 765–93. Anderson, S.R. 1988. Morphological change. In F. Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. I, 324–62. Antilla, R. 1972. An introduction to historical and comparative linguistics. New York. Baldi, P. (ed.) 1990. Linguistic change and reconstruction methodology. Berlin and New York. Bartsch, R. and T.Vennemann. 1982. Grundzüge der Sprachtheorie. Tübingen. Breivik, L.E., and E.H.Jahr (eds) 1989. Language change: contributions to the study of its causes. Berlin and New York. Bynon, T. 1977. Historical linguistics. Cambridge. Coseriu, E. 1958. Synchronie, Diachronie und Geschichte. Munich. Crowley, T. 1992. An introduction to historical linguistics. Oxford. Davis, G.W. and G.Iverson (eds) 1992. Explanation in historical linguistics, Amsterdam. Faarlaund, J.T. 1990. Syntactic change: toward a theory of historical syntax. Berlin and New York. Gerritsen, M. and D.Stein (eds) 1992. Internal and external factors in syntactic change. Berlin and New York. Gvozdanovic, J. 1985. Language system and its change. Berlin and New York. Hock, H.H. 1986. Principles of historical linguistics. Berlin. (2nd edn 1990). Hoenigswald, H.N. 1965. Language change and linguistic reconstruction. Chicago, IL. Jeffers, R.J. and I.Lehiste. 1979. Principles and methods for historical linguistics. Cambridge, MA. Jones, C. (ed.) 1993. Historical linguistics: problems and perspectives. London and New York. Keller, R. 1994. On language change. The invisible hand in language. Trans. B.Nerlich. London. King, R. 1969. Historical linguistics and generative grammar. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Kiparsky, P. 1968. Linguistic universals and linguistic change. In E.Bach and R.T.Harms (eds), Universals in linguistic theory. New York. 170–202. ——1988. Phonological change. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. I, 363–415. Labov, W., M.Yaeger, and R.Steiner (eds) 1972. A quantitative study of sound change in progress. Philadelphia, PA. Labov, W. 1994. Principles of linguistic change. Vol. 1: internal factors. Oxford. Lass, R. 1980. On explaining language change. Cambridge. Lehmann, W.P. 1962. Historical linguistics: an introduction. New York. (2nd edn 1973). Lightfoot, D.W. 1979. Principles of diachronic syntax. Cambridge. ——1988. Syntactic change. In F. Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 1.303–23. ——1992. How to set parameters: arguments from language change. Cambridge McMahon, A.M.S. 1994. Understanding language change. Cambridge. Martinet, A. 1955. Economie des changements phonetiques: traité de phonologie diachronique. Bern. McMahon, A,M.S. 1994. Understanding language change. Cambridge. Meillet, A. 1925. La méthode comparative en linguistique historique . Oslo. Milroy, J. 1992. Linguistic variation and change: on the historical sociolinguistics of English. Oxford. Nerlich, B. 1990. Change in language. Whitney, Bréal and Wegener. London. Paul, H. 1880. Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. Tübingen. (9th edn Tübingen 1975). Polomé, E.C. (ed.) 1990. Research guide on language change. Berlin and New York. Sturtevant, E.H. 1907. Linguistic change. Chicago. IL. Trask, R.L. 1994. Language change. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 638 Vennemann, T. 1983. Causality in language change: theories of linguistic preferences as a basis for linguistic explanations. FolH 6. 5–26. Weinreich, U., W.Labov, and W.Herzog, 1968. Empirical foundations for a theory of language change. In W.P.Lehmann and Y.Malkiel (eds). Direction for historical linguistics. Austin, TX. 95–188. Collected papers Ahlqvist, A. (ed.) 1982. Papers from the fifth International Conference on Historical Linguistics. Amsterdam Anderson, J.M. and C.Jones (eds) 1974. Historical linguistics, 2 vols. Amsterdam. Baldi, P. and R.N.Werth (eds) 1978. Readings in historical phonology. University Park, PA. Blount, B. and G.M.Sanches (ed.) 1977. Saciocultural dimensions of language change. New York. Cherubim, D. (ed.) 1975. Sprachwandel: Reader zur diachronischen Sprachwissenschaft. Berlin. Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1978. Recent developments in historical linguistics. The Hague. ——(ed.) 1980. Historical morphology. The Hague. ——(ed.) 1984. Historical syntax. The Hague. Keiler, A.R. (ed.) 1972. A reader in historical and comparative linguistics. New York. Lehmann, W.P. and Y.Malkiel (eds) 1982. Perspectives on historical linguistics. Amsterdam. Li, C.N. (ed.) 1975. Word order and word order change. Austin, TX. ——(ed.) 1977. Mechanisms of syntactic change. Austin. TX. Lüdtke, H. (ed.) 1980. Kommunikationstheoretische Grundlagen des Sprachwandels. Berlin. Rauch, I. and G.F.Carr (eds) 1983. Language change. Bloomington. IN. Stockwell, R. and R.MacAulay (eds) 1972. Histor-ical linguistics and generative theory. Bloomington. IN. Trask, R.L. 1994. Language change. London. Traugott, E.C. et al. (eds) 1980. Papers from the fourth International Conference on Historical Linguistics. Amsterdam. language comprehension (also language perception, speech comprehension) Term referring to processes involved in under-standing spoken (speech comprehension), signed (sign language) or written language (also reading). Traditionally, speech perception and language perception or comprehension were two distinct fields, the former being interested in the perception of units such as phonemes and syllables, the latter interested in the perception of units such as phrases and sentences. However, both fields have come closer insofar as speech perception now also considers such units in connected speech, and language comprehension takes account of into-national and phonological information. In language comprehension, a number of complex processes on different levels are involved: the perception, segmentation and identification of sensory (acoustic or visual) information, word recognition, i.e. matching the sounds against probable words (lexical access and delimiting the various possibilities to one word on the level of the A-Z 639 mental lexicon), processes such as the assignment of structure to the word sequences on the syntactic level (parsing), processes of integrating meaning on the level of propositional structure, inferences (conversational implicature, inference), and integrating the meaning of sentences into the meaning of the ongoing discourse. At the discourse level, cultural standards may come in (e.g. organized in terms of scripts or frames). At what level and in which way knowledge of the world comes in, is a matter of the various models. How the various processes are organized is still under debate. Two major types of language processing) have been distinguished: autonomous and processing models ( interactive models. The former assume that all relevant processes are applied in serial and hierarchical order (‘bottom-up’) with each subprocess working autonomously ( modularity); the latter, in contrast, assume parallel and inter-active processing at all different levels (‘bottom-up’ and ‘top-down’; bottom-up vs top-down, connectionism; see e.g. Marslen-Wilson 1984; see also MacWhinney and Bates 1989). Besides autonomous or interactive models, there are also models which combine autonomous and interactive processes, e.g. the Cohort model for word recognition by Marslen-Wilson (see Marslen-Wilson and Welsh 1978; see also Marslen-Wilson 1987). To capture language comprehension (e.g. word recognition), traditionally ‘off-line’ tasks were chosen. in which the subject reacts after listening or reading the relevant item. ‘Online’ tasks, in which the subject reacts while listening or reading the sentence or word and where reaction-time is measured, now allow insights into the ongoing interaction of information from different levels as well as into real-time processing (see e.g. Tyler 1992). For an overview see Weissenborn and Schriefers (1987), Flores d’Arcais (1988), Tannenhaus (1988). References Altmann, G.T.M. (ed.) 1990. Cognitive models of speech processing. Cambridge, MA. Bransford, J.D. 1979. Human cognition: learning, understanding and remembering. Belmont, CA. Brown, G. and G.Yule. 1983. Discourse analysis. Cambridge. Forster, K.I. 1981. Priming and the effects of sentence and lexical contexts in naming times. Evidence for autonomous lexical processing. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 33. 465–95. Frazier, L. 1988. Grammar and language processing. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 15–34. Flores D’Arcais, G. 1988. Language perception. In F. Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 3, 97–123. Flores D’Arcais, G.B. and R.J.Jarvella (eds) 1983. The process of language understanding. Chichester. Garfield, J. 1986. Modularity in knowledge representation and natural language understanding. London. Gernsbacher, M.A. 1990. Language comprehension as structure building. Hillsdale, NJ. McWhinney, B. and E.Bates. 1989. Cross-linguistic study of sentence processing. Cambridge. Marslen-Wilson, W. 1984. Function and process in spoken word recognition: a tutorial. In H.Bouma and D.G.Bouwhuis (eds), Attention and performance X. 125–50. ——1987. Functional parallelism in spoken word recognition. Cognition 25. 71–102. Dictionary of language and linguistics 640 Marslen-Wilson, W. and A.Welsh. 1978. Processing interactions and lexical access during word recognition in continuous speech. Cognitive Psychology 10. 29–63. Schank, R.C. and R.P.Abelson. 1977. Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ. Tannenhaus, M.K. 1988. Psycholinguistics: an overview. In F.J.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 3, 1–37. Tyler, L.K. 1992. Spoken language comprehension: an experimental approach to disordered and normal processing. Cambridge, MA. Weissenborn, J. and H.Schriefers. 1987. Psycholinguistics. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Berlin and New York. 470–87. Winograd, T. 1977. A framework for understanding discourse. In M.A.Just and P.A.Carpenter (eds). Cognitive processes in comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ. language processing, psycholinguistics language contact Situation in which two or more languages coexist within o ne state and where the speakers use these different languages alternately in specific situations. Contemporary examples are found in Belgium, Switzerland, China, India, Peru, and other countries. Such linguistic contacts can have a political, historical, geographic, or cultural-historical basis. The mutual influences can be shown on all levels of description. While linguistics in the past has been primarily concerned with the analysis and description of the processes of linguistic exchanges, it has meanwhile become more concerned with proposals on language planning, on the development and institution of panregional trade languages (see Rubin and Shuy 1973). Since such questions of language policy are dependent to such a high degree on political, national, economic and cultural factors, their solution can be found only through interdisciplinary efforts. ( also interference, loan word, substratum, superstratum) References Appel, R. and P.Muysken. 1987. Language contact and bilingualism. London. Fishman, J.A. et al. 1968. Bilingualism in the barrio. Washington. D.C. Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1994. Language contact and linguistic change. Berlin and New York. Haugen, E. 1956. Bilingualism in the Americas. Tuscaloosa. AL. Hymes, D. (ed.) 1964. Language in culture and society: a reader in linguistics and anthropology. New York. Jahr, E.H. (ed.) 1992. Language contact: theoretical and empirical studies. Berlin and New York. Ivir, V. and Kalogjera, D. (eds) 1991. Languages in contact and contrast. Berlin and New York. Lehiste, I. 1988. Lectures on language contact. Cambridge, MA. Lüdi, G. (ed.) 1992. The dynamics of languages in contact: linguistic, sociolinguistic and sociopolitical aspects. Berlin and New York. Moloney. C., H.Zobl. and W.Stölting (eds) 1977. Deutsch im Kontakt mit anderen Sprachen. German in contact with other languages. Kronberg. A-Z 641 Nelde. P.-H. (ed.) 1980. Sprachkontakt und Sprach-konflikt. Wiesbaden. Nelde, P. et al. (eds) 1986. Language contact in Europe: proceedings of the working groups 12 and 13 of the International Congress of Linguists. Tübingen. Pütz, M. (ed.) 1994. Language contact and language conflict. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. PA. Rubin, J. and R.Shuy (eds) 1973. Language planning: current issues and research. Washington, DC. Spolsky, B. and R.L.Cooper. 1991. The languages of Jerusalem. Oxford. Tauli, V. 1968. Introduction to a theory of language planning. Uppsala. Thomason, S.G. and T.Kaufman. 1988. Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London. Ureland, P.S. and G.Broderick (eds) 1991. Language contact in the British Isles: proceedings of the eighth International Symposium on Language Contact in Europe. Tübingen. Van Coetsem, F. 1987. Loan phonology and the two transfer types in language contact. Dordrecht. Weinreich, U. 1953. Languages in contact: findings and problems. New York. language death (also language obsolescence) The decline or extinction of a language in situations where languages come into contact with each other ( language contact). Different causes and processes can be distinguished: the most common is a ‘gradual’ language death, i.e. a language that has become obsolete is used by fewer and fewer speakers in more and more restricted situations, until it is finally only used as an ‘intimate code’ in certain formulas and idioms (e.g. greetings, proverbs, songs, jokes) as the expression of social or regional membership in a group. A possible residue of a dying language is also to be found in ritualized (e.g. religious) contexts. All forms of ‘radical’ or ‘sudden’ language death are evoked by catastrophes of different kinds, ranging from the destruction and abandonment of a culture, massive political oppression and intimidation to the physical elimination of whole populations of speakers. References Brenzinger, M. (ed.) 1992. Language death: factual and theoretical explorations with special reference to East Africa. Berlin and New York. Dorian, N.C. 1986. Making do with less: some surprises along the language death proficiency continuum. APsy 7:3. 257–76. ——(ed.) 1989. Investigating obsolescence: studies in language contraction and death. Cambridge. Dressler, W.U. 1981. Language shift and language death: a protean challenge for the linguist. FoLi 15. 5–28. ——1988. Language death. In F.Newmeyer (ed.). Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 4. 184–92. Hill, J.H. 1983. Language death in Uto-Aztecan. IJAL 49. 258–76. Mackey, W.F. 1985. La mortalité des langues et le bilinguisme des peuples. In U.Pieper and G. Stickel (eds), Studia linguistica diachronica et synchronica Werner Winter sexagenario anno MCMLXXXIII gratis animis ab eius collegis, amicis discipulisque oblata. Berlin. 537–61. Dictionary of language and linguistics 642 Pan, B.A. and J.B.Gleason, 1986. The study of language loss: models and hypotheses for an emerging discipline. APsy 7:3. 193–206. Robins, R.H. and E.M.Uhlenbeck (eds) 1991. Endangered languages. Oxford. Taylor, A.R. 1992. Language obsolescence, shift, and death in several Native American Communities (International Journal of the Sociology of Language, special issue 93). Van Ness, S. 1990. Changes in an obsolescing language: Pennsylvania German in West Virginia. Tübingen. Bibliography Weber, R.L. 1986. A partially annotated bibliography of language death. NLing 35. 4–24. language maintenance language disorder (also acquired language disorder) A language disorder may be either congenital, i.e. present from the time of birth ( developmental language disorder) or acquired. Acquired disorders, affecting adolescents and adults, occur well after the acquisition of language and involve the loss, diminution, or disruption of previously intact language abilities. Congenital disorders, in contrast, involve the failure to acquire the language system in the normal time and/or patterns. Language disorders are generally viewed as ‘central’ disorders, i.e. as caused by central nervous system pathology, and are distinguished from ‘peripheral’ disorders, i.e. those caused by impairments of speech organs such as the larynx or palate, though the two types of disorder may co-occur. Language disorders may be manifest in speech or writing as well as in the comprehension of spoken or written texts ( agraphia, alexia, aphasia). Associated deficits in the ability to perform simple mathematical calculations or in the ability to recognize sound sequences or words (‘verbal’ agnosia) may also occur. Language disorders are generally presumed to be caused by organic factors such as brain lesion, neural dysfunction, neural degeneration, sensory deficit, or to be the secondary symptoms of psycho-emotional disorders. However, some congenital language disorders may represent extremes in the normal distribution of language capacities rather than organic pathology or psychosis. The study of language disorders is of interest to many disciplines, among others, neurology, neurolinguistics, neuropsychology and psychology. References Bates, E. and B.Wulfeck. 1989. Cross-linguistic studies of aphasia. In B.MacWhinney and E. Bates (eds). Cross-linguistic studies of sentence processing. New York. 328–74. A-Z 643 Blanken, G. et al. 1993. Linguistic disorders and pathologies: an international handbook. Berlin and New York. Caplan, D. 1987. Neurolinguistics and linguistic aphasiology. Cambridge. ——1992. Language structure, processing and disorders. Cambridge, MA. Crystal, D. 1980. Introduction to language pathology. London. Grodinsky, Y. 1984. The syntactic characterization of agrammatism. Cognition 16. 99–120. ——1990. Theoretical perspectives on language deficits. Cambridge, MA. Joshi, R.M. 1991. Written language disorders. Dordrecht. Leonard, L. 1991. Specific language impairment as a clinical category. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools 22. 66–8. Tyler, L.K. 1992. Spoken language comprehension: an experimental approach to disordered and normal processing. Cambridge, MA. Weigl, E. and M.Bierwisch. 1970. Neuropsychology and linguistics. FL 6. 1–18. Winitz, H. (ed.) 1987/9. Human communication and its disorders, 2 vols. Hove. Yavas, M.S. 1991. Phonological disorders in children: theory, research and practice. London. aphasia language economy The reason for the tendency to strive for maximum linguistic effectiveness with minimal linguistic effort. This can be attained by various means, e.g. simplification by reduction, use of abbreviations, systematization and merging of inflectional forms or analogical leveling between related forms ( analogy). References Jespersen, O. 1925. The philosophy of grammar. London. Martinet, A. 1955. Economie des changements phonetiques. Bern. Zipf’s law language family Group of languages that are genetically related, i.e. can be traced to a common protolanguage. The ordering of languages into a common language family is usually based on phonological, morphological, and lexical correspondences that stem from the protolanguage. The use of the term ‘language family’ is not always the same; in its broader sense (also phylum), it refers to the largest spectrum of languages for which a genetic relationship can be demonstrated, e.g. the Indo-European languages; in its narrower Dictionary of language and linguistics 644 sense (also branch), it refers to languages which are more closely related, e.g. the Germanic languages. References classification of languages language game L.Wittgenstein’s term referring to complex units of communication that consist of linguistic and non-linguistic activities (e.g. the giving of and complying with commands in the course of collaborating on the building of a house). Signs, words, and sentences as ‘tools of language’ have in and of themselves no meaning; rather, meaning is derived only from the use of these items in particular contexts of language behavior. ( also meaning as use, speech act theory) References Stenius, E. 1967. Mood and language game. Synthese 17. 254–74. Wittgenstein, L. 1953. Philosophical investigations. Oxford. language history 1 Totality of all linguistic changes in time (internal language history) while also considering external factors such as political history, cultural influences, social changes, territorial changes, language contact, etc. (external language history). 2 Systematic description of language change. References English Bammesberger, A. 1984. English etymology. Heidelberg. Baugh, A.C. and T.Cable, 1993. A history of the English language, 4th edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. (1st edn New York, 1935.) A-Z 645 Brunner, K. 1942. Altenglische Grammatik: nach der Angelsächsischen Grammatik von Eduard Sievers. (3rd rev. edn 1965.) Tübingen. ——1950/1. Die englische Sprache: ihre geschichtliche Entwicklung, 2 vols. Halle. (2nd edn Tübingen, 1960/2. Repr. 1984.) Cannon, G. 1987. Historical change and English word-formation: recent vocabulary. New York. Hogg, R.M. (ed.) 1991. Cambridge history of the English language, 6 vols. Cambridge. Luick, K. 1914ff. Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache. Oxford and Stuttgart. Pyles, T. and J.Algeo. 1982. The origins and development of the English language. London. German Besch, W., O.Reichmann, and S.Sonderegger (eds) 1984/5. Sprachgeschichte: ein Handbuch zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und ihrer Erforschung. 2 vols. Berlin. Keller, R.E. 1978. The German language. London. Ronneberger-Sibold, E. 1989. Historische Phonologie und Morphologie des Deutschen: eine kommentierte Bibliographie zur strukturellen Forschung. Tübingen. Russ, C. 1978. Historical German phonology and morphology. Oxford. Wells, C.J. 1987. German: a linguistic history to 1945. Oxford. English, German, historical grammars, language change language interference interference language isolate Language which cannot be grouped in any language family on the basis of current evidence. Naturally, the linguistic criteria established for relatedness will determine which languages are considered to be isolates. Some languages generally considered to be isolates are Basque (Iberian peninsula), Burushaski (Karakorum mountains), Nahali (India), Ket (central Siberia), Gilyak (eastern Siberia), and Sumerian (Mesopotamia). The term ‘isolate’ is also often used for languages which are not closely related to other languages inside a specific genetic group, e.g. Albanian in Indo-European. References language typology Dictionary of language and linguistics 646 language manipulation 1 Derogatory term for language regulation as well as for the language of advertising and propaganda. Language manipulation, in contrast to language regulation, concerns the influences upon the receiver, but not the changes in language use. ( also rhetoric) 2 In language planning and bilingual education, the practice of providing instruction in the minority language as well as the majority language throughout a child’s schooling to promote ethnic diversity, reinforce cultural identity, and foster a sense of psychological well-being. Critics object that this approach results in divisiveness and limited social/ economic opportunities. language minimum The selection of vocabulary and grammar of a language for instructional purposes. Selection criteria are: (a) the frequency ( lexico statistics); (b) their use in reaching particular communicative goals, as in the linguistic mastery of certain situations and topics (e.g. those catalogued in the project of the European Council on Foreign Languages ‘threshold level’). Most extensively worked out are hitherto basic lexical minimums ( basic vocabulary). A-Z language mixing 647 mixed language language obsolescence language death language of gestures body language, sign language language pedagogy [Grk paidagogia ‘instruction, training,’] (also language teaching) Scientific and instructional discipline (subdiscipline of general pedagogy) concerned with the needs, goals, content, and methods of language instruction with a view to linguistic, sociocultural, educational psychological, and pedagogical aspects. In language pedagogy, methods of language transmission are also developed, tested, and established. As a generic term, language pedagogy refers to either native or foreign language instruction or, in contrast to foreign language pedagogy, to instruction in the native language which encompasses the following three domains: (a) enhancement of linguistic competence; (b) transmission of knowledge about the structure of the language; and (c) reflections about language. Regarding the enhancement of competence (which is especially concerned with offsetting socially or personally caused differences), pedagogical decisions pertain to the basic concept of language (whether it be language as a system of signs or language as an emotional, cognitive, creative or persuasive means of communicative behavior). Though lagging somewhat behind the most current developments in linguistics, the form and method of language instruction more or less reflect the general direction of the linguistic sciences insofar as the concepts of prescriptive grammar are based on scientific insights and findings, e.g. structuralism, func-tional grammar, transformational grammar, dependency grammar, behaviorism and pragmatics. References Berns, M. 1990. Contexts of competence: social and cultural considerations in communicative language teaching. New York. Bot, K.de et al. 1990. Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective. Amsterdam. Dictionary of language and linguistics 648 Brown, H.D. 1987. Principles of language learning and teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Halliday, M.A.K., A.McIntosh. and P.Strevens, 1964. The linguistic sciences and language teaching. London. Omaggio-Hadley, A. 1993. Teaching language in context. Boston. Journals Applied Language Learning. Foreign Language Annals. Modern Language Journal. foreign language pedagogy, second language acquisition, school grammar language perception language comprehension language planning 1 Measures taken by organizations (usually sanctioned and supported by the state) for the development and dissemination of panregional trade languages. Emphasis may be placed on (a) the transcription of previously unwritten languages; (b) the modernization of the language system (primarily by expanding the vocabulary with specialized terminology); and (c) the expansion of the regional use of a language. ( also language policy) References Alisjahbana, S.T. 1976. Language planning for modernization. The Hague. Altehenger-Smith, S. 1989. Language change via language planning: some theoretical and empirical aspects with a focus on Singapore. Hamburg. Christian, D. 1988. Language planning: the view from linguistics. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. IV, 193-209. Cooper, R.L. 1990. Language planning and social change. Cambridge. Cyffer, N. et al. (eds) 1991. Language standardization in Africa. Hamburg. Davis, K.A. 1994. Language planning in multilingual contexts. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Dua, H.R. 1992. Communication policy and language planning. Mysore. Fardon, R. and G.Furniss (eds) 1993. African languages, development and the state. London. Fierman, W. 1991. Language planning and national development: the Uzbek experience. Berlin and New York. Fishman, J.A., C.A.Ferguson, and J.Das Gupta (eds) 1968. Language problems of developing nations. New York. A-Z 649 Fodor, I. and C.Hagège (eds) 1983–. Language reform; history and future. Vol. 6 1994. Hamburg. Jahr, E.G. (ed.) 1993. Language conflict and language planning. New York and Berlin. Laitin, D.D. 1992. Language repertoires and state construction in Africa. Cambridge. Marshall, D. (ed.) 1990. Language planning. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Rubin, S. and R.Shuy (eds) 1973. Language planning: current issues and research. Washington, DC. Singh, U.N. 1992. On language development and planning: a pluralistic paradigm. New Delhi. Tauli, V. 1968. Introduction to a theory of language planning. Uppsala. language policy, multilingualism, sociolinguistics 2 interlinguistics language policy 1 Political measures aimed at introducing, implementing, and defining the regional use of languages, such as the use of individual languages in multilingual states ( language planning), the acceptance of official languages and working languages in international organizations, and regulations and agreements about foreign-language instruction (education language policy). References Bangbose, A. 1991. Language and the nation: the question of language in sub-Saharan Africa. Edinburgh. Coulmas, F. 1991. A language policy for the European Community: prospects and quandaries. Berlin and New York. Schiffmann, H. 1995. Linguistic culture and language policy. London. Tollefson, J.W. 1991. Planning language, planning inequality: language policy in the community. London. Vilfan, S. (ed.) 1991. Ethnic groups and language rights. Dartmouth. Weinstein, B. 1990. Language policy and political development. Hove. Williams, C.H. (ed.) 1991. Linguistic minorities, society and territory. Clevedon. literacy, multilingualism 2 Political language regulation. References language planning Dictionary of language and linguistics 650 language processing Term sometimes used to refer to understanding language ( language comprehension) or cover term denoting the processes involved in understanding as well as producing language (language comprehension and language production). The major issues are what types of knowledge are involved (grammatical knowledge, lexical knowledge, contextual knowledge, world knowledge) and how the mediating processes are organized. As for the latter: do these processes apply obligatorily or optionally, do they work in serial order and thus make use of the relevant information independently of other information (autonomous models, serial processing, modularity) or do these processes use different kinds of information simultaneously and thus work interactively and possibly in parallel (interactive models, parallel distributed processing, connectionism)? For an overview, see Weissenborn and Schriefers (1987), Frazier (1988), Tannenhaus (1988). References Allport, A. et al. 1987. Language perception and production: relationships between listening, speaking, reading and writing. New York. Altmann, G.T.M. (ed.) 1990. Cognitive models of speech processing. Cambridge, MA. Bates, E. et al. 1982. Functional constraints on sentence processing: a cross-linguistic study. Cognition 11. 245-99. Bialystok, E. (ed.) 1991. Language processing in bilingual children. Cambridge. Bock, M. and G.Rickheit (eds) 1983. Psycholinguistic studies in language processing. Berlin. Bouma, H. and D.G.Bouwhuis (eds) 1984. Attention and performance, vol. 10: Control of language processes. Hillsdale, NJ. Cole, R.A. (ed.) 1980. Perception and production of fluent speech. Hillsdale, NJ. Fodor, J.A. 1983. The modularity of the mind. Cambridge, MA. Frazier, L. 1988. Grammar and language processing. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 1, 15–34. Frazier, L. and J.de Villiers (eds) 1990. Language processing and language acquisition. Dordrecht. Garfield, J. 1986. Modularity in knowledge representation and natural language understanding. London. Harris, M. 1986. Language processing in children and adults. London. Marslen-Wilson, W. (ed.) 1989. Lexical representation and process. Cambridge, MA. Mikkulainen, R. 1993. Subsymbolic natural language processing: an integrated model of scripts, lexicon, and memory. Cambridge, MA. Pereira, F. and B.Grosz (eds) 1994. Natural language processing. Cambridge, MA. Sells, P., S.M.hieber, and T.Wasow (eds) 1991. Foundational issues in natural language processing. Cambridge, MA. Singer, M. 1990. Psychology of language: an introduction to sentence and discourse processes. Hove. Tannenhaus, M. 1988. Psycholinguistics: an overview. In F.J.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 3, 7–20. Weissenborn, J. and H.Schriefers. 1987. Psycholinguistics. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Berlin and New York. 470–87. A-Z 651 Bibliography Gazdar, G. 1987. Natural language processing in the 1980s: a bibliography. Chicago, IL. Dictionary Aitchison, J. 1989. Introducing language and mind. London. language and brain, language comprehension, language production, parsing, psycholinguistics, text processing language production Term referring to the processes involved in producing language, predominantly used in also sign language). These connection with the production of spoken language ( processes include planning the utterance with regard to what to say, retrieving the words and integrating them into a sentence, articulating the sentence and monitoring the output. Evidence for such processes comes from hesitation phenomena, pauses, speech errors, anakoluthons, and furthermore self-repair. As with language comprehension, here also two basic types of processing models and their variants are under debate: serial/autonomous models and parallel/interactive models. Interaction is often assumed with regard to difficulties with word retrieval, as evidenced by speech errors. The most comprehensive model of language production was developed by Levelt 1989. References Bever, T.G. 1971. The integrated study of language behaviour. In J.Morton (ed.), Biological and social factors in psycholinguistics. London. 158–209. Carroll, W. 1986. Psychology of language. Monterey, CA. Clark, H.H. and E.V.Clark. 1977. Psychology and language. San Diego, CA. Frazier, L. 1988. Grammar and language processing. In FJ.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 15–34. Fujimura, O. 1990. Methods and goals in speech production research. L&S 33. 215–58. Garrett, M.F. 1975. The analysis of sentence production. In G.H.Bower (ed.), The psychology of learning and memory. New York. Vol. 9, 133–77. ——1988. Processes in language production. In F.J.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 3, 69–98. Howard, D.V. 1983. Cognitive psychology: memory, language and thought. New York. Kohn, S.A. et al. 1987. Lexical retrieval: the tip of the tongue phenomenon. APsy 8. 245–66. Lenneberg, H. and E.Lenneberg (eds) 1976. Foundations of language development: a multidisciplinary approach, vol. I. New York. Levelt, W.J.M. 1989. Speaking: from intention to articulation. Cambridge, MA. Lindsay, P.H. and D.A.Norman. 1977. Human information processing, 2nd edn. New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 652 Martin, N., R.W.Weisberg, and E.M.Saffran. 1989. Variables influencing the occurrence of naming errors: implication for models of lexical retrieval. JMemL 28. 462–85. Osgood, C.E. 1957. A behaviorist analysis of perception and language as cognitive phenomena. In J.S. Bruner et al. (eds), Contemporary approaches to cognition. Cambridge, MA. 75–118. Weissenborn, J. and H.Schriefers. 1987. Psycholinguistics; In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Berlin and New York. 470–87. language acquisition, language processing, neurolinguistics, psycholinguistics, speech error language regulation 1 In the narrow sense, involvement in the use of language (usually by the state) aimed at bringing about or suppressing certain conscious associations. ( language manipulation, language planning, language policy) 2 In the broad sense, any kind of intentional control of language use, often (though not necessarily exclusively) with a view to affect-ing the denotation and connotation of certain terms, by any group with a vested interest. language structure In mathematics and the natural sciences, the term ‘structure’ refers to the ‘set of relations which connect the elements of a system, and all isomorphic relational constructions pertaining thereto’ (Klaus 1969:625). When used with language, this term refers to the system of grammatical rules in language which underlies language use, i.e. the set of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations between the elements of the language system (phonemes, morphemes, sentences, etc.), as well as their reciprocal connections at all levels of description. Similar to the term ‘system,’ with which it is often used synonymously, structure is often set forth as a theoretical premise; it is also the goal of all structurally oriented linguistic research. References Greenberg, J.H.Structure and function in language. Repr. in J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Essays in linguistics. Chicago, IL. 75–85. Haas, W. 1960. Linguistic structures. Word 16. 251–76. Klaus, G. 1969. Wörterbuch der Kybernetik, 2 vols. Frankfurt. Parsons, T. 1960. Structure and process in modern societies. Glencoe. structuralism A-Z 653 language synthesis [Grk sýnthesis ‘putting together, combination’] In the broader sense, process of natural or artificial production of texts. Natural language synthesis occurs in every normal instance of speech of a competent speaker, artificial language synthesis takes place via machines (through primarily electronic means). Language synthesis in the narrower sense refers to the third phase of machine-aided translation (after the analysis and transfer phase), in which the text of the target language is produced in a morphologically and syntactically appropriate form. References computational linguistics, information theory, text generation language system [Grk sýstēma ‘a whole compounded of several parts’] In mathematics and the natural sciences, the term ‘system’ refers to ‘a set of elements and a set of relations which exist between these elements’ (Klaus 1969:634). When used with language, this term refers to the internal ordering of linguistic elements ( phonemes, morphemes, sentences, etc.) and their functional relationships at all levels of the grammar and in relation to social, dialectal, and other subsystems. In a narrower sense, a language system is synonymous with the Saussurean term langue ( langue vs parole), referring to language as a synchronic, static system of signs and their combinatory rules. References Klaus, G. 1969. Wörterbuch der Kybernetik, 2 vols. Frankfurt. language structure, langue vs parole, structuralism Dictionary of language and linguistics language teaching 654 language pedagogy language test The measurement of linguistic achievement (globally or according to different types of proficiency) through more or less standardized procedures which, if possible, should be sufficient for the usual qualitative criteria of the test, above all: objectivity (independence from the person acting as the tester), validity (characteristic of the procedure to measure only what is meant to be measured), reliability (consistent results whenever repeated), etc. Achievement tests assess functional ability in a language and are unrelated to any course of study. Test items tend to be open-ended and meaningful. They are scored holistically and usually administered in summative or high stakes contexts, i.e., placement, to show fulfillment of requirements or qualification for employment. Achievement tests contain form-focused items and are curricular-driven exams. They ask a learner to show what he/she knows rather than what he/she can do and are scored using discrete-point formats. Prochievement tests attempt to incorporate aspects of both types of testing, a mix of open-ended and form-focused items, for example. References Alderson, J.C. and B.North (eds) 1991. Language testing in the 1990s. Basingstoke. Bachman, L.F. 1990. Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford. Baker, D. 1989. Language testing: a critical perspective and practical guide. London. Bernhardt, E.B. and C.J.James. 1987. The teaching and testing of comprehension in foreign language learning. In D.W.Birckbichler (ed.), Proficiency, policy, and professionalism in foreign language education. (Report of the Central States Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages.) Lincolnwood, IL. 65–81. Buck, K., H.Byrnes and I.Thompson (eds) 1989. The ACTFL oral proficiency interview tester training manual. Yonkers, NY. Henning, G. 1987. A guide to language testing: development evaluation, research. Cambridge, MA. Hughes, A. 1989. Testing for language teachers. Cambridge. Kohonen, V., H.von Essen, and C.Klein-Braley (eds) 1985. Practice and problems in language testing. Tampere. Lantolf, J.P. and W.Frawley. 1985. Oral proficiency testing: a critical analysis. MLJ 69: 337–45. Oller, J.W. (ed.) 1983. Issues in language testing research. Rowley, MA. Shohamy, E. 1991. Connecting testing and learning in the classroom and on the program level. In J.K. Phillips (ed.), Building bridges and making connections. (Reports of the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages.) Middlebury, VT. 154–78. Wesche, M.B. 1981. Communicative testing in a second language. CMLR 37: 551–71. A-Z 655 Journal Language Testing. language typology [Grk typós ‘model, pattern’] Classification of languages based on grammatical characteristics, i.e. ignoring genetic or geographical connections. The classical typology based on morphological criteria comes from A.W.von Schlegel’s distinction between analytic and synthetic languages: in analytic languages ( also isolating language), such as Classical Chinese, the grammatical relations between words in a sentence are expressed by independent syntactic form elements (e.g. prepositions), while in synthetic languages they are expressed by dependent morphological units (see Schlegel 1818). In the synthetic languages, Schlegel distinguishes between agglutinating languages, in which grammatical and lexical morphemes with simple semantic components are simply affixed to each other (e.g. Turkish), and inflectional languages, whose words cannot be analyzed into single morphemes with simple semantic meaning and which sometimes demonstrate phenomena such as ootr or stem alternation (e.g. Sanskrit). Humboldt (1836) added the term ‘polysynthetic languages,’ ( polysynthesis) in which a word often combines several word stems with very specific semantic meaning (e.g. Iroquoian) (also incorporating language). In this early stage of language typology, value judgments were also attached to each type: the richness of forms in the inflectional languages was considered a sign of greater development, while the isolating and agglutinating languages were seen as less developed stages on their way to becoming inflectional languages. For a history of the research on language typology, see Haarman (1976). The main objections against this traditional, primarily morphological, typology are based on the lack of theoretical agreement about the nature of the elements (such as syllable, morpheme, word) and properties (such as intonation, concatenation) in question, as well as its too categorical (as opposed to gradual) nature, which does not sufficiently take into consideration the interdependence of phonological, morphological, and syntactic criteria. The syntactic approaches to typology owe the most to Greenberg (1963), who developed a typology of word order types ( universals). Other syntactic properties, such as the system of grammatical relations (e.g. ergative vs nominative languages) have also been used as the basis for language typology. For more recent approaches and terminological suggestions, see Altmann and Lehfeldt (1973), Lehmann (1978), and Vennemann (1982). Dictionary of language and linguistics 656 References Altmann, G. and W.Lehfeldt. 1973. Allgemeine Sprachtypologie: Prinzipien und . Munich. Comrie, B. 1981. Language universals and language typology. Oxford. (2nd edn 1989.) Croft, W. 1990. Typology and universals. Cambridge. Finck, F.N. 1909. Die Haupttypen des Sprachbaus. Leipzig. (Repr. 5th edn Darmstadt, 1965.) Greenberg, J.H. 1960. A quantitative approach to the morphological typology of language. IJAL 26. ——1963. Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements. In his Universals of language. Cambridge. ——1974. Language typology: a historical and analytical overview. The Hague. Haarman, H. 1976. Grundzüge der Sprachtypologie: Methodik, Empirie und Systematik der Sprachen Europas. Stuttgart. Hawkins, J.A. 1986. A comparative typology of English and German: unifying the contrasts. Austin, TX. Humboldt, W. 1836. Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaus. Berlin. (Repr. in Werke, ed. A.Flitner and K.Gields. Darmstadt. Vol. 3, 144–367.) Lehmann, W.P. (ed.) 1978. Syntactic typology: studies in the phenomenology of language. Austin, TX. ——(ed.) 1990. Language typology 1987: systematic balance in language. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. ——and H.-J.Herwitt. 1991. Language typology 1988: typological models in reconstruction. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Mallison, G. and B.J.Blake. 1981. Language typology: cross-linguistic studies in syntax. Amsterdam. Nichols, J. 1992. Linguistic diversity in space and time. Chicago and London. Ramat, P. 1987. Linguistic typology. Berlin. Sapir, E. 1921. Language. New York. Schlegel, A.W.von 1818. Observations sur la langue et la littérature provençales. Paris. Schmidt, P.W. 1926. Die Sprachfamilien und Sprachkreise der Erde. Heidelberg. Schopen, T. (ed.) 1985. Language typology and syntactic description, 3 vols. Cambridge. Schwegler, A. 1990. Analyticity and syntheticity: a diachronic perspective with special reference to the Romance languages. Berlin and New York. Shibatani, M. et al. (eds). 1995. Approaches to language typology. Oxford. Vennemann, T. 1982. Agglutination—Isolation—Flexion: zur Stimmigkeit typologischer Parameter. In U.Wandruszka (ed.), Festschrift für H.Stimm. Tübingen. Journals Sprachtypologie und Universalienforschung. Linguistic Typology. classification of languages, universals A-Z 657 langue d’oc French langue d’oïl French langue vs parole A term introduced in de Saussure’s Cours de linguistique générale to distinguish between language (Fr. langue) as an abstract system of signs and rules, and the spoken word (Fr. parole) as the concrete realization of language as it is used. Langue is characterized as a static system of symbols with broad (social) value, due to the invariant and functional nature of its elements. Instances of parole are based on this system of langue and vary according to register, age, dialect, among other factors. The goal of structuralist linguistics is to research the systematic regularities of langue using data from parole ( corpus), while parole itself can be researched in various disciplines, like phonetics, psychology, and physiology. This requirement for autonomy in a purely theoretical innerlinguistic view of language, such as that proposed by Chomsky with competence vs performance, has met with much criticism and has been heavily revised. ( also communicative competence, pragmatics, sociolinguistics). The type of difference described between langue and parole has taken many forms: among them, ergon vs energeia (W.von Humboldt), Sprache vs Rede (H.Paul), Sprachsystem vs aktualisierte Rede (G.v.d. Gabelentz), Sprachgebilde vs Sprechakt (K.Bühler), register vs use, type vs token ( type-token-relationship). (M.A.K.Halliday). References Antal, L. 1990. Langue and parole or only parole? Historiographia Linguistica. 17. 357–267. Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. Gabelentz, G. v.d. 1891. Die Sprachwissenschaft: ihre Aufgaben, Methoden und bisherigen Ergebnisse. (Rev. repr. of the 1901 2nd edn. Tübingen, 1972.) Halliday, M.A.K. 1961. Categories of the theory of grammar. Word 17. 241–92. Humboldt, W.von 1963. Schriften zur Sprachphilosophie. Darmstadt. Paul, H. 1880. Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. (9th edn Tübingen, 1975.) Saussure, F. de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C.Bally and A.Sechehaye. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) competence vs performance Dictionary of language and linguistics Laotian 658 Cam-Thai Lapp Group of Uralic languages, probably Finno-Ugric, spoken in northern Scandinavia, with fewer than 30,000 speakers. There are three main dialect groups. First literary documents date from the seventeenth century. Reference Lagercrantz, E. 1929. Sprachlehre des Nordlappischen. Oslo. laryngeal 1 Obsolete general (and misleading) term for glottal, pharyngeal, and pharyngealized speech sounds ( secondary articulation). 2 Speech sound found in the Mon-Khmer language Sedang indicated by the diacritic notation ‹~› ( articulatory phonetics). References phonetics laryngeal theory Widely accepted hypothesis concerning the reconstruction of a portion of basic IndoEuropean. In general, three consonantal laryngeals (notation: h1, h2, h3) are reconstructed. The existence of laryngeals is surmised based on morphological structural evidence. More-over, these phonemes can be inferred from reflexes in individual languages: for example, compensatory lengthening of tautosyllabic vowels accompanied by a simultaneous change in vowel coloring are found in IE e to a (in certain languages, e.g. Greek) in the environment of h2, and to o in the environment of h3; A-Z 659 in Hittite, h2 has been retained in many positions as a consonantal phoneme. The workings of the morphological system of Indo-European, which is characterized by the phenomenon of ablaut, is made more transparent in view of the laryngeal theory. Accordingly, the verbal present singular in Indo-European had an e-grade ablaut form (cf. Lat. est, Hit. eszi ‘is’). The Latin verb pasco (‘I protect’) which corresponds to Hit. pahsmi shows no e and would, therefore, have to be considered an except ion. Laryngeal theory, however, explains the verb as deriving from *peh2- with e-grade ablaut. In Latin and Hittite, this laryngeal colors the e to a; in Latin h2 disappears with compensatory lengthening; in Hittite it is retained as an h. De Saussure’s structurally motivated theory was empirically proven in the early twentieth century with the deciphering of Hittite, when h was found in places where the laryngeal h2 had been reconstructed by de Saussure, who spoke of ‘coefficients sonantiques.’ References Bammesberger, A. (ed.) 1988. Die Laryngaltheorie und die Rekonstruktion des urindogermanischen Laut- und Formensystems. Heidelberg. Beekes, R.S.P. 1969. The development of the Proto-Indo-European laryngeals in Greek. The Hague. Kuryłowicz, J. 1927. ə indoeuropéen et : symbolae grammaticae in honorem Ioannis Rozwadowski. Cracow. Lindeman, F.O. 1988. Introduction to the ‘Laryngeal theory.’ Oxford. Saussure, F.de. 1879. Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indoeuropéennes. Leipzig. Schrijver, P. 1991. The reflexes of the Proto-IndoEuropean laryngeal in Latin. Amsterdam and Atlanta, GA. Winter, W. (ed.) 1965. Evidence for laryngeals. London. Indo-European larynx Organ that protects the vocal cords and lies between the resonance chamber and the trachea (wind pipe). ( also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics Dictionary of language and linguistics Larzac 660 Celtic lateral [Lat. lateralis ‘of/on the side of a body’] Speech sound classified according to its manner in which the airstream bypasses its obstruction (namely, around openings on either side of the tongue) in contrast with medians. For example, in the approximants [1] and [ł] in Brit. Eng. [lιtł] little and in the and the approximant [1] in ‘wasteful’ or [-la] ‘to come’ in the Sinofricative Tibetan language Yi. In Yaragia, a language spoken in New Guinea, there is a velar lateral. Laterals can function as nuclei ( nucleus) of syllables, e.g. [1] in Czech [‘plzen] ‘Pilsen.’ In English, laterals are formed with the pulmonary airstream mechanism. The Khoisan language of Nama has lateral clicks. References phonetics lateralization In neuropsychology, functional specialization of both hemispheres of the brain with regard to information processing and, in particular, language processing. Lateralization of such functions differs from individual to individual and varies according to ability (thus, for example, receptive abilities seem to be less strongly lateralized than expressive ones). In spite of such variation, the global assignment of specific processing abilities to particular hemispheres has been confirmed: analytical processes tend to be left-brain, and synthetic (or holistic) processes right-brain. Thus, syntactic and phonological processes are ascribed rather to the left hemisphere, while processing of pragmatic information, the recognition and comprehension of sentence melody as well as the recognition of nonlinguistic sounds have been ascribed more to the right hemisphere. The specialization of analytical and holistic processes leads to differences in the lateralization of individual abilities and skills. For instance, people who have been educated in music will tend to process melodies in the left hemisphere, while those with no such education will use the right half of their brain. Due to the fact that the neural pathways for hearing and vision are both ipsi- and contralateral (because of cross-over), information can be picked up by both sides, but it will be processed primarily contralaterally. Hence, lateralization does A-Z 661 not mean that only one hemisphere is specialized for one function, but rather that the hemisphere that is most strongly specialized for a particular ability suppresses the same specialization in the other hemisphere. In cases involving brain lesion, depending on the type and extent of injury as well as the age of the patient, it is possible that the intact hemisphere may mediate or may, to a certain extent, take over the specific function: for example, the right hemisphere has considerable auditive processing and also a rudimentary expressive potential, which in case of damage to the left hemisphere may be activated. Since lateralization is hard to determine in healthy people on account of the constant exchange of information between both hemispheres, lateralization is frequently studied in experiments in which a certain half of the brain is specifically stimulated (e.g. through dichotic listening in which stimuli are delivered with headphones to each ear and are essentially processed contralaterally owing to the crossing of auditory paths; in such cases, a ‘right-ear effect’ occurs when the stimuli are of a linguistic nature, and a ‘left-ear effect’ when the stimuli are of a non-linguistic nature). Further indications of lateralization can be seen in patients with brain lesion (such as in acquired language disorder, aphasia), indications in patients in whom one hemisphere has been anesthetized (Wada test), in whom the connection between the hemispheres has been missing since birth or had to be cut off (e.g. to control seizures in case of epilepsy; splitbrain patient) or in whom the cerebral cortex has been surgically removed. The position held by Lenneberg (1967) that both hemispheres show the same potential at birth (i.e. are ‘equipotential’) and that lateralization comes about in the course of childhood, has since been disproven. At birth, there is not only a physical asymmetry between both halves of the brain (in which the left half is normally larger than the right half), but also a functional asymmetry. Thus, in dichotic listening tests, babies of three weeks already demonstrate the ‘right-ear effect’ when they hear nonsense syllables, and the ‘left-ear effect’ when they hear music. Lenneberg’s assumption of a ‘sensitive’ or ‘critical’ (biologically determined) phase for the acquisition of language which is completed in puberty, is discussed controversially (e.g. in studies about fluctuating deafness leading to particular linguistic deficits or through case studies; see Curtiss 1977; for a summary of arguments cf. Aitchison 1989:84–90). References Aitchison, J. 1989. The articulate mammal: an introduction to psycholinguistics, 3rd edn. London. Bishop, D. 1988. Language development after focal brain damage. In D.Bishop and K.Mogford (eds). Development in exceptional circumstances. Edinburgh. 203–20. Bryden, M. 1982. Laterality: functional asymmetry in the intact brain. New York. Curtiss, S. 1977. Genie. New York. Geschwind, N. and A.M.Galaburda. 1985. Cerebral lateralization: biological mechanisms, associations, and pathology. Archives of Neurology 42. 428–59. Goodman, R. 1987. The developmental neurobiology of language. In W.Yule and M.Rutter (eds), Language development and disorders. Oxford. 129–45. Harris, L.J. 1981. Sex-related variations in spatial skill. In L.S.Liben et al. (eds), Spatial representation and behavior across the life span. New York and London. 83–125. Lenneberg, E.H. 1967. Biological foundations of language. New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 662 Levy, J. and C.Tevarthen. 1977. Perceptual, semantic and phonetic aspects of elementary language processes in split-brain patients. Brain 100. 105–18. Neville, H. et al. 1992. Fractionating language: different neural subsystems with different sensitive periods. Cerebral Cortex 2. 244–58. Wada. J.A. et al. 1975. Cerebral hemispheric asymmetries in humans: cortical speech zones in 100 adult and 100 infant brains. Archives of Neurology 32. 239–46. Wray, A. 1991. The focusing hypothesis: the theory of left brain lateralised language re-examined. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. language and brain Latin Original dialect of the territory of Latium (Rome) belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family; it is one of the oldest attested languages of the IndoEuropean group. The earliest attestations (inscriptions, names) date from the preliterary period (600–240 BC). The period of ‘Classical Latin’ is generally considered to date from 100 BC to AD 14. During the Late Antiquity (200–600) separate spoken dialects developed in the Roman provinces, which differ from literary Latin primarily through lexical and phonological changes (cf. Vulgar Latin): for example, ‹c›, originally pronounced as [k], became pronounced as [ts] before palatals, cf. [kikero:]>[tsitesro:] ‘Cicero.’ Latin is the basis for the Romance languages (French, Italian, Spanish, Portugese, Rumanian, and Rhaeto-Romance), all spoken in originally Latin-speaking territories. During the middle ages, ‘Medieval Latin’ was used for education, church, and government; Classical Latin was revived in the fifteenth century by the humanists. For the influence of Latin on English, borrowing. Characteristics: word accent (with few exceptions) on the penultimate syllable; vowel quantity is phonologically relevant; synthetic-inflectional morphology (canto, cantas, cantat ‘I sing, you sing, he/she/it sings’) with frequent syncretism of forms; no article and no personal pronoun for the third persons; free word order (sometimes stylistically motivated). On the structural changes from Latin to the Romance languages, French, Italian. Portuguese, Spanish. References Allen, W.S. 1975. Vox latina: a guide to the pronunciation of classical Latin. Cambridge. (2nd edn 1978.) Coleman, R. (ed.) 1991. New studies in Latin linguistics. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Devoto, G. 1971. Studies of Latin and languages of ancient Italy. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 9, 817–34. Grandgent, C.H. 1907. An introduction to Vulgar Latin. Boston, MA. Herman, J. (ed.) 1994. Linguistic studies on Latin. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Kent, R.G. 1945. The sounds of Latin. Baltimore, MD. ——1946. The forms of Latin, Baltimore, MD. A-Z 663 Palmer, R.L. 1954. The Latin language. London. Pinkster, H. 1990. Latin syntax and semantics. London. Strunk, K. (ed.) 1973. Probleme der lateinischen Grammatik. Darmstadt. Woodcock, E.C. 1958. A new Latin syntax. London. Grammars Ernout, A. and F.Thomas. 1984. Syntaxe latine. Paris. Leumann, M., J.B.Hofmann, and A.Szantyr. 1963/72. Lateinische Grammatik, 2 vols. Munich. Rubenbauer, H., J.B.Hofmann, and R.Heine. 1975. Lateinische Grammatik. (11th edn 1980.) Bamberg. History Collart, J. 1967. Histoire de la langue latine. Paris. Ernout, A. 1953. Morphologie historique du latin. Paris. Kurzová, H. 1993. From Indo-European to Latin: the evolution of a morphosyntactic type. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Panagl, O. and T.Krisch (eds) 1992. Latein und Indogermanisch: Akten des Kolloquiums der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Salzburg 1986. Innsbruck. Dictionaries Lewis, C. and C.Short. 1879. (Repr. 1975). Oxford. Oxford Latin dictionary. 1968. 2 vols. Oxford. Thesaurus linguae Latinae. 1900–90. Leipzig and Stuttgart. Etymological dictionaries Ernout, A. and A.Meillet. 1959. Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue latine, 4th edn. Paris. Walde, A. and J.B.Hofmann. 1965. Lateinisches etymologisches Wörterbuch,. 3 vols. 4th edn. Heidelberg. Handbooks Hammond, M. 1976. Latin: a historical and linguistic handbook. New Haven, CT. Holtus, G., M.Metzeltin, and C.Schmitt (eds) 1987. Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik, vol. 2. Tübingen. Bibliography Cousin, J. 1951. Bibliographie de la langue latine, 1880–1948. Paris. Dictionary of language and linguistics 664 Journals Glotta Latinitas Probus classification of languages, Indo-European, Romance languages Latin-Faliscan Italic Latvian Baltic language with approx. 1.5 million speakers in Latvia. Religious literature dates to the Reformation, secular literature exists since the eighteenth century. The orthography is based on the Latin alphabet with diacritic marks, including , , , . Stress on the first syllable. Long and short vowels with distinctive intonation (including glottal narrowing) even after the accented syllable. Complex morphology. No distinction between singular and plural in the third person verb forms, as in Lithuanian. References Endzelīns, J. 1951. Latviėšu valodas gramatika. Riga. ——1922. Lettische Grammatik. Riga. Eiche, A. 1983. Latvian declinable and indeclinable participles: their syntactic function, frequency and modality. Stockholm. Fennel, T.G. and H.Gelsen. 1980. A grammar of modern Latvian. The Hague. . Redigējis, papildinājis, turpinājis Mülenbachs, K. 1923–1932. Latviešu valodas vār J.Endzelīns. 4 vols. Riga (Repr. Chicago 1953). Vols. 5 and 6: J.Endzelīns and E.Hauzenberga. Latviešu valodas vārdnīcai. Riga (Repr. 1934–46. Papildinājumi un labojumi K. Chicago 1956). Mūsdienu latviešu literārās valodas gramatika. 1959/62. 2 vols. Riga. , V. 1977. The standardization process in Latvian: sixteenth century to the present. Stockholm. Dictionaries Latviešu literās valodas vārdnīca. 1972. Vol. 6 1986. Riga. Latviešu valodas vārdnīca. 1987. Riga. Metuzāle-Kangere, B. 1985. A derivational dictionary of Latvian. Latviešu valodas atvasiknājumu vārdnīca. Hamburg. A-Z 665 Soikane-Trapāne, M. 1987. Latvian basic and topical vocabulary/Latviešu valodas pamata un tematisks vārdu krājums (3rd printing). Lincoln, NE. Turkina, E. 1963. Latvian—English dictionary/ Latviešu-Anglu vārdnīca, ed. M. Andersone. (3rd edn, repr.) Riga. Etymological dictionary Karulis, K. 1992. Latviešu vārdnīca, 2 vols. Riga. law of three morae [Lat. mora ‘time necessary’] (also law of three syllables) 1 Law that governs stress relationships in Greek, according to which no more than three unstressed morae (=the unit of measurement for a short syllable; mora) may follow the main stressed syllable of a word. 2 Hypothesis in Indo-European linguistics that attempts to explain the long final vowels of Gothic, according to which in Indo-European and Proto-Germanic long vowels in secondary syllables had two morae with acute and three morae with circumflex accent2. Vowels of three morae in final syllables came about especially by contraction, e.g. in the genitive singular of IE ā: *ghebhâs<-ā-es ‘of the gift’; these were preserved in Gothic as long vowels, e.g. gibos ‘of the gift,’ in contrast to syllables of two morae, which were shortened. References Krause, W. 1968. Handbuch des Gotischen, 3rd rev. edn. Munich. comparative linguistics Dictionary of language and linguistics law of three syllables lax Laz 666 law of three morae tense vs lax South Caucasian lect [Grk léktos ‘chosen, picked out; word, expression’] Term introduced in American variational linguistics to designate regional, social, and other types of language varieties. In compound words (e.g. sociolect, dialect, idiolect, isolect, etc.), the first element indicates the type of variety. left-branching construction A type of phrase structure construction. In a left-branching structure in a tree diagram each node which branches into constituents A and B is of the type that only A, the left branch, can contain any further branching. An English example of such a construction is [[[Mary’s] sister’s] book]. Reference Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. left vs right dislocation Term introduced by Ross (1967) for syntactic constructions in which a constituent, usually a noun phrase or an adpositional phrase, is moved to the beginning or the end of the sentence and the original position is marked by a pronominal element. These kinds of dislocations are particularly characteristic of colloquial speech. A-Z 667 Left and right dislocations serve various functions. Left dislocations can be used, for topic vs comment, theme vs rheme): ‘Spiders, I example, to emphasize information ( can’t stand them’. Right dislocations often clarify the reference of a constituent: ‘He’ll be here tomorrow, my brother’. References Ashby, W. 1988. The syntax, pragmatics, and socio-linguistics of left- and right-dislocations in French. Lingua 75. 203–29. Cinque, G. 1977. The movement nature of left dislocation. LingI 8. 147–63. Geluykens, R. 1991. From discourse process to grammatical construction: on left dislocation in English. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Gundel, J.K. 1975. Left dislocation and the role of topic-comment structure in linguistic theory. WPL 18. Jansen, F. (ed.) 1978. Studies in fronting. Lisse. Keenan, E.O. and E.Schieffelin. 1967. Foregrounding referents: a reconsideration of dislocation in discourse. PBLS 2. 240–57. Primus, B. 1993. Word order and information structure: a performance-based account of topic positions and focus positions. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. 880–96. Rodman, R. 1974. On left dislocation. PIL 7.437–66. Ross, J.R. 1967. Constraints on variables in syntax. Dissertation, Cambridge, MA. word order Leipzig School Neogrammarians lemma [Lat. ‘title,’ from Grk ‘anything received’] (also catchword) Entry or individual listing in a lexicon or a dictionary. lemmatization In lexicography the reduction of the inflectional form of a word to its base form and the elimination of homography. In computational linguistics, lemmatization attempts to assign each word form a uniform heading under which related textual elements are Dictionary of language and linguistics 668 ordered. In this sense, lemmatization is needed to produce indexes, concordances, and lists of individual authors or textual corpora. References computational linguistics, lexicography lengthening vs shortening Increase vs decrease in the quantity of a segment, usually a vowel. ( gemination, phonetics, phonology, quality, sound change, tense vs lax) lenis also fortis vs lenis lenisization weakening Lepontic Celtic letter Written sign that stands alone or together with other such written signs to represent linguistic sounds or series of sounds (which are generally not syllables and do not have the length of morphological units) or also numbers. Thus, ‹n› in Eng. pin stands alone for [n] or /n/; ‹n› in Eng. angle appears together with the following ‹g› for [ŋ]. In some cases the principle seems contradictory as, for example, in Fr. aux (an amalgam of ail ‘garlic’+plural), where the four letters together stand for the sound [o] and thus represent both a syllable and a morphological unit. Two letters of a base alphabet (e.g. the Latin alphabet) may be used in another orthographic system as a single letter or may merge into a single letter: ‹ch› in Czech and ‹ij› in Dutch count as one letter; German ‹ß› is derived A-Z 669 from a ligature of ‹1› and in Gothic type. In Ancient Greek is only used as the character for the number 6, ‹π› renders [p] or, with the diacritic as ‹π’›, the number 80. While the names of the letters of the Greek alphabet can be traced back to Semitic meanings (alpha ‘ox,’ beta ‘house,’ delta ‘wing of a door,’ jota ‘hand’), those of the Latin alphabet are based on sounds. Letters representing plosives were named after the sound itself followed by an e (pronounced [i:] in English), though k and q are the notable exceptions. It is believed that ƒ, l, m, n, r, and s did not originally have their own names; ha, the Classical Latin name for h, is of unknown origin. All other Latin letters were borrowed from the Greek alphabet or other sources. [fau] as a name for v has been in use since Priscian (fifth/sixth century); the name [iks] for x, also of unknown origin, came on the scene later; the name [jot] for j came into general use in the thirteenth century. References Hammarström, M. 1920. Beiträge zur Geschichte des etruskischen, lateinischen und griechischen Alphabets. Helsinki. graphemics, writing level 1 Levels of linguistic description, such as phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, each of which is characterized by its own specific inventory of units ( phonemes, also morphemes, etc.), specific types of rules and analytical procedures. ( stratificational grammar) 2 Language of stylistic level; language variants which are determined by regional, sociological, or rhetorical norms. ( also register) Reference Hartmann, R.R.K. 1973. The language of linguistics: reflections on linguistic terminology with particular reference to ‘level’ and ‘rank.’ Tübingen. Dictionary of language and linguistics 670 level I affix lexical phonology level II affix lexical phonology leveling analogy levels of adequacy The criterion developed by N.Chomsky for evaluating grammatical descriptions of natural languages. There are three distinct levels: observational adequacy, descriptive adequacy, and explanatory adequacy. Observational adequacy describes those grammars which present the primary linguistic data correctly and completely. A grammar is descriptively adequate if it accounts for the intuitions and competence ( competence vs performance) of the speaker regarding the regularity and rules of the language. The comprehensive requirements for explanatory adequacy are met if the grammatical description is handled in accord with a linguistic theory which specifies linguistic universals ( universal grammar) and also supports a theory of language acquisition. Such a theory provides the basis on which the most adequate explanatory grammar can be chosen from several descriptively adequate grammars. References Chomsky, N. 1964. Current issues in linguistic theory. The Hague. ——1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge. MA. Kimball, J.P. 1973. The formal theory of grammar. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Lepore, E. 1979. The problem of adequacy in linguistics. TL 6. 162–72. lexeme [combined from lexicon+eme] Basic abstract unit of the lexicon2 on the level of langue ( langue vs parole) which may be realized in different grammatical forms such as the lexeme write in writes, wrote, written. A lexeme may also be a part of another lexeme, e.g. writer, ghostwriter, etc. In A-Z 671 its broader sense, ‘lexeme’ is also used synonymously for ‘word’ to denote a lexical unit also morphology) or element of the vocabulary. ( References word formation lexical access mental lexicon lexical category [Grk léxis ‘word’] In the aspects model of generative grammar those category symbols (N, Adj, V, Art) found on the left side of the lexicon rule which are replaced by lexical formatives (i.e. words in the lexicon3) in the process of derivation. References transformational grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics 672 lexical decomposition In generative semantics, a procedure applied especially to causatives for the semantic description of lexical units by deriving them from an inventory of smallest (possibly universal) basic expressions ( semantic primitives), which on the basis of their internal syntactic structure constitute the complete meaning of the lexemes, e.g., to kill is ‘decomposed’ into CAUSE—BECOME—NOT—ALIVE. For the problematization and critique of the approach, generative semantics. Nevertheless, lexical decomposition is also applied in other approaches, for the principle of decomposition is only incompatible with a concept of integrality. References Bartsch, R. and T.Vennemann. 1972. Semantic structures: a study in the relation between semantics and syntax. (2nd edn 1973.) Frankfurt. Dowty, D.R. 1979. Word meaning and Montague grammar: the semantics of verbs and times in generative semantics and Montague ‘s PTQ. Dordrecht. Fillmore, C.J. 1968. Lexical entries for verbs. FL 4. 373–93. ——1969. Types of lexical information. In F. Kiefer (ed.), Studies in syntax and semantics. Dordrecht. 109–37. Fillmore, C.J. and T.D.Langendoen (eds) 1971. Studies in linguistic semantics. New York. 1–118. Lakoff, G. 1970. Natural logic and lexical decomposition. CLS 6. 340–62. McCawley, J.D. 1968. Concerning the base component of a transformation grammar. FL 4. 243– 69. ——1988. The syntactic phenomena of English. 2 vols. Chicago, IL. Schulze, W. 1985. Semantic primitives and categories. Utrecht. Wierzbicka, A. 1972. Semantic primitives. Frankfurt. Yamanashi, M. 1971. Some notes on decomposition. Ann Arbor, MI. generative semantics lexical diffusion Hypothesis according to which sound change takes place in a few words and then spreads successively (through quasi-analogous generalizations) to all words concerned. This view, propounded by dialect geography against the concept of sound change of the Neogrammarians, was reintroduced into linguistic discussions at the end of the 1960s with renewed vigor. A-Z 673 References Chen, M. and W.S.-Y.Wang. 1975. Sound change: actuation and implementation. Lg 51. 255–81. Labov, W. 1981. Resolving the neogrammarian controversy. Lg 57. 267–308. Wang, W.S.-Y. 1969. Competing changes as a cause of residue. Lg 45. 9–25. ——(ed.) 1977. The lexicon in phonological change. The Hague. sound change lexical entry In generative grammar, the representation of lexical formatives in the lexicon3 as tree diagrams composed of a phonetic-phonological, a syntactic, and a semantic component. The semantic component consists of the set of readings of a lexeme (cf. the four distinct readings for the lexical entry of Eng. bachelor which are distinguished from each other through the specification of semantic markers (in parentheses), distinguishers (in brackets) and, as required, selection restrictions. The purpose, content, and form of the lexical entry varies according to the given grammatical and theoretical framework: for example, in the lexicalist vs transformationalist hypothesis it is necessary to distinguish between simple and complex lexical entries. Reference Katz, J.J. and J.A.Fodor. 1963. The structure of a semantic theory. Lg 39. 170–210. lexical field (also semantic field) Term introduced by Trier (1931) to denote a set of semantically related words whose meanings delimit each other and are said to cover a whole conceptual or objective field without gaps (sim-ilar to a mosaic). This largely intuitive term has been made more precise at the formal level to denote a class of paradigmatic elements (see Corseriu 1967) and at the content level as a definite structure t hat can be described with the aid of compone ntial analysis and semantic relations. Dictionary of language and linguistics 674 References Coseriu, E. 1967. Lexikalische Solidaritäten. Poetica 1.293–303. (Repr. in W.Kallmeyer et al. (eds), Lektürekolleg zur Textlinguistik, vol. II: Reader. 1974. Frankfurt a.M. 74–86.) Trier, J. 1931. Der deutsche Wortschatz im Sinnbezirk des Verstandes: die Geschichte eines sprachlichen Feldes, vol. I: Von den Anfängen bis zum Beginn des 13. Jahrhunderts. Heidelberg. ——1934. Das sprachliche Feld: eine Auseinandersetzung. Neue Jahrbücher für Wissenschaft und Jugendbildung 10.248–49. lexical field theory lexical field theory (also semantic field theory) A predominantly semantic theory of the German structuralist school ( structuralism) according to which a word does not exist in isolation in the consciousness of the speaker/ hearer, but always forms a structured set of elements together with other conceptually related words that have a reciprocal influence on each other. Lexical field theory, first associated primarily with J. Trier, reflects the general linguistic tendency to move from an isolating, atomistic, discrete view to a holistic, systematic approach. Both de Saussure’s concept of ‘system’ and the influences of Gestalt psychology as well as Cassirer’s theory of cognition have influenced the development of lexical field theory. The following premises are fundamental to Trier’s lexical field theory. (a) The meaning of an individual word is dependent upon the meaning of the rest of the words of the same lexical or conceptual field (cf. the musical scale). (b) An individual lexical field is constructed like a mosaic with no gaps; the whole set of all lexical fields of a language reflects a self-contained picture of reality. (c) If a single word undergoes a change in meaning, then the whole structure of the lexical field changes. Consequently, the isolated historical study of words can be superseded by the study of lexical fields. In addition to this paradigmatic concept, a syntagmatic concept of field was developed very early on by Porzig ( inherent semantic relation). Multiple criticism (see Kandler 1959; Öhmann 1959; Betz 1954) has led to differentiations and modifications of lexical field theory. A more detailed formulation of the terminology and subject matter brought about the development of componential analysis (see Baumgärtner 1967), which on the one hand made the semantic analysis of individual lexemes more systematic and on the other hand also brought syntagmatic aspects into consideration. Both the troublesome problem of selecting a criterion for determining whether or not a particular element belongs to a lexical field and the problem of differentiation, i.e. whether a particular element occupies its own position in the lexical field, have in the meantime been brought closer to a solution by introducing the concept of semantic relations for structuring the lexical field. A-Z 675 References Baumgärtner, K. 1967. Die Struktur des Bedeutungsfeldes. In H.Moser et al. (eds), Satz und Wort im heutigen Deutsch. Düsseldorf. 165–97. Betz, W. 1954. Zur Überprüfung des Feldbegriffs. ZVS 71. 189–98. Coseriu, E. 1967. Lexikalische Solidaritäten. Poetica 1.293–303. (Repr. in W.Kallmeyer et al. (eds) Lektürekolleg zur Textlinguistik, vol. II: Reader. Frankfurt a.M. 1974. 74–86.) Geckeler, H. 1971. Strukturelle Semantik und Wortfeldtheorie. Munich. ——(ed.) 1978. Strukturelle Bedeutungslehre. Darmstadt. Gipper, H. 1975. Sind sprachliche Felder formalisierbar? In H.Beckers and H.Schwarz (eds), Gedenkschrift für Jost Trier. Cologne. 116–49. Grandy, R.E. 1987. In defense of semantic fields. In E.LePore (ed.), New directions in semantics. London. 259–80. Kandler, G. 1959. Die ‘Lücke’ im sprachlichen Weltbild. In H.Gipper (ed.), Zur Synthese von ‘Psychologismus’ und ‘Soziologismus’: Festschrift für L.Weisgerber. Düsseldorf. 256–70. Karcher, G.L. 1979. Kontrastive Untersuchung von Wortfeldern im Deutschen und Englischen. Frankfurt. Lehrer, A. 1974. Semantic fields and lexical structure. Amsterdam. ——1978. Structures of the lexicon and transfer of meaning. Lingua 45. 95–123. Lipka, L. 1980. Methodology and representation in the study of lexical fields. In D.Kastovsky (ed.), Perspektiven der lexikalischen Semantik: Beiträge zum Wuppertaler Semantikkolloquium vom 2.-3. Dezember 1977. Bonn. 93–114. Lutzeier, P.R. 1981. Wort und Feld. Tübingen. ——1983. The relevance of semantic relations between words for the notion of lexical fields. TL 10. 147–78. ——(ed.) 1993. Studien zur Wortfeld theorie. (Studies in lexical field theory.) Tübingen. Öhmann, S. 1959. Wortinhalt und Weltbild. Stockholm. Sansome, R. 1986. Connotation and lexical field analysis. Cahiers de Lexicologie 49.13–33. Schmidt, L. (ed.) 1973. Wortfeldforschung: zur Geschichte und Theorie des sprachlichen Feldes. Darmstadt. Trier, J. 1931. Der deutsche Wortschatz im Sinnbezirk des Verstandes: die Geschichte eines sprachlichen Feldes. vol. I: Von den Anfängen bis zum Beginn des 13. Jahrhunderts. Heidelberg. ——1934. Das sprachliche Feld: eine Auseinandersetzung. Neue Jahrbücher für Wissenschaft und Jugenbildung 10. 428–49. ——1973. Aufsätze und Vorträge zur Wortfeldtheorie. Darmstadt. semantics lexical formative In generative grammar the smallest semantic-syntactic unit of the lexicon (book, sing-, old) which is incorporated into the deep structure via lexicon rules. They are differentiated from grammatical formatives, which represent categories like tense and number. Lexical formatives are relevant in the application of transformational and interpretative components. Dictionary of language and linguistics 676 References transformational grammar Lexical-Functional Grammar (abbrev. LFG) A generative theory from the class of unification grammars that was developed by J. Bresnan and R.Kaplan at the end of the 1970s, and was influenced by relational grammar. The most comprehensive description of the theory is to be found in Bresnan (1982). Lexical-Functional Grammar (LFG) attaches great meaning to the grammatical relations like subject, direct object, and indirect object, and includes them in a small class of universal grammatical functions (together with other syntactic roles, such as adjunct and free adjunct). These grammatical functions are the primitive concepts in LFG. LFG’s point of departure is that many of the syntactic regularities which were described by transformations in transformational grammar, are of a lexical nature and, therefore, can be represented in the lexicon. The grammatical formalism of LFG distinguishes two levels of syntactic representation, constituent structure and functional structure, which are generated in parallel from the annotated phrase structure rules of the grammar. Without annotations, (i.e. feature equations that make up the functional structure), these rules are context-free rules, which generate local trees with atomic category symbols. They are governed by a version of X-bar theory. The functional structure of a constituent is a feature structure in the sense of unification grammar. Grammatical functions like SUBJ (subject), OBJ2 (indirect object) and PRED (predicate) as well as morphosyntactic features like CASE, NUM (number), and TENSE are attributes of the functional structure. An attribute can have an atomic symbol, a semantic predicate expression or a feature structure as a value. By means of two special variables, the feature equations in the phrase structure rules dictate the coreference between the feature structures of the nodes of the local tree and the attributes of the functional structure. The functional structure of the mother constituent is indicated by the symbol ‘î’, the functional structure of the daughter constituent, with the symbol ‘↓’. For example, the equation (↑OBJ2)=under the categorial symbol NP in a verb phrase rule means that the functional structure of the noun phrase is coreferent with the value of the attribute OBJ2 in the functional structure. The phrase structure rules of LFG overgenerate structures. The structures must satisfy three global wellformedness constraints which function as filters. (a) The principle of functional uniqueness states that every attribute in a functional structure may possess only one value. (b) The principle of functional completeness states that a functional structure is locally complete when it contains all the governable grammatical functions that its predicate governs. (c) The principle of functional coherence states that in every substructure of the functional structure, all governable grammatical functions are governed by the predicate of the substructure. Subcategorization ensues from the attribute PRED in the lexical entry, in which only the A-Z 677 grammatical function of the obligatory and optional complements are specified, not their syntactic category. In LFG many syntactic relations described by transformations in transformational grammar (e.g. those between sentences with transitive verbs and the corresponding sentences with passive, middle, or causative verbs) are produced in the lexicon rather than the syntax. Lexical rules relate the corresponding verb classes and produce the correspondences between the complement position in the PRED attribute. Non-local dependencies, e.g. in wh-questions and topicalization, were originally dealt with by feature transmission. A newer version of LFG treats non-local dependencies through functional uncertainty (see Kaplan and Zaenen 1989). The functional structure of a sentence, especially the predicate expression that is the value of the attribute PRED, is the basis for semantic interpretation. Halvorsen (1983) suggests a semantic component borrowed from Montague grammar. Fenstad et al. (1987) use functional structure for the encoding of situational schemata, feature-based representations of meaning, which can be interpreted by using situation semantics. LFG was used for many descriptions of individual languages, e.g. English (Bresnan 1982), for Warlpiri (Simpson and Bresnan 1983), Chichewa, Japanese, and Serbo-Croatian (Iida et al. 1987). It also serves as the basis for the implementation of numerous computational natural language systems on the computer, e.g. Reyle and Frey (1983), Block and Haugeneder. (1988), and Kaplan and Maxwell (1988). References Block, H.U. and H.Haugeneder. 1988. An efficiency-oriented LFG parser. In U.Reyle and C. Rohrer (eds), Natural language parsing and linguistic theories. Dordrecht. 149–76. Bresnan, J. 1982. Control and complementation. In J. Bresnan (ed.), The mental representation of gram-matical relations. Cambridge, MA. 282–390. Dalrymple, M. 1993. The syntax of anaphoric binding. Chicago, IL. Fenstad. J.E., P.K.Halvorsen, T.Langholm, and J. van Benthem. 1987. Situations, language and logic. Dordrecht. Halvorsen, P.K. 1983. Semantics for Lexical-Functional Grammar. LingI 14. 567–615. Horn, G.M. 1983. Lexical-Functional Grammar. Berlin and New York. Iida, M., S.Wechsler, and D.Zec (eds) 1987. Working papers in grammatical theory and dis-course structure. Stanford, CA. Kaplan, R.M. and J.T.Maxwell. 1988. Constituent coordination in Lexical-Functional grammar. COLING 88 1. 303–5. Kaplan, R.M. and Z.Zaenen. 1989. Long-distance dependencies, constituent structure, and functional uncertainty. In M.Baltin and A.Kroch (eds), Alternative conceptions of phrase structure. Chicago, IL. 17–42. Kiss, T. 1993. Lexical-Functional Grammar. In J. Jacobs et al. (eds) Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 581–600. Reyle, U. and W.Frey. 1983. A Prolog implementation of Lexical-Functional Grammar. IJCAI 83. 693–5. Simpson, J. and J.Bresnan. 1983. Control and obviation in Warlpiri. NL&LT 1. 49–64. Simpson, J. 1991. Warlpiri morpho-syntax: a lexicalist approach. Dordrecht. Dictionary of language and linguistics 678 lexical insertion (rule) (also lexicon rule) In the Extended Standard Theory of transformational grammar, the substitution of the preterminal symbols (N, Adj, V, etc.) in the deep structure with lexical formatives (i.e. words) from the lexicon3. The final chain of derivation over which the semantically neutral transformations operate, is attained through lexical insertion rules. In contrast to Chomsky’s lexical insertion rules in the basic part of the grammar, the adherents of generative se mantics advocate substituting the semantic primitives with lexical units before and after the application of transformations. References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. McCawley, J.D. 1968. Lexical insertion in a transformational grammar without deep structure. CLS 4. 71–80. lexical meaning vs grammatical meaning (also word meaning vs formal/functional/ structural meaning) Lexical meaning is that aspect of meaning which is codified in a lexicon or a dictionary, can be semantically analyzed, and, together with the grammatical elements of meaning (such as mood, tense, comparison ( degree)) yields the whole meaning of a linguistic expression. Normally lexical meaning consists of an open class of elements, whereas grammatical meaning is restricted to a closed class of elements. Thus, the lexical meaning of rich might be indicated in the dictionary as ‘having wealth,’ while the grammatical semantic feature [+comparison] would yield the lexeme richer, meaning roughly ‘having more wealth.’ The distinction between the two types is not always clear. Reference Testen, D., V.Mishra, and J.Drogo (eds) 1984. Papers from the parasession on lexical semantics. Chicago. IL. A-Z 679 lexical phonology Approach in phonology developed by P. Kiparsky and others that divides the lexicon into levels within which the different means of word formation and inflection in a language interact with a predetermined set of cyclically applying phonological rules in order to derive word structures. Affixes of the first level (level I) together with their stem undergo phonological processes such as word stress, assimilation, vowel shortening (cf. Eng. párent and parént+al; il+legal, im+possible, but in+effi-cient; opāque, but opac+ity). The output of each level always forms a possible word stem, whose internal structure is visible to that level, but which, owing to the deletion of the original bracketing, is inaccessible to higher levels which are organized according to their own characteristic phonological rules. Typical for stems serving as a base for level II affixes and compounds is their phonological as well as semantic transparency (cf. Eng. non-legal; opāque-ness, teeth-marks). Regular inflection (cf. Eng. cat-s vs teeth, or brother-s vs brethren) comprises the third and last level. Irregular inflection corresponds to the phonological processes of the first level. References Allen, M. 1978. Morphological investigations. Dissertation, University of Connecticut. Kiparsky, P. 1982a. Lexical morphology and phonology. In I.S.Yange (ed.), Linguistics in the morning calm. Seoul. 3–91. ——1982b. From cyclic phonology to lexical phonology. In H.van der Hulst and N.Smith (eds), The structure of phonological representation. Dordrecht. 131–75. Pesetsky, D. 1979. Russian morphology and lexical theory. Dissertation, Cambridge, MA. Siegel, D. 1974. Topics in English morphology. Dissertation, Cambridge, MA. lexical relation thematic relation lexical solidarities Term coined by Coseriu (1967) to denote syntagmatic relations of meaning between linguistic elements in contrast to restrictions on usage. The examination of semantic relations in syntagmatic constructions is traced to Porzig (1934), who described these relations as inherent semantic relations. Lexical solidarities concern directed (‘oriented’) semantic relations between a determining lexeme (e.g. blond) and a determined lexeme (e.g. hair). Coseriu distinguishes between three types of lexical solidarities which are independent of the semantic status of the determining element. The Dictionary of language and linguistics 680 semantic determination of the determined lexeme is a function of the determining lexeme: (a) in affinity with a class-forming feature (classeme), e.g. [of animals] in the verb graze; (b) through selection of a superordinate feature (archilexeme), e.g. [for travel] with ship in the context of train, car, boat, bus; and (c) through the implication of the whole lexeme, e.g. calico is (in a non-figurative sense) restricted to cat, i.e. it implies cat as a determined lexeme. References Coseriu, E. 1967. Lexikalische Solidaritäten. Poetica 1. 293–303. Porzig, W. 1934. Wesenhafte Bedeutungsbeziehungen. PBB 58. 70–97. selection restrictions lexical hypothesis lexicalist vs transformationalist hypothesis lexicalist vs transformationalist hypothesis (also lexicalist vs syntactic hypothesis) Different strategies for describing the processes of word and sentence formation in the framework of generative grammar. In morphology the transformationalist position, based on Chomsky (1970), operates on the assumption that word formation and the production of sentences display similar characteristics as far as recursiveness and generativity are concerned; moreover, numerous syntacticsemantic characteristics of complex words can be predicted on the basis of their underlying lexemes. Drawing upon the postulate of the economy of the lexicon3 in a generative framework, the proponents of the transformationalist hypothesis argue for describing complex morphological structures as the transition of a syntactic deep structure to a correspondingly complex morphological form in the surface structure. The lexicon is viewed as a collection of all irregularities and is thereby relieved of having to describe morphological processes as regular transformational processes. Various facts weaken this ‘syntactic’ position (see Motsch 1977): the restriction of potentially possible formations by competing terms already in the lexicon (e.g. brush: to brush vs broom: *to broom/sweep) can no more be justified through syntactic rules than semantic restrictions (e.g. apish vs *cattish, grassy vs ?oaty), the different degree to which regularities can be exploited, and pragmatically motivated problems of grammaticality (to hammer vs *to spanner) seem to be more relevant. Like the effect of analogous processes in word formation, such problems can be more adequately described in the framework of a lexicalist theory which lists simple as A-Z 681 well as complex words in the same manner in the lexicon. The de facto existing relationships and regularities are taken into account through redundancy rules, which formulate systematically predictable information within the processes of word formation. According to the lexicalist position, in the description of syntactic processes a syntactic relationship between two types of constructions (e.g. activepassive or the English dative alternation I gave him the book vs I gave the book to him) is represented by a lexical rule that operates on lexical entries (or on lexically unspecified sentence forms), whereas the classic transformational representation operates using transformational rules over lexically specified phrase markers. Lees (1960) represents the transformationalist position, while Jackendoff (1975) and Aronoff (1976) hold the lexicalist position. The controversy also continues in recent generative syntax theories. Hoekstra et al. (1980) and Moortgat et al. (1981) provide overviews of the development of these hypotheses. References Aronoff, M. 1976. Word formation in generative grammar. Cambridge. Bartsch, R. 1981. Semantics and syntax of nominal-izations. In J.Groenendijk et al. (eds), Formal methods in the study of language. Amsterdam. Vol. 1, 1–28. Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. ——1970. Remarks on nominalization. In R.A. Jacobs and P.S.Rosenbaum (eds), Readings in English transformational grammar. Waltham, MA. 184–221. Hoekstra, T., H.van der Hulst, and M.Moortgat (eds) 1980. Lexical grammar. Dordrecht. Jackendoff, R. 1975. Morphological and semantic regularities in the lexicon. Lg 51, 639–71. Kastovsky, D. 1977. Problems of word-formation. In C.Gutknecht (ed.), Grundbegriffe und Hauptströmungen der Linguistik. Frankfurt. 301–35. ——1977. Word formation, or: At the crossroads of morphology, syntax, semantics, and the lexicon. FL 10. 1–33. Lees, R.B. 1960. The grammar of English nominalizations. Bloomington, IN. ——1970. Problems in the grammatical analysis of English nominal compounds. In M.Bierwisch and K.E.Heidolph (eds), Progress in linguistics. The Hague. 174–86. Moortgat, M., H.van der Hulst, and T.Hoekstra (eds) 1981. The scope of lexical rules. Dordrecht. Motsch, W. 1977. Ein Plädoyer für die Beschreibung von Wortbildung auf der Grundlage des Lexikons. In H.Brekle and D.Kastovsky (eds), Perspektiven der Wortbildungsforschung. Bonn. 180–202. Selkirk, E.O. 1982. The syntax of words. Cambridge, MA. lexicalization 1 Synchronically, the adoption of a word into the lexicon of a language as a usual formation that is stored in the lexicon and can be recalled from there for use. Belonging to this lexicon are base words (fence, lion) as well as complex words (cookbook, fireman) which the language holds ready as denotations for required concepts. Also set syntactic phrases that are similar to words in a particular meaning (sour cream, at death’s door) belong to the lexicon of a language. In contrast to lexicalization, nonce words (test-tube Dictionary of language and linguistics 682 baby, space glove) are produced according to standard rules of word formation and are instantly comprehensible; they are, however, not usually a permanent part of the lexicon. also productivity) ( 2 Diachronically, the historical process (and result) of semantic change, in which the original meaning can no longer be deduced from its individual elements (cf. neighbor<OEng. nēahgebūr ‘near dweller’). Fully lexicalized expressions form a (new) semantic unit; their original motivation can only be deduced etymologically. This process is often also called idiomatization, to distinguish it from lexicalization. References word formation lexicography Theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. Lexicography provides the principles necessary for documenting the vocabulary of a language, a dialect or a profession by drawing on lexicology with its theoretical bases and materials for lexicographic codification and by taking practical concerns such as marketability, userfriendliness, etc. into consideration. The form of presentation depends on whether one intends to compile a single or multi-language lexicon, a diachronic or synchronic record of a specific vocabulary, or a descriptive or prescriptive reference work. The distinct purpose of the individual types of dictionaries determines how the materials are to be organized. While alphabetic ordering is by far the most frequent type, some dictionaries are systematically compiled according to semantic principles. A variant of alphabetic indexing is the socalled ‘backwards dictionary’ which is based on rhyme dictionaries of the Middle Ages. Entries ( lemma) are ordered alphabetically according to their final letters or syllables. This type of dictionary is particularly useful, since morphological relationships between words become transparent through their presentation. In contrast to these paradigmatically oriented dictionaries, style dictionaries codify the material according to syntagmatic principles by listing catchwords within syntactic constructions (e.g. idioms or phrases). So-called ‘valence dictionaries’ are also syntactically oriented; verbs, nouns, or adjectives are compiled according to their valence (i.e. their compatibility with obligatory complements). References Bergenholtz, H. (ed.). 1995. Manual of specialised lexicography. Amsterdam. Burchfield, R.W. (ed.) 1987. Studies in lexicography. Oxford. Hartmann, R.R.K. (ed.) 1986. The history of lexicography. Amsterdam. A-Z 683 Hausmann, F.J., P.Reichmann, H.E.Weigand, and L. Zgusta (eds) 1989–91. Wörterbucher. Dictionnaires. Dictionaries. 3 vols. Berlin and New York. Ilson, R.F. (ed.) 1985. Dictionaries, lexicography and language learning. Oxford. ——(ed.) 1986. Lexicography: an emerging international profession. Manchester. Jackson, H. 1988. Words and their meaning. London. Jones, R.L. and S.P.Sondrup. 1989. Computer-aided lexicography. In I.S.Bátori, W.Lenders, and W. Putschke (eds), Computerlinguistik. Berlin. 490–518. Landau, S.I. 1989. Dictionaries: the art and craft of lexicography. Cambridge. McDavid, R.I. and A.R.Duckert (eds) 1973. Lexicography in English. New York. Svensén, B. 1993. Practical lexicography: principles and methods of dictionary making, trans. J.Sykes and K.Schofield. Oxford. Tomaszczyk, J. and B.Lewandowska-Tomaszczyk (eds) 1990. Meaning and lexicography. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Wierzbicka, A. 1985. Lexicography and conceptual analysis. Ann Arbor, MI. Zgusta, L. 1971. Manual of lexicography. The Hague. ——(ed.) 1992. History, languages, and lexicographers. Tübingen. Bibliography Zgusta, L. and D.M.T.C.Farina. 1987. Lexicography today: an annotated bibliography of the theory of lexicography. Tübingen. Journals International Journal of Lexicography. Lexicographica. ica. lexicology Subdiscipline of linguistics or, more specifically, semantics that investigates and describes the structure of the vocabulary of a language. Lexicology also examines linguistic expressions for their internal semantic structure and the relationships between individual words or lexical units. The findings of lexicology may be codified by lexicography (i.e. the technique of preparing dictionaries), although the relationship between both areas is not necessarily close. ( also lexical field theory, semantic relation) References Aitchison, J. 1987. Words in the mind: an introduction to the mental lexicon. Oxford. Carter, R. 1987. Vocabulary: applied linguistic perspectives. London. Cruse, D.A. 1986. Lexical semantics. Cambridge. Dictionary of language and linguistics 684 Lipka, L. 1992. An outline of English lexicology, 2nd edn. Tübingen. Schwarze, C. and D.Wunderlich (eds) 1985. Handbuch der Lexikologie. Königstein. Roey, J.van 1990. French-English contrastive lexicology: an introduction. Leuven. Journal Lexicology. lexical field theory, semantic relation, semantics lexicon [Late Grk lexicon (sc. biblión) ‘book of or for words’] 1 An alphabetically or semantically ordered list of words for a language, dialect, or sociolect, or a list of terminology for a specific discipline. Such lists are generally compiled as reference works. ( also lexicography, vocabulary) 2 In its most general sense, the level of description which codifies the morphological and semantic aspects (i.e. the forms and meanings) of the vocabulary of a language which cannot be derived from the regularities of the linguistic system. 3 In transformational grammar, one of the basic components of grammar in the form of a subordinated list of all lexical formatives. The lexical entry consists of a phoneticphonological description in the form of a matrix of distinctive features to which a selection of specific syntactic features is correlated ( complex symbol) (see Chomsky 1965). 4 In generative semantics, the lexicon is composed of syntactically structured complexes of the smallest semantic building blocks ( semantic primitive) to which also lexicalist vs corresponding phonological realizations are assigned. ( transformationalist hypothesis) References Aitchison, J. 1987. Words in the mind: an introduction to the mental lexicon. Oxford. Botha, R.P. 1968. The function of the lexicon in transformational generative grammar. The Hague. Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Gruber, J. 1967. The functions of the lexicon in formal descriptive grammars. Santa Monica, CA. Hüllen, W. and R.A.I.Schulze, (eds) 1988. Understanding the lexicon: meaning, sense and world knowledge in lexical semantics. Tübingen. Jackendoff, R. 1975. Morphological and semantic regularities in the lexicon. Lg 51. 639–71. McCawley, J.D. 1968. Lexical insertion in a transformational grammar without deep structure. CLS 4. 71–80. Steinberg, D.D. and L.A.Jakobovits (eds) 1971. Semantics: an interdisciplinary reader in philosophy, linguistics and psychology. Cambridge. A-Z 685 Stowell, T. and E.Wehrli (eds) 1992. Syntax and the lexicon. New York. lexicon rule lexical insertion (rule) lexicostatistics The quantitative description of the vocabulary of a specific language, the frequency of specific devices or the stylistic characteristics of different texts. Lexicostatistical data are gathered by means of data processing. ( also computational linguistics, glottochronology, statistical linguistics) References Dyen, I. 1975. Linguistic subgrouping and lexicostatistics. The Hague. Gudschinsky, S.C. 1956. The ABCs of lexicostatistics (glottochronology). Word 12. 175–210. Hymes, D. 1960. Lexicostatistics. Current Anthro-pology 1. 3–44. ——1960. More on lexicostatistics. Current Anthropology 1. 338–45. Lehmann, W.P. 1962. Historical linguistics: an introduction. New York. (2nd edn 1973.) Smith, R.N. 1973. Probabilistic performance models of language. The Hague. Swadesh, M. 1952. Lexicostatistic dating of prehistoric ethnic contacts. Proceedings of the American Philological Society 96. 452–63. frequency dictionaries Dictionary of language and linguistics Lezgian LFG 686 North-East Caucasian Lexical-Functional Grammar liaison [Fr. ‘connection’] Pronunciation rule in French according to which a normally silent consonant at the end of a word is articulated if it occurs between one word with a final vowel sound and another with an initial vowel sound, cf. les parents [le parã] ‘the parents’ vs les amis [lez amis] ‘the friends.’ References Klausenburger, J. 1984. French liaison and linguistic theory. Göttingen. French, syllable ligature The merging of two or more letters (often for aesthetic reasons) from which a single, independent form is derived. The French ligature ‹œ› is motivated from ‹o› and ‹e› for [œ] or /œ/. Forming ligatures is one way of increasing the inventory of the letters (cf. also the development of ‹w› from ‹vv› or, in Danish, ‹æ› from ‹ae›). References graphemics, writing A-Z 687 linearity 1 The relationship between phonemes and corresponding phones in the realization of a linguistic expression. ( biuniqueness) 2 A property of natural languages, linearity refers to the one-dimensional ordering and chronological ordering of linguistic elements during communication. line spectrum Result of a spectral analysis of sounds or vowels, i.e. of periodic sound waves. The wideband spectrogram shows regular vertical lines in contrast to a spectrogram of noise. ( also phonetics) References phonetics lingo Usually facetious designation for jargon or cant. ( also slang) lingua franca [from Italian; Lat. lingua ‘tongue, language,’ franca ‘Franconian’] 1 Oldest attested pidgin, a trade language of the eastern Mediterranean coast which is based on Provençal ( Occitan) and Italian and incorporates linguistic elements from Greek and Arabic. The original ‘Lingua Franca’ arose during the period of the Venetian and Genovese economic domination in the Levantine countries and was spoken until the nineteenth century. ( also Sabir) 2 General term for a second acquired language system that serves as a means of communication between speakers of different first languages (or extremely distinct dialects), e.g. Latin (in the middle ages) and Arabic (as the universal language of Islam), Dictionary of language and linguistics 688 as well as naturally or artificially mixed languages having arisen from several individual Esperanto, koiné, pidgin, interlingua). languages ( References Samarin, W.J. 1962. Lingua francas, with special reference to Africa. In F.A.Rice (ed.), Studies of the role of second languages in Africa and Latin America. Washington, DC. 54–64. ——1987. Lingua franca. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Berlin and New York. 371–4. creole, pidgin lingual Speech sound classified according to its articulator (lingua=tongue). In vowels, a also articulatory phonetics) distinction is drawn between front, mid, and back. ( linguistic area An area with a group of geographically proximal languages which are either genetically unrelated or only marginally related and which, on the basis of mutual influence ( adstratum, language contact), show signs of convergence that help to delineate them as structurally different from other neighboring and/or genetically related languages. Reference Masica, C.P. 1976. Defining a linguistic area: South Asia. Chicago, IL. linguistic atlas Panregional collection of systematically ascertained dialectal differences in the form of linguistic maps ( dialect mapping). Linguistic atlases originated during the Neogrammarian period ( Neogrammarians). A-Z 689 References Allen, H.B. 1973–6. The linguistic atlas of the Upper Midwest, 3 vols. Minneapolis, MN. Avanesov, R.I. and S.V.Bromlej. 1986–. Dialektologiceskij atlas russkogo jazyka. Vol. 2 1989. Moscow. Deutscher Sprachatlas. 1927–56. Comp. by F.Wrede et al. 23 vols. Marburg. Deutscher Wortatlas. 1951–80. 22 vols. Wiesbaden. Gillierón, J. and E.Edmont. 1902–10. Atlas linguistique de France. Paris. Hotzenköcherle, R. (ed.) 1962- . Sprachatlas der deutschen Schweiz. Bern. Jaberg, K. and J.Jud. 1928–40. Sprach- and Sachatlas Italiens und der Südschweiz, 8 vols. Zofingen. Kolb, E. 1964. Phonological atlas of the northern region. Bern. Kurath, H. 1949. A word geography of the eastern United States. Ann Arbor, MI. Kurath, H., M.Hanley, B.Bloch, and G.S.Lowman Jr. 1939–43. Linguistic atlas of New England, 3 vols. Providence, R.I. Mather, J.Y. and H.H.Speitel. 1975–7. Linguistic atlas of Scotland, 2 vols. London. Moseley, C. and R.E.Asher (eds) 1994. Atlas of the world’s languages. London. Orton, H. 1960. An English dialect survey: linguistic atlas of England. Orbis 9. 331–48. (Repr. in H.B. Allen and G.Underwood (eds), Readings in American dialectology. New York, 1971. 230– 44.) ——1962. Survey of English dialects: an introduction. Leeds. Orton, H. and M.Barry (eds) 1969–71. Survey of English dialects: the basic material, vol. 2 (3 parts): The West Midland counties. Leeds. Orton, H. and W.Halliday (eds) 1962–3. Survey of English dialects; the basic material, vol. 1 (3 parts): The six northern counties and the Isle of Man. Leeds. Orton, H. and P.M.Tilling (eds) 1969–71. Survey of English dialects: the basic material, vol. 3 (3 parts): The East Midland counties and East Anglia. Leeds. Orton, H. and M.F.Wakelin (eds) 1967–8. Survey of English dialects: the basic material, vol. 4 (3 parts): The southern counties. Leeds. Orton, H. and N.Wright. 1974. A word geography of England. London. Orton, H., S.Sanderson, and J.Widdowson. 1978. Linguistic atlas of England. London. Wakelin, M.F. 1972. English dialects: an introduction. London. Weigner, A. et al. (eds) 1975–. Atlas linguarum europae. Vol. 1,4 1990. Assen. Veith, W. et al. 1984–. Kleiner deutscher Sprachatlas. Vol. 1, 2. hitherto. Tübingen. Veith, W. and W.Putschke, (eds) 1989. Sprachatlas des Deutschen: laufende Projekte. Tübingen. dialectology linguistic awareness Linguistic awareness in the sense of ‘knowledge about language’ or ability to make metalinguistic judgments about linguistic expressions constitutes an important area of study in transformational grammar, insofar as such linguistic intuition can be considered an expression of underlying competence. Investigations in psycholinguistics have, however, shown that judgments about the grammaticality of sentences are a type of linguistic performance and can be influenced just as much by performance factors as other linguistic activities (see Levelt 1972; Ericsson and Simon 1980; Carroll et al. Dictionary of language and linguistics 690 1981). In regard to the possible influence of linguistic awareness on child language development, the seminal investigations of Gleitman et al. (1972) have stimulated numerous studies and experiments. Five areas of metalinguistic research can be differentiated: (a) judgments about grammaticality and acceptability; (b) segmentation; (c) linguistic transformations and manipulations; (d) production and comprehension of ambiguity (e.g. in jokes, metaphors, or riddles); and (e) conceptualization of language, i.e. dissociation of word and referent (see Sinclair et al. 1978). The assumption that a single metalinguistic ability underlies the different metalinguistic forms of expression is debated. The importance of linguistic awareness in acquiring deictic expressions attests to experimental findings (see Böhme 1983). References Böhme, K. 1983. Children’s use and awareness of German possessive pronouns. Dissertation, Nijmegen. Carroll, J.M., T.G.Bever, and C.R.Pollack, 1981. The non-uniqueness of linguistic intuitions. Lg 57. 368–83. Ericsson, K.A. and H.A.Simon. 1980. Verbal reports as data. PsychologR 87. 215–51. Gleitman, L.R., H.Gleitman, and E.F.Shipley. 1972. The emergence of the child as grammarian. Cognition 1. 137–64. Hakes, D.T. 1980. The development of metalinguistic abilities in children. Berlin. Levelt, W.J.M. 1972. Some psychological aspects of linguistic data. LingB 17. 18–30. Sinclair, A., R.J.Jarvella, and W.J.M.Levelt. 1978. The child’s conception of language. Berlin. competence vs performance, language comprehension, psycholinguistics linguistic criticism An evaluation of language as (a) style criticism (stylistics), (b) evaluation of linguistic code theory, nominal style), (c) evaluation norms (e.g. elaborate vs restricted code ( of the properties of the linguistic system (e.g. holes in lexical fields, Sapir-Whorf hypothesis). Scientific language criticism is based mainly on functional criteria and is the basis of the politics of language. Journalistic criticism of language is mainly a demythologizing of how language is used as an instrument of control as well as of communication. In ordinary language philosophy, language criticism serves to determine linguistically conditioned philosophical pseudo-problems; cf. L.Wittgenstein’s ‘all philosophy is language criticism’ (Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, 4.0031). References Eco, U. 1977. A theory of semiotics. London. Fowler, R. 1981. Literature as social discourse: the practice of linguistic criticism. London. ——1986. Linguistic criticism. Oxford. A-Z 691 Wittgenstein, L. 1981. Tractatus logicophilosophicus. trans. C.K.Ogden. London. linguistic determinism Hypothesis put forth by B.L.Whorf (1897–1941) on the basis of his research into the dialects of Hopi, which claims that each individual language determines the perception, experience, and action of its speakers, and therefore speakers necessarily develop world views that differ to the same degree that their languages differ structurally. Thus language is not viewed primarily as a means of communication, but rather as an unconscious ‘background phenomenon’ which in large part determines individual thought. References Sapir-Whorf hypothesis linguistic geography dialect geography linguistic norms Social expectations, which determine the forms of suitable linguistic interaction within the boundaries of the linguistic system. Linguistic norms govern the fundamental conditions of communication (maxims of conversation, acceptability, comprehensibility) and in special situations curb the choice and organization of linguistic means like the form of the illocution, the choice of words, complexity of sentences, and pronunciation. Situative norms refer to functional and thematic appropriateness (e.g. for types of text for public/private, or oral/ written speech), to correct speech in social roles and institutions, to age, and to gender roles, among others. Linguistic norms are based either implicitly on a consensus of the speakers, or they are explicitly determined and legitimized by criteria such as circulation, age, structural accordance, and purpose. The demarcation of linguistic norms and rules of a linguistic system is methodically difficult, since the existence of implicit linguistic norms can only be deduced from usage. Dictionary of language and linguistics 692 References Bartsch, R. 1987. Norms of language: theoretical and practical aspects. London. Crowley, T. 1991. Proper English? Readings in language, history and cultural identity. London. Joseph, J.E. 1987. Eloquence and power: the rise of language standard and standard languages. London. Khubchandani Lachman, M. 1983. Plural languages, plural cultures: communication, identity, and sociopolitical change in contemporary India. Honolulu. Lewis, D. 1969. Convention: a philosophical study. Cambridge, MA. Milroy, J. et al. 1985. Authority in language: investigating language prescription and standardisation. London. Verdoodt, A. and R.Kjolseth (eds) 1976. Language in sociology. Louvain. linguistic relativity Sapir-Whorf hypothesis linguistic standardization The establishment and standardization of jargon, which is controlled internationally by the IOS (International Organization for Standardization). The choice, standardization, and formation of terminology is made according to standardized rules, such as the extent to which the term can be systematized, morphological motivation, pronunciation, and brevity. linguistic theory General theoretical premise for the linguistic description of natural languages. Through abstracting from individual observances in individual languages, linguistic theory designs models for the description of general grammatical properties of all natural languages ( universals); origin, function, structure, rules, tendencies of change of linguistic systems are considered from linguistic, psychological, sociological, and other aspects and placed in an axiomatically based context. Approaches to a linguistic theory that is comprehensive in this sense are to be found in Lieb (1977) and Bartsch and Vennemann (1982). Other uses of the term linguistic theory refer to the ‘theory of linguistic description’ (e.g. Chomsky 1965); to the grammatical description itself (Lakoff 1965), to A-Z 693 the description of competence ( competence vs performance; Chomsky 1965) as well as to the methodology of linguistics. References Bartsch, R. and T.Vennemann. 1982. Grundzüge der Sprachtheorie: eine linguistische Einführung. Tübingen. Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Cole, R.W. (ed.) 1977. Current issues in linguistic theory. Bloomington, IN. Lakoff, G. 1965. Irregularity in syntax. Dissertation, New York. Lieb, H.H. 1974/6. Grammars as theories: the case for axiomatic grammar. TL 1. 39–115. ——1977. Outline of integrational linguistics. Berlin. Newmeyer, F. 1986. Linguistic theory in America, 2nd edn. Orlando, FL. linguistics linguistics Scientific discipline with the goal of describing language and speech in all relevant theoretical and practical aspects and their relation to adjoining disciplines. Insofar as linguistics deals with human languages as a sign system, it can be understood as a subdiscipline of general semiotics. Because of the object of its study and the investigational methods appropriate to it, linguistics has characteristics of both the natural sciences and the social sciences. Depending on the interests of the investigator, linguistics can be divided into general linguistics, which attempts to develop theories explaining general universal regularities of language ( universals, language typology), and applied linguistics, which investigates problems dealing with specific languages. The various subfields of linguistics result from the different aspects of language investigated. (a) When the structure of language as a sign system is examined, the subfields phonology, morphology, word formation, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and text linguistics result. (b) These specific subdisciplines can be used to study language synchronically (i.e. in respect to one specific language state) or diachronically, when the historical development of a language is studied ( synchrony vs diachrony, language change). (c) Individual conditions of language production and perception are treated in psycholinguistics or neurolinguistics ( also language acquisition, language disorder). (d) The relationship between language and its social/sociological setting is addressed by sociolinguistics and ethnolinguistics. (e) The fields listed in (d) overlap with aspects of regional variants and influences ( dialect, dialectology). (f) Topics covered by applied linguistics include problems of foreign-language instruction ( foreign language pedagogy), translation, machine-aided translation ( computational linguistics) and language planning ( language contact). Dictionary of language and linguistics 694 References Akmajian, A., R.Demers, and R.M.Harnish, 1979. Linguistics: an introductory survey, (3rd edn. 1990) Oxford. Atkinson, M., D.Kilby, and I.Roca. 1988. Foundations of general linguistics, 2nd edn. London. Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. Dinneen, F.P. 1967. An introduction to general linguistics. New York. Droste, F.G. and J.E.Joseph (eds) 1989. Mainstreams in today’s linguistics. Amsterdam. Fromkin, V. and R.Rodman. 1974. An introduction to language, 5th edn. New York. Gethin, A. 1990. Antilinguistics: a critical assessment of modern linguistic theory and practice. Oxford. Gleason, H.A. 1955. An introduction to descriptive linguistics. New York. (Rev. edn 1961.) Hockett, C.F. 1958. A course in modern linguistics. New York. Jakobsen, R. and M.Halle, 1956. Fundamentals of language. The Hague. (2nd rev. edn 1975.) Langacker, R.W. 1967. Language and its structure. New York. ——1972. Fundamentals of linguistic analysis. New York. Lyons, J. 1968. Introduction to general linguistics. Cambridge. ——1981. Language and linguistics: An introduction. Cambridge. Martinet, A. 1965. La linguistique synchronique, études et recherches. Paris. ——(ed.) 1969. La linguistique. Paris. ——1989. Linguistique générale, linguistique structurale, linguistique fonctionelle. Linguistique 25.245–54. Newmeyer, F.J. (ed.) 1988. Linguistics: the Cambridge survey, 4 vols. Cambridge. Pedersen, M. 1962. The discovery of language. Cambridge, MA. Robins, R.H. 1989. General linguistics: an introductory survey, 4th edn. London. History Andresen, J.T. 1990. Linguistics in America 1769–1924: a critical history. London. Antonsen, E.H. (ed.) 1990. The Grimm brothers and PA. the Germanic past. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, Beaugrande, R.de. 1991. Linguistic theory: the discourse of fundamental works. London. Bohas, G., J.-P.Guillaume, and D.E.Kouloughli. 1990. The Arabic linguistic tradition. London. Cannon, G. 1990. The life and mind of Oriental Jones. Cambridge. Goldziher, I. 1994. On the history of grammar among the Arabs, ed. K.Devenyi et al. Amsterdam. Harris, R. 1990. Language, Saussure and Wittgenstein. London. ——(ed.) 1993. British linguistics in the nineteenth century. London. Harris, R. and T.J.Taylor. 1989. Landmarks in linguistic thought: the Western tradition from Socrates to Saussure. London. Itkonen, E. 1991. Universal history of linguistics: India, China, Arabia, Europe. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Koerner, E.F.K. 1989. Practicing linguistic historiography. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Kühlwein, W. (ed.) 1970/1. Linguistics in Great Britain. 2 vols. Tübingen. Law, V. 1990. Language and its students: the history of linguistics. In N.E.Collinge (ed.) An encyclopedia of language. London. 784–842. ——(ed.) 1993. History of linguistic thought in the Early Middle Ages. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Lepschy, G. (ed.) 1994. History of linguistics, vol. 1: The eastern tradition of linguistics; vol. 2: Classical and medieval Europe. London. Malmberg, B. 1991. Histoire de la linguistique de Sumer a Saussure. Paris. A-Z 695 Matthews, P.H. 1993. Grammatical theory in the United States from Bloomfield to Chomsky. Cambridge. Mauro, T.de and L.Formigari, (eds) 1993. Italian studies in linguistic historiography. Münster. Nerlich, B. 1991. Semantic theories in Europe, 1830–1930: from etymology to contextuality. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Owens, J. 1988. The foundations of grammar: an introduction to Medieval Arabic grammatical theory. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. ——1990. Early Arabic grammatical theory. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Parret, H. (ed.) 1976. History of linguistic thought and contemporary linguistics. The Hague. Robins, R.H. 1985. A short history of linguistics, 2nd edn. London. ——1988. History of linguistics. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 1,462–84. Scharfe, H. 1977. Grammatical literature. (A history of Indian literature, Vol. 5.) Wiesbaden. Sebeok, T.A. 1966. Portraits of linguists: a biographical sourcebook for the history of Western linguistics, 1746–1963, 2 vols. Bloomington, IN. ——1975. Current trends in linguistics, vol. 13: Historiography of linguistics, The Hague. Bibliographies Bibliographie linguistique—Linguistic bibliography. Utrecht and Antwerp. 1939ff. Bibliographie linguistischer Literatur. 1975ff. Bibliographie zur allgemeinen Linguistik und zur anglistischen, germanistischen und romanistischen Linguistik. Frankfurt. Koerner, E.F.K. 1978. Western histories of linguistic thought: an annotated chronological bibliography, 1822–1976. Amsterdam. Rice, F. and A.Guss (eds) 1965. Information source in linguistics: a bibliographical handbook. Washington, DC. Dictionaries and reference books Asher, R.E. and J.M.Y.Simpson (eds) 1994. The encyclopedia of language and linguistics, 10 vols. Oxford. Bright, W. (ed.) 1992. International encyclopedia of linguistics, 4 vols. New York and Oxford. Collinge, N.E. 1990. An encyclopedia of language. London. Crystal, D. 1991. A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics, 3rd edn. Oxford. ——1987. The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge. ——1993. An encyclopedic dictionary of language and languages. Oxford. ——1995. The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language. Cambridge. Dubois, J. et al. 1973. Dictionnaire de linguistique. 2nd edn. 1994. Paris. Ducrot, O. and J.-M.Schaeffer. 1995. Nouveau dictionnaire encyclopédique des sciences du langage. Paris. Hartmann, R.R.K. and F.C.Stork. 1972. Dictionary of language and linguistics. Barking, Essex. Malmkjaer K. (ed.) 1991. The linguistics encyclopedia. London. Meetham, A.R. and R.A.Hudson (eds) 1969. Encyclopaedia of linguistics, information and control. Oxford. Nash, R. (ed.) 1968. Multilingual lexicon of linguistics and philology. Coral Gables, FL. Pei, M. 1966. Glossary of linguistic terminology. New York. Trask, R.L. 1993. A dictionary of grammatical terms in linguistics. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 696 Vachek, J. and J.Dubsky. 1966. Dictionnaire de linguistique de l’école de Prague. Utrecht and Antwerp. Journals Folia Linguistica. Historiographia Linguistica. International Journal for the History of Linguistics. International Review of General Linguistics. Journal of Linguistics. Language. Languages. Lingua. Linguistics. La Linguistique. Studies in Language. Voprosy jazykoznan ija. Word. comparative linguistics linking morpheme Morphological elements (usually single vowels or consonants) that occur between two immediate constituents and thereby create compounds and derivations. English has few linking morphemes, the most common one being -s-(derived from the possessive case), e.g. bullring vs bull’s eye. In some languages, such as German, linking morphemes are commonly used in word formation. ( also epenthesis, morphology) References Plank, F. 1976. Morphological aspect of nominal compounding in German and certain other languages. Salzburger Beiträge zur Linguistik 2. 201–19. word formation A-Z 697 linking vowel (also connecting vowel) A collective term for stem-forming suffixes of different origins and with different functions. Linking vowels function in nouns and verbs to mark stem classes ( stem linking morpheme). vowel) and, in some languages, to connect morphemes ( References morphology liquid Umbrella term for l- and r-sounds. References phonetics LISP Acronym for list processing language, a functional programming language for symbolic processing based semantically on the lambda calculus which has established itself as a standard programming language in computational linguistics and artificial intelligence. LISP is distinguished (a) by the use of a minimal syntax based on the principle of the operator-operand combination with circumfixed parentheses—‘(+1 2)’—which provides a great degree of flexibility; (b) by the use of a single data structure (lists) for representing programs and data; and (c) by the free use of recursion. These features are useful in programming partially specified problem areas, such as those unde r-going theoretical development, and in specifying representational languages. Since its introduction in 1956 by J.McCarthy, LISP has been developed in numerous stages including a practical (commercial) use. Dictionary of language and linguistics 698 References McCarthy, J. et al. 1962. LISP 1.5 programmer’s manual. Cambridge, MA. Norrig, P. 1992. Paradigms of artificial intelligence programming: case studies in common LISP. San Mateo, CA. Steel, G. 1990. Common LISP: the language, 2nd edn. Bedford. list processing language LISP literacy 1 The ability to read or write. The teaching of literacy is considered a major goal of industrialized nations with universal education. The rates of illiteracy vary widely among countries, depending partly upon how it is measured and how it is defined. References Arnove, R.F. and H.J.Graff (eds) 1987. National literacy campaigns: historical and comparative perspectives. New York. Baynham, M. 1994. Literacy practices: investigating literacy in social contexts. London. Bissex, G.L. 1980. Gnys at wrk: A child learns to read and write. Cambridge, MA. Downing, P., S.D.Lima, and M.Noonan (eds) 1991. The linguistics of literacy. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Elley, W.B. 1992. How in the world do students read? International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Fliegel, R. 1987. The codes of literacy. DI 47:9.3411A. Goldman, S.R. and H.T.Trueba (eds) 1987. Becoming literate in English as a second language. Norwood, NJ. Goodman, K. 1982. Language and literacy, 2 vols. Boston. Holdaway, D. 1979. The foundations of literacy. Exeter, NH. Krashen, S. 1988. Free reading and the development of literacy. In L.M.Hyman and C.N.Li (eds), Language, speech and mind: studies in honour of Victoria A.Fromkin. London. 224–38. Lazere, D. 1987. Literacy and mass media: the political implications. NLH 18:2. 237–55. Olson, D.R., N.Torrance, and A.Hildyard (eds) 1985. Literacy, language, and learning: the nature and consequences of reading and writing. Cambridge. Olsen, D.R. and N.Torrance (eds) 1991. Literacy and orality. Cambridge. Schneider, W. and J.C.Näslund. 1993. The impact of early metalinguistic competencies and memory capacity on reading and spelling in elementary school: results of the Munich longitudinal study on the genesis of individual competencies (LOGIC). European Journal of Education 8. 273–87. A-Z 699 Sledd, J. 1986. Permanence and change in standard American English. In G.Nickel and J.Stalker (eds), Problems of standardization and linguistic variation in present-day English. Heidelberg. 50–8. Smith, F. 1983. Essays into literacy. Exeter, NH. ——1984. Joining the literacy club. Victoria, BC. Street, B.W. 1986. Literacy in theory and practice. Cambridge. ——(ed.) 1993. Cross-cultural approaches to literacy. Cambridge. Verhoeven, L. (ed.) 1994. Functional literacy: theoretical issues and educational implications. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Walker, R.W. 1987. Towards a model for predicting the acceptance of vernacular literacy by minoritylanguage groups. DAI 48:6. 1445A. Williams, G.L. 1987. Literacy acquisition in retrospect: a composite view of academicians and professionals. DAI 47:7.2527A. Williams, J. and G.Snipper. 1990. Literacy and bilingualism. London. Yaden, D.B. and S.Templeton (eds) 1986. Meta-linguistic awareness and beginning literacy: conceptualizing what it means to read and write . Portsmouth, NH. Zuanelli, E. 1989. Literacy in school and society: multidisciplinary perspectives. New York. Journal Literacy and bilingualism. 2 Transcribing or retranscribing a language into an alphabetic writing system, e.g. the Latinization (=Romanization) of Chinese with the Pīn writing system or of Japanese with either the Kunrei-siki or Hepburn writing systems. ( also transcription) literal paraphasia paraphasia literary language 1 Written language as opposed to spoken language. 2 In works of literature, a highly stylized and variably contrived (panregional) language as opposed to everyday, colloquial language ( colloquial speech). Literary language is subject to less strict grammatical norms and makes no claims to authenticity and utility or to economy or semantic clarity. References Carter, R.A. and W.Nash. 1990. Seeing through language: an introduction to styles of English writing. Oxford. Fowler, R. 1981. Literature as social discourse. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 700 Fowler, R. (ed.) 1987. A dictionary of modern critical terms. 2nd edn. London. Sebeok, T.A. (ed.) 1958. Style in language. Cambridge. stylistics Lithuanian Baltic language with about 5 million speakers in Lithuania. Religious literature has existed since the sixteenth century; a comprehensive secular literature since the nineteenth century. Latin alphabet with diacritics, including ‹ė›, , . Movable accent. Long and short vowels with distinctive intonations. Complex morphology. Distinction between [±definite] with attributive adjectives. As in Latvian, inflectional future tense. In some dialects, dual forms with nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs. References Dambriūnas, L., A.Klimas, and W.R.Schmalstieg. 1980. Introduction to modern Lithuanian, 3rd edn. Brooklyn, NY. Schmalstieg, W.R. 1988. A Lithuanian historical syntax. Columbus, OH. Grammars Lietuvių kalbos gramatika. 1965–76. 3 vols. Vilnius. Tekorienė, D. 1990. Lithuanian basic grammar and conversation. Kaunas. Dictionaries Dabartinės kalbos Lietuvių žodynas. 1993. Vilnius. Kurschat, A. 1968–73. Litauisch-deutsches Wörterbuch. 2 vols. Göttingen. Lietuvių kalbos žodynas. 1968–. Vol. 15, 1991. Vilnius. Piesarkas, B. and B.Svecevicius. 1995. Lithuanian dictionary. London. Robinson, D.F. 1976. Lithuanian reverse dictionary. Columbus, OH. Etymological dictionary Fraenkel, E. 1962–5. Litauisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 2 vols. Heidelberg. A-Z 701 Bibliography Lietuvos TSR bibliografija. 1969–. 3 vols. Vilnius. litotes [Grk lītótēs ‘plainness, simplicity’] Rhetorical trope which replaces a stressed, positive expression by the negation of the opposite, e.g. not (exactly) small=‘(rather) large.’ Litotes expresses understatement that intensifies meaning, as in He is not the wisest man in the world when we mean ‘He is a fool’ (Peacham, The Father of Eloquence, 1577). References figure of speech Liv Finno-Ugric loan translation 1 In the narrower sense: the process and result of a one-to-one translation of the elements of a foreign expression into a word in one’s own language: Eng. Monday for Lat. dies lunae, Eng. accomplished fact for Fr. fait accompli. . 2 In a broader sense: (a) a loose translation of the foreign concept into one’s own language, e.g. Ger. Wolkenkratzer (lit.: ‘cloud scratcher’) for Eng. skyscraper; or (b) an adoption of the foreign concept into one’s own language, e.g. Eng. brotherhood for Lat. fraternitas. ( also borrowed meaning, borrowing, calque, loan word) Dictionary of language and linguistics 702 References borrowing loan word 1 In the narrower sense: in contrast with foreign word, words borrowed from one borrowing), which have become lexicalized language into another language ( (=assimilated phonetically, graphemically, and grammatically) into the new language: Eng. picture<Lat. pictura, Ger. flirten (‘to flirt’)<Eng. flirt. 2 In the broader sense: an umbrella term for foreign word and loan word (in the above-mentioned sense). Here, a distinction is drawn between lexical and semantic borrowings ( calque): in lexical borrowings the word and its meaning (usually together with the ‘new’ object) are taken into the language and used either as a foreign word (=non-assimilated loan) like Sputnik, paté, and rumba, or as an assimilated loan word (in the narrower sense). References borrowing local tree Part of a tree diagram with only one branching node. A local tree comprises the branching node and its daughter nodes. localist hypothesis [Lat. locus ‘place’] Hypothesis that all linguistic expressions, both in form and content, are based on a pattern of locational/spatial expressions. The justification for this approach is relatively nonlinguistic, resting instead on the inarguable relevance of spatial experience in the development of cognitive abilities. In all languages there are areas for which the theory is apparently correct, such as prepositions of spatial relations which are also used temporally (in the house/in an hour), but the reverse is never the case. If the dative case A-Z 703 is interpreted as a specialized locative, this seems to present a plausible explanation why so many languages express possessive relationship with the dative, e.g. Lat. Liber est mihi, lit. ‘book is me (dat.)’=‘The book is mine’ or ‘I have the book’ (i.e. The book is with me). This approach runs into problems, however, when it comes to categories such also case, case grammar) as tense, aspect, and in basic cases such as nominative. ( References Anderson, J.M. 1971. The grammar of case: towards a localistic theory. Cambridge. ——1987. Case grammar and the localist hypotheses. In R.Dirven and G.Rudden (eds), Concepts of case. Tübingen. 103–21. ——1988. The localist basis for syntactic categories. Duisburg. Girke, J. 1977. Probleme einer lokalistischen Kasustheorie. Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Literaturen 214. 61 70. Hjelmslev, L. 1935. La catégorie des cas. Munich. (Repr. 1972.) Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics. Cambridge. Vol. 2, ch. 5.7. Miller, J.E. 1985. Semantics and syntax: parallels and connections. Cambridge. case grammar locative 1 Morphological case in some languages which serves to identify location; e.g. Turkish ev ‘house’ vs evde ‘in the house.’ Some remnants of the locative can be found in Latin, where its function has been taken over mostly by the ablative or prepositional constructions. References case 2 Term for the semantic role of location in case grammar. locative clause Semantically defined dependent clause functioning as an adverbial to indicate place, direction, or areal extent of the state of affairs described by the verb. They are introduced by such spatial adverbs as where, wherever, whence: He sailed wherever the winds took him. Dictionary of language and linguistics 704 locution [Lat. locutio ‘the act of speaking, speech’] In Austin’s speech act theory (1962), a part of every speech act that comprises the articulation of linguistic forms (phonetic act), the production of words and strings of words in a particular grammatical order (phatic act) and the reference to objects and states of affairs in the world by means of language (rhetic act). Searle (1969) subsumes the phonetic and phatic act under utterance act, while the rhetic act corresponds to his propositional act. ( proposition) ( also illocution, perlocution, proposition) References Austin, J.L. 1962. How to do things with words. Oxford. Searle, J.R. 1968. Austin on illocutionary acts. Philosophische Rundschau 77. 405–24. ——1969. Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge. speech act theory logic deontic logic, epistemic logic, formal logic, intensional logic, model logic, predicate logic, propositional logic, temporal logic logical connective (also logical particle) In formal logic, designation for logical elements such as and, or, not, if…then, if and only if ( equivalence) that connect elementary sentences with complex propositions whose truth value is functionally dependent on the truth value of the elementary sentences ( truth table). There is a distinction between (a) one-place logical connectives ( negation) and (b) two-place logical connectives ( conjunction3, disjunction, implication), each of which connects at least two elementary propositions into a new complex proposition. Although logical connectives correspond to words or groups of words that are traditionally considered conjunctions1 in everyday language, not all conjunctions in the linguistic sense can be considered logical operators, that is, truth-functional connections (e.g. for and because are not logical connectives). Moreover, their logical meaning corresponds only partially to their use in natural languages. A-Z 705 References Gazdar, G. 1979. Pragmatics. New York. formal logic logical constant Umbrella term for all logical elements which, on the basis of their semantic clarity and invariable meaning and function, determine the logical structure of propositional connections. Logical connectives, operators, and quantifiers are all types of logical constants. References formal logic logical form A level of syntactic representation in Government and Binding theory which operates between surface structure and semantic interpretation. Various rules operate between surface structure and logical form (LF). Syntactic constraints apply to these rules, so logical form is a syntactic level of representation. Logical form disambiguates the semantics of a sentence. At the level of logical form, the scope relationships between operators are syntactically represented by c-command relationships: an operator (e.g. a quantifier or question word) has scope over a constituent X when the operator ccommands the constituent X at logical form. Thus the sentence everyone1 loves someone2 can be transformed by quantifier raising to someone2 [everyone loves -2], which is interpreted by semantic rules as there is an X, and for every Y (it is true) Y loves X. References Carrico, J. de 1983. On quantifier raising. LingI 14. 343–6. Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. Higginbotham, J. 1983. Logical form, binding and nominals. LingI 14. 395–420. Hornstein, N. 1984. Logic as grammar. Cambridge, MA. ——1994. Logical form. Oxford. Huang, C.T.J. 1982a. Move wh in a language with wh-movement. LRev 1. 369–416. Dictionary of language and linguistics 706 ——1982b. Logical relations in Chinese and the theory of grammar. Dissertation, Cambridge, MA. Huang, C.T. and R.May (eds) 1991. Logical structure and linguistic structure. Dordrecht. Kayne, R. 1981. Two notes on the NIC. In A.Belletti, L.Brandi, and L.Rizzi (eds), Theory of markedness in generative grammar. Pisa. 317–46. Ladusaw, W. 1983. Logical form and conditions on grammaticality. Ling&P 6. 373–92. May, R. 1977. The grammar of quantification. Dissertation, Cambridge, MA. ——1985. Logical form: its structure and deriva-tion. Cambridge, MA. Williams, E. 1977. Discourse and logical form. LingI 8.101–39. logical grammars In computational linguistics, generative grammar formalisms taken from logic programming. Definite clause grammar, metamorphosis grammar, and extraposition grammar also belong in this category. logical implication implication logical language formal language logical particle logical connective logical semantics Originally used as a designation for semantic investigations on artificially constructed languages in the framework of formal logic; in more recent linguistic models, logical semantics refers to the description of semantic structures in natural languages, to the degree that they are implemented with the tools of mathematical logic (=formal logic). The artificial languages, developed since the middle of the nineteenth century by Boole, De Morgan, and Frege, have the following advantages over natural languages: clarity, exactness, and a one-to-one correspondence of syntactic and semantic structures. An attempt to transfer the principles of semantic interpretation developed for artificial A-Z 707 languages to natural languages is undertaken primarily by Montague in his Montague grammar. References Frege, G. 1879. Begriffsschrift: eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formalsprache des reinen Denkens. Halle. Landman, F. and F.Veltman (eds) 1984. Varieties of formal semantics. Dordrecht. Reichenbach, H. 1947. Elements of symbolic logic. New York. Rosner, M. and R.Johnson. 1992. Computational linguistics and formal semantics. Cambridge. Russell, B. 1905. The theory of descriptions. New York. Von Benthem, H. 1986. Essays in logical semantics. Dordrecht. Wittgenstein, L. 1921. Tractatus logicophilosophicus. London. categorial grammar, formal logic, intensional logic, Montague grammar logical type logistics logogram type theory formal logic logography logography [Grk lógos ‘expression,’ gráphein ‘to write’] Writing system in which the meaning of individual linguistic expressions (individual words) is expressed by graphic signs (logogram) whereby, in contrast with ideography and pictography, a constant number of phonemic complexes (ideally one complex) is assigned to each sign. Logograms can be read in a similar manner as alphabetic writing systems. Chinese is written logographically with Chinese characters. Signs like ‹$› for dollar, ‹£› for pound, and ‹+› for plus are logograms. Dictionary of language and linguistics 708 References writing logophoricity [Grk phérein ‘to bear, to carry’] Term introduced by C.Hagège to denote a specific type of reference characteristic to a number of West African languages like Ewe, Yoruba, and Igbo. In comparison to reflexive reference, reciprocal reference, and so-called switch reference (Wiesemann 1986:438), logophoric reference can be seen as a form of grammaticalized coreference since it underlies more specific conditions of antecedent choice than anaphoric reference. Logophoric pronouns are distinct from anaphoric pronouns in that they have as their antecedent the person whose speech, thoughts, feelings, general state of consciousness, or point of view is being reported (empathy). The phenomenon of logophoricity was actually already known in Latin grammar, since Latin has the logophoric use of the reflexive pronoun as ‘indirect reflexivization.’ References Hagège, C. 1974. Les pronoms logophoriques. BSLP 69. 287–310. Sells, P. 1987. Aspects of logophoricity. In A.Zaenen (ed.), Studies in grammatical theory and discourse structure, vol. 2: Logophoricity and bound anaphora. Stanford, CA. Wiesemann, U. 1986. Grammaticalized coreference. In U.Wiesemann (ed.), Pronominal systems. Tübingen. 437–61. A-Z 709 Logudorese London school Sardinian Firthian linguistics geminate long consonant long-term memory memory long vs short Property of speech sounds. Occasionally the speech sounds themselves are referred to as also quantity). ‘longs’ or ‘shorts.’ ( loss with compensatory lengthening compensatory lengthening Low German low variety lower case German high vs low variety capital vs small Dictionary of language and linguistics lowering LP rule breaking ID/LP format LTM (long-term memory) Luba LUG 710 memory Bantu Lexical Unification Grammar Luo Chari-Nile languages Luvian Anatolian Lycian Anatolian Lydian Anatolian A-Z 711 M Maban Nilo-Saharan Macedonian South Slavic language with approx. 1.2 million speakers in Macedonia and approx. 100,000 speakers in northern Greece. Macedonian has been standardized since 1945 and . is written in the Cyrillic alphabet with the additional letters ‹S›, ‹Γ›, Characteristics: in polysyllabic words, stress on the antepenultimate syllable, three different postclitic definite articles, pronominal anticipation of the determined object. References Elson, M.J. 1989. Macedonian verbal morphology: a structural analysis. Columbus, OH. Koneski, B. 1967–81. Gramatika na makedonskiot literaturen jazik, Parts 1 and 2. Skopje. ——1983. A historical phonology of the Macedonian language. Heidelberg. Lunt, H.G. 1952. A grammar of the Macedonian literary language. Skopje. Stamatoski, T. 1986. Borba za makedonski literaturen jazik. Skopje. Dictionaries Crvenkovski, D. 1976. Makedonsko-angliski rečnik (Macedonian-English dictionary). Skopje. Koneski, B. (ed.) 1961–6. Rečnik na makedonskiot literaturen jazik, 3 vols. (Repr. 1986 in one vol.) Skopje. Dictionary of language and linguistics 712 Journal Makedonski Jazik. machine-aided translation (also automatic translation, computer translation, machine translation) Transmission of a natural-language text into an equivalent text of another natural language with the aid of a computer program. Such programs have (with varying specializations and success) lexical, grammatical, and, in part, encyclopedic knowledge bases. Machine-aided translation consists of three components: (a) analysis of the source language by means of parsing; (b) transfer: the transmission of information from the source language into the target language; (c) synthesis: the generation of the target language. The systems vary according to whether they translate directly from one language into another or whether the text in the source language must first be translated into a neutral interlingua and then into the target language, which makes particular sense if the source language is to be translated into several target languages. Linguistic problems associated with machine-aided translation arise principally from the different lexical structure of the given vocabularies (e.g. Ger. kennen, können, wissen for Eng. know), from various grades of grammatical differentiation (e.g. aspect differentiation in Slavic as compared to Germanic languages), from need for encyclopedic knowledge to disambiguate ambiguous forms, and from the necessity to rely on experience and standard assumptions when interpreting vagueness. Programs for machine-aided translation have been applied with fair success; in most cases, however, it is necessary to pre- and post-edit the texts. References Alpac Report. 1966. Language and machines: computers in translation and linguistics. Washington, DC. Arnold, D. et al. 1993. Machine translation. Oxford. Bátori, I. and H.J.Weber (eds) 1986. Neue Ansätze in maschineller Sprachübersetzung: Wissensreprä-sentation und Textbezug/New approaches in machine translation: knowledge representation and discourse models. Tübingen. Hutchins, W.J. and H.Somers (eds) 1992. Machine translation. New York and London. Laffling, J. 1991. Toward high precision machine translation. Berlin and New York. Lewis, D. 1985. The development and progress of machine translation systems. ALLC Bulletin 5. 40–52. A-Z 713 Marchuk, Y.M. 1989. Machine-aided translation. In I.S.Bátori, W.Lenders, and W.Putschke (eds), Computational linguistics: an international handbook of computer-oriented language research and applications. Berlin and New York. 682–7. Maxwell, D. et al. (eds) 1989. New directions in machine translation. Dordrecht. Melby, A. 1989. Machine translation: general development. In I.S.Bátori, W.Lenders, and W. Putschke (eds), Computational linguistics: an international handbook of computer-oriented language research and applications. Berlin and New York. 622–8. Newton. J. (ed.) 1992. Computers in translation: a practical appraisal. London. Nirenburg, S. (ed.) 1987. Machine translation. Cambridge. Slocum, J. (ed.) 1985. Special issue on machine translation. CL 11:1. Tsjuii, J. 1989. Machine translation: research and trends. In I.S.Bátori, W.Lenders. and W.Putschke (eds), Computational linguistics: an international handbook of computer-oriented language research and applications. Berlin and New York. 652–69. Journal Machine Translation. machine language Based on the binary code, a notational convention for computer programs that is specially established for every microprocessor. In order to function, programming texts of programming languages must be translated into the computer language of the particular micro-processor by a compiler or interpreter. Reference Struble, G. 1975. Assembly language programming. Reading, MA. machine-readable corpus A collection of texts of written or spoken language that are stored in computers and can be evaluated by computer on the basis of word occurrences, word frequencies, word contexts, etc. Dictionary of language and linguistics 714 References Chisholm, D. 1985. Computer-assisted research in German language and literature since the midseventies. GQ 58. 409–22. ——1986. Post-renaissance German. LLC 1. 188–189. Hoffman, C.W. 1985. German research tools. Monatshefte 77. 292–301. Van Halteren, H. and T.van den Heuvel. 1990. Linguistic exploitation of syntactic databases. Amsterdam. machine translation machine-aided translation Macro-Carib Carib macrolinguistics [Grk makrós ‘long, large’] 1 Synonym for ethnolinguistics. 2 Scientific investigation of language in the broadest sense, i.e. in the context of all related disciplines such as sociology, psychology, and philosophy. A central subdiscipline of macro-linguistics is microlinguistics, linguistics in the narrower sense, which deals with the description and explanation of a language system. A-Z 715 Macro-Siouan macro speech act Siouan text function macrostructure A term from text linguistics (van Dijk) for the global semantic and pragmatic structure of a text. The macrostructure of a text, which includes phonological, graphological, and lexicogrammatical patterning, refers to the largest-scale patterns, which are the means whereby texts can be classified into different text types, such as narrative, exposition, lyric poem, and so on. While the patterning of sentences and propositions constitutes the semantic macro-structure, the individual speech acts ( speech act classification, speech act theory) and sequences of speech acts constitute the pragmatic macrostructure, the ‘macro-speech act’ which is to be understood as the illocution of the text (text function). References Garcia-Berrio, A. et al. 1988. Compositional structure: macrostructures. In J.S.Petöfi (ed.), Text and discourse constitution. Berlin. 170–211. Van Dijk, T.A. 1980. An interdisciplinary study of global structures in discourse, interaction and cognition. Hillsdale, NJ. ——1981. Studies in the pragmatics of discourse. The Hague. Van Dijk, T.A. and W.Kintsch. 1983. Strategies of discourse comprehension. Orlando, FL. argumentation, narrative analysis macrosyntax A term from text grammar ( discourse grammar) to describe the cohesion of texts, for example textphoric. ( also transphrastic analysis. text linguistics) References Chatman, S. 1978. Story and discourse. Ithaca, NY. Dictionary of language and linguistics 716 Genette, G. 1980. Narrative discourse: an essay on method. trans. J.E.Lewin. Ithaca, NY. discourse grammar Magyar Maiduan Hungarian Penutian main clause (also independent clause) In a complex sentence, the clause that is structurally independent, i.e. that does not function as a part of speech for another clause. The distinction between main and subordinate clause (a clause that is dependent and embedded) is only useful in complex sentences, in which the term ‘main clause’ corresponds to the matrix sentence in which subclauses ( constituent clauses) are embedded. As a rule only main clauses have illocutionary force. The distinction between main clause and subordinate clause, while problematic, has been us ual since the second half of the eighteenth century. References subordinate clause main verb Semantically and syntactically motivated subset of verbs which have their own lexical meaning and form the syntactic head of the predicate or verb phrase. ( also auxiliary, copular verb, valence) A-Z Maipuran 717 Arawakan (major) constituent Relatively independent basic structural element of a sentence; the exact number and function of constituents depends on the particular language. The determination and classification of constituents depends on the theoretical assumptions of the syntactic approach employed. An operational definition can be given as follows. (a) Constituents can appear before the finite verb in declarative sentences ( topicalization). (b) They can be moved around in the sentence (as a unit, if they are complex). Thus the substitution test shows that attributes are not constituents since they cannot be moved from their antecedent. (c) Constituents can be replaced by single words or pronouns through substitution. This operational definition does not coincide with the traditional definition of constituents, where syntactic and functional aspects are also considered, cf. the traditional definitions of subject, object, predicate, and adverbial. For a different definition of constituent, valence. Constituents include single words (today, works, she), phrases (in the morning, the new book, without a doubt), and constituent clauses. Makah Wakashan Malagasy Group of closely related Malayo-Polynesian languages in Madagascar; the Merina dialect is the official language of Madagascar (about 10 million speakers). Characteristics: word order VOS; well-developed voice system. References Dez, J. 1980. Structures de la langue malgache. Paris. Domenichini-Ramiaramanana, B. 1976. Le Malgache: essai de description sommaire. Paris. Faublée, J. 1946. Introduction au malgache. Langues de l’Orient 1:3. Rabenilaina, R.-B. 1983. Morpho-syntaxe du malgache. Paris. Dictionary of language and linguistics 718 malapropism [Fr. mal à propos ‘not to the purpose, inappropriate’] A misuse of words, e.g. the aggravator in the washing machine for the agitator, or a detestable wrench for an adjustable wrench. ( play on words, faux amis) References Fay, D. & A.Cutler, 1977. Malapropism and the structure of the mental lexicon. LingI 8.505–20. Zwicky, A.M. 1982. Classical malapropisms and the creation of a mental lexicon. In L.K.Obler et al. (eds), Exceptional language and linguistics. New York. Malay Malayo-Polynesian Malayalam Dravidian Malayo-Polynesian (also Austronesian) Language group comprising approx. 500 languages with over 170 million speakers spread throughout Madagascar, South-East Asia, Indonesia, and the Pacific Islands. These languages can be divided into two main groups: East Malayo-Polynesian (or Oceanic, containing the languages of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia) and West Malayo-Polynesian (including the languages of Indonesia, the Philippines, Taiwan, Madagascar, and parts of South-East Asia). The most important languages belong to the West Malayo-Polynesian group: Indonesian (about 100 million speakers, also as second language), Javanese (about 66 million speakers), Sundanese (about 17 million speakers), Malay (about 12 million speakers), Tagalog and Cebuano in the Philippines (about 13 million each), Malagasy (about 10 million speakers). Included among the less widespread languages of the East Malayo-Polynesian group are Fijian (about 300,000 speakers) and Samoan (about 200,000 speakers). Scholars in the eighteenth century suspected that many of the languages of the Indian and Pacific Oceans actually belonged to a common linguistic group; Dempwolff (1934– 8) undertook a successful historical reconstruction which is today fairly far advanced, if not uncontroversial. Benedikt (1975) has attempted to combine the Malayo-Polynesian A-Z 719 languages with the Cam-Thai group to form a more comprehensive language family, Austro-Thai. Characteristics: most of the languages have a fairly simple sound system, complex voice constructions and verb-initial word order (VSO, VOS). In the Oceanic territory noun class systems and ergative structures have developed. References Benedikt, P.K. 1975. Austro-Thai: language and culture. New Haven, CT. Blust, R. 1988. Austronesian root theory. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Dahl, O.C. 1973. Proto-Austronesian. Lund. Dempwolff, O. 1934–8. Vergleichende Lautlehre des austronesischen Wortschatzes. Berlin. (Repr. Nendeln 1969.) Durie, M. 1985. A grammar of Acehnese. Dordrecht. Dyen, I. 1965. A lexicostatistical classification of the Austronesian languages. Bloomington, IN. Lenches, E.P.Y. 1976. Cebuano case grammar. 2 vols. Washington, DC. Schumacher, W.W. et al. 1992. Pacific rim: Austronesian and Papuan linguistic history. Heidelberg. Sebeok, T.A. (ed.) 1971. Current trends in linguistics, vol. 8: Oceania. The Hague. Journals Oceanic Linguistics. Pacific Linguistics. Dictionary of language and linguistics Maltese 720 Arabic, European languages Mam Mayan languages Manchu Mandarin Tungusic Chinese Mande Branch of the Niger-Congo languages with approx. twenty-five languages in West Africa; the most important languages: Bambara (Mali, about 2.5 million speakers), Mende (Sierra Leone, about 1.2 million speakers). Characteristics: In contrast to other Niger-Congo languages, the Mande languages have no noun classes; however, remnants of an old class system can be seen in the consonantinitial alternations. Tonal languages (tone used to mark grammatical in Kpelle), grammatical distinction between categories), velarized consonants (e.g. absolute and relational nominals, development of various syllabaries. ( also African languages) References Brauner, S. 1975. Lehrbuch des Bambara. Leipzig. Creissels, D. 1983. Elements de grammaire de la langue mandinka. Grenoble. Kastenholz, R. 1988. Mande languages and linguistics, compiled and (partially) annotated. Hamburg. Welmers, W.E. 1971. Niger-Congo, Mande. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. Vol. 7, 113–40. ——1973. African language structures. Berkeley, CA. African languages A-Z Manichean manner of action 721 Iranian Aktionsart, aspect manner of articulation The way in which the airstream is modified during the articulation of a consonant: either (oral or nasal) stop, fricative (both median and lateral), affricate, approximant (both median and lateral), flap, or trill. ( also articulatory phonetics) Mansi Finno-Ugric Manx Celtic mapping function Mapuche Andean Marathi Indo-Aryan language with approx. 45 million speakers, heavily influenced by the Dravidian languages (Kannada, Telugu). Dictionary of language and linguistics 722 References Bertensen, M. and J.Nimbkar. 1975. A Marathi reference grammar. Philadelphia, PA. Chitnis, V. 1979. An intensive course in Marathi. Mysore. Kale, K. and A.Soman. 1986. Learning Marathi. Pune. Pandharipande, R. 1989. Marathi. London. Indo-Aryan Dictionary Sirmokadam, M.S. and G.D.Khanolkar. 1970–89. The new standard dictionary Marathi— English—Marathi, 3 vols. Bombay. Mari Finno-Ugric marked vs unmarked In Prague School phonology, a representational form developed to describe linguistic units on the basis of the presence or absence of the smallest semantically significant features. The element containing the feature is designated by [+A], the element without the feature is designated by [−A] ([A] standing for every possible linguistic feature). For further developments in more recent descriptive models, markedness. References markedness markedness The concept of markedness is concerned with the distinction between what is neutral, natural, or expected (=unmarked) and what departs from the neutral (=marked) along some specified parameter. It was introduced in linguistics by the Prague School (L.Trubetzkoy, R. Jakobson) for evaluating the members of an oppositional pair as ‘marked’ (having some kind of feature) or ‘unmarked’ (having no features). An example: A-Z 723 according to Jakobson (1936), in the opposition nominative vs accusative, the accusative is the marked case, because it indicates the presence of an affected entity (i.e. a direct object) while the nominative does not have this feature, i.e. it signals neither the presence nor the absence of such an entity. Unmarked elements also exhibit many of the following characteristics (see Greenberg 1966; Mayerthaler 1980): they are expressed by simpler means, they occur more frequently in the languages of the world, they are learned earlier in first language acquisition, and are less often the ‘target’ or ‘goal’ of processes such as language change. Generative transformational grammar has contributed much towards a better understanding of the concept of markedness. Chomsky and Halle (1968) evaluate phonological feature descriptions by means of markedness conventions. With the opposition [± rounded], for example, the unmarked feature is [−rounded] for front vowels and [+rounded] for back vowels. According to this markedness rule, the vowel /y/, a rounded front vowel, is more marked than /u/, a rounded back vowel. On the basis of this convention, phonological systems, word representations, and processes can be compared to one another and evaluated according to their markedness ( natural phonology). In syntax, the concept of markedness is applied within recent generative transformational grammar ( core grammar), within natural generative grammar, as well as for syntactic universals (cf. hierarchy universals). In semantics, most of the characteristics mentioned above for unmarked categories hold for prototypes. Markedness asymmetries have been shown to hold not only for binary systems but also for larger sets of elements yielding markedness hierarchies (e.g. nominative ‹ accusative ‹ dative ‹ genitive, see Primus 1987; singular ‹ plural ‹ dual, see Greenberg 1966). An important principle of markedness theory is the iconicity between form units and their corresponding meanings. Mayerthaler (1981) proposes a principle of morphological iconism, according to which semantically unmarked elements are coded morphologically more simply than marked elements. The idea that the markedness of linguistic units corresponds more or less exactly to cognitive-psychological complexity or simplicity can already be found in the first proposals of markedness theory, and is still focal in research on naturalness and markedness. References Belleti, A., L.Brandi, and I.Rizzi (eds) 1981. The theory of markedness in generative grammar. Pisa. Bruck, A. et al. (eds) 1974. Parasession on natural phonology. CLS 11. Chomsky, N. and M.Halle. 1968. The sound pattern of English. New York. Eckmann, F.R., E.A.Moravcsik, and J.R.Wirth (eds) 1986. Markedness. New York. Greenberg, J.H. 1966. Language universals with special reference to feature hierarchies. The Hague. Haiman, J. (ed.) 1984. Iconicity in syntax. Amsterdam. Herbert, R.K. 1986. Language universals, markedness theory and natural phonetic processes. Berlin. Hooper, J.B. 1976. An introduction to natural generative phonology. New York. Jakobson, R. 1936. Beitrag zur allgemeinen Kasuslehre: Gesamtbedeutungen der russischen Kasus. TCLP 6.240–88. ——1968. Child language: aphasia and phonological universals. The Hague. Dictionary of language and linguistics 724 Mayerthaler, W. 1981. Morphologische Natürlichkeit. Frankfurt. (Trans. as Morphological markedness. Ann Arbor, MI, 1986.) Primus, B. 1987. Grammatische Hierarchien. Munich. Stampe, D. 1969. The acquisition of phonetic representation. CLS 5. 443–54. Tomic, O.M. 1989. Markedness in synchrony and diachrony. Berlin. Trubetzkoy, L. 1969. Principles of phonology, trans. C.A.M.Baltaxe. Berkeley, CA. Vennemann, T. 1972. Sound change and markedness theory: on the history of the German consonant system. In R.P.Stockwell and R.Macaulay (eds), Linguistic change and generative theory. Bloomington, IN. 230–75. ——1983. Causality in language change: theories of linguistic preferences as a basis for linguistic explanations. FolH 4. 5–26. markerese Term devised by D.Lewis from the English word marker (in analogy to Japanese, Chinese, etc.) to denote the metalinguistic language of features primarily used in interpretive semantics and generative semantics for the description of meaning. In Lewis’ view, markerese cannot fulfill its function, because it is nothing more than an imprecise artificial language which itself requires an interpretation. Semantic description cannot, according to this view, be exhausted by mere translation, but rather must be apparent in the specification of models oriented towards reality. ( also modeltheoretic semantics) Reference Lewis, D. 1970. General semantics. Synthese 22. 18–67. Markov model Markov process Markov process Formally, this is a kind of stochastic grammar, more exactly a finite state automaton, all of whose states are final and whose transitions are weighted by the probabilities of traversing them. Named after the Russian mathematician A.A.Markov (1856–1922), they incorporate a ‘finite state assumption’, i.e. that future states may be predicted from the A-Z 725 present one alone, with no history. Markov applied his technique to analyze the distribution of vowels and consonants in Pushkin’s novella Eugene Onegin. hidden Markov model. For applications in speech recognition, References Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic structures. The Hague. Damerau, F.J. 1971. Markov models and linguistic theory. The Hague. Marrism Linguistic theory founded in the 1920s by the Soviet archaeologist and linguist N.J.Marr (1864–1934) in which all linguistic development is represented as a reflection of economic relationships, and language itself is seen as a phenomenon of the social superstructure. The foundation of his linguistic view, oriented towards historical materialism, was his belief that Caucasian was the proto-language of Europe. This belief is known as the ‘Japhetic theory.’ Marr’s influence on Soviet linguistics extends into the 1950s, when J.W.Stalin, in his article ‘Marxism and questions of linguistics’ (1950), refuted Marr’s superstructure theory and declared language to be independent of human productivity. ( also materialistic language theory, reflexion theory) References Marr, N.J. 1923. Der japhetitische Kaukasus und das dritte ethnische Element im der mittelländischen Kultur. Berlin. Rosse-Landi, F. 1973. Linguistics and economics. The Hague. Simmons, E.J. (ed.) 1951. The Soviet linguistic controversy. New York. Stalin, J.W. 1950. Marxism and questions of linguistics. Pravda, 20 June 1950. Thomas, L.L. 1957. The linguistic theories of N.J. Marr. Berkeley, CA. Dictionary of language and linguistics masculine 726 gender mass communication Form of public communication conditioned by technical means of communication such as the press, radio, film, and television. Mass communication is characterized by a high degree of communicative distance between a heterogeneous ‘audience’ and a group of anonymous ‘communicators’ (announcers, copy writers, moderators, editors, producers) who direct the communication process in different ways. An important aspect of this communicative structure is the asymmetrical distribution of the speaker/hearer roles that precludes a direct interchange between the participants and may consequently bring about confusion with regard to the intentions and effects of communication (‘one-way communication’). The particular conditions, structures, and effects of mass communication are studied in several disciplines, for example, communication science, sociology, political science, and information theory. The goal of linguistic research, in particular that of text linguistics, is to describe particular text types such as interviews, news reports, or other forms of journalistic language, to analyze the characteristic mixture of informative, entertaining, and persuasive text functions (as is the case for advertising language), or to analyze political speeches using the methods of statistical linguistics, content analysis, argumentation theory, stylistics, or rhetoric. References Bell, A. 1984. Language style as audience design. LSoc 13. 145–204. van Dijk, T.A. (ed.) 1985. Discourse and communication: new approaches to the analysis of mass media, discourse and communication. Berlin. Fowler, R. 1991. Language in the news: discourse and ideology in the British press. London. Hargrave, A.M. (ed.) 1991. A matter of manners? The limits of broadcasting language. London. McQuail, D. 1983. Mass communication theory. London. Murdock, G. 1985. Mass communication and the advertising industry. Paris. Schmidt, R. and J.F.Kess. 1986. Television advertising and televangelism: discourse analysis of persuasive language. Amsterdam. Schramm, W. and D.F.Roberts, (eds) 1971. The process and effects of mass communication (rev. edn). Urbana, IL. advertising language, journalistic language A-Z 727 mass noun Noun which has no number distinction and cannot be immediately combined with a numeral (e.g. *three rice), as opposed to count nouns such as dress: three dresses. Among mass nouns, a distinction can be made between nouns which refer to elements (rock, wood, water) and those which refer to collectives (cattle, rice, brush). When mass nouns referring to elements are used in the plural, their meaning changes, cf. wood vs woods, fish vs fishes. Reference Pelletier, F.I. (ed.) 1979. Mass terms: some philosophical problems. Dordrecht. Massai Afro-Asiatic matched guise technique A process developed by W.E.Lambert to measure the attitude of speakers towards other languages with the greatest possible accuracy. In this test, multilingual speakers are recorded reciting a single text with different voices, so that the hearers do not recognize those voices as belonging to the same speakers. The hearers are then asked to characterize the speakers according to their social status, education, trustworthiness, amiability, etc. In this test, language samples are taken from a single multi(dia)lectal speaker, so that the evaluation of language varieties is not adversely affected by the influence of uncontrollable idiosyncratic characteristics of a given speaker. References Giles, H. et al. 1987. Research on language attitudes. In V.Ammon (et al.) (eds), Soziolinguistik/ Sociolinguistics. Berlin and New York. 585–98. Lambert, W.E. 1967. A social psychology of bilingualism. Journal of Social Issues 23. 91–108. (Repr. in J.B.Pride and J.Holmes (eds) 1972. Sociolinguistics. Harmondsworth. 336–49.) ——1974. Culture and language as factors in learning and education. In F.E.Aboud and R.D. Meade (eds), Cultural factors in learning and education. Bellingham, WA. 231ff. Dictionary of language and linguistics material implication 728 implication material noun Semantically defined class of nouns which refer to materials: chalk, wood, marble. Material nouns are mass nouns, i.e. nouns which have no plural form or whose plural forms do not refer to the material itself, but to something else, cf. wood vs woods. materialistic language theory Referring to dialectical and historical materialism, the materialistic language theory attempts to explain, within the framework of Marxist-Leninist linguistic views, the essence and development of language, primarily through its function in the social activity of the working person. ( also Marrism, reflection theory) mathematical linguistics The representation of linguistic systems and processes with the aid of mathematics (e.g. logic, set theory, algebra, formal language theory, statistics, among others). In computational linguistics the methods of mathematical linguistics gained particular significance and influence. Algebraic linguistics and statistical linguistics are subdisciplines of mathematical linguistics. References Gladji, A.V. and I.A.Mel’cuk. 1973. Elements of mathematical linguistics. The Hague. Gross, M. and A.Lentin. 1967. Notions sur les grammaires formelles. Paris. Harris, Z. 1991. A theory of language and information: a mathematical approach. Oxford. Landman, F. 1991. Structures for semantics. Dordrecht. Partee, B., A.ter Meulen, and R.Wall. 1990. Mathematical methods in linguistics. Dordrecht. Weinberg, A.S. 1988. Mathematical properties of grammars. CLS 1. 416–92. Montague grammar A-Z 729 mathematical logic formal logic matrix [Lat. matrix ‘parent tree’] Two dimensional tabular representation taken from geometry which is used in linguistics to describe phonological, syntactic, semantic and other units using features. For an example, see the analysis of kinship terms in componential analysis. matrix sentence Term introduced by R.B.Lees indicating a superordinate sentence in which partial constituent clauses) are embedded ( embedding). Matrix sentences sentences ( correspond to the traditional term main clause in as far as the S-node of the main clause is not dominated by S; i.e. each complex sentence contains only one main clause, but sometimes several matrix sentences as embedded structures for constituent clauses. Reference Lees, R.B. 1960. The grammar of English nominal-izations. Bloomington, IN. maxim of conversation Term introduced by H.P.Grice in a 1967 lecture (see Grice 1975) to denote those requirements accepted as reasonable for effective communication which, if violated, could cause a breakdown in communication. Drawing on Kant’s four logical functions of reason, Grice postulates four maxims of conversation: (1) maxim of quantity (make your contribution as informative as necessary for the current purposes of the exchange, but no more informative than necessary); (2) maxim of quality (try to make your contribution one that is true: do not say what you believe to be false; do not say anything for which you lack adequate evidence); (3) maxim of relevance (make your contribution relevant); and (4) maxim of manner (be clear, avoid ambiguity; be brief and orderly). Grice derives these conversational maxims from his cardinal maxim, the so-called ‘co-operative principle’: ‘Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by Dictionary of language and linguistics 730 the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.’ The implicature), and function of indirect speech acts, conversational implicatures, ( comprehension of irony, among other matters, can be described with the aid of these maxims of conversation. See Keenan (1976) on the possible linguistic and cultural relativity of maxims of conversation. ( also conversation analysis) References Cole, P. 1975. The synchronic and diachronic status of conversational implicature. In P.Cole and J. Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York. 257–91. Gazdar, G. 1977. Implicature, presupposition and logical form. Bloomington, IN. ——1979. Pragmatics: implicature, presupposition, and logical form. New York. Gordon, D. and G.Lakoff. 1971. Conversational postulates. CLS 7.63–84. (Repr. in P.Cole and J. Morgan (eds), Syntax and. semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York, 1975. 83–106.) Grice, H.P. 1975. Logic and conversation. In P.Cole and J.Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York. 41–58. (Orig. 1968.) ——1989. Studies in the way of words. Cambridge, MA. Hall, K. et al (eds) 1990. PBLS 16: general session and parasession on the legacy of Grice. Berkeley, CA. Horn, L.R. 1973. Greek Grice: a brief survey of proto-conversational rules in the history of logic. CLS 9. 205–14. ——1990. Hamburgers and truth: why Gricean explanation is Gricean. Papers of the BLS Parasession on the legacy of Grice, 16. 4411–28. Berkeley, CA. Keenan, E.O. 1976. On the universality of conversational implicature. Language and society 5. 67– 80. Leudar, I. and P.K.Browning. 1988. Meaning, maxims of communication and language games. Language and Communication 8. 1–16. Levinson, S.C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge. McCawley, J.D. 1978. Conversational implicature and the lexicon. In P.Cole (ed.), Pragmatics. New York. 245–59. Murphy, J., A.Rogers, and R.Wall (eds) 1977. Proceedings of the Texas conference on performatives, presuppositions and conversational implicatures. Washington, DC. conversation analysis maximal projection Those constituents in X-bar theory that are projected to the highest level and therefore are phrasal categories. For example, the noun phrase the road from New York to San Francisco is a maximal projection of the lexical item road. Similarly, from New York is a maximal projection of the preposition from, and to San Francisco is a maximal projection of to. In general, category X-phrase is a maximal projection of X, when X is dominated by X-phrase and no other Y-phrase stands between X and X-phrase. That is to say, every Y-phrase which dominates X also dominates X-phrase. Thus the above noun phrase is a A-Z 731 maximal projection of the noun road, but not of San Francisco, because the prepositional phrase from New York stands in between New York and the complex noun phrase. References X-bar theory Maya writing Hieroglyphic writing system ( partially deciphered. hieroglyphics) of the Mayans in Meso-America, only References Kelley, D.H. 1976. Deciphering the Maya script. Austin, TX. Thompson, J.E.S. 1950. Maya hieroglyphic writing. Washington, DC. ——1991. A catalog of Maya hieroglyphs. Norman, OK. Mayan languages Group of twenty-eight languages in Central America broken down into four groups: Huastec, Yucatec, Western Mayan, and Eastern Mayan. The largest languages are Quiché or Achi (about 700,000 speakers), Mam, Kakchiquel, Kekchi (about 400,000 speakers each) in Guatemala, and Yucatec (about 600,000 speakers) in Yucatan. The languages form a geographically closed group, with the exception of Huastec in the north, and are grouped with the Penutian languages of North America to form the Macro-Penuti family. Jacaltec (Guatemala, about 20,000 speakers) and Tzeltal (Mexico, about 100,000 speakers) have been especially well researched; the generally accepted internal classification was established by T.Kaufmann. Characteristics: relatively complex consonant system (glottalized stops and affricates), tonal languages are rare. Developed numeral classifiers which occur in various positions, including articles. The verb agrees with the subject and object according to the ergative pattern (two affix types: A-prefixes—subject of the transitive sentence; B-affixes—subject of the intransitive and object of the transitive sentence); also accusative systems when the verb is not in the preterite or a subordinate clause. The Aprefixes also serve as possessive prefixes with nouns: possessive sentence construction. Word order generally VSO or VOS. Dictionary of language and linguistics 732 Independently developed writing systems (so-called ‘hieroglyphs’ which up to now have only been partially deciphered, probably a mix of phonemic and ideographic characters). First written sources in Spanish-influenced orthography dating from the sixteenth century, especially famous is the Popol Vuh (Book of the Council) in Quiché, also North and Central American languages) based on an old codex. ( References Campbell, L. 1977. Quichean linguistic prehistory. Berkeley, CA. Craig, C.G. 1977. The structure of Jacaltec. Austin, TX. Day, C. 1973. The Jacaltec language. The Hague. England, N.C. 1983. A grammar of Mam, a Mayan language. Austin, TX. England, N.C. and S.R.Elliott (eds) 1990. Lecturas sobre la linguística Maya. Woodstock, VT. Furbee-Losee, L. 1976. The correct language: Tojolabal. A grammar with ethnographic notes. New York and London. Kaufmann, T. 1971. Tzeltal phonology and morphology. Berkeley, CA. Tozzer, A.M. 1921. A Maya grammar. Cambridge, MA. Weisshar, E. 1986. Quiché. StL 20. 63–74. Journals Journal of Mayan Linguistics. Mayan Linguistic Newsletter. North and Central American languages Mazahua Oto-Mangue meaning Central semantic notion defined and used differently depending on the theoretical approach. At least two reasons account for the various uses of the term: on the one hand, meaning is not only a linguistic problem but is also a central issue in philosophy, psychology, sociology, semiotics, jurisprudence, and theology, among others; on the other hand, the use of other terms (e.g. ‘content,’ ‘reference,’ ‘sense,’ ‘signification,’ ‘designation,’ etc.), coupled with the adoption of some foreign terms (e.g. Ger. Sinn, Bedeutung), has led to numerous overlappings. Four major factors of linguistic communication can be taken as points of reference for defining meaning: (a) the material (phonetic or graphemic) side of the linguistic expression; (b) cognitive aspects involved in the production of abstract concepts or in reness the awaof perceptive content; (c) A-Z 733 objects, characteristics and states of affairs in the real world which are referred to through linguistic expressions; (d) the speaker and the specific situational context in which linguistic expressions are used. The fact that these factors are taken into account and weighed out to varying degrees accounts for the multiplicity and heterogeneity of the many definitions of meaning that underlie the various semantic theories. Thus, de Saussure’s concept of meaning may be considered a psychological interpretation, inasmuch as he equates meaning in a static way to the result of signifying, namely to the mental image; meaning is understood to be a mental phenomenon. The latter is substantiated by holistic interpretations of meaning. The holistic aspect contrasts with the traditional linguistic interpretation in which meaning is viewed as something to be broken componential analysis), while the mental aspect contrasts with the down or parsed ( traditional linguistic-philosophical interpretation in which meaning is seen as something objective ( extension, referential semantics). In the behaviorists’ view ( behaviorism), Bloomfield and Skinner, among others, try to provide a causal basis for the origin of meaning by reconstructing meaning from the observable, situational circumstances as well as from the reactions of the listener. Speaker, listener, and situation are even more crucial in Wittgenstein’s notion of meaning found in the so-called ‘theory of use’ (1953:20): ‘The meaning of a word is its use in the language.’ ( meaning as use) Compare Leisi’s (1952) approach, which is similar. If meaning is interpreted as the process of referring to the real world, then meaning is defined as the set of extralinguistic objects and states of affairs which are denoted by a particular linguistic expression. While the above-mentioned approaches to the description of meaning incorporate extralinguistic phenomena in their definitions of meaning (consciousness, mental models, behavior, use, reality), the notion of meaning in structural semantics rests upon intralinguistic, systemic laws: meaning arises from the set of semantic relations within the lexicon like synonymy, antonymy ( semantic relations, lexical field theory) and the placement of individual expressions within this system. Yet without mention of extra-linguistic reality and the user of language, such a description remains incomplete. In semantic descriptions numerous terminological differences in the notion of meaning come into play: lexical meaning ( lexical meaning vs grammatical meaning), denotation, connotation, extension, intension, logical semantics. Independent of the different notions of meaning held by various scholars and schools, two basic issues are discussed in every model: on the one hand, the relationship between lexical and sentential semantics (sentence meaning), i.e. how can the whole meaning of a sentence be explained by the meaning of the individual elements and how can the grammatical relations between them be explained ( principle of compositionality)? On the other hand, the problem of delineating semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic aspects of meaning or the problem of the interdependence between these aspects, which is particularly relevant in the distinction between sentence meaning and utterance meaning. References Cohen, L.J. 1962. The diversity of meaning. London. Droste, F.G. 1987. Meaning and concept: a survey. Leuvense Bijdragen 76.447–73. Dictionary of language and linguistics 734 Dummett, M.A.E. 1975. What is a theory of meaning? In S.Guttenplan (ed), Mind and Language: Wolfson College Lectures, 1974. Oxford. 97–138. ——1976. What is a theory of meaning? (II). In G.Evans and J.McDowell (eds), Truth and meaning: essays in semantics. Oxford. 67–137. Fodor, J.D. 1977. Semantics. New York. Garza-Cuarón, B. 1991. Connotation and meaning. Berlin and New York. Horwich, P. 1990. Wittgenstein and Kripke on the nature of meaning. Mind and Language 5.105– 21. Hudson, R. 1995. Word meaning. London. Kefer. M. and J.van der Auwera (eds) 1992. Meaning and grammar. Berlin and New York. Leech, G.N. 1974. Semantics. Harmondsworth. Leisi, E. 1952. Der Wortinhalt: seine Struktur im Deutschen und Englischen. Heidelberg. (5th edn 1975.) Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics, 2 vols. Cambridge. ——1981. Language, meaning and context. London. Ogden, C.K. and I.A.Richards. 1923. The meaning of meaning. New York. (10th edn London, 1966.) Palmer, F. 1976. Semantics: a new outline. Cambridge. Putnam, H. 1975. The meaning of meaning. In K. Gunderson (ed.), Language, mind and knowledge. Minneapolis, MN. 131–93. (Also in H.Putnam, Mind, language and reality: philosophical papers. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 215–71.) Ullmann, S. 1951. The principles of semantics. Oxford. (2nd edn 1957.) Wittgenstein, L. 1953. Philosophical investigations. Oxford. (Repr. 1963.) semantics meaning as use Semantic theory developed by Wittgenstein (1953) in connection with ordinary language philosophy according to which the meaning of a linguistic expression is equivalent to its function or use within a known context: ‘For a large class of cases— though not for all—in which we employ the word ‘meaning’ it can be defined thus: the meaning of a word is its use in the language.’ Wittgenstein’s abandonment of the psychological and mental aspects of the concept of meaning as well as of the referential relation to reality is the foundation of a pragmatic understanding of the concept of meaning; the rule-governed use of linguistic expressions corresponds to their meaning. This identification of use with meaning has not remained without criticism (see Antal, Pitcher, and Katz). References Antal, L. 1963. Questions of meaning. The Hague. ——1964. Content, meaning and understanding. The Hague. Katz, J.J. 1966. The philosophy of language. New York. Pitcher, G. 1964. The philosophy of Wittgenstein. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. A-Z 735 Wittgenstein, L. 1953. Philosophical investigations. Trans. G.E.M.Anscombe. Oxford. meaning postulate Term introduced by Carnap (1952) to designate a type of general semantic rule which describes a semantic relation between predicates in an artificial language of formal logic. Applied to natural languages, a meaning postulate establishes semantic constraints between different expressions that can be formulated in the form of meaning relations such as synonymy. Seen language-internally, an expression of a language is semantically described, when all of the meaning postulates that refer to it have been formulated. Within the scope of generative semantics (see Lakoff 1970), meaning postulates serve to describe the semantic relations between semantic primitives (i.e. basic semantic expressions). In Montague grammar, meaning postulates serve to limit the concept of interpretation: only those interpretations which make all meaning postulates true in at least one possible world are permitted. References Carnap, R. 1952. Meaning postulates. PhS 3.65–73. Johnson-Laird, P.N. 1984. Semantic primitives or meaning postulates: mental models or propositional representations. In B.G.Bara and G.Guida (eds), Computational models of natural language processing. Amsterdam. 227–46. Katz, J.J. and R.I.Nagel. 1974. Meaning postulates and semantic theory. FL 11.311–40. Lakoff, G. 1970. Natural language and lexical decomposition. CLS 6.340–62. Montague, R. 1970. Universal grammar. Theoria 36.373–98. (Repr. in Formal philosophy: selected papers of R.Montague, ed. R.H.Thomason. New Haven, CT, 1974.222–46.) ——1973. The proper treatment of quantification in ordinary English. In J.Hintikka, J.M.E.Moravcsik. and E.Suppes (eds). Approaches to natural language. Dordrecht. 221–42. (Repr. in Formal philosophy: selected papers of R.Montague, ed. R.H.Thomason. New Haven, CT. 1974. 247–70.) Schnelle, H. 1973. Meaning constraints. Synthese 26.13–37. Dictionary of language and linguistics media 736 tenuis vs media median [Lat. medius ‘central, middle’] Speech sound classified according to the way in which the airstream bypasses its obstruction (namely over the center (=median) of the oral cavity in contrast with lateral). References phonetics mediation Process in learning theory that is used in psycholinguistics as an explanatory model for problems of language acquisition, especially those concerning the formation and use of concepts. The term ‘mediation’ refers to the internal processing of stimuli and denotes non-observable cases of mediation between initial stimulus and final responses. Mediation operates via cerebral processes that bring about new modes of behavior as a reaction to a particular stimulus simultaneously as proprioceptive stimuli. Thus, Bousfield (1961) differentiates the conditioning process in acquiring meaning (which, according to the behaviorist explanation, rests on a coupling of objects with (linguistic) signs), by positing silent repetition of the heard words as a mediating behavioral unit which, for its part, possesses a stimulus character. This theory of mediation, which is based on verbal associations, is in direct opposition to C.E. Osgood’s much-discussed approach of emotionally controlled processes of mediation. Underlying this latter approach is the technique of semantic differentials. References Bousfield, W.A. 1961. The problem of meaning in verbal learning. In C.N.Cofer (ed.), Verbal learning and verbal behavior. New York. 81–91. Fodor, J.A. 1965. Could meaning be an rm? JVLVB 4. 73–81. Jenkins, J.J. 1965. Mediation theory and grammatical behaviour. In S.Rosenberg (ed.). Directions in psycholinguistics. New York. 66–90. Miron, M.S. 1971. The semantic differential and mediation theory. Linguistics 66. 77–89. Osgood, C.E. 1962. Studies on the generality of affective meaning systems. AmP 17. 10–28. A-Z 737 ——1971. Where do sentences come from? In D.D.Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics. Cambridge. 497–529. meaning, psycholinguistics, semantic differential medio-dorsal medio-dorso-velar Megheno-Rumanian mellow dorsal articulation Rumanian strident vs non-strident memory Place of recording, interpretation, storing, and recall of information. In view of different functions, storage of information, capacity, and principles of processing, as a rule three types of memory are differentiated. (a) In sensory information storage (SIS) a complete picture of the experiential segment perceived by the sensory organs is represented (with a duration of only 0.1–0.5 seconds). (b) In the short-term memory (STM; occasionally equated with working storage) only information needed for a short period of time and information that is categorized for continual storage, is stored (with a duration of approximately 10 seconds). Short-term memory is considered the co-operative part of the controlled processing of information; here, for a short period of time, a simultaneous overview of organized information is possible in specifically encoded units ( chunking). Forgetting information can presumably be attributed both to a disintegration over time as well as to interference of other offered material. The limited storage capacity of the short-term memory is of consequence for the acceptability of complex syntactic structures. (c) The long-term memory (LTM) has at its disposal an unlimited capacity and guarantees the storage and reproducibility (activated through specific stimuli) of learned experiences: vocabulary and the set of linguistic rules are stored here. Dictionary of language and linguistics 738 References Anderson, J.R. 1976. Language, memory, and thought. Hillsdale, NJ. Bartlett, F.C. 1932. Remembering: a study in experimental and social psychology. London. Carroll, D.W. 1986. Psychology of language. Monterey, CA. Clark, H.H. and E.V.Clark. 1977. Psychology and language: an introduction to psycholinguistics. New York. Gathercole, S.E. and A.D.Baddeley. 1993. Working memory and language. Hillsdale, NJ. Harriot. P. 1974. Attributes of memory. London. Howard, D.V. 1983. Cognitive psychology: memory. language, and thought. New York. Lindsay, P.H. and D.A.Norman. 1977. Human information processing. New York. Wanner, E. 1974. On remembering, forgetting, and understanding sentences. The Hague. artificial intelligence, cognitive linguistics. language and brain, psycholinguistics, text processing Mende Menomini Mande Algonquian mental lexicon Term referring to the lexicon in the human mind. The entries for each lexical item specify the word meaning, the syntactic category, the argument structure, the morphological form and the phonological segments. It is still under debate, for example, whether words are stored as wholes or as morphemes and how much syntactic and semantic information is associated with them. The mental lexicon plays an important role in processing: e.g. in language comprehension in word recognition, i.e. lexical access (in the matching of sounds against possible words) and in the narrowing down of the possibilities to one word. Furthermore, in the discussion about autonomous and inter-active models, the mental lexicon is the place where, due to the nature of the entries, information of various kinds (morphological, syntactic, and semantic) may influence the comprehension process and thus favor an interactive model. In language production, the entries in the mental lexicon likewise play a part in word retrieval. Experiments to obtain insights about the organization of the mental lexicon are, for example, lexical decision tasks, in which the subject is asked to decide as quickly as possible whether a sequence of sounds or letters is a word or not. Experiments for lexical access as an autonomous or interactive process are, for instance, word or phoneme monitoring: in these experiments the subject is asked to A-Z 739 react as soon as the relevant item appears. It is assumed that the reaction time is shorter if the items preceding the target item are not complex in phonological or semantic structure. References Aitchison, J. 1987. Words in the mind: an introduction 10 the mental lexicon. Oxford. Altmann, G.T.M. (ed.) 1990. Cognitive models of speech processing. Cambridge, MA. Bresnan, J. (ed.) 1982. The mental representation of grammatical relations. Cambridge, MA. Dunbar, G. 1991. The cognitive lexicon. Tübingen. Emmorey, K.D. and V.A.Fromkin. 1988. The mental lexicon. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 3, 124–49. Fodor, J.A. 1978. Modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA. Forster, K.I. 1981. Priming and the effects of sentence and lexical contexts in naming times: evidence for autonomous lexical processing. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 33. 465–95. Halle, M, J.Bresnan. and G.A.Miller (eds) 1978. Linguistic theory and psychological reality. Cambridge, MA. Henderson, L. 1985. Towards a psychology of morphemes. In A.W.Ellis (ed.), Progress in the psychology of language. London. Vol. 1, 15–72. Johnson-Laird, P.N. 1983. Mental models. Cambridge, MA. Kintsch, W. 1974. The representation of meaning in memory. Hillsdale, NJ. Kohn, S.A. et al. 1987. Lexical retrieval: the tip of the tongue phenomenon. Applied Psycholinguistics 8. 245–66. Levelt, W.J.M. 1989. Speaking: from intention to articulation. Cambridge. Marslen-Wilson, W. 1987. Functional parallelism in spoken word recognition. Cognition 25. 71– 102. ——(ed.) 1989. Lexical representation and process. Cambridge, MA. Marslen-Wilson, W. and A.Welsh. 1978. Processing interactions and lexical access during word recognition in continuous speech. Cognitive Psychology 10. 29–63. Martin, N., R.W.Weisberg, and E.M.Saffran. 1989. Variables influencing the occurrence of naming errors: implication for models of lexical retrieval. Journal of Memory and Language 28. 462– 85. Mehler, J. et al. 1982. Perspectives on mental representation. Hillsdale, NJ. language comprehension, language production mentalism Psychological and philosophical concept picked up and developed by Chomsky (1965) and modeled after Descartes’ and von Humboldt’s rationalism. Mentalism attempts to describe the internal (innate) language mechanism that provides the basis for the creative aspect of language development and use. In this program, Chomsky turns against the empirical approach of American structuralism (Bloomfield) and, especially, against Skinner’s behaviorist interpretation of language ( behaviorism), since both positions accept only immediately observable linguistic data as their object of investigation. By Dictionary of language and linguistics 740 limiting the object of investigation to physically perceivable or physically measurable data, linguistic description is reduced to purely surface phenomena. Chomsky supports his mentalist concept in two ways: first, by assuming a grammar with an underlying deep structure; and second, with regard to language acquisition and the development of linguistic competence, by presupposing an inborn (universal) mechanism (‘device’) that provides a basis for language development (Cartesian linguistics). The following observations of child language acquisition speak against the antimentalist interpretation, namely, that the process of language learning can be explained solely as conditioning through drill or, according to the stimulus-response theory, through association and generalization: (a) the rapidity with which a child learns to command the grammar of his/her language in three to four years; (b) the complexity of the grammar to be learned; (c) the imperfect relationship between input (=the partially defective language data offered by the social milieu) and output (=the grammar derived from these data); (d) the uniformity of results in all languages; and (e) the process itself, which has little to do with an individual’s intelligence. These data can only be adequately explained by assuming an inborn language acquisition device, on the basis of which competence ( competence vs performance) develops through experience and the maturation of this basic inborn psychological structure ( nativism). In this sense, transformational grammar attempts to explain both the process of language acquisition and especially the creative aspect of language acquisition, that is, the ability of a competent speaker to produce a potentially infinite number of sentences. For a more detailed explanation and critique of Chomsky’s mentalist interpretation, see Putnam (1967). References Chomsky, N. 1959. Verbal behavior. (A discussion of B.F.Skinner, 1957.) Lg 35. 26–58. ——1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. ——1968. Language and mind. New York. ——1975. Reflections on language. New York. Katz, J.J. 1964. Mentalism in linguistics. Lg 40. 124–37. ——1966. The philosophy of language. New York. Lenneberg, E.H. 1967. Biological foundation of language. New York. Matthews, P. 1990. Language as a mental faculty: Chomsky’s progress. In N.E.Collinge (ed.), An encyclopedia of language. London. 112–38. McNeill, D. 1966. Developmental psycholinguistics. In F.Smith and G.A.Miller (eds), The genesis of language. Cambridge, MA. 15–84. Putnam, H. 1967. The ‘innateness hypothesis’: an explanatory model in linguistics. Synthese 17. 12–22. Watt, W.C. 1974. Mentalism in linguistics. Glossa 8. 3–40. language acquisition, psycholinguistics A-Z 741 mention vs use object language vs metalanguage Malagasy Merina mesolect Messapic acrolect Indo-European metachrony [Grk metá ‘between,’ chrónos ‘time’] L.Hjelmslev’s complementary term to diachrony ( synchrony vs diachrony): While diachronic studies (in his view) treat primarily the influence of extralinguistic factors on individual processes of language development, metachrony describes language change in a functional aspect as a succession of different language systems. Reference Hjelmslev, L. 1928. Principes de grammaire générale. Copenhagen. metacommunication Communication about communication, i.e. communication of speakers about language (in the sense of language/competence) or about speech (in the sense of ‘parole’ or speech acts, langue vs parole, speech act theory). Two types of metacommunication are usually distinguished: scientific metacommunication, which includes all forms of linguistic investigation; and everyday metacommunication. The human ability to use Dictionary of language and linguistics 742 metacommunication to understand both the content and intention of linguistic utterances is a large part of communicative competence. Investigations in metacommunication that pertain to pragmatic and psycholinguistic factors can be divided into two groups: (a) explicit metacommunication, where the speaker refers to an immediate utterance and expands or modifies it by correcting it, making it more precise, taking a position in reference to it, adding commentary and the like; (b) implicit metacommunication, which corresponds to Watzlawick’s an alogue communication . This refers to the relational aspects between communication partners which occur primarily through non-verbal body language. Since an excess of metacommunication can be a symptom of a distortion of the relationship between communication partners, and because the inability to use metacommunication has proved to be a serious disadvantage in therapy for communication disorders, the investigation of the functions and means of metacommunication is the common object of study both for linguists and for psychologists. Reference Watzlawick, P., J.H.Beavin, and D.D.Jackson. 1967. Pragmatics of human communication: a study of interactional patterns, pathologies, and paradoxes. New York. metagrammar metarule metalanguage Second-level language (also called language of description) by which natural language (object language) is described. ( object language vs metalanguage) Reference Riley, K. 1987. The metalanguage of transformational syntax: relations between jargon and theory. Semiotica 67. 173–94. A-Z 743 metalepsis A rhetorical trope. The replacement of a word by a contextually incorrectly used part synonym ( synonymy). This is found especially with mistranslation and the incorrect equating of two words which have similar though not identical meaning. References figure of speech, stylistics metalinguistics 1 Theoretical discipline that deals with the investigation of metalanguages ( object language vs metalanguage) which describe natural languages. The task of metalinguistics includes the development of a general theory of grammar which aims to discover all characteristic features of natural languages. 2 Interdisciplinary investigation of the interrelationships between language, thought, behavior, and reality; that is, between the formal structure of a language and the entire culture of the society in which that particular language is spoken. ( also ethnolinguistics) References Botha, R.P. 1992. Twentieth-century conceptions of language. Oxford. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis metamorphosis grammar As a precursor to definite clause grammar in computational linguistics, a formalism in which every substitution rule has the following form: ‘Substitute a particular series of tree diagrams for a particular series of tree diagrams.’ Dictionary of language and linguistics 744 Reference Colmerauer, A. 1978. Metamorphosis grammar. In L. Bolc (ed.), Natural language communication with computers. Berlin. 133–88. metaphor [Grk metaphorá ‘transference’] Term taken from ancient rhetoric for a ‘figure of speech.’ Metaphors are linguistic images that are based on a relationship of similarity between two objects or concepts; that is, based on the same or similar semantic features, a denotational transfer occurs, e.g. The clouds are crying for It’s raining. Metaphor is also frequently described as a shortened comparison, in which the comparison is nonetheless not explicitly expressed. Metaphors may appear in the context of a sentence as nouns, verbs, or adjectives, e.g. bull’s eye for center of the target, sharp criticism for strong criticism, to peel one’s eyes for to watch out for something. In contrast to idioms, the literal reading of a metaphor (in a ‘positive’ context) results in a contradiction. More recent approaches view metaphors not as a purely semantic phenomenon, but rather see them in connection with their use or establish them at the cognitive, conceptual level. Seen historically, metaphors are a source of new lexical formations in which the ‘transferred’ meaning is either added to the original meaning (e.g. pansy ‘flower’ or ‘effeminate male’) or displaces the old meaning partially or completely (e.g. keen, which originally meant ‘bold, powerful’; blank originally ‘white’; crop originally ‘cluster, bunch, ear [of corn]’). In many cases, originally metaphoric denotations are no longer perceived as such (e.g. miscarriage). References Aarts, J.M. and J.P.Calbert. 1979. Metaphor and non-metaphor. Tübingen. Ankersmit, F.R. and J.J.A.Mooij (eds) 1992. Knowledge and language, vol. 3: Metaphor and knowledge. Dordrecht. Christopher, M. 1983. A new model for metaphor. Dialectica 37. 285–301. Cooper, D.E. 1986. Metaphor. Oxford. Derek, B. 1969. Prolegomena to a linguistic theory of metaphor. FL 5. 34–52. Kittay, E. 1987. Metaphor: its cognitive force and linguistic structure. Oxford. Kittay, E. and A.Lehrer. 1981. Semantic fields and the structure of metaphor. SLang 5. 31–63. Lakoff, G. 1985. Metaphor, folk theories, and the possibilities of dialogue. In M.Dascal and H. Cuyckens (eds), Dialogue: an interdisciplinary approach. Amsterdam. 57–72. ——1987. Image metaphors. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity 2. 219–22. Lakoff, G. and M.Johnson. 1981. Metaphors we live by. Chicago. Lakoff, G. and M.Turner. 1989. More than cool reason: a field guide to poetic metaphor. Chicago, IL. Martinich, A.P. 1984. A theory for metaphor. Journal of Literary Semantics 8. 35–56. Miall, D. 1982. Metaphor: problems and perspectives. Brighton. Mooij, J.J. 1976. A study of metaphor. Dordrecht. A-Z 745 Ortony, A. (ed.) 1979. Metaphor and thought. Cambridge. Papproté, W. and R.Dirven (eds) 1985. The ubiquity of metaphor: metaphor in language and thought. Amsterdam. Thomas, J.-J. 1987. Metaphor: the image and the formula. Poetics Today 8. 479–501. Bibliographies Shibles, W.A. 1971. Metaphor; an annotated bibliography and history. Whitewater, WI. Van Noppen, J.P. and E.Hols. 1991. Metaphor, vol. II: A classified bibliography of publications. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Van Noppen, J.P., S.de Knop, and R.Jongen. 1985. Metaphor: a bibliography of post-1970 publications. Amsterdam. metaplasm Umbrella term for sound changes occurring for reasons of euphony or metrics and which often lead to double forms: I cannot→I can’t; I do not know→I don’t know; The man, that hath no music in himself and is not mov’d with concord of sweet sounds is fit for treason. Isn’t he? Yes, it’s right. metarules Rules which generate grammar rules as well as rules for a metagrammar, which generates an object grammar. In Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (GPSG), metarules are introduced to derive phrase structure rules from other phrase structure rules. Thus, it is possible to describe syntactic regularities as relations between groups of rules. In the current version of GPSG, metarules derived ID rules from other ID rules. A metarule contains an input and output schema. The input schema must contain variables so that the metarule can be applied to a class of rules. References Flickinger, D. 1983. Lexical heads and phrasal gaps. In M.Barlow, D.Flickinger, and M.Wescoat (eds), Proceedings of the second West Coast conference on formal linguistics. Stanford, CA. 89–101. Gazdar, G. et al. 1985. Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar. Cambridge, MA. Shieber, S. et al. 1983. Formal constraints on metarules. ACL Proceedings 21. 22–7. Dictionary of language and linguistics 746 Thompson, H.S. 1982. Handling metarules in a parser for GPSG. In M.Barlow, D.Flickinger, and J.Sag (eds), Developments in Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar. Bloomington, IN. 26–37. Uszkoreit, H. and S.Peters. 1986. On some formal properties of metarules. L&P 9 .477–94. metathesis [Grk metáthesis ‘transposition, change’] Switching of consonants within etymologically related words: nuclear vs nucular, Christian vs Kirsten, Eng. burn vs Ger. brennen. Apart from such individual cases, ‘regular’ forms of metathesis can be attributed primarily to syllable structure, e.g. adaptation to universally preferred sound sequences in syllables. In South and West Slavic there is regular metathesis of liquids vis-à-vis Proto-Slavic, cf. PSlav. *berza ‘birch’ with Church Slavic. brěza, Serb. ( Serbo-Croatian) breza, Polish brzoza, Czech bříza. References language change, sound change metonymy [Grk metōnymía ‘change of name’] The replacement of an expression by a factually related term. The semantic connection is of a causal, spatial, or temporal nature and is therefore broader than synecdoche, but narrower than metaphor. Common types of substitution are author/work—to read Jane Austen; product/ material—to wear leather; container/contents to have a cuppa; place/resident—The White House. References Ruwet, N. 1975. Synecdoque et métonymie. Poé-tique 6. 371–88. rhetoric, trope A-Z 747 metrical phonology Concept of accent ( stress2) proposed by M. Liberman that sees accent as a relation between strong and weak nodes of a metrical tree. Metrical phonology was later used to describe other phonological phenomena and is a concept in non-linear phonology. References Booij, G.E. 1983. Principles and parameters in prosodic phonology. Linguistics 21. 249–80. Giegerich, H. 1985. Metrical phonology and phonological structure: German and English. Cambridge. Goldsmith, J.A. 1990. Autosegmental and metrical phonology, Oxford. Hogg, R. and C.B.McCully. 1987. Metrical phonology: a coursebook. Cambridge. Liberman, M. and A.S.Prince. 1977. On stress and linguistic rhythm. LingI 8. 249–336. Van der Hulst, H. and N.Smith (eds) 1982. The structure of phonological representations, 2 vols. Dordrecht. ——(eds) 1989. Features, segmental structures and harmony processes, 2 vols. Dordrecht. Miao-Yao Language family in South-East Asia with four languages, spoken in numerous linguistic islands stretching from southern China to Thailand. Largest language is Mien (Yao), with approx. 1 million speakers. Benedict (1975) suspects a relationship to Austro-Thai. References Benedict, P.K. 1975. Austro-Thai: language and culture. New Haven, CT. Haudricourt, A.G. 1971. Les Langues miao-yao: Asie de Sud-Est et Monde Insulindien, vol. 2. Paris. microlinguistics [Grk mikrós ‘small’] Science dealing with the structure of language as an autonomous sign system. This restriction to ‘internal’ linguistics, as is the case with structuralism, requires that a language system be abstracted and dealt with separately from extralinguistic approaches Dictionary of language and linguistics 748 (i.e. those referring to such disciplines as philosophy, sociology, psychology, and logic). Microlinguistics is a subdiscipline of macrolinguistics. mid vowel vowel middle verb 1 Verbs which can neither form a passive nor be combined with modal adverbs (resemble, cost, fit, weigh), e.g. This car costs a lot of money: *A lot of money is costed by this car; *This car costs voluntarily a lot of money. 2 Verbs with passive-like meaning such as in The door opened. middle voice Verbal voice contrasting with active and passive which is found in Sanskrit and classical Greek. The middle voice is semantically similar to reflexive constructions in that it describes an action which is performed by the subject for his/her own benefit or in which the subject affects itself: Grk loúo (act.) ‘I wash’ vs loúomai (mid.) ‘I wash myself’ There is also a middle construction without an agent subject: didáskō (act.) ‘I teach’ vs didáskomai (mid.) ‘I have myself taught,’ which is similar to passive in meaning. Many Indo-European languages developed passives from middle-voice forms (see the typological-historical summary of Kemmer 1993). References Anderson, P.K. 1991. A new look at the passive. Frankfurt. Collinge, N.E. 1963. The Greek use of the term ‘middle’ in linguistic analysis. Word 19. 232–41. Fox, B. and P.J.Hopper (eds) 1994. Voice: form and function. Amsterdam. Jasanoff, J.H. 1978. Stative and middle in Indo-European. Innsbruck. Kemmer, S.E. 1993. The middle voice: a typological and diachronic study. Amsterdam. Lehmann, W.P. 1974. Proto-Indo-European syntax. Austin, TX. A-Z Mien 749 Miao-Yao mildly context-sensitive languages In formal language theory, a class of languages which properly includes context-free context-free grammar) and which is powerful enough to describe (CF) languages ( reduplication and the cross-serial dependencies of Dutch verb phrases (VPs), two nonCF phenomena. Tree-adjoining grammar, head-grammar, and combinatory categorial grammars have been shown to be equivalent and mildly context-sensitive. Reference Joshi, A., K.Vijay-Shankar, and D.Weir. 1991. The convergence of mildly context-sensitive grammar formalisms. In P.Sells, S.Shieker, and T.Wasow (eds), Foundational issues in natural language processing. Cambridge. Min Mingrelian Chinese South Caucasian minimal pair Two expressions (words or morphemes) of a language with different meanings that are distinguished by only one phoneme; e.g. Eng. mail vs nail, Fr. père ‘father’ vs mère ‘mother,’ Span. tu ‘your’ vs su ‘his/her,’ Ger. Gasse ‘lane’ vs Kasse ‘cashier.’ Contrasting minimal pairs is a basic procedure in establishing the phonemic inventory of a language. Dictionary of language and linguistics 750 References phonology minor sentence Incomplete utterance that is usually dependent on the context: Two tickets please!—The ellipsis); however, same for me! Minor sentences are as a rule interpreted as elliptic ( this analysis is of limited value in such linguistic contexts as advertisements, film titles, or newspaper headlines. Miwok-Costanoan Mixe Penutian Mixe-Zoque Mixe-Zoque Language group of Central America with eight languages; the largest are Mixe (about 78,000 speakers) and Zoque (about 38,000 speakers) in southern Mexico. Characteristics: relatively simple consonant system, complex vowel system (nine vowels including up to three length distinctions); vowels also glottalized and aspirated (complex syllable nuclei). Complex verb morphology. A-Z 751 References North and Central American languages mixed language Language developed through the contact of a European language with that of a nonEuropean language group. Historically, mixed languages arise from English, French, and Spanish through the adoption of foreign vocabulary elements and an extensive simplification of the grammar. ( bilingualism, code-switching, creole, lingua franca, pidgin, Sabir) Mixtec Oto-Mangue Moban Nilo-Saharan modal adverb [Lat. modus ‘measure, mode, manner’] Semantically defined subset of adverbs which express the subjective evaluation of the speaker towards a state of affairs. This evaluation refers to modal aspects, the degree of reality expressed by the utterance (e.g. probably, hopefully, possibly), or to emotional aspects (e.g. luckily, unfortunately, thank God). On the syntactic functions of modal adverbs, sentence adverbial. ( also adverbial) Dictionary of language and linguistics 752 References particle, sentence adverbial modal auxiliary [Lat. auxiliaris ‘giving aid’] (also helping verb) Semantically defined subset of verbs which express modal meaning in connection with an infinitive of a main verb: can, want, must, should, may, shall, will, would as well as some marginal ones (dare, ought to, etc.). The two main functions of modal verbs are (a) specification of the semantic relationship between the subject and the action described by the verb, such as ‘suspicion’ (She might/could be right), ‘necessity’ (She must/has to go), ‘permission’ (She can/may stay), (b) expression of the speaker’s subjective attitude towards the utterance; i.e. they can serve as paraphrases of verbal mood, cf. Sleep! vs You should sleep. ( also auxiliary, modality). Etymologically, most modal auxiliaries in the Germanic languages including English derive from preterite-presents, which explains the irregularity of their formation. References Coates, J. 1983. The semantics of the modal auxiliaries. London. Klinge, A. 1993. The English modal auxiliary: from lexical semantics to utterance interpretation. JL 29. 291–357. Quirk, R. et al. 1985. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London and New York. modal clause Semantically defined dependent clause which functions syntactically as an adverbial complement for indicating how that which is described in the main clause happens or the circumstances accompanying it: He spared her by taking the blame himself. The term ‘modal clause’ is often used as an overall term for instrumental, comparative, proportional, and restrictive clauses. A-Z 753 modal logic Special form of a philosophical logic that, in addition to logical expressions such as logical particles (and, or, and others) and operators in formal logic, also uses modal expressions such as it is possible/impossible/necessary by introducing appropriate operators into the semantic analysis. References Bull, R.A. and K.Segerberg. 1984. Basic modal logic. In D.Babbay and F.Guenthner (eds), Handbook of philosophical logic. Dordrecht. Vol. 2, 1–88. Hintikka, J. 1969. Deontic logic and its philosophical morals. In Models for modalities. Dordrecht. 184–214. Hughes, G.E. and M.J.Cresswell. 1968. An introduction to modal logic. London. intensional logic modal particle Subgroup of particles, especially analysed for German (‘Abtönungspartikeln’, e.g. aber, , denn) which fit the content of an utterance to the context of speech. They auch, have no lexical meaning and contribute nothing to the propositional meaning of a sentence. Modal particles may occur also in other functions, as adverbs (vielleicht ‘perhaps’), adjectives (einfach ‘simple’), scalar particles (nur ‘only’), or conjunctions (aber ‘but’). An application of the German research—to other languages is still lacking. References Bublitz, W. 1978. Ausdrucksweisen und Sprecherein-stellung im Deuschen und Englischen. Tübingen. Doherty, M. 1987. Epistemic meaning. Berlin. König, E. and S.Requardt. 1991. A relevancetheoretic approach to the analysis of modal particles in German. Multilingua 10. 63–77. Nehls, D. 1989. German modal particles rendered by English auxiliary verbs. In H.Weydt (ed.), Sprechen mit Partikeln. Berlin. Thurmair, M. 1989. Modalpartikeln und ihre Kombinationen. Tübingen. Weydt, H. (ed.) 1979. Die Partikeln der deutschen Sprache. Berlin. particle Dictionary of language and linguistics 754 modal subordination Semantic form of subordination: sentences not syntactically subordinated in a text may be modally (and thus semantically) subordinated, if—for the purpose of their interpretation—they are assumed to be within the scope of a modal operator present in the context. Compare (a) the interpretation of a declarative sentence as a conditioned assertion following a conditional sentence (When fall comes, the days get shorter. The leaves begin to change color) and (b) the obligatory modalization of a sentence with a textual anaphor referring to a preceding modalized sentence (Robert should build a greenhouse. He could fill it with exotic plants). References Roberts, C. 1987. Modal subordination, anaphora, and distributivity. MA dissertation, University of Amherst, MA. modal logic modality Semantic category which expresses the attitude of the speaker towards that expressed in the sentence. In this wider sense, modality refers not only to the morphologically formed moods of indicative, subjunctive, and imperative, but also to the different sentence types (statement, question, command). Appropriately, modality can be expressed through a variety of formal and lexical means in conjunction with contextual factors: (a) morphological mood of the verb; (b) lexical means such as sentence adverbials (hopefully, maybe), modal auxiliaries (can, must, may); (c) syntactic means such as paraphrases with would as well as constructions with have+inf., e.g. I have to work. On logical aspects of modality,deontic logic, epistemic logic, modal logic. References Bybee, J. and S.Fleischmann (eds) 1995. Modality in grammar and discourse. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Bybee, J., R.Perkins, and W.Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar: tense, aspect and modality in the languages of the world. Chicago, IL. Gonda, J. 1980. The character of the Indo-European moods, 2nd edn. Wiesbaden. Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics. Cambridge. Vol. 2, ch. 17. Palmer, F.R. 1986. Mood and modality. Cambridge. Perkins, M.R. 1983. Modal expressions in English. London. tense A-Z 755 model 1 Generally, a (formal) representation in scientific studies of important structural and functional properties of the real world based on abstraction and idealization. Based on the analogy between models and some aspects of the object of study, predictions can be made about the rule-orderedness of the object of study that are not immediately apparent through observation (cf. N.Chomsky’s model for describing linguistic competence ( competence vs performance) in the form of an automaton that is capable of simulating the linguistic creativity of humans.) To the degree that models are hypotheses about reality, they require (experimental) examination of the object of study in order to be verified. The term ‘model’ is often used synonymously with grammar or grammar theory. Reference Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. 2 In predicate logic, basic term in modeltheoretic semantics. A model here consists of a range of individuals E and a model function f that assigns a categorically proper extension to every basic expression in the language. Every model recursively yields a linguistic inter-pretation that describes a logically dependable interpretation of their expressions. model-theoretic semantics (also Tarskian semantics) Based on the work of A.Tarski and others, model-theoretic semantics is a concept of semantic interpretation in formal-logical languages developed by logicians for logical semantics which permits conditions of ‘truth’ and ‘satisfaction’ to be described recursively ( recursiveness). An important basic principle of model-theoretic semantics is the strict distinction between a (formal) object language, to be semantically interpreted, and a metalanguage, in which semantic predicates like ‘false’ or ‘true’ are introduced ( object language vs metalanguage). Procedure in model-theoretic semantics is characterized by specifying an interpretation that consists of a ‘set of individuals’ E, in which well-formed expressions of this language are interpreted with the aid of an interpretational function g. The values of g are then the extensions of the expressions belonging to them. Such a function g assigns, for example in predicate logic, elements of E to the individual terms, subsets of E to the one-place predicate constants, and truth values as extensions to the closed formulae. One advantage of model-theoretic semantics is that it allows semantic relationships between closed formulae to be realized. Dictionary of language and linguistics 756 This is of particular interest for linguistics. Its restriction to sentence semantics, however, indicates its limits for linguistic purposes. The approach of modeltheoretic semantics is also the basis of Montague grammar, in which the concepts of modeltheoretic semantics, now relativized through the contextual factors of possible worlds, are drawn on for the characterization of truth, satisfaction, and inference in statements in natural languages. References Bunt, H.C. 1985. Mass terms and model-theoretic semantics. Cambridge. Kamp, H. and U.Reyle. 1993. From discourse to logic: introduction to model-theoretic semantics of natural language, formal logic and discourse representation theory. Dordrecht. Meulen, A.ter. (ed.) 1983. Studies in model theoretic semantics. Dordrecht. Tarski, A. 1935. Der Wahrheitsbegriff in den formalisierten Sprachen. Studia Philosophica 1. 261– 405. (Repr. as Eng. trans. in Tarski 1956.) ——1944. The semantic conception of truth. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 4. 341– 75. (Repr. in Tarski 1956.) ——1956. Logic, semantics, metamathematics: papers from 1923 to 1938. Oxford. modi significandi [Lat. ‘manners of designating’] In medieval linguistics, those aspects of meaning and denotation that were significant for the classification of parts of speech. The modi significandi go back to the general logical base concepts of Aristotle, i.e. substance, quality, quantity, relation, place, time, position, possession, action, suffering. According to these modi significandi, nouns were defined as ‘substances with properties,’ verbs as ‘properties of action or suffering.’ ( parts of speech) References Bursill-Hall, G.L. 1971. Speculative grammarians of the middle ages: the doctrine of ‘partes orationis’ of the Modistae. The Hague. Kaczmarek, L. 1993. Modi significandi und ihre Destruktionen. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. linguistics A-Z 757 modification [Lat. modificare ‘to measure correctly’] 1 In word formation, semantic differentiation of the base morpheme through wordformation morphemes, especially through prefixes. In this process, the original word class (in contrast to transposition) can remain the same: fix vs prefix, cover vs discover; dog vs doggy. Other types of modification involve shifts in stress (e.g. refuse vs refúse), suppletivism (go >went), mutation. References word formation 2 complementation and modification modifier (also determiner) Linguistic expression which more closely specifies or determines the meaning of another head) semantically and syntactically: long book, where book is the head expression ( and long is the modifier describing the book. Syntactically, the constituent made up of a modifier and its head are of the same form class as the head ( endocentric construction). In English, nouns are typically modified by adjectives (long book) or prepositional phrases (the book on the table), and verbs by adverbs (read quickly). A modifier can be either prespecifying or postspecifying, depending on whether it precedes or follows the head. While Bloomfield (1933) uses the term modifier only for attributive constructions, Trubetzkoy (1939) uses it for the relationship between verb and object, and Bartsch and Vennemann (1980) use it for the relationship between subject and predicate verb. The terminology for the two elements involved is diverse: ‘head/center’ vs ‘attribute’ (Bloomfield), ‘head center’ vs ‘modifier’ (Fries), ‘determine’ vs ‘determinant’ (Trubetzkoy), ‘operator vs operand’ (Bartsch and Vennemann), and ‘head’ vs ‘modifier’ (Lyons). (also complementation and modification) References Bartsch, R. and T.Vennemann. 1982. Grundzüge der Sprachtheorie. Tübingen. Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. Fries, C.C. 1927. The structure of English: an introduction to the construction of English sentences. (5th edn New York, 1964.) Lyons, J. 1968. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Cambridge. Dictionary of language and linguistics 758 Seiler, H. 1978. Determination: a functional dimension of inter-language comparison. In H.Seiler (ed.), Language universals. Tübingen. 301–28. Trubetzkoy, N. 1939. Le rapport entre le determine, le determinant et le défini. In Mélanges de linguistique, offers a Charles Bally. Geneva. 75–82. Zwicky, A.M. 1985. Heads. JL21.1–29. Modistae speculative grammarians modularity Term taken from computer technology for a concept of subsystems with specific tasks which, due to the fact that they function independently, can to a large extent be isolated. The modular structure of parts of a whole is discussed, among other things, in neuropsychology, in linguistics, in particular by Chomsky (e.g. 1980) and in psycholinguistics, in particular because of the modularity hypothesis by Fodor (1983). In connection with modularity, it has been pointed out that certain impairments of the brain may cause selective language disorder or developmental language disorder (e.g. Curtiss 1988; see also language and brain). According to Chomsky (1975, 1980), grammatical regularities are not based on general cognitive principles, but on principles that are specific for language. Thus, grammatical knowledge (the formal grammar or formal competence, competence vs performance) is independent of other kinds of knowledge. ‘Grammar’ is conceptualized as a module (next to other modules such as visual perception) and consists of a set of autonomous subsystems, each with its own criteria for well-formedness. For Fodor (1983), modules are characterized by the cooccurrence of the following properties: they are input-systems; they operate within specific domains (‘domain specificity’); they operate automatically as soon as a stimulus occurs, which makes them comparable to reflexes (‘mandatory operation,’ ‘stimulusdriven’); the information is encapsulated so that the internal workings cannot be influenced or accessed from the outside, but only their output; they operate extremely fast and with shallow output (e.g. of the sort yes/no); they are considered to be ‘hardwired’ with a fixed neural architecture and display particular patterns when the system breaks down (for instance, due to a lesion). Fodor considers modules to be particular systems in information processing. For instance, input-systems in speech perception (e.g. perception of linguistic sounds in contrast to non-linguistic noise), ‘central processing,’ like problem-solving, which has access to information from various domains, is not considered to be modular. For a critical discussion, see Fodor (1985), Garfield (1987), and from a developmental perspective Bates et al. (1988) and Karmiloff-Smith (1992). A-Z 759 References Bates, E. et al. 1988. From first words to grammar. Cambridge. Bock, J.K. and A.S.Kroch 1989. The isolability of syntactic parsing. In G.Carlson and M.K.Tanenhaus (eds), Linguistic structure in language processing. Dordrecht. 157–96. Chomsky, N. 1975. Reflections on language. Cambridge, MA. ——1980. Rules and representations. Oxford. Curtiss, S. 1988. Abnormal language acquisition and the modularity of language. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey, Cambridge. Vol. 2, 96–111. Everaert, M. et al. (eds) 1988. Morphology and modularity. Berlin and New York. Fodor, J. 1983. The modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA. ——1985. Precis of the modularity of mind. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8.1–42. Frazier, L. 1988. Grammar and language processing. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 15–34. Garfield, J.L. (ed.) 1987. Modularity in knowledge representation and natural-language understanding. Cambridge, MA. Karmiloff-Smith, A. 1992. Beyond modularity: a developmental perspective on cognitive science. Cambridge, MA. Linebarger, M.C. 1989. Neuropsychological evidence for linguistic modularity. In G.Carlson and M.K.Tanenhaus (eds), Linguistic structure in language processing. Dordrecht. 197–238. Marr, D. 1982. Vision. New York. Marshall, J. 1984. Multiple perspectives on modularity. Cognition 17. 209–42. Neville, H. et al. 1992. Fractionating language: different neural subsystems with different sensitive periods. Cerebral Cortex 2.244–58. Roeper, T. 1988. Grammatical principles of first language acquisition: theory and evidence. In F. Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 35–52. Schwartz, M.F. 1990. Modular deficits in Alzheimer-type dementia. Cambridge, MA. Smith, N. and I.Tsimpli. 1995. Language learning and modularity. Oxford. Yamada, J. 1990. Laura: a case for modularity of language. Cambridge, MA. language and brain Dictionary of language and linguistics Mohave Molala Mon 760 Hokan Penutian Mon-Khmer moneme [Grk mónos ‘solitary, only’] Term introduced by Martinet (1960) for the smallest unit of language consisting of content and phonetic form that cannot be broken down further into smaller meaningful units. With regard to function, Martinet distinguishes between the open class of lexical monemes, the so-called ‘semantemes,’ whose meaning is codified in the lexicon, and the closed class of grammatical monemes, which he calls ‘morphemes,’ and further between functional monemes (prepositions), autonomous monemes (free, nonconjugatable or nondeclinable: today, sadly), and independent monemes (case, tense). Compared with the terminology introduced by American structuralism and now established, Martinet’s ‘moneme’ corresponds to the otherwise common term morpheme, his ‘semanteme’ to free lexical morphemes, his ‘morpheme’ to bound grammatical morphemes. References Martinet, A. 1960. Elements de linguistique générale. Paris. (2nd rev. and exp. edn 1967.) morphology Mongolian Branch of Altaic with twelve languages and approx. 3 million speakers in central Asia. Classical Mongolian, with a writing tradition dating back to the thirteenth century, is still used as the written language for these closely related languages. A-Z 761 References Binnick, R.I. 1981. On the classification of the Mongolian languages. Toronto. Grønbech, K. and J.R.Krueger. 1993. An introduction to classical (literary) Mongolian, 3rd corrected edn. Wiesbaden. Poppe, N. 1955. Introduction to Mongolian comparative studies. Helsinki. ——1970. Mongolian language handbook. Washington, DC. ——1974. Grammar of written Mongolian, 4th unrev. printing. Wiesbaden. Spuler, B. and H.Kees (eds) 1964. Mongolistik. (Handbuch der Orientalistik 5.2.) Leiden. Vietze, H.-P. 1969. Lehrbuch der mongolischen Sprache. Munich. (5th edn Leipzig, 1987.) Dictionary Hangin, G. 1986. A modern Mongolian-English dictionary. Bloomington, IN. monitor model In second language acquisition, a hypothetical model developed by Krashen (1981), according to which language production in a second language is overseen by a type of controlling mechanism (‘monitor’) which checks for correctness of forms. The extent of this monitoring (which varies according to the type of language learner) is believed to have an effect on the nature of foreign language acquisition. Hence, Krashen distinguishes between ‘learning’ (heavy reliance upon the monitor) and ‘acquisition’ (little reliance upon the monitor). ( also natural approach) References Colson, J.-P. 1989. Krashens monitortheorie: een experimentele studie van het Nederlands als vreemde taal/La Théorie du moniteur de Krashen: une étude expérimentale du néerlandais, langue étrangère. Leuven. Krashen, S.D. 1981. Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford. ——1985. The input hypothesis: issues and implications. London. McLaughlin, B. 1987. Theories of second language learning. London. second language acquisition Dictionary of language and linguistics 762 Mon-Khmer Language group in South-East Asia with approx. 140 languages belonging to the AustroAsiatic language family; the most important languages are Vietnamese (about 50 million speakers) and Khmer (Cambodian, about 7 million speakers). Some have a long writing tradition (Mon and Khmer on the basis of Indian writing, Vietnamese on the basis of Chinese). References Bauer, C. 1992. A grammar of spoken Mon. Wiesbaden. Jacob, J.M. 1968. Introduction to Cambodian. Oxford. Sacher, R. and N.Phan. 1985. Lehrbuch des Khmer. Leipzig. Thompson, L.C. 1991. A Vietnamese reference grammar, 2nd printing. Honolulu. Thongkum, T.L. et al. (eds) 1979. Studies in Tai and Mon-Khmer phonetics and phonology in honour of Eugenie J.A.Henderson. Bangkok. Bibliography Shorto, H.L., J.M.Jacob, and E.H.S.Simmonds (eds) 1963. Bibliographies of Mon-Khmer and Tai linguistics. London. monolingualism [Grk mónos ‘only,’ lingua ‘tongue, language’] 1 Command of only one language as opposed to bilingualism or multilingualism’. 2 The use of only one language in a society, as opposed to multilingualism2. monophonematic classification In the phonological analysis of a language, the attribution of two sounds to one phoneme. Cf. in contrast polyphonemic classification. A-Z 763 References phonology monophthong [Grk monóphthongos ‘with one sound, single vowel’] In contrast with a diphthong, a vowel during whose articulation the articulators remain in place and maintain an audibly constant sound quality. References phonetics monophthongization Process of sound change motivated by articulation through which diphthongs are simplified to long vowels. It usually involves a reciprocally structured assimilation of both vocalic segments, which can also be influenced by corresponding following consonantal sounds and stress, cf. the change of Germanic ai and au respectively to the monophthongs a, ī from Old through Middle English times (OE stān vs Goth. stains; Mod. Eng. eye<ME eighe<OE ēage<Gmc *augōn-). ( also Great Vowel Shift) References sound change monosemy [Grk ‘sign’] 1 Typical property of morphemes in agglutinating languages (e.g. Turkish) which expresses exactly one meaning component ( agglutination). In contrast, inflection. ( also language typology) Dictionary of language and linguistics 764 2 An expression is monosemic if it has exactly one meaning, as opposed to polysemy, in which an expression may have more than one meaning. As a rule, monosemy is characteristic only of scientific terminology or artificial languages, but not of the vernacular. ( also meaning, semantics) Montague grammar Concept of grammar named after its founder, the American logician and language theoretician Richard Montague (1932–71), which follows in the logical tradition of Frege, Tarski, Carnap, and others. Montague’s premise is that between artificial (formal) and natural (human) languages there is no theoretically relevant difference. This leads to his attempt at demonstrating the logical structures of natural languages and at describing them by means of universal algebra and mathematical (formal) logic. In his precise, but very condensed sketches (of particular influence were his works Montague 1970 and Montague 1973, abbrev. PTQ), Montague proceeds from a syntax oriented along the surface structure of sentences, which he represents in the form of a modified categorial grammar. Parallel to this syntactic system of putting together simple into complex structures, complex meanings are also constructed from simple meanings, corresponding to the Fregean principle of meaning ( principle of compositionality), according to which the whole meaning of a sentence can be determined recursively as a function of the meaning of its well-formed parts. For this purpose, in Montague (1973) the expressions of natural language are translated into the semantically interpreted language of intensional logic through a system of translation rules. These rules are a kind of formalization of an intersubjective language competence. The interpretation of this logical language (which is simple type logic expanded by intensional, modal and temporal operators) is conducted on a model-theoretic basis ( model-theoretic semantics), i.e. each meaningful expression is attributed exactly one intension, which, depending on different situations (possible worlds or reference points) provides an extension (an object of reference) for the expression. From this concept follows the consequential methodological principle of semantic compositionality: the meanings of expressions form context-independent semantic blocks that alone contribute to the construction of the complete meaning of a sentence. This principle has proved to be extremely fruitful in the analysis of noun phrases (uniform treatment of terms for individual entities and quantifier phrases, quantification). However, for a number of grammatical phenomena it runs into difficulties; the most important examples are the socalled donkey-sentences: The expression a donkey, to be understood in PTQ in the sense of the existential operator ( operator) obtains a generalizing function in the sentence Any man who owns a donkey beats it (Geach 1962). Today, Montague grammar, next to transformational grammar, is one of the prevalent paradigms of theoretical linguistics, especially in its further developments. ( also discourse representation theory, situation semantics) A-Z 765 References Cann, R. 1992. Formal semantics. Cambridge. Frosch, H. 1993. Montague-Grammatik. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 413–29. Geach, P. 1962. Reference and generality: an examination of some medieval and modern theories. Ithaca, NY. Montague, R. 1970a. English as a formal language. In B.Visentini et al. (eds), Linguaggi nella società e nella tecnica. Milan. ——1970b. Universal grammar. Theoria 36. 373–98. ——1973. The proper treatment of quantification in ordinary English. In J.Hintikka, J.M.E.Moravcsik, and E.Suppes (eds), Approaches to natural language. Dordrecht. (abb. PTA). ——1974. Formal philosophy, ed. R.H.Thomason. New Haven, CT. Muskens, R. 1990. Going partial in Montague grammar: using programming concepts in deontic reasoning. In R.Bartsch et al. (eds), Semantics and contextual expression. Dordrecht. 175–220. Anthologies Davidson, D. and G.Harman (eds) 1972. Semantics of natural language. Dordrecht. Groenendijk, J. et al. (eds) 1981. Formal methods in the study of language, 2 vols. Amsterdam. Guenthner, F. and S.J.Schmidt. 1976. Formal semantics and pragmatics for natural languages. Dordrecht. Guenthner, F. and C.Rohrer (eds) 1978. Studies in formal semantics. Amsterdam. Kasher, A. (ed.) 1976. Language in focus: foundations, methods and systems. Dordrecht. Keenan, E.L. (ed.) 1975. Formal semantics of natu-ral language. Los Angeles, CA. Partee, B. (ed.) 1976. Montague grammar. New York. Bibliography Petöfi, J.S. (ed.) 1978. Logic and the formal theory of natural language: selected bibliography. Hamburg. categorial grammar, intensional logic mood Grammatical category of verbs which expresses the subjective attitude of the speaker towards the state of affairs described by the utterance. Most languages have independent paradigms for the indicative mood (a neutral category), the subjunctive for expressing unreal states, and the imperative for expressing commands. Some languages have other subtypes of moods such as the conditional in French for expressing a possible reality, the optative in Greek, Turkish, and Finnish for expressing fulfillable wishes, the dubitative in Turkish for expressing a suspicion, the energetic in Arabic for expressing an emphatic assertion. Dictionary of language and linguistics 766 The formulation of modality is not limited to the corresponding morphological verb forms, but can also be expressed lexically, as with modal auxiliaries (want, can, etc.) and sentence adverbials (hopefully, maybe); cf. the semantic category of modality. References modality mood of affirming rule of inference mood of denying rule of negative inference mora [Lat. mora ‘time necessary, needed’] Phonological measurement for a short syllable that consists of a short vowel and (at most) one consonant. Syllables with a long vowel or with a short vowel and two or more consonants consist of two morae. According to another definition, light syllables that end in a short consonant consist of one mora, while all other syllables are heavy and consist of two morae. ( also law of three morae) Reference Hyman, L. 1985. A theory of phonological weight. Dordrecht. A-Z Mordva morph [Grk 767 Finno-Ugric ‘form, shape’] The smallest meaningful phonetic segment of an utterance on the level of parole which cannot yet be classified as a representative of a particular morpheme (on the level of langue vs parole). If two or more morphs have the same meaning but a langue ( different distribution then they belong to the same morpheme and are called allomorphs of that morpheme. Thus -able, as in conceivable, and -ible, as in edible constitute two different phonetic representations of an abstract suffix meaning roughly ‘able.’ Homonymic morphs, such as -er ( homonymy), are allomorphs of different morphemes, namely ‘comparative’ (e.g. harder) and ‘agentive’ (e.g. worker). The distinction between morph, allomorph, and morpheme is analogous to that of phone, allophone, and phoneme in phonology. References morphology morpheme Theoretical basic element in structural language analysis, analogous to phoneme: the smallest meaningful element of language that, as a basic phonological and semantic element cannot be reduced into smaller elements, e.g. book, three, it, long. Morphemes are abstract (theoretical) units. They are represented phonetically and phonologically by morphs as the smallest meaningful, but unclassified, segments of meaning. If such morphs have the same meaning and a complement ary distribution or if they stand in free variation, then they are said to be allomorphs of the same morpheme, e.g. the allomorphs of the plural morpheme ‘s’ are /s/, /z/, /iz/ as in books, radios, and houses, though -s, -en, and -ø (as in doors, oxen, and sheep) constitute allomorphs of an abstract plural morpheme. Thus, only in particular cases do morphemes actually correspond to the grammatical category of word (word, we, soon); morphemes must be principally distinguished from the phonetic unit of syllable: syllables are concrete sound segments of a word on the level of parole, while morphemes are abstractions on the level of langue ( langue vs parole); any formal correspondence between morphemes and syllables is coincidental, cf. rent control, but: rent-al vs tor-rent. A syllable can consist of several morphemes: cf. thought, which can be analyzed as containing the four morphemes ‘think’ Dictionary of language and linguistics 768 (as its lexical meaning ( lexical meaning vs grammatical meaning)), ‘tense.’ ‘person,’ and ‘number,’ while today consists of two syllables but constitutes only one morpheme. Depending on the aspect of the study one can discern various typologies of classification and differentiation of morphemes. (a) Regarding the postulate of the unity of form and meaning a distinction must be drawn between (i) discontinuous morphemes, in which two or more morphs separated by other elements yield the morpheme’s meaning (as in Ger. ge+lieb +t, where ge- and -t together mark the participle) and (ii) the so-called portmanteau morphemes in which the smallest meaningful segments carry several meanings (cf. the analysis above of thought or Fr. au that is a blend of the morphs a and le). (b) Regarding their semantic function one distinguishes between (i) lexical lexeme), that denote objects, state of affairs, etc. of the extralinguistic morphemes ( world and whose relations are studied in semantics and lexicology and (ii) grammatical morphemes (also: inflectional morphemes) that express the grammatical relations in sentences and are studied in morphology (in the narrow sense) and syntax. (c) Regarding their occurrence or their independence one distinguishes between (i) free morphemes (also: roots or bases), which may have both a lexical (book, red, fast) as well as a grammatical function (out, and, it) and (ii) bound morphemes, in which it is a matter of either a lexical stem morpheme (e.g. typ- in type, typical) and inflectional morphemes (as in verb endings) or derivational morphemes of word formation (as un-, -able, -ness) ( affix). Also, so-called ‘cranberry morphemes’ (as cran- in cranberry) ( semimorpheme) are bound morphemes whose synchronic meaning is reduced to its distinctive function. This structuralist morpheme analysis, which is based primarily on distribution and operational processes of analysis, is limited by the changes in the forms that are not caused by relations of order, but rather are characterized by sound changes ( mutation), cf. the formation of the past tense in Eng. run: ran. See Matthews (1974) for a summary and critical view of these analyses. The relevance of the classical concept of morpheme to the description of word formation is doubted by Aronoff (1976), who eventually discards it. Accordingly, the lexicon does not consist of morphemes but rather of finished words of the language. According to Aronoff, outside the words in which they occur, morphemes have no independent existence: they are constituents of words. Word formation rules are interpreted as transformational operations within the lexicon that take a word as input and transform the same into a new word with phonologically, semantically, and syntactically determined characteristics. See Di Sciullo and Williams (1987) for criticisms of Aronoff s approach. In contrast to Aronoff, they posit combinatory word formation processes that combine morphemes into words. References Aronoff, M. 1976. Word formation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. Di Sciullo, A.M. and E.Williams. 1987. On the definition of word. Cambridge, MA. Matthews, P.H. 1974. Morphology: an introduction to the theory of word-structures. Cambridge. (2nd edn 1991.) morphology, word formation, word formation rules A-Z 769 morphemics 1 In the broad sense, synonymous term for morphology. 2 In the narrow sense, term denoting synchronic morphology as opposed to historical word formation. morphological analysis Analysis and description of the (variant) forms, the occurrence, and the function of also morphology) morphemes as the smallest meaningful elements of a language. ( References morphology morphological feature The conjugational and declensional features of language that mark an expression for inflection, i.e. that indicate person, number, tense, and so on in verbs, and case and gender in nouns. References morphology Dictionary of language and linguistics morphological reanalysis 770 analogy morphologization Change of a phonological rule into a morphological regularity through the loss of an originally present phonetic motivational factor. Thus, the plural formation by umlaut (foot: feet), which was originally conditioned by an -i- in the following syllable (ProtoGermanic *fotiz), became productive in German, after this conditioning factor had been lost and the umlaut came to be directly connected with the category of plural (e.g. Hand—Hände ‘handhands’); in English, umlaut was not morphologized; there remained only a few isolated cases (see above and, e.g. mouse: mice). References Bybee, J. 1985. Morphology: a study of the relation between meaning and form. Amsterdam. Dressler, W.U. 1985. Morphology: the dynamics of derivation. Ann Arbor. MI. Klausenburger J. 1979. Morphologization: studies in Latin and Romance morphophonology. Tübingen. Maiden, M. 1991. Interactive morphology. London. Wurzel, W. 1984. Flexionsmorphologie und Natürlichkeit. Berlin. grammaticalization, morphophonemics, natural phonology morphology Term coined by J.W.von Goethe to designate the study of form and structure of living organisms which was taken up by linguistics in the nineteenth century as a cover term for inflection and word formation. In school grammar, morphology corresponds to the study of forms, i.e. the subdisciplines of inflection as well as of the study of word classes and their classificational criteria. In various ways word formation is treated as an independent discipline beside morphology or as a further subdiscipline of morphology. Hockett (1954) distinguishes between three types of morphological models: (a) the itemand-arrangement grammar (=combinatory morphology) pursued in American structuralism with consideration to distribution; (b) the concept of an item-andprocess grammar (=process morphology) which is fundamental to generative grammar and in which basic abstract forms are transformed into their surface structure forms; and (c) the word-and-paradigm model (=paradigm morphology), which posits not the morpheme, but the word as the basic element of morphological description. The basic concepts of morphology in recent linguistics were developed in the framework of A-Z 771 structuralism (cf. above under (a)). Here, morphology consists of the study of form, inner structure, function, and occurrence of a morpheme as the smallest meaningful unit operational procedures) of language. Based on experimental methods of analysis ( the morpheme inventory as well as the possible morpheme combinations are described; the transition to syntax is just as continuous as the boundary with phonology ( morphophonemics). Further goals of morphological analysis are: (a) the development of criteria that determine parts of speech; (b) the description of regularities in inflection ( declension, conjugation, and comparison); (c) the study of grammatical categories like tense, mood, and others, and their linguistic correlates; (d) in word formation, the study of the basic elements, combinatory principles, and semantic function of new word formations; (e) in contrastive linguistics, the development of criteria for determining typological relations between genetically related and nonrelated languages ( language typology). References Andersen, H. 1980. Morphological change. In J. Fisiak (ed.), Historical morphology. The Hague. 1–50. Anderson, S. 1988. Morphological theory. In F. Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 1, 146–91. ——1992. A-morphous morphology. Cambridge. Aronoff, M. 1992. Morphology now. Albany, NY. ——1994. Morphology by itself. Cambridge, MA. Bauer, L. 1988. Introducing linguistic morphology. Edinburgh. Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. Booij, G. and J.van Marle, (eds) 1991/3. Yearbooks of morphology 1991–1993, 3 vols. Dordrecht. Bybee, J. 1985. Morphology: a study of the relations between meaning and form. Amsterdam. Carstairs-McCarthy, A. 1992. Current morphology. London. Dressler, W.U. et al. (eds) 1990. Contemporary morphology. Berlin and New York. Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1980. Historical morphology. The Hague. Greenberg, J. (ed.) 1978. Universals of human language, vol. 3: Word structure. Stanford, CA. Hall, C.J. 1991. Morphology and mind: a unified approach to explanation in linguistics. London. Hammond, M. and M.Noonan. 1988. Theoretical morphology. London. Harris, Z.S. 1951. Methods in structural linguistics. Chicago, IL. Hockett, C.F. 1954. Two models of grammatical description. Word 10. 210–34. Jensen, J. 1990. Morphology: word structure in generative grammar. Amsterdam. Katamba, F. 1993. Morphology. Basingstoke. Kilani-Schoch, M. 1988. Introduction a la morphologie naturelle. Paris. Kilbury, J. 1976. The development of morphophonemic theory. Amsterdam. Lieber, R. 1992. Deconstructing morphology: word formation in syntactic theory. Chicago, IL. Matthews, P. 1974. Morphology: an introduction to the theory of word-structure. Cambridge. (2nd edn 1991.) Mel'čuk, I. 1993. Cours de morphologie générale, vol. 1: Introduction et première partie: le mot. Montreal. Mugdahn, J. and C.Lehmann. 1995. Morphology: an international handbook. Berlin and New York. Nida, E. 1946. Morphology: the descriptive analysis of words. Ann Arbor, MI. (2nd edn 1949.) Spencer, A. 1991. Morphological theory: an introduction to word structure in generative grammar. Oxford. Dictionary of language and linguistics 772 Szpyra, J. 1989. The phonology—morphology interface. London. Bibliography Beard, R. and B.Szymanek. 1988. Bibliography of morphology 1960–1985. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. morphonemics morphophonemics morphophoneme (also alternation) Term introduced by Trubetzkoy (1929) to denote phonological units whose different elements represent allomorphs of a particular morpheme, e.g. in English, the different in cats, dogs, horses, oxen, sheep. variants of the plural morpheme /-s, -z, -iz, -en, also Morphophonemes are abstract entities that underlie different allomorphs. ( morphophonemics) References Trubetzkoy, N.S. 1929. Zur allgemeinen Theorie der phonologischen Vokalsysteme. TCLP 1.39– 67. morphophonemics morphophonemics (also morphonemics) Intermediary level of analysis between phonology and morphology in which the phonological regularities in the framework of morphology, especially the systematic phonological variants of morphemes ( allomorph) and the conditions of their occurrence, are described (e.g. the two phonetic variations of the past tense morpheme ed in stayed [ste:d] vs heaped [hi:pt]; further examples under morphophoneme). This concept of an abstract phonological level underlying the concrete expressive form was first developed by Trubetzkoy (1929, 1931) and further developed by N.Chomsky in his transformational grammar, in which rules are posited that guarantee the transfer of an abstract morphophonological (deep) structure ( deep structure) (=a systematic A-Z 773 phonemic level) into the concrete phonetic realization of the surface structure. In natural generative grammar morphophonological variants are stored in the lexicon. References Chomsky, N. and M.Halle. 1968. The sound pattern of English. New York. Gussmann, E. (ed.) 1983. Phono-morphology: studies in the interaction of phonology and morphology. Dublin. Kilburn, J. 1974. The emergence of morphophonemics: a survey of theory and practice from 1876 to 1939. Lingua 33. 235–52. Kuryłowicz, J. 1968. The notion of morpho(pho)neme. In W.P.Lehmann and Y.Malkiel (eds), Directions for historical linguistics. Austin, TX. 65–81. Maiden, M. 1991. Interactive morphonology: metaphony in Italy. London. Martinet, A. 1965. De la morphonologie. Linguistique 1. 15–30. Trubetzkoy, N.S. 1929. Zur allgemeinen Theorie der phonologischen Vokalsysteme. TCLP 1. 39– 67. ——1931. Gedanken über Morphophonologie. TCLP 4. 160–3. morphosyntax Procedures of language for representing syntactic features by morphological means, i.e. cliticization), through the presence of bound morphemes, such as flexives or clitics ( as opposed to using purely combinatory processes that indicate the syntactic features of a linguistic expression by its position or by its combination of free morphemes, such as prepositions or adverbs. References inflection, morphology Dictionary of language and linguistics Morse code Mossi 774 alphabet2 Gur motion [Lat. motio ‘movement’] Explicit derivations that denote female counterparts of male designations by the addition of various suffixes, cf. actress, aviatrix. Examples of the reverse process (e.g. widower<widow) are very rare. In English, the derivation of female from male forms through suffixation is generally not productive; it is, instead, being replaced by compounding (e.g. chairwoman vs chairman) or being leveled out completely (e.g. chair, manager, mail carrier). References word formation motivation A word form is motivated if its whole meaning can be ascertained from the sum of the meanings of its individual elements, e.g. bookstore, garbageman, movie theater. Synchronically, there are several levels of motivation: full motivation (wine cellar), partial motivation (housecoat), and complete lexicalization (mincemeat). Nonce words are always completely motivated because they are rulegoverned. References word formation A-Z motor aphasia 775 aphasia, Broca’s aphasia motor theory of speech perception Hypothesis developed by A.M.Liberman about the connection between the divisional distinction of linguistic perception of sounds and the phonological structure of language. Liberman assumes that, on the basis of an observable feedback effect through silent repetition of the heard sound, a hearer’s speech perception is directed by the articulatory processes necessary for production of the corresponding sounds. References Lane, H. 1965. The motor theory of speech perception: a critical review. PsychologR 72. 275–309. Liberman, A.M. 1967. Intonation, perception, and language. Cambridge, MA. Liberman, A.M. et al. 1963. A motor theory of speech perception. Stockholm. psycholinguistics move-α A general movement rule in newer versions of transformational grammar which aspects replaces construction-specific transformations. In the standard theory ( model) there were specific transformations like passive transformations, questionforming transformations and raising; there now exists just one rule: move-α. Earlier construction-specific properties of the respective movement rules must now be the result of the interaction between the lexical properties of the category inserted into the construction on the one hand, and the general constraints on movement rules on the other hand. For example, wh-movement, NP-movement, and Chomsky adjunction are different subtypes of move-α, which are differentiated according to the landing sites of the movement. In Chomsky’s Government and Binding theory, there is a distinction between a’representational’ and a ‘derivational’ interpretation of move-α. In the former, move-α is understood as a structural relationship between an antecedent and a (coindexed) trace; in the latter, move-α is interpreted in terms of the derivational history between deep structure and surface structure. Dictionary of language and linguistics 776 References Cinque, Guglielmo. 1990. Types of A-bar Dependencies. Cambridge, MA. transformational grammar movement transformation (also reordering transformation, permutation transformation) A type of transformation where a constituent in the tree diagram is moved to a new transformational grammar) position and the original constituent is deleted. ( multidimensional opposition opposition multilingualism [Lat. multī ‘many,’ lingua ‘tongue; language’] 1 Ability of a speaker to express him-/herself in several languages with equal and nativelike proficiency. In practice, proficiency in one language usually dominates. ( bilingualism) 2 Coexistence of several languages within a politically defined society as, for example, in India, Canada, or Switzerland. Stewart (1964) designed a framework with four criteria to classify multilingual societies, namely: (a) the degree of language standardization; (b) the degree of social and linguistic autonomy; (c) the linguistic tradition; and (d) the strength of the spoken language. Through a combination of these features he arrived at a scale of possible varieties ranging from pidgin, creole, dialect, vernacular (i.e. native language), artificial language (i.e. interlingua), classical language to standard language. These language types and their distinctive functions (e.g. official, international, literary, familiar uses) form a basis for language planning. language contact) ( References Alladina, S. and V.Edwards (eds). 1991. Multilingualism in the British Isles. 2 vols. London. Edwards, J. 1994. Multilingualism. London. A-Z 777 Harlech-Jones, B. 1991. You taught me language. Oxford. Oksaar, E. (ed.). 1987. Soziokulturelle Perspektiven von Mehrsprachigkeit und Spracherwerb/Sociocultural perspectives of multilingualism and language acquisition. Tübingen. Pattanayak, D.P. 1984. Language policies in multilingual states. PJL 14–15:2–1. 75–84. Stewart, W. 1964. A sociolinguistic typology for describing national multilingualism. Lg 40. 526– 31. Wolfson, N. 1989. Multilingualism. Hove. language contact, literacy, sociolinguistics multiple-branching construction A type of phrase structure construction. A constituent forms a multiple-branching construction if it directly dominates similar constituents which do not relate to it in any other way. For example, in Sam, Louis, and the neighborho od children gathered nuts, Sam, Louis and the neighborhood children forms a multiply branching construction of NP constituents. Reference Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Munda Language group belonging to the Austro-Asiatic languages. The ten languages comprising this group are spoken in a few linguistic islands in India; the largest language is Santali (about 4 million speakers). Characteristics: morphology and syntax influenced by other Indo-Aryan languages, prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. Word order SOV. Many lexical borrowings. References Bhattacharya, S. 1975. Studies in comparative Munda linguistics. Simla. Hoffmann, J. and A.van Emelen, 1950. Encyclopaedia Mundarica, 13 vols. Patna. MacPhail, R.M. 1964. An introduction to Santali. Benagaria. Zide, N.H. 1978. Studies in the Munda numerals. Mysore. Dictionary of language and linguistics 778 murmuring (also breathy voice) In articulatory phonetics a murmuring sound such as that found in Hindi and Igbo. , (see the IPA chart, p. xix) They are notated with two subscript dots, e.g. References phonetics musical accent pitch accent musical stress stress2 Muskogean Branch of the Gulf languages of North America containing approx. ten languages in the southeastern United States; a number of now extinct languages are possibly related as well. The most important language today is Chocktaw (about 10,000 speakers). Characteristics: three series of pronominal affixes, which can be given different semantic roles (agent; patient or possessor of some trait; recipient); thus it is to be grouped with the active languages. ( also North and Central American languages) References Haas, M. 1979. South-Eastern languages. In L. Campbell and M.Mithun (eds), The languages of native America: historical and comparative assessment. Austin, TX. 299–326. Munro, P. and L.Gordon. 1982. Syntactic relations in western Muskogean. Lg 58. 81–115. North and Central American languages. A-Z 779 mutation [Lat. mutatio ‘change’] In word formation, sound change in the stem forms. A distinction is drawn between (a) vowel change by ablaut (ring: rang) or umlaut (man : men), and (b) consonant change by grammatical alternation (bring: brought). mutative durative vs nondurative, imperfective vs perfective mute [Lat. mutus ‘lacking the faculty of speech, dumb’] Umbrella term taken from Latin and Greek grammar for the tenues (p, t, k) and the tenuis vs media). As ‘silent’ sounds they are differentiated from mediae (b, d, g) ( sonants in that they cannot form the nucleus2 of syllables. mutism In psychiatry, term referring to the effects of a psychoneurotic disturbance which, after the onset of language acquisition, can lead to muteness in children and adults (‘total mutism’), or to a refusal of children to speak to particular persons in particular situations (‘elective mutism’). In adults, post-traumatic or traumatic mutism may be a consequence of a trauma or lesion on the brain stem. References language disorder, neurolinguistics. Dictionary of language and linguistics Mycenaean Greek 780 A-Z 781 N Na-Dené Language group in North America with over twenty languages in the northwest and south of the continent; the largest language is Navajo (approx. 140,000 speakers). The NaDené languages are divided into Haida (approx. 300 speakers), Tlingit (approx. 2000 speakers), and the large Athabaskan language family (including the Navajo and Apache languages). Characteristics: tonal languages (usually two tones), often with complex consonant systems; many nouns derived from verbs, distinction between active and stative verbs; rich aspect and voice systems, tendency towards polysynthesis and descriptivity. References Cook, E. and K.Rice (eds) 1988. Athapaskan Linguistics. Berlin. Enrico, J. 1989. The Haida language. In G.G.E. Scudder and N.Gessler (eds), The outer shores. Victoria. 223–47. Golla, V.K. 1964. An etymological study of Hupa noun stems. IJAL 30. 108–17. Hymes, D.H. 1956. Na-Dené and positional analysis of categories. AA 58. 623–8. Krauss, M.E. 1979. Na-Dené and Eskimo-Aleut. In L.Campbell and M.Mithun (eds), The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin, TX. 803–901. Liedtke, S. 1994. Na-Dene and other language groups. LDDS 8. Narsh, C.M. and G.L.Story. 1973. Tlingit verb dictionary. Fairbanks. Pinnow, H.-J. 1976. Geschichte der Na-Dené- Forschung. Berlin. ——1990. Die Na-Dené-Sprachen im Lichte der Greenberg-Klassifikation. Nortorf. Rice, K. 1988. A Grammar of Slave. Berlin. North and Central American languages Dictionary of language and linguistics Nahali 782 language isolate Nahuati Classical Nahuatl, an Uto-Aztecan language, was the language of the Toltec and Aztec empires; immediately related languages are spoken today in Mexico by approx. 1.2 million speakers. Our knowledge of Classical Nahuatl comes primarily from several codices that were written with the assistance of Spanish missionaries (particularly Bernhardino de Sahagun) in the sixteenth century. In 1528 the first printed book, Annals of Tlatelolco, appeared in an orthography influenced by Spanish. Characteristics: relatively simple sound system; weak noun-verb distinction; predicates used nominatively have the nominalizing suffix -tl and can always be used predicatively; when used non-predicatively they receive the ‘article’ in-. Strong tendency towards incorporation and nominal composition. Complex verb morphology (four verb classes with different paradigms). References Andrews, J.R. 1975. Introduction to classical Nahuatl. Austin, TX. Launey, M. 1981. Introduction a la langue et littérature aztec. Paris. Wohlgemuth, C. 1981. Grammatica Nahuatl. Mexico City. Nakh North-East Caucasian Nakho-Dagestanian North-East Caucasian Nama Afro-Asiatic, Khoisan name proper noun A-Z 783 narrative analysis [Lat. narrare ‘to relate, tell’] An area of text linguistics which deals with the analysis and text typology of narrative texts, i.e. stories, everyday narratives, fairy tales, literary types of text. Narrative analysis finds its roots in Russian formalism (Vladimir Propp) and is developed from the narrative theory of structural literary theory (Roland Barthes, Claude Bremond), it occupies the middle ground between linguistics and literature studies nowadays. The point of departure for research is the acceptance of abstract narrative structures as the basis of the narrative text which are formed in a hierarchical fashion from narrative categories. References Bremond, C. 1973. Logique de récit. Paris. Britton, B.K. and A.D.Pellegrini (eds) 1990. Narrative thought and narrative language. Hove. Fleischman, S. 1990. Tense and narrativity. London. Genot, G. 1979. Elements of narrativics, grammar in narrative, narrative in grammar. Hamburg. Goffman, E. 1981. Forms of talk. Philadelphia, PA. Greimas, A.-J. 1990. Narrative semiotics and cognitive discources. London. Labov, W. and J.Waletzky. 1967. Narrative analysis: oral versions of personal experience. In J.Helm (ed.), Essays on the verbal and visual arts, Seattle, WA. 12–44. Prince, G. 1983. Narratology: the form and functioning of narration. The Hague. Propp, V. 1928. Morphology of the folktale, 2nd rev. edn. by L.A.Wagner 1968. Austin. Rumelhart, D.E. 1975. Notes on a schema for stories. In D.Bobrow et al. (eds), Representation and understanding. New York. Thorndyke, P.W. 1977. Cognitive structures in comprehension and memory of narrative discourse. CPsy 9. 77–110. Toolan, M.J. 1988. Narrative: a critical linguistic introduction. London. narrative structure The specific structure of the texts of narratives, especially everyday narratives. In contrast argumentation), with other kinds of texts, e.g. descriptive or argumentative texts ( narrative structures consist of plots and events that are ordered in a specific way according to chronology or causality. They develop from a text theme, an interesting event, with the hierarchical connection of the basic narrative categories: ‘complication’ (the composition of the plot), ‘resolution’ (the disentanglement of the complication), and ‘evaluation’ (the position of the narrator). Specific structural features work within the frame of a text typology to establish an individual kind of text like a fairy tale, novel, history. ( story grammar, superstructure, thematic development) Dictionary of language and linguistics 784 References narrative analysis nasal 1 In contrast with an oral sound, a speech sound in which the velum is lowered, such that pulmonic air can escape either completely or partly through the nasal passage. If at the same time there is no oral closure then nasalization occurs, the resulting sounds are nasalized sounds, e.g. in French [bõ] ‘good.’ 2 In the narrower sense, a sound in which the velum is raised such that pulmonic air passes only through the nasal passage, e.g. [n] and [ŋ] in [‘iŋlənd] England, [nayn] nine, [өıŋk] think, [m] as in [maı' æmi] Miami ( articulatory phonetics). ( also phonetics) References phonetics nasal harmony (also nasalization) Widespread phonological regularity in which a nasal in a syllable-final position assumes the place of articulation of the following consonant in the same word: Lat. *inperfectus> imperfectus (‘incomplete’), Eng. ankle ([n]> [ŋ]). Nasal harmony is a natural phonological rule ( natural phonology) that can be explained phonetically as a process of articulatory simplification. References markedness A-Z nasalization Nashī 785 nasal harmony Arabic national language In the broad sense, the full set of all regional, social, and functional, spoken and written variants of a historically and politically defined linguistic community. In the narrow sense, the standard language as opposed to the literary language (dialect and sociolect necessarily excluded) of a historically and politically defined linguistic community. In both inter-pretations the term is problematic, since frequently ‘nation’ and ‘language’ are not congruent for political or historical reasons. Consider, for example, the situation in multilingual countries such as the United States ( multilingualism), or the use of ‘German’ to describe the language spoken in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, and Luxemburg. References Chiappelli, F. (ed.) 1985. The fairest flower: the emergence of linguistic national consciousness in Renaissance Europe. Florence. Clyne, M. 1991. Pluricentric languages: differing norms in different nations. Berlin and New York. Fishman, J.A. 1984. On the peculiar problems of smaller national languages. PJL 14–15:2–1. 40–5. native speaker [Lat. nativus ‘acquired by birth, inborn’] Literally, a person who learned a language as a child. In transformational grammar, ‘native speaker’ refers to a representative ideal speaker/listener of a linguistic community. ( also competence vs performance) References Davies, A. 1991. The native speaker in applied linguistics. Edinburgh. Dictionary of language and linguistics 786 competence vs performance, transformational grammar nativism Philosophical and psychological position which holds that cognitive development of humans arises from ‘innate (=inborn) ideas.’ Some linguists, such as N.Chomsky (who has continued the tradition of the rationalistic inter-pretations of Descartes, Humboldt, and others), have recently taken a nativist position ( mentalism). Empiricism presents an opposing view, namely that the psychological develop-ment of humans arises primarily from experience and learning. References mentalism natural approach Approach to language instruction developed by T.Terrell (with S.D.Krashen), and based on Krashen’s second language acquisition theory. Krashen offers five interrelated hypotheses regarding language acquisition: (1) ‘Acquisition/learning hypothesis’, where two types of linguistic knowledge can be distinguished: ‘acquired’ and ‘learned.’ Acquired knowledge is used unconsciously and automatically in language comprehension and production, learned knowledge is used in careful speech or ‘edited’ writing. (2) ‘Monitor hypothesis’: every language learner has a built-in ‘monitor’ ( monitor model) which is used to ‘edit’ one’s speech or writing. (3) ‘Input hypothesis’: acquisition occurs only when the language learner comprehends natural language. Input, if it is to be acquired, must be comprehensible. (4) ‘Natural order hypothesis’: morphology and syntax are acquired according to a ‘natural,’ predictable order. (5) ‘Affective filter hypothesis’: language acquisition occurs only in nonthreatening environments. When a language learner is placed in a stressful or otherwise unfavorable learning environment, an ‘affective filter’ is raised, which prevents the learner from acquiring language. Drawing on these five hypotheses, Terrell developed six guiding principles for the natural approach: (1) comprehension is an essential precondition to production; (2) speech emerges in stages; (3) the emergence of speech is characterized by grammatical errors; (4) speech is promoted when language learners work in pairs or in groups; (5) language is only acquired in a lowanxiety environment; (6) the goal of language learning is proficiency in communication skills. Krashen’s later studies increasingly acknowledge the importance of explicit grammar explanation and emphasize reading as a strategy for A-Z 787 vocabulary acquisition. The natural approach has become a well-established approach in also language pedagogy, second language foreign-language instruction. ( acquisition) References Brown, J.M. and A.S.Palmer. 1988. The listening approach: methods and materials for applying Krashen ‘s input hypothesis. New York. Krashen, S.D. 1982. Principles and practice in second language acquisition. New York. ——1985. The input hypothesis: issues and implications. London. Krashen, S.D. and T.Terrell. 1983. The natural approach: language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford. Richards, J.C. and T.S.Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and methods in language teaching. Cambridge. Terrell, T.D. 1977. A natural approach to second language acquisition and learning. MLJ 61. 325– 36. natural class Set of sounds (phones) for which it is the case that fewer features are required to describe the class as a whole than to describe any given member of the class, e.g. [p, b, m] form the class of bilabial consonants in English. natural generative grammar General language theory developed by R. Bartsch and T.Vennemann (1972) on the basis of categorial grammar. The following theoretical principles, most of which resulted from objections to generative transformational grammar, underlie natural generative grammar. (a) The objective of description is not the unconscious linguistic knowledge of a competent speaker, but rather the grammatical process through which semantic, syntactic, and phonological representations are related to each other ( semantics, syntax, phonology). The empirical verifiability and justification of the hypothesis is guaranteed by the observation of regularities in language acquisition, use, and change. (b) The syntax is formulated categorically on the basis of predicate logic, expanded to include intensional predicates and pragmatic sentence operators ( logical connective). In this way, syntactic structures are not represented through a coincidental coexistence of constituents, but rather through logical relations of operator-operand, which can be directly interpreted semantically. (c) This modified categorial grammar is also the basis for the development of a universal word order syntax which follows the principle of natural serialization ( word order). This principle states that all languages of the Dictionary of language and linguistics 788 world exhibit either operatoroperand or operand-operator ordering or at least tend to develop in one or the other direction. (d) A distinction is made between a word-based semantics built on meaning postulates, and a sentence-based semantics, homomorphic with the syntax; the logical semantic representation is in keeping with the cognitive (and therefore universal) structures which are the foundation of human perception, recognition, classification, speech, and understanding. (e) In contrast to transformational grammar, a strict distinction is made between morphology and phonology; the phonological description is built on phonetically plausible and universally valid rules, e.g. also markedness, natural phonology). (f) Natural generative nasal harmony ( grammar encompasses not only synchronic linguistic theory, but also a complementary synchrony vs diachrony), the so-called ‘theory of language diachronic theory ( change,’ whose universal and prognostic characteristics are made especially valid in the areas of word order and sound change. (g) The ‘strong naturalness condition’ states that all phonological representations are realized through phonological features in the surface form; that the logical operator-operand relations, which are the basis for semantic representations, correlate with essential human cognitive (linguistic) capabilities; and that no semantically uninterpretable medial steps are allowed in syntactic derivations. References Bartsch, R. and T.Vennemann. 1972. Semantic structures: a study in the relation between semantics and syntax. Frankfurt. Hooper, J.B. 1976. An introduction to natural generative phonology. New York. Rudes, B.A. 1976. Lexical representation and variable rules in natural generative phonology. Glossa 10. 111–50. Vennemann, T. 1974. Words and syllables in natural generative grammar. In A.Buck et al. (eds), Papers from the parasession on natural phonology 1974. Chicago, IL. 346–74. natural language Term for languages which have developed historically and which are regionally and socially stratified, as opposed to artificial language systems, which are used for international communication ( planned language) or for formulating complex scientific statements. ( computational linguistics) Natural languages differ from artificial languages particularly in their lexical and structural polysemy, the potential ambiguity of their expressions, and in their susceptibility to change through time. A-Z natural method 789 direct method natural order hypothesis approach natural natural phonology Model developed in particular by D.Stampe and W.U.Dressler as a critical alternative to generative phonology. The basic units of natural phonology are not phonemes or distinctive features, but rather ‘natural’ phonological processes such as final devoicing, nasalization ( nasal harmony), and labialization. According to the natural phonological viewpoint, such (potentially universally valid) processes are not part of language acquisition per se, but rather are an integral part of the human capacity for language. The acquisition of a phonological system takes place through suppression and limitation of cumbersome articulatory and perceptive processes; in this way, final devoicing has been eliminated from English in the course of language acquisition. Natural phonological processes are irreversible, thus there is no such thing as ‘denasalization’ or ‘final voicing.’ ( also distinctive feature theory, markedness) References Dogil, G. 1981. Elementary accent systems. In W.U. Dressler et al. (eds), Phonologica. Innsbruck. Donegan, P. and D.Stampe. 1979. The study of natural phonology. In D.Dinnsen (ed.), Current approaches to phonological theory. Bloomington, IN. 126–73. Dressler, W.U. 1984. Explaining natural phonology. PY 1. 29–53. ——1985. Morphonology: the dynamics of derivation. Ann Arbor, MI. Hurch, B. and R.Rhodes (eds) 1995. Natural phono-logy: the state of the art. Berlin. Dictionary of language and linguistics natural serialization Navaho 790 word order Navajo Navajo (also Navaho) Na-Dené language from the Athabaskan family, belonging to the Apache languages, with approx. 140,000 speakers, esp. in Arizona. Characteristics: tonal language (high and low tone) with complex consonant system. The verbs are morphologically complex (subject agreement, marking of aspect, mood, evidentiality, etc.); many portmanteau morphemes and suppletive formations. The numeral system is complex, with a dual, and plural forms marked on the verb that express repeated events or difference of the participants. Like many other Apache languages, Navajo possesses classifying verbs as well as a switch reference system (differentiation between proximate vs obviative personal pronouns. References Young, R.W. and W.Morgan. 1987. The Navajo language. A grammar and colloquial dictionary. 2nd edn. Albuquerque, NM. (Repr. 1991). Na-Dene, North and Central American languages necessitation allegation negation [Lat. negare ‘to say that…not, deny’] 1 In formal logic, logical particles—defined as one-place predicates by the truth tables—that convert the truth value of a proposition p into its opposite truth value (notation: ¬p or ~p); that is, ¬p is true if and only if p is false and vice versa. Tokyo is the capital of Japan is true if and only if Tokyo is not the capital of Japan is false. The term A-Z 791 ‘negation’ refers both to the one-place sentence operator it is not the case that or not as well as to the proposition defined thereby. The following (two-value) truth table represents a definition of negation: p ¬p t f f t Since logical negation is basically sentence negation, the clearest everyday paraphrase for presupposition test for negation as a criterion for it is it is not the case that p ( defining presuppositions). 2 In contrast with logical negation, natural language negation functions not only as sentence negation, but also primarily as clausal or constituent negation: She did not pay (= negation of predication), No one paid anything (= negation of the subject NP), He paid nothing (= negation of the object NP). Here the scope (= semantic coverage) of negation is frequently polysemic or dependent on the placement of negation, on the sentence stress ( stress, prosody) as well as on the linguistic and/or extralinguistic context. Natural language negation may be realized in various ways: (a) lexically with adverbs and adverbial expressions (not, never, by no means), indefinite pronouns (nobody, nothing, none), coordinating conjunctions (neither…nor), sentence equivalents (no), or prepositions (without, besides); (b) morphologically with prefixes (in +exact, un+interested) or suffixes (help+ less); (c) intonationally with contrastive accent (in Jacob is not flying to New York tomorrow the negation can refer to Jacob, flying, New York, or tomorrow depending which elements are stressed); (d) idiomatically by expressions like For all I care, Formally, three types of negation are differentiated: (a) internal (= strong) negation, the basic type of natural language negation (e.g. The King of France is not bald); (b) external (=weak) negation, which corresponds to logical negation (e.g. It’s not the case/it’s not true that p); (c) contrastive (=local) negation, which can also be considered a pragmatic variant of strong negation to the degree that stress and the corresponding modifying clause are relevant to the scope of the negation (e.g. The King of France is not bald, but rather wears glasses). The linguistic description of negation has proven to be a difficult problem in all grammatical models owing to the complex interrelationship of syntactic, prosodic, semantic, and pragmatic aspects. References Dahl, Ö. 1993. Negation. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. 914–22. Berlin and New York. Gazdar, G. 1979. Pragmatics. New York. Haegeman, L. 1995. The syntax of negation. Cambridge. Horn, L.R. 1989. A natural history of negation. Chicago, IL. Jackendoff, R.S. 1969. An interpretative theory of negation. FoLi 5. 218–41. ——1972. Semantic interpretation in generative grammar. New York. Kahrel, P. and R.van den Berg (eds) 1994. Typological studies in negation. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Dictionary of language and linguistics 792 Klima, E.S. 1964. Negation in English. In J.A.Fodor and J.J.Katz (eds). The structure of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 246–323. Sgall, P. et al. 1973. Topic, focus and generative semantics. Kronberg. Stockwell, R.P., R.Schachter, and H.Partee. 1968. Integration of transformational theories on English syntax, 2 vols. Los Angeles, CA. Tottie, G. 1991. Negation in English speech and writing: a study in variation. New York. Welte, W. 1978. Negationslinguistik: Ansätze zur Beschreibung und Erklärung von Aspekten der Negation im Englischen. Munich. Bibliography Seifert, S. and W.Welte. 1987. A basic bibliography on negation in natural language. Tübingen. 3 In unification grammar, the logical complement of a feature structure. negative transfer interference negative transportation Syntactic process in a certain class of verbs with complement clauses (to think, to believe, to expect) in which the negation of the matrix sentence can also be interpreted as the negation of the complement clause: the sentence Philip doesn ‘t think that Caroline is home can be read two ways: (a) Philip doesn ‘t think: Caroline is home; and (b) Philip thinks: Caroline isn’t home; i.e. in (b) the negation is ‘transported’ out of the matrix sentence into the complement clause. Nenets Uralic Neogrammarians (also Junggrammatiker, Leipzig School) A group of linguists in Leipzig in the 1870s whose positivistic view of language was aimed against the metaphysical and biological views of the previous epoch. Leading representative of this approach included K.Brugmann, H. Osthoff, B.Delbrück, E.Sievers, A-Z 793 K.Verner, A. Leskien, H.Paul, O.Behaghel. The name, used derogatorily by the older generation, stems from F.Zarncke and is first attested in Osthoff and Brugmann (1878). The beginning of the Neogrammarian school is considered to be the publication dates of K.Verner’s 1877 explanation of apparent exceptions to Grimm’s Law, A.Leskien’s 1876 investigations of declension, in which the postulate of the inviolability of sound laws is formulated, and above all H. Paul’s Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte (‘Principles of the history of language’), published in 1880. The works of the Neogrammarians, inasmuch as they pertain to general linguistics, can be characterized by the following aspects. (a) The object of linguistic investigation is not the language system, but rather the language as it is localized in the individual, and idiolect). This is seen as a psychological as well as a therefore is directly observable ( physical activity. (b) Autonomy of the sound level: according to the postulate of observability of the material (instead of abstractions), the sound level is seen as the most important level of description, and absolute autonomy of the sound level from syntax and semantics is assumed. (c) Historicism: the chief goal of linguistic investigation is the description of the historical change of a language. This almost exclusive interest in the diachronic development of language ( synchrony vs diachrony) is documented in the large number of comparative historical compendia (cf. Leskien, Osthoff and Brugmann, and others), which excel in their wealth of facts as well as in the exactness of their methods of reconstruction. (d) Inviolability of sound laws: this much-debated postulate, patterned after the natural sciences, is not based on empirical findings, but rather is an a priori assumption, made to ensure the uniformity of the investigatory methods of linguistics and the natural sciences. (e) Analogy: wherever the premise of the inviolability of sound laws fails, analogy is applied as an explanation, i.e. exceptions are understood to be a (regular) adaptation to a related form. Despite their strong repercussions, the methods and goals of the Neogrammarian view of language have been criticized from various quarters and with various emphases. Such criticism has been aimed especially at the following: reduction of the object of investigation to the idiolect; restriction to the description ‘of surface phenomena (sound level); overvaluation of historical languages and neglect of contemporary ones; description of i ndividual processes instead of systemic connections. References Jankowsky, K.R. 1972. The Neogrammarians: a reevaluation of their place in the development of linguistic science. The Hague. ——1990. The neogrammarian hypothesis. In E.C. Polomé (ed.), Research guide on language change. Berlin. 223–39. Leskien, A. 1876. Die Deklination im SlavischLitauischen und Germanischen. Leipzig. Osthoff, H. and K.Brugmann. 1878. Morphologische Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiet der indogermanischen Sprachen, part 1. Leipzig. Paul, H. 1880. Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. Tübingen. (9th edn 1975.) Steinthal, H. 1890–1. Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft bei den Griechen und Römern mit besonderer Rücksicht auf die Logik, 2 vols. Berlin. (Repr. Hildesheim, 1961.) Vennemann, T. and T.H.Wilbur (eds) 1972. Schuchardt, the Neogrammarians, and the transformational theory of phonological change. Frankfurt. Verner, K. 1877. Eine Ausnahme der ersten Lautverschiebung. ZVS 23. 97–130. Dictionary of language and linguistics 794 Wilbur, T.H. (ed.) 1977. The Lautgesetz-controversy: a documentation. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. linguistics, sound law neo-Humboldtianism ethnolinguistics neologism [Grk néos ‘new,’ logos ‘expression’] 1 Newly formed linguistic expression (word or phrase) that is recognized by at least part if not all of a language community as the way to denote a new object or state of affairs, be it in technology, industry, politics, culture, or science. Formally, a distinction is drawn between (a) the formation of new expressions on the basis of already available morphological means and word formation rules (e.g. user-friendly, data bank, decriminalize), (b) semantic transfer (e.g. computer virus), (c) loans from other languages (sauté, mesa); these three sources cannot always be separated exactly (cf. academic milieu); and (d) expressions with a constituent used metaphorically (e.g. child’s play). ( also word formation) References Algeo, J. (ed.). 1993. Fifty years among the new words. A dictionary of neologisms, 1941–1991. Cambridge. Green, J. 1991. Neologisms: new words since 1960. London. Special issue on ‘neologisms.’ 1974. Langue 8. 36. 2 In neurolinguistics, term referring to new content words that have been fabricated by an individual according to language-specific phonotactic rules, but do not belong to the lexicon. Their relationship to actual or intended words is often unclear (e.g. spork), though some new forms may be transparent (e.g. picture box for ‘television set’). Neologisms are observed in aphasics (especially those with Wernicke’s aphasia) as well as in children with specific language impairments. ( also paraphasia) A-Z 795 neologistic paraphasia neologism2, paraphasia Neo-South Arabic Nepali Semitic Indo-Aryan nesting In the semantic theory of U.Weinreich, a construction consisting of two constituents whose semantic features, when taken together, do not result in a cluster (i.e. a subset). If to write has the features [a, b] and letter the features [c, d], then the phrase to write a letter is a ‘nesting’ construction. Presumably, nesting allows for more convincing derivations of sentence meaning. ( also interpretive semantics) Reference Weinreich, U. 1966. Explorations in semantic theory. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 3, 395–477. network Term developed by Radcliffe-Brown (1940) which, in contrast to the structuralfunctionalistic terms ‘class,’ ‘social group,’ etc., places social interaction in the center. Every person has a set of relational partners with whom he/she participates in interactional exchanges; if one considers all persons to be ‘points’ and the social relations that are realized between them to be ‘lines,’ an individual ‘network’ develops. All persons involved in such a network are in turn likewise embedded in social networks, which may in part mutually overlap. The whole set of all social transactions within a speech community can be construed to be a complex network of individual social relations, in which individual social groups are characterized each by specific network Dictionary of language and linguistics 796 structures. The more members of an individual network are involved in relations outside the larger network, the more ‘tightly woven’ the networks become. Furthermore, networks become all the more ‘multiplex’ as more and more diverse relations are based within the individual networks (e.g. when co-workers, who also happen to be friends. meet regularly for outside activities or live in the same neighborhood). In such networks social cohesion develops and culture- and group-specific systems of values, shared knowledge, shared attitudes, as well as patterns of behavior are established, which in turn manifest themselves linguistically. This concept is therefore of central importance for empirical studies of linguistic behavior and for studies of the processes of linguistic change: precisely those interactional relations that are responsible for (groupspecific) conformity in behavior (though which do not necessarily correlate with a particular special class or ethnic group) are used as a starting point to determine group divisions. ( also sociolinguistics) References Boissevain, J. 1974. Friends of friends: networks, manipulators, and coalitions. London. ——1987. Social network. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Soziolinguistik/Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Berlin. 164–9. Milroy, L. 1980. Language and social networks. Oxford. Radcliffe-Brown, A.R. 1940. On social structure. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute. 70. 1–12. neurolinguistics Interdisciplinary field concerned with the study of language processing and representation of language in the brain. Closely allied with psycholinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and a subdiscipline of neuropsychology, neurolinguistics studies disturbances in language comprehension and/or production associated with known central nervous system pathologies ( articulation disorder, developmental language disorder, language disorder, aphasia) or designs experiments, such as those involving dichotic listening, to test various processing models. Electrophysiological data, imaging, and ‘on-line’ measurement of memory phenomena are increasingly useful to research in this field. References Arbib, M., D.Caplan, and J.Marshall (eds) 1982. Neural models of language processes. New York. Bouton, C.P. 1991. Neurolinguistics: historical and theoretical perspectives. New York. Caplan, D. 1987. Neurolinguistics and linguistic aphasiology. Cambridge. A-Z 797 Hecaen, H. and J.Dubois. 1969. La naissance de la neuropsychologie du langage: 1825–1865. Paris. Lenneberg, E. 1967. Biological foundations of language. New York. Lenneberg, E.H. and E.Lenneberg. 1975. Foundation of language development: a multidisciplinary approach. 2 vols. New York. Luria, A. 1976. Basic problems of neurolinguistics. The Hague. neuropsychology neuropsychology Interdisciplinary field encompassing psychology, linguistics, neurology, and others, in which the relationships between the functions of the central nervous system and psychological processes are studied. Neuropsychology subsumes the problems and methods of neurolinguistics, but with a greater clinical interest and an effort to describe language functions in the broader context of other psychological processes. References Caramazza, A. (ed.) 1990. Cognitive neuropsychol-ogy and neurolinguistics. Hove. ——1991. Issues in reading, writing and speaking: a neuropsychological perspective. Dordrecht. Coltheart, M. et al. (eds) 1987. The cognitive neuropsychology of language. Hove. Eccles, J. 1973. The understanding of the brain. New York. Hecaen, H. and M.Albert. 1978. Human neuropsychology. New York. Weigl, E. and M.Bierwisch. 1970. Neuropsychology and linguistics. FL 6. 1–18. Dictionary of language and linguistics 798 neuter [Lat. neuter ‘neither one nor the other’] gender neutral vowel schwa neutralization Prague School term for suspension of a phonological opposition in particular positions. In English, the opposition of short and long vowels is neutralized in word-final position under stress, long vowels being the realizations of the corresponding archiphonemes. and [sju], but only [ti:], and [sju:], respectively. Thus there are no [ti], References Akamatsu, T. 1988. The theory of neutralization and the archiphoneme in functional phonology. Amsterdam. Davidsen-Nielsen, N. 1978. Neutralization and archiphoneme: two phonological concepts and their history. Copenhagen. phonology neutralized opposition opposition nexus [Lat. nexus ‘binding together; bond’] Syntactic type of predicative joining in Jespersen’s (1937) theory (e.g. The book is expensive) which Jespersen distinguishes from junction, which is attributive. The fact that nexus constructions can be turned into junctions corresponds to the transformational relationships between both types: the expensive book—The book is expensive. A-Z 799 Reference Jespersen, O.P. 1937. Analytic syntax. Copenhagen. Niger-Congo Large language family of the Niger-Kordofanian grou p postulated in 1927 by D. Westermann and in 1949–54 by J.H.Greenberg, already recognized in 1854 by S.Koelle. Divided into six branches: West Atlantic, Mande, Gur, Kwa, Benue-Congo, and Adamawa-Ubangi; Kwa and Benue-Congo are today grouped into one branch, BenueKwa. Characteristics: almost all are tonal languages. Noun class systems are common. References Bendor-Samuel, J.T. 1971. Niger-Congo, Gur. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 7, 141–78. Greenberg, J.H. 1966. The languages of Africa. Bloomington, IN. (2nd edn 1966.) Ladefoged, P. 1968. A phonetic study of West African languages. Cambridge. Welmers, W.E. 1971. Niger-Congo. Mande. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 7, 113–40. ——1973. African language structures. Berkeley, CA. African languages Niger-Kordofanian Language group in Africa with several hundred languages and approx. 300 million speakers, first postulated by Greenberg (1963). The group is divided into two families, Niger-Congo and the much smaller Kordofanian. It is possible that the Mande languages, grouped with the Niger-Congo languages, and the Kadugli languages, grouped with Kordofanian, are separate branches. An important similarity between them is the fact that noun class systems are widely found among them. References Bendor-Samuel, J. (ed.) 1988. The Niger-Kordofanian-Congo language family. Berlin. Bennett, P.R. and J.P.Sterk. 1977. South-Central Niger-Congo: a reclassification. Studies in African Linguistics 8. 241–73. Greenberg, J.H. 1963. The languages of Africa. Bloomington, IN. (2nd edn 1966.) Schadeberg, T.C. 1981. A survey of Kordofanian, 2 vols. Hamburg. Dictionary of language and linguistics 800 Wolff, P.P. de et al. 1981. Niger-Kordofanisch. In B. Heine et al. (eds), Die Sprachen Afrikas. Hamburg. Vol. I, 45–128. African languages Nilo-Saharan Language group postulated by Greenberg (1963) with numerous languages in central Africa, often widely spread geographically. Convincing evidence for the relatedness of these languages is still lacking. The following groups are considered to be branches of this group: Songhai, Saharan, Maban (four languages in Chad), Koman (six languages in Ethiopia and Sudan), Fur (a relatively isolated language in Sudan), and the large group of Chari-Nile languages. References Bender, M.L. (ed.) 1983. Nilo-Saharan language studies. East Lansing, MI. ——1989. Topics in Nilo-Saharan linguistics. Hamburg. Greenberg, J.H. 1963. The languages of Africa. Bloomington, IN. (2nd edn 1966.) Schadeberg, T. 1981. Nilosaharanisch. In B.Heine et al. (eds), Die Sprachen Afrikas. Hamburg. vol. II, 263–328. Individual languages Creider, C.A. and J.A.Creider 1989. A grammar of Nandi. Hamburg. Jakobi, A. 1990. A Fur grammar: phonology, morphophonology and morphology. Hamburg. Vossen, R. 1987. Towards a comparative study of the Maa dialects of Kenya and Tanzania, trans. M. Frank. Hamburg. Werner, R. 1987. Grammatik des Nobiin (Nilnubisch). Hamburg. African languages A-Z Nilotic 801 Chari-Nile languages Nivkh Paleo-Siberian node [Lat. nodus ‘knot’] Nodes are those points in a tree diagram where there is branching, or the end points, which can be marked by S, NP, VP, N, etc. noeme [Grk nóēma ‘thought’] In the framework of Bloomfield’s classification of linguistic expressions according to lexical and grammatical basic elements, the noeme is the ‘meaning’ of a glosseme (=smallest meaning-bearing unit). Reference Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. nomen acti [Lat. nomen ‘name,’ actuna ‘done’] Term for deverbal nouns that denote the result of the action denoted by the verb: establishment, examination. ( also deverbative) Dictionary of language and linguistics 802 References word formation nomen actionis [Lat. actio ‘action, deed’] Term for nouns derived (mostly from verbs) that refer to actions or processes. They are formed through both implicit and explicit derivation: slap, presentation. References word formation nomen agentis [Lat. agens ‘acting’] Term for nouns (usually derived from verbs) that refer to the performer of the action they describe. The most frequent type in modern English is formed with the agentive suffix er: dancer, player. References word formation A-Z 803 nomen appellativum nomen proprium nominal common noun proper noun noun phrase nominal aphasia aphasia nominal construction functional verb structure nominal definition definition nominal sentence Sentence composed solely of nouns. Nominal sentences are a special case of ellipsis, e.g. Life, a dream. nominal style Frequent use of derived nouns instead of verbs, depending on the reforming and reduction of sentences to groups of nouns. Characteristic elements of style are nominalization, e.g. the breakdown of talks instead of talks break down, compounds, relational adjectiv e, e.g. parental agreement instead of the parents agree. Dictionary of language and linguistics 804 References Burke, K.A. 1945. A grammar of motives. Berkeley, CA. Sappan, R. 1987. The rhetorical-logical classification of semantic changes. Braunton. Ullmann, S. 1962. Semantics: an introduction to the science of meaning. Oxford. stylistics nominalization 1 Broadly speaking, every derivation of nouns from another word class, e.g. from verbs (feeling vs feel) or adjectives (redness vs red), but also from another noun (womanhood vs woman). 2 Productive process of word formation through which words of all word classes can be used as nouns. In contrast to conversion2 (hit< (to hit), lexicalization is not an underlying phenomenon of nominalization. Normally, nominalization concerns adjectives (including participles) that appear as abstract concepts (the inconceivable), or as nouns denoting persons (one’s contemporaries’, the good, the bad, the ugly; those initiated), where the resulting word keeps its attributive adjectival function. Also verbs and verb phrases frequently appear as gerunds in nominal phrases: swearing, twiddling one ‘s thumbs. Virtually any word can be nominalized: conjunctions (no ifs, ands, or buts) adverbs (the here and now), particles (a resounding no), or parts of words (an ism). References Koptjevskaja-Tamm, M. 1993. Nominalizations. London. Olsen, S. 1988. Das substantivierte Adjektiv im Deutschen und Englischen. FoLi 22. 337–72. Zucchi, A. 1993. The language of propositions and events: issues in the syntax and the semantics of nominalization, Dordrecht. 3 lexicalist vs transformationalist hypothesis nominative [Lat. nominare ‘to name’] (also casus rectus) Morphological case in nominative languages which as casus rectus usually has a zero form and marks the subject of the sentence. The nominative can also occur in predicative nouns (He is a teacher) or outside the sentence frame (Kids, please quiet down). For objects in the nominative, see Timberlake (1974). A-Z 805 References Timberlake, A. 1974. The nominative object in Slavic, Baltic and West Finnic. Munich. Zubin, D.A. 1982. A quantitative study of the meaning of the nominative in German. In W.Abraham (ed.), Satzglieder im Deutschen. Tübingen. 245–60. case, subject nominative language (also accusative language) Language type in the framework of relational typology (vs active and ergative) to which all European languages, except Basque and the Caucasian languages, belong. Assuming that in simple transitive and intransitive sentences the thematic relations of agent and patient are the most basic, one can define a nominative language as follows: the unmarked case of these languages, the nominative, expresses in general both the sole argument of intransitive verbs and the agent of transitive verbs. The accusative serves to indicate the patient of transitive verbs. This situation can be illustrated as :follows ( also ergative language) References ergative language, relational typology nonce word Spontaneous coining of usually strongly context-bound new formations to designate new or until now unknown objects or states of affairs or to express the specific attitude of a speaker towards the referent. Nonce words arise through the creative application of word formation rules to lexical elements. They have various text-specific functions, for example, economizing on the number of words needed to describe a concept (antidisestablishmentarianism), filling in conceptual/lexical gaps (space walk), or Dictionary of language and linguistics 806 creating stylistic effects, such as those employed by Lewis Carroll (Jabberwocky). As a rule, the statistical frequency of such formations being used again determines whether they will make the transition from the creation of a one-time neologism to a lexicalized word codified in a dictionary. In psycholinguistics, nonce words are often used in elicitation tasks, e.g. in language acquisition, to examine the mastery of grammatical rules by children. The most famous study is about inflectional rules in young children by Berko (1958). References Berko, J. 1958. The child’s learning of English morphology. Word 14. 150–77. neologism nondistributive reading distributive vs nondistributive reading non-finite construction [Lat. finitus ‘bounded, limited’] Comprehensive term for syntactic structures with sentential non-finite verb form as their head. non-finite verb form Unconjugated verb form, i.e. verb form not specified in respect to person, number, tense, mood, and voice, which shows an affinity to nominals and adjectives, e.g. solving a problem, a solved problem. In Latin, the gerund (e.g. genus dicendi ‘the way of talking’), gerundive (e.g. Lat. librum scribendum est ‘the book must be written’), and supine (e.g. hoc est incredibile dictu ‘that sounds incredible’) are considered to be nonfinite, in addition to the usual infinitive, present participle and past participle. ( also finite verb form) A-Z 807 non-fluent aphasia aphasia, Broca’s aphasia non-headed construction exocentric construction non-kernel sentences In earlier versions of transformational grammar, sentences generated from kernel sentences by transformations. References transformational grammar non-lexicalized compound 1 In general, newly formed compounds that arise from phrases: forget-me-not, pain-inthe-neck, car-of-the-month competition. The boundary with composition is continuous. 2 Multi-elemental words that can be analyzed as preposition+noun (instead), adverb+ preposition (upon), and the like. non-linear phonology Umbrella term for the different hypotheses of modern generative phonology that have broken with the strictly linear ordering of segments. Autosegmental phonology, metrical phonology, and dependency phonology are founded on three such hypotheses. Dictionary of language and linguistics 808 References Durand, J. 1986. Dependency and non-linear phonology. London. ——1990. Generative and non-linear phonology. London. Van der Hulst, H. and N.Smith. 1982. The structure of phonological representations. Dordrecht. ——1985. Advances in non-linear phonology. Dordrecht. non-monotonic logic (also non-monotonic reasoning) Classical logics are all monotonic, which is to say adding to a set of axioms adds to (or at least retains), the set of theorems. New axioms cannot invalidate old theorems. Natural reasoning ( commonsense reasoning), in contrast, is non-monotonic: new knowledge can invalidate conclusions drawn beforehand. A significant problem arises in nonmonotonic logic since the body of knowledge needs constant revision in order to stay free of contradictions; the discovery and elimination of such contradictions is effected in truth-maintenance systems. ( also default reasoning) References Bobrow. D. 1980. AI 13. Special issue on non-monotonic logic. Cambridge, MA. Ginsberg, M. 1987. Readings in nonmonotonic reasoning. Los Altos, CA. Reinfrank, M. et al., eds. 1989. Nonmonotonic reasoning. Berlin. A-Z 809 non-monotonic reasoning logic non-strident non-monotonic strident vs non-strident non-terminative telic vs atelic non-verbal communication [Lat. verbum ‘word’] All non-linguistic phenomena in inter-human communication processes which are studied in psychology (or psychiatry), sociology, ethnology, and linguistics (to the extent that spoken language can only be fully understood and described by considering nonlinguistic communication). Two distinctions are made in the signals of non-verbal communication: (a) vocal features such as the volume and pitch of the human voice, the rhythm of speech, laughing, coughing, etc., the study of which is collectively called paralinguistics (occasionally, ‘paralinguistics’ is used to refer to all types of non-verbal communication); (b) non-vocal (motor) phenomena such as mimicry, gestures, body language, eye contact, external appearance, and clothing, the study of which is also collectively known as kinesics. Structurally determined and freely variable components, which may overlie linguistic communication (such as intonation and speech tempo) or occur independently of it, are found together in both domains. Fundamental to the description of non-verbal communication is the question of the ‘character of the code,’ that is, the systematic nature of non-verbal communication which suggests a distinction between intentionally directed non-verbal communication and unconscious, independent behavior having no communicative intention. In analogy to the structural characteristics of verbal codes, Trager (1958) and Birdwhistell (1954) interpret vocal, gesticulatory, and mimic phenomena as communicative systems, while various functional approaches (above all those of Ekman and Friesen 1969 and Scherer (1978) try to describe the purpose and effect of non-verbal communication within the scope of all types of communication and to describe their mutual conditions and dependencies. Scherer (1978) distinguishes between four ‘parasemantic’ functions of non-verbal communication: (a) in ‘substitution,’ the non-verbal signal replaces the verbal semantic content, e.g. nodding one’s head in agreement instead of saying yes; (b) in ‘amplification,’ non-verbal communication serves to make the verbal expression clearer, e.g. directional gesture Dictionary of language and linguistics 810 together with over there; (c) in ‘contradiction,’ an inconsistency arises between the nonverbal communication and the verbal content, e.g. nodding one’s head in agreement double-bind theory); (d) in ‘modification,’ while refusing or denying something ( verbal content regarding the speaker’s attitude is changed, e.g. ironic laughing while also animal communication, face-to-face interaction, stating agreement. ( semiotics, sign language) References Argyle, M. 1975. Bodily communication. London. Birdwhistell, R.L. 1954. Introduction to kinesics. Louisville, KY. ——1970. Kinesics and context. Philadelphia, PA. Capella, J.N. and M.T.Palmer, 1989. The structure and organisation of verbal and nonverbal behaviour: data for models of reception. JLSP 8. 167–92. Ekman, P. and W.V.Friesen. 1969. The repertoire of nonverbal behaviour: categories, origins, usage and coding. Semiotica 1. 49–98. Ellgring, H. 1981. Nonverbal communication: a review of research in Germany. German Journal of Psychology 5. 59–84. Feldman, R.S. and B.Rimé. 1991. Fundamentals of nonverbal behavior. Cambridge. Harper, R.G., A.N.Wiens, and J.D.Matarazzo. 1978. Nonverbal communication: the state of the art. New York. Hinde, R.A. (ed.) 1972. Non-verbal communication. Cambridge. Key, M.R. (ed.) 1980. The relationship of verbal and nonverbal communication. The Hague. ——(ed.) 1982. Nonverbal communication today: current research. The Hague. Knapp, M.L. 1978. Nonverbal communication in human interaction, 2nd exp. edn. New York. Laver, J. and P.Trudgill. 1979. Phonetic and linguistic markers in speech. In K.R.Scherer and H.Giles (eds), Social markers in speech. Cambridge. 1–32. Papousek, H., M.Papousek, and U.Jurgens (eds) 1992. Nonverbal vocal communication. Cambridge. Patterson, M.L. 1983. Nonverbal behavior: a functional perspective. New York. Poyatos, F. (ed.) 1992. Advances in non-verbal communication: sociocultural, clinical, esthetic and literary perspectives. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Scherer, K.R. 1970. Non-verbale Kommunikation: Ansätze zur Beobachtung und Analyse der Aspekte von Interaktionsverhalten. Hamburg. ——1978. Die Funktionen des nonverbalen Verhaltens im Gespräch. In D.Wegner (ed.), Gesprächsanalysen. Hamburg. 273–95. ——1982. Vokale Kommunikation: nonverbale Aspekte des Sprachverhaltens. Weinheim. Scherer, K.R. and P.Ekman (eds) 1982. Handbook of methods in nonverbal research. Cambridge. Scherer, K.R. and H.G.Wallbott (eds) 1979. Nonverbale Kommunikation. Weinheim. (2nd edn 1984.) Trager, G.L. 1958. Paralanguage: a first approximation. SiL 13. 1–12. Umiker-Sebeok, J. and T.A.Sebeok (eds) 1981. Semiotic approach to nonverbal communication. The Hague. Weitz, S. (ed.) 1974. Nonverbal communication. New York. Wolfgang, A. (ed.) 1979. Nonverbal behavior: applications and cultural implications. New York. A-Z 811 Journal Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. animal communication, face-to-face interaction, semiotics, sign language Nootka Nordic Salishan Scandinavian normative grammar prescriptive grammar North and Central American languages Before colonization, about 200–300 languages were spoken in North America by approx. 1.5 million inhabitants; these languages can be divided into numerous language families and language isolates. History of research: the first important attempt at classifying these languages was made by Powell (1891), who counted fifty-eight language families based on comparing word lists. Under F.Boas, the first volume of the Handbook of American Indian Languages appeared with detailed descriptions of individual languages, influencing American structuralism. Sapir assumed six major language groups in 1929. Subsequently, Sapir’s groupings were largely given up in favour of smaller but more certain classifications, but groupings remain controversial. Campbell and Mithun (1979) cautiously assume thirty-two language families and thirty language isolates. In contrast, Suarez (1983) suggests seven language families and seven isolates, and Greenberg (1956, 1987) assigns all languages of North, Central and South America, with the exception of the Na-Dené and Eskimo-Aleut languages, to one large Amerindian group. According to Greenberg, the speakers of Amerindian represent the oldest wave of immigrants, followed by speakers of Na-Dené and Eskimo-Aleut. In Central America about seventy native languages are spoken today by over 7.5 million speakers. Research into these languages started in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries with missionaries (grammars, dictionaries, development of writing systems, and collection of texts). The first attempts at classification were carried out by L.Hervas y Panduro (1800–5), F. Pimentel (1874) Dictionary of language and linguistics 812 and C.Thoman and J.A. Swanton (1911). More modern linguistic investigation began around 1930. References Boas, F. (ed.) 1911, 1922, 1933–8. Handbook of American Indian languages, 3 vols. New York. Campbell, L. and M.Mithun (eds). 1979. The languages of native America: historical and comparative assessment. Austin, TX. Cook, E.-D. and D.B.Gerdts (eds) 1984. The syntax of native American languages. Orlando, FL. Edmonson, M. 1984. Supplement to The Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 2: Linguistics. Austin, TX. Greenberg, J. 1960. The general classification of Central and South American languages. In A. Wallace (ed.) Selected Papers of the Fifth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences. 791–4. Philadelphia. ——1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA. Liedtke, S. 1995. The languages of the ‘First Nations’. A comparison in ethnolinguistic perspective. Munich. Pinnow, H.-J. 1964. Die nordamerikanischen Indianersprachen. Wiesbaden. Powell, J.W. 1891. Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico. US Bureau of American Ethnology, seventh annual report. Sebeok, T.A. (ed.) 1973. Current trends in linguistics, vol. 10: Linguistics in North America. The Hague and Paris. ——1977. Native languages of the Americas. New York. Suarez, J.A. 1983. The Meso-American Indian languages. Cambridge. Wauchope, R. 1964. Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 5: Linguistics. Austin, TX. Journal International Journal of American Linguistics (previously American Anthropologist). classification of languages North-East Caucasian (also NakhoDagestanian) Language group in the northeastern Caucasus which consists of the Nakh group (three languages; largest language Chechen, approx. 700,000 speakers) and the larger Dagestanian group (about thirty languages; largest language Avar, approx. 500,000 speakers). Dagestanian itself can be further subdivided into the following branches: Avaro-Andi (north), Cezian (west), Lako-Dargwa (central), and Lezgian (south). Characteristics: relatively rich vowel system, glottalized and sometimes pharyngealized consonants. Elaborated system of noun classification ( noun class) (up to ten gender classes). Rich case system (ergative). A-Z 813 References Dumézil, G. 1932. Introduction a l’étude comparative des langues caucasiennes du nord. Paris. Kibrik, A.E. et al. 1977. Opyt strukturnogo opisanija arčinskogo jazyka. Moscow. Schulze, W. 1988. Noun classification and ergative construction in East Caucasian languages. In F. Thordarson (ed.) Studia caucasologica. Oslo. 251–74. Smeets, R. and D.M.Job. 1994. The indigenous languages of the Caucasus, vol. 3: The North-East Caucasian languages I. New York. Caucasian languages North Germanic Germanic, Scandinavian North-West Caucasian (also AbkhaziAdyge) Language group in the northwestern Caucasus with approx. 600,000 speakers and five languages: Abkhaz, Abaza, Adyge, Kabard, and the nearly extinct Ubykh in Turkey. Characteristics: these languages are known for their very simple vowel system (only two vowels are hypothesized) which contrasts with a very rich consonant system with up to eighty sounds. Simple case system (ergative), complex verb conjugation and agreement. Gender system (masculine, feminine, impersonal). References Colarusso, J. 1975. The Northwest Caucasian languages: a phonological survey. Cambridge, MA. Hewitt, B.G. 1979. Abkhaz. Amsterdam. ——(ed.) 1989. The indigenous languages of the Caucasus, vol. 2: The North-West Caucasian languages. Delmar, NY. Caucasian languages Norwegian North Germanic (Scandinavian) language with approx. 4.5 million speakers; since 1907, Norwegian has consisted of two officially recognized forms, Bokmål ‘book language’ (formerly R icksmål ‘language ofthe empire’), a Norwegianized version of Dictionary of language and linguistics 814 Danish spoken by 20 per cent of the population, primarily in the central and western parts of the country, and Landsmål ‘language of the country’ (now called Nynorsk ‘new Norwegian’). The reasons for this division are rooted in the earlier influences of Low German ( German), Swedish, and Danish, the latter introduced in 1397 as the language of government and in 1739 as the official language in school instruction. Since 1892 both languages have received equal treatment in schools; this conflict still has not yet been resolved in spite of several attempted reforms. Characteristics: both variants have distinctive tone; while Bokmål (like Danish and Swedish) has only the grammatical genders of masculine and neuter, Landsmål also has a feminine gender. SVO word order in main and relative clauses. References Breito, O. 1970. Nynorsk grammatikk. Oslo. Haugen, E. 1966. Language conflict and language planning: the case of modern Norwegian. Cambridge, MA. Haugen, E. and K.G.Chapman. 1982. Spoken Norwegian, 3rd edn. New York. Næs, O. 1972. Norsk grammatikk, 3rd edn. Oslo. Strandskogen, A.-B. and R.Strandskogen. 1994. Norwegian: an essential grammar, trans. B. White. London. Dictionary Norwegian dictionary. 1994. London. notation [Lat. notatio ‘a letter, symbol, etc. representing a word etc.’] System of signs or symbols in a descriptive language, such as is used in formal logic, mathematics and chemistry. In linguistics, various notational systems are used, such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) or the notational conventions borrowed from formal logic and set theory used for semantic and syntactic descriptions. ( table of symbols on p. xvii) A-Z 815 notion [Lat. notio ‘concept, idea’] (also concept) Idea which is conceived through abstraction and through which objects or states of affairs are classified on the basis of particular characteristics and/or relations. Notions are represented by terms. They can be defined like sets: (a) extensionally, by an inventory of the objects that fall under a particular concept; and (b) intensionally, by indication of their specific components. The current equating of ‘notion’ with ‘meaning’ or with Frege’s ‘sense’ (‘Sinn’) rests upon an intensional definition of ‘notion.’ ( also definition, intension) noun [Lat. nomen ‘name’] (also substantive) Important syntactic category which makes up the majority of items in the English vocabulary. Nouns are marked morphologically in many Indo-European languages by the categories gender, number, and case. As the nucleus of noun phrases, they can be modified by attributes. Semantically, they are either concrete or abstract: concretes include proper nouns (Mary, Boston, Mozart), common nouns (person, cat, singer), collectives (mountain range, cattle), and other mass nouns (wine, gold, blood). Abstracts indicate properties (loyalty), events (dreams), relationships (animosity). measurements (hour, mile). For relevant information on word formation in nouns, composition, nominal style. ( also nominalization, word formation; for stylistic aspects declension, noun phrase) Reference Schachter, P. 1985. Parts of speech systems. In K. Shopen (ed.), Language typology and syntactic description. Cambridge. Vol. 1, 3–61. noun class Broadly defined, any classification of nouns according to semantic aspects such as animate vs inanimate), concrete ( concrete noun), abstract animate/ inanimate ( ( abstract noun), masculine/feminine/neuter, dimensions, consistency. More narrowly defined, such classifications which are not based on natural gender, i.e. are neither masculine nor feminine. In contrast to gender systems, languages with noun Dictionary of language and linguistics 816 classes often have significantly more classes, e.g. in the Niger-Congo languages (such as Bantu, West Atlantic), with up to twenty classes which are often grouped in singular/plural pairs. Classificational systems may be overt or covert, depending on whether the classifier itself appears directly on the noun or not. Often the classification is more or less semantically motivated, with the distinction between animate and inanimate also classifying language) playing a major role. ( References Craig, C. 1986. Noun classes and categorization. Amsterdam. Heine, B. 1982. African noun class systems. In: Apprehension, ed. by H.Seiler & F.Stachowiak. Vol. 2. Tübingen. Royen, G. 1929. Die nominalen Klassifikationssysteme. Vienna. Seiler, H. and F.J.Stachowiak (eds) 1982. Apprehension: das sprachliche Erfassen von Gegenständen. Tübingen. Schulze, W. 1992. Die ostkaukasischen Klassenzeichen. In C.Paris (ed.), Caucasologie et mythologie comparée. Paris. 335–62. gender noun phrase (also nominal, NP) Grammatical category (or phrase) which normally contains a noun (fruit, happiness, Phil) or a pronoun (I, someone, one) as its head and which can be modified (=specified) in many ways. Possible modifiers include: (a) adjuncts, which in the form of adjective phrases in English are usually placed before the noun (very good beer) and as appositions after the noun (my friend Phil); (b) complements in the form of a genitive attribute (Phil’s house), a prepositional phrase (the house on the hill), or a relative clause (the family that lives next door). Noun phrases can function in a sentence as subjects or objects or can appear as part of a prepositional phrase which itself functions as an object or an adverbial. Semantically there are definite and indefinite noun phrases. Definiteness is inherent to proper nouns, but can sometimes be shown with a determiner (the Rocky Mountains, the Mississippi vs Caroline, Chicago). Indefinite noun phrases in turn can be either specific or non-specific, cf. Philip saw a whale yesterday (a specific one) vs Philip would like to see a whale some time (any whale). Both definite and indefinite noun phrases can be used generically ( generic). In Government and Binding theory, noun phrases are now seen as being embedded in a determiner phrase (DP) with a determiner as head. A-Z 817 References Abney, S.P. 1987. The English noun phrase in its sentential aspect. Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, MA. Andrews, A. 1985. The major functions of the noun phrase. In T.Shopen (ed.), Language and typology and syntactic description, vol. 1: Clause structure. Cambridge. 64–154. Bach, E. 1968. Nouns and noun phrases. In E.Bach and R.T.Harms (eds), Universals in linguistic theory. New York. 90–122. Donnellan, K. 1970. Proper names and identifying descriptions. Synthese 21. 335–58. Ehrich, V. 1991. Nominalisierungen. In D.Wunderlich (ed.) Semantik/Semantics: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. 441–56. Giorgi, A. and G.Longobardi. 1991. The syntax of noun phrases: configuration, parameters and empty categories. Cambridge. Jackendoff, R.S. 1977. X-syntax: a study of phrase structure. Cambridge, MA. McCawley, J.D. 1969. Where do noun phrases come from? Repr. in D.D.Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics. Cambridge, 1971. 217–31. Olsen, S. 1991. Die deutsche Nominalphrase als ‘Determinansphrase’. In S.Olsen and G.Fanselow (eds), DET, COMP und INFL: zur Syntax funktionaler Kategorien und grammatischer Funktionen. Tübingen. 35–56. NP noun phrase NP-movement The movement of a NP to an argument position. The trace ( trace theory) left behind by the NP-movement is an empty anaphor ( anaphora). ( also binding theory, Government and Binding theory, wh-movement) References trace theory n-tuple In set theory, designation for an ordered set of elements of an undetermined number, where n symbolizes the variable for the number of elements. In contrast to simple sets, Dictionary of language and linguistics 818 for which it is the case that {a, b}=(b, a}, in the tuple the order of the elements is firm, i.e. {a, b}≠{b, a}. References set theory Nubian Chari-Nile languages nuclear sentence nuclear stress kernel sentence syllable, accent2 nucleus [Lat. nucleus ‘kernel; central part of something’] 1 In L.Tesnière’s dependency grammar, a semantic-syntactic term for the syntactic node of a sentence and its additional semantic functions. As the ‘constituent cell’ of a sentence its structure in the tree diagram is more complex than that of simple nodes. References dependency grammar 2 (also syllable nucleus) In syllable structure, the element that forms the peak of the syllable. As a rule, the nucleus consists of vowels, though occasionally it can also consist of the syllabic version of a consonant: e.g., syllabic in thinking, if pronounced as , or [s] in pst! A-Z 819 References syllable 3 nucleus vs satellite 4 head2 nucleus vs satellite [Lat. satelles ‘escort, attendant’] In an endocentric construction, term for the antecedent (also: center, head) that is semantically specified (modified) by an attributive element (also: determiner, modifier). In the sentence She sings very well, well is the nucleus of the satellite very well and sings is the nucleus of the satellite sings very well. References complementation and modification number Grammatical category of nouns which marks quantity. Number can also be applied to adjective, pronoun, finite verb form) through agreement. other parts of speech ( The most common categories of number are singular and plural; there are also systems which have a dual ( Greek, Sanskrit, and Gothic) and a trialis (e.g. some South-West Pacific languages). In some languages there is a paucalis for indicating a small number, as in Arabic. Another kind of more complicated number system can be found in languages which differentiate between a basic form (collective) which is indifferent in respect to number, and a more complicated derived form for single entities (singulative) ( Breton). Often not all nouns in a language can occur in all numbers (cf. single-only, plural-only, mass nouns). Classifying languages generally have no formal number system. References Bartsch, R. 1973. The semantics and syntax of number and numbers. In P.Kimball (ed.), Syntax and Semantics. New York. Vol. 2, 51–93. Dictionary of language and linguistics 820 Greenberg, J.H. 1988. The first person inclusive dual as an ambiguous category. SLang 12. 1–19. Hurford, J.R. 1987. Language and number: the emergence of a cognitive system. Oxford. Reid, W. 1991. Verb and noun number in English: a functional explanation. London. Wickens, M.A. 1991. Grammatical number in English nouns: an empirical and theoretical account. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. numeral Class of words consisting primarily of adjectives (six months, double fault, threefold problem) as well as substantives (a dozen eggs, indefinite pronouns (all, both, many,few), and adverbials (He called twice already). Semantically they form a uniform group inasfar as they designate numbers, quantities, and any other countable divisions. However, because their morphological and syntactic behavior varies in respect to declension, newer grammars classify them differently, relegating them in part to pronouns, in part to adjectives. A basic division is made between definite and indefinite (ten vs several), where the definite numerals can be divided into the following subgroups: (a) cardinals— one, two, three; (b) ordinals—first, second, third; (c) distributives—six each; (d) iteratives—once, twice, thrice; (e) multiples eightfold; (f) collective numerals—a dozen; and (g) fractions—a tenth. For a lengthy bibliography, see Kraus (1977). References Gvozdanovič, J. 1991. Indo-European numerals. Berlin and New York. Hurford, J.R. 1975. The linguistic theory of numerals. London. ——1987. Language and number: the emergence of a cognitive system. Oxford. Kraus, H. 1977. Das Numerus-System des Englischen. Tübingen. Ross, A.C. (ed.) 1981. Indo-European numerals. The Hague. A-Z 821 Nuorese Sardinian Nynorck Norwegian Dictionary of language and linguistics 822 O object [Lat. obiectum ‘something presented to the senses,’ past participle of obicere ‘to throw in the way’] Syntactic function in nominative languages which, depending on the language, is marked either morphologically (e.g. by an oblique case) or positionally (e.g. after the subject) and which generally denotes a thing or state of affairs which is affected by the event denoted by the verb. The number and types of objects are language-specific and their occurrence in the sentence is determined by the valence of the verb. Objects are generally divided into direct, indirect and prepositional objects (also called oblique objects). Objects in English can be realized as noun phrases, infinitive constructions, gerunds, or dependent clauses ( object clause). ( also case, syntactic function) References Plank, F. (ed.) 1984. Objects. London case, direct object, indirect object, syntactic function object clause (also complement clause) Subordinate clause ( constituent clause) which functions syntactically as an object. In English these include: (a) relative clauses: Wherever you go, there you are; (b) dependent clauses introduced by an interrogative pronoun (Do you know who that is standing over there?) or a subordinating conjunction (She asked herself whether she had done the right thing or not); (c) dependent clauses without a conjunction: She wished she were in Athens; (d) infinitive constructions: He was glad to have been there at all. A-Z 823 References subordinate clause object language vs metalanguage Known since ancient times and made more precise in formal logic of the twentieth century, the terms ‘object language’ and ‘metalanguage’ form a useful distinction for talking about different levels of propositions. Propositions about non-linguistic states of affairs, for example, London is situated on the Thames is a proposition in the object language, while ‘London’ is a proper name of two syllables is an example of metalanguage. In a metalinguistic description, the example in the object language is marked graphemically by quotation marks, italics, or underlining. This convention corresponds to the language-philosophical distinction between use and mention. In London is situated on the Thames the expression London is being used to name a specific English city, while in ‘London’ is a proper name of two syllables one is citing, or mentioning the word London as an example of a proper name. This metalinguistic hierarchical distinction can be drawn over several levels, thus the definitions and explanations of this dictionary entry (or of the whole dictionary itself) are metametalinguistic descriptions of the metalinguistic use of linguistic terminology that is used to describe expressions in the object language. Two languages are in an objectlanguage-metalanguage relation if statements about expressions in the one language are made in the other language, such as might be found in an English language grammar of German. The differentiation between levels of propositions is necessary to avoid socalled semantic antinomies, like those of the paradox of the Cretan who maintains ‘All Cretans are liars.’ References Quine, W.V.O. 1940. Mathematical logic. New York (Rev. edn Cambridge, MA, 1951.) formal logic Dictionary of language and linguistics 824 obligatory vs optional [Lat. obligatio ‘the state of being legally etc. liable,’ optio ‘choice’] Property of rules which specifies the conditions of their application. The distinction applies to all levels of description and has an important role in the syntactic and semantic description of sentence structure based on verb valence. In contrast to valenceindependent elements in a sentence, such as free adjuncts and attributes, actants which depend on valence can be divided into two groups: valence positions which must be filled and those which do not need to be filled under certain conditions (i.e. optional); cf. Caroline is writing a letter to her mother vs Caroline is writing (something), but Caroline gave her mother a present vs *Caroline gave her mother. This structurally based distinction refers exclusively to grammatical completeness or wellformedness; it does not always correspond to semantic-pragmatic factors such as completeness and differentiation of information. For other uses of this distinction, also free variation and transformations. Reference Sanders, G.A. 1977. On the notions ‘optional’ and ‘obligatory’ in linguistics. Ling 195. 5–47. oblique case [Lat. obliquus ‘slanting’] Term for the genitive, dative, accusative and ablative cases which depend on the verb, as opposed to the casus rectus. References case oblique object Syntactic function filled by a noun phrase in an oblique case other than the accusative or dative, or by a prepositional or adpositional phrase: Ger. Er klagte den Mann des A-Z 825 Mordes an (gen.) ‘He accused the man of murder.’ Oblique objects are not considered to be among the primary syntactic functions of a language such as subject or direct object, which can be seen by the fact that only in a few languages do they require verb agreement or occur as antecedents for reflexive pronouns ( hierarchy universal). Specific semantic functions include: agent (in passive constructions), benefactive, locative and other semantic categories which are not directly related to the action expressed in the predicate. References object, syntactic function observational adequacy adequacy levels of obstruent [Lat. obstruere ‘to block up, impede’] Speech sound classified according to the way in which it is formed (namely by forcing air through the resonance chamber and allowing it to bypass its obstruction medially (median)). Obstruents are median occlusives that include the affricates and median fricatives. ( also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics Dictionary of language and linguistics Ob-Ugric obviative 826 Finno-Ugric proximate vs obviative occasional meaning connotation1 occasional vs usual word formation In word formation, the distinction drawn between neologisms (created according to productive word formation rules) that spontaneously arise from a momentary need and within a strongly limited context and such expressions that are codified in the lexicon and already belong to the lexical inventory of a language. Since occasional word formations can frequently become incorporated into the usual inventory of a language, the boundary between both areas is fuzzy. ( also nonce word, lexicalization) References word formation Occitan Gallo-Romance language spoken in southern France somewhat south of the line GaronneGrenoble. The striking demarcation of the Gallo-Romance linguistic territory can be attributed among other reasons to the large number of Franconian settlers in northern France ( superstratum). During the Middle Ages, Occitan was an important language of culture, but became increasingly supplanted by the more dominant French. Since the nineteenth century there have been various movements for the renewal of Occitan as a literary and trade language (cf. F.Mistral, L.Alibert). Occitan can be divided into North Occitan and Middle Occitan (Provençal); Gascon is in many ways a separate dialect. Today the active speakers of Occitan number about 2 million. A-Z 827 References Alibert, L. 1935. Gramatica occitana. Toulouse. Anglade, J. 1921. Grammaire de l’ancien Provençal ou ancienne langue d’Oc. Paris. Bec, P. 1973. Manuel pratique d’occitan moderne. Paris. Holtus, G., M.Metzeltin, and C.Schmitt (eds) 1989. Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik, vol. 5, Tübingen. Jensen, F. 1986. The syntax of medieval Occitan, Tübingen. Kremnitz, G. 1981. Das Okzitanische: Sprachgeschichte und Soziologie. Tübingen. Rohlfs, G. 1970. Le Gascon, 2nd rev. edn. Tübingen. Dictionaries Alibert, L. 1965. Dictionnaire occitan-français. Toulouse. Mistral, F. 1879–1886. Lou tresor d’ou Felibrige ou Dictionnaire, provençal-français, 2 vols. Aixen-Provence, Avignon, Paris. Bibliographies Berthaud, P.-L. 1946. Bibliographie occitane 1919–1942. Paris. Klingebiel, K. 1986. Bibliographie linguistique de l’ancien Occitan 1960–1982. Hamburg. occlusive A non-nasal stop. occurrence Concrete realization of a basic abstract linguistic unit in the form of an actual utterance. An occurrence is the result of a performance act on the basis of underlying language competence ( competence vs performance). Thus, in spoken language, linguistic utterances are phonetic actualizations (i.e. occurrences) of an underlying abstract phonological structure. This distinction between aspects of parole vs aspects of langue ( langue vs parole) corresponds to the opposition etic vs emic analysis, as well as the type-token relation. Dictionary of language and linguistics 828 Oceanic Collective term for the languages of the southeast Asian islands, New Guinea, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. The most important language groups in this area are MalayoPolynesian, which is spread over nearly the entire Pacific, the southeast Asian islands, and Madagascar and is probably related to the southeast Asian languages, the Australian languages, and the Papuan languages, the numerous language families in New Guinea and the nearby islands, whose genetic affiliation has not yet been completely explained. Research on this group was first focused on the Malayo-Polynesian languages, while the important investigation of the Australian and Papuan languages was not seriously begun until the 1960s. ( also dialect geography) References Holmer, N.M. 1966. Oceanic semantics: a study in the framing of concepts in the native languages of Australia and Oceania. Uppsala. Wurm, S.A. 1982. Papuan languages of Oceania. Tübingen. Bibliography Kleineberger, H.R. 1957. Bibliography of Oceanic linguistics. London. Journal Oceanic Linguistics. A-Z off-glide 829 on-glide vs off-glide Ojibwa Algonquian Okanogan Old Bulgarian Salishan Old Church Slavic Old Church Slavic (also Old Church Slavonic, Old Bulgarian) Language of the oldest written Slavic documents, based on the dialect of Thessalonica. The documents date from the ninth century and are liturgical in character, which led to the most common designation Old Church Slavic. They were written first in the Glagolitic, then in the Cyrillic script. Characteristics: generally open syllables; the front and back nasal vowels ę and are distinguished; the two jer-sounds and b are also distinguished; complex inflectional system with alternations; no definite article. References Diels, P. 1932–4. Altkirchenslavische Grammatik, 2 vols. Heidelberg. (2nd edn 1963.) Gardiner, S.C. 1984. Old Church Slavonic: an elementary grammar. Cambridge. Lunt, H.G. 1974. Old Church Slavonic grammar, 6th edn. The Hague. Schmalstieg, W.R. 1983. Introduction to Old Church Slavic, 2nd rev. edn. Columbus, OH. Trubetzkoy, N.S. 1954. Altkirchenslavische Grammatik: Schrift-, Laut- und Formensystem. Graz, Vienna, Cologne (2nd edn 1968.) Vaillant, A. 1964. Manuel du vieux slave, 2 vols, 2nd edn. Paris. Dictionary of language and linguistics 830 Dictionaries Sadnik, L. and R.Aitzetmüller. 1955. Handwörterbuch zu den altkirchenslavischen Texten. Heidelberg. (Repr. 1989.) Slovník jazyka staroslověnského (Lexicon linguae palaeoslovenicae). 1966–. Vol. IV– 1994. Prague. Etymological dictionary Etymologický slovník jazyka staroslověnského. 1989-. Fasc. 3—g 1992. Ed. E.Havlová. Prague. Journal Palaeobulgarica. Old Church Slavonic Old Church Slavic Old High German consonant shift (also Second Sound Shift) Changes in the consonant system of Proto-Germanic that led to the separation of Old High German from the group of the other Germanic languages and dialects. (a) The voiceless stops p, t, k are shifted, depending on their position, to (i) affricates initially, medially, and at the end of a word after a consonant as well as in geminates; cf. ProtoGermanic *to, Eng. to, Ger. zu; Proto-Germanic *hert-, Eng. heart, Ger. Herz. The different affricates did not all have the same regional extension; (ii) voiceless fricatives after vowels medially and at the end in the entire German-speaking region, cf. Proto. (b) The Germanic *lētan, Eng. let, Ger. lassen; Proto-Germanic *fat, Eng. vat, Ger. voiced stops b, d, g (which in Proto-Germanic had developed from the voiced fricatives, Grimm’s Law) in Upper German, especially Bavarian, are shifted to the corresponding voiceless stops, with strong regional differentiation (these voiceless stops, however, were later mostly weakened again), cf. Old Saxon (Low German) beran, bindan, giban, Old High German (Bav.) peran, pindan, kepan. (c) The voiceless fricative [θ] becomes the voiced stop [d], cf. Eng. brother, Ger. Bruder. (On details on the different extension in the German dialects, see Braune and Mitzka 1953:83–90). Shifted forms are here and there attested in names as early as the sixth century AD (Attila>Etzel); the fifth to eighth centuries AD are generally regarded as the time of the rise and spread A-Z 831 of the Old High German consonant shift. Opinions on the geographical origin and on the spread vary considerably. As the Old High German consonant shift occurred most consistently with the Bavarians and the Alemans, whereas its influence became weaker further north, the traditional ‘monogenetic’ view regards the south as the origin of this sound change (in contrast to this, see the assumptions of generative phonology (King 1969)); ‘polygenetic’ approaches (see Schützeichel 1956), however, proceed from specific, autochthonous developments of the sound shift in several regions simultaneously. An alternative view can be found in Vennemann (1984). The common interpretations of the Old High German sound shift are also contested by a new view: Vennemann’s ‘bifurcation theory’ (1984) says that Low German and High German are two different developments from Proto-Germanic and that High German is not, as hitherto assumed, a development from an earlier Low German sound system (‘succession theory’). This view is based on a new reconstruction of Germanic that proceeds not from the Indo-European sound system ( Indo-European), but from the state of historically attested languages, and emphasizes language-typological considerations of plausibility. References Braune, W. and W.Mitzka. 1953. Althochdeutsche Grammatik. (10th edn 1961). Tübingen. 83–90. Draye, L. 1986. Niederländisch und Germanisch: Bemerkungen zu Theo Vennemanns neuer Lautverschiebungstheorie aus niederlandistischer Sicht. PBB 108. 180–9. King, R. 1969. Historical linguistics and generative grammar. Frankfurt. Merlingen, W. 1986. Die Vennemannsche Lautverschiebungstheorie. PBB 108. 1–15. Penzl, H. 1986. Zu den Methoden einer neuen germanischen Stammbaumtheorie. PBB 108. 16–29. Sanjosé-Messing, A. 1986. +Th—+T—+D0? Kritische Anmerkungen zu Vennemanns Rekonstruktion des vorgermanischen Konsonantensystems. PBB 108. 172–9. Schützeichel, R. 1956. Zur althochdeutschen Lautverschiebung am Mittelrhein. ZM 24. 112–24. ——1961. Die Grundlagen des westlichen Mitteldeutschen: Studien zur historischen Sprachgeographie. Tübingen. (2nd rev. edn 1976.) Stechow, A.von 1986. Notizen zu Vennemanns Anti-Grimm. PBB 108. 159–71. Vennemann, T. 1984. Hochgermanisch und Niedergermanisch: die Verzweigungstheorie der germanisch-deutschen Lautverschiebungen. PBB (T) 106. 1–45. ——1985. The bifurcation theory of the Germanic and German consonant shifts: synopsis and some further thoughts. In J. Fisiak (ed.), Papers from the sixth International Conference on Historical Linguistics. Amsterdam. 527–47. ——1988. Die innergermanische Lautverschiebung und die Entstehung der germanischen und deutschen Dialekte. In M.A.Jazayery and W. Winter (eds), Languages and cultures: Studies in honor of Edgar C.Polomé. Berlin. ——1994. Dating the division between high and low Germanic: a summary of arguments. In T. Swan, E.Mørck and O.J.Westvik (eds), Language change and language structure. Older Germanic languages in a comparative perspective. Berlin and New York. 271–302. Dictionary of language and linguistics Old Indic Old Irish 832 Sanskrit Gaelic Old Persian Iranian Old Prussian Baltic language which died out in the eighteenth century. References Caffrey, J.F. 1989. Dialectal differentiation in Old Prussian. Ann Arbor, MI. Endzelīns, J. 1943. Senprūšu valoda: levads, gramatika un leksika. Riga. Schmalstieg, W.R. 1974. An Old Prussian grammar: the phonology and morphology of the three catechisms. University Park, PA. ——1976. Studies in Old Prussian: a critical review of the relevant literature in the field since 1945. University Park, PA and London. Sprachdenkmäler. Einleitung, Texte, Grammatik, Trautmann, R. 1910. Die Wörterbuch. Göttingen. (Repro. Göttingen 1970). Dictionary Toporov, V.J. 1975–. Prusskij jazyk: slovar’ Vol. 5, 1984. Moscow, Etymological dictionary Mažiulis, V. 1988–. kalbos: etimologijos žodynas. Vol. 2, 1993. Vilnius. Bibliography Kubicka, W. 1967. Bibliografija języka staropruskiego. Acta Balto-Slavica 5. 257–311. Baltic A-Z Old Slavic 833 Old Church Slavic Old South Arabic Semitic Omotic East African branch of Afro-Asiatic postulated by H.Fleming in 1969, earlier considered to be West Cushitic and thus belonging to the Cushitic languages. There are some two dozen languages with about 1.3 million speakers. Reference Bender, M.L. 1975. Omotic: a new Afroasiatic language family. Carbondale, IL. one-dimensional opposition Oneida opposition Iroquoian on-glide vs off-glide Beginning vs end phase in the articulation of a speech sound; the movement of the articulatory organs ( articulator) from or to their resting position. A distinction is drawn between strong and weak on- and off-glides. Most speech sounds show weak offglides, the exception being postaspirated, postnasalized, or affricated plosives ( aspiration, affrication), including the glottal stop. Strong on-glide occurs in nonpreaspirated, non-prenasalized plosives. ( also glottalization) Dictionary of language and linguistics 834 References phonetics onomasiology [Grk ónoma ‘name’] Subdiscipline of semantics that, beginning with concepts and states of affairs, studies linguistic expressions (i.e. words or word forms) which refer to these concepts or states of affairs in the real world. To the extent that the geographic distribution of particular words ( word atlas) has a bearing on the designation of objects, onomasiology is pursued by dialectology). Similarly, conceptual dictionaries or thesauruses are dialectologists ( compiled according to onomasiological principles. ( also semasiology) References Baldinger, K. 1964. Sémasiologie et onomasiologie. Revue de Linguistique Romane 28. 249–72. Mawson, C.O.S. 1911. Roget’s international thesaurus. (4th edn, rev. by R.L.Chapman. New York, 1977.) Roget, P.M. 1852. Thesaurus of English words and phrases. (Newly ed. by S.M.Lloyd. Harlow, 1982.) onomastic affix Derivational prefix or suffix used to form names of persons or places: e.g. Mc(McGregor), Fitz- (Fitzgerald), -sen (Olsen), -by (Hornsby), -land (Oakland), -ford (Hartford), and so on. References onomastics, word formation A-Z 835 onomastics Scientific investigation of the origin (development, age, etymology), the meaning, and the geographic distribution of names ( proper noun). Onomastic subdisciplines include anthroponymy (the study of personal names), hydronymy (the study of names of bodies of water), and toponymy (the study of geographic place-names), among others. Because placenames and personal names are among the oldest and most transparent linguistic forms, they are an important source of hypotheses about the history of language, dialect geography and language families. More recently, sociolinguistics (name-giving and use in society), psycholinguistics (psycho-onomastics and the physiognomy of names), pragmalinguistics, and text linguistics have taken an active interest in onomastics. Onomastics also offers new insights into historical processes (preand early history, folklore, among others) as well as geography and natural history. References Becker, D.W. 1964. Indian place names in New Jersey. Cedar Grove, NJ. Eichler, E. et al. (eds). 1995. Name studies. An international handbook of onomastics. Berlin and New York. Green, E. and R.M.Green. 1971. Place-names and dialects in Massachusetts: some complementary patterns. Names 19. 240–51. Grubbs, S. 1971. The opposite of white: names for Black Americans. In P.Maranda and E.Köngäs (eds), Structural analysis of oral tradition. Philadelphia, PA. 25–32. Gudde, E.G. 1969. California place names: the origin and etymology of current geographical names. Berkeley, CA. McArthur, L.L. 1986. Another approach to place-name classification. Names 34:2.238–41. Metcalf, A. 1985. Introduction: special issue on names in dialect. Names 33:4.213–25. Ramsay, R.L. 1952. Our storehouse of Missouri place names. Columbia, MO. Read, A.W. 1970. The prospects in a national place-name survey for the United States. Names 18. 201–7. Reaney, P.H. and R.M.Wilson. 1991. A dictionary of English surnames. London. Rich, J.S. 1981. Landscapes and the imagination: the interplay of folk etymology and place names. SFQ 45. 155–62. Shirk, G.H. 1965. Oklahoma place names. Norman, OK. Stewart, G.R. 1967. Names on the land: a historical account of place naming in the United States, 3rd edn. Boston, MA. Upham, W. 1969. Minnesota geographical names: their origin and significance. St Paul, MN. Utley, F.L. 1969. A survey of American place-names. Onoma 14. 196–204. Vogel, V.J. 1986. The influence of historical events upon place names. In E.Callary (ed.), From Oz to the onion patch. Dekalb, IL. 47–58. Woolf, H.B. 1939. The Old Germanic principles of name-giving. Baltimore, MD. Dictionary of language and linguistics 836 Bibliography Lawson, E.D. 1986. Personal names: a hundred years of social science contributions. (Onomastic bibliography.) Names 34:1. 89–90. onomatopoeia [Grk onomatopoiía ‘the coining of a name or word in imitation of a sound’] The formation of words through the imitation of sounds from nature, e.g. cock-a-doodledoo, meow, splash. The same sound may be represented differently in other languages, e.g. cocka-doodle-doo is kikeriki in German and cocorico in French. The natural motivation of such words is an exception to the basic arbitrariness of the linguistic symbol and should not be u nderstood as evidence of the onomatopoeic origin of language. ( also sound symbolism) References Kakehl, H. 1990. Systematic investigation of onomatopoeic expressions. PICL 14. 348–50. sound symbolism A-Z onset onset of voicing 837 syllable glottalization opacity constraint specified subject condition opaque context opaque vs transparent context opaque vs transparent context [Lat. opacus ‘shady, dark’] Contexts whose truth values are influenced by the free substitutability of expressions with the same extension are ‘referentially opaque’ (or ‘oblique’) (Quine 1960:141) in contrast to ‘transparent’ contexts. In the following example from Quine (1953:143), an opaque context is created by the use of the modal adverb necessarily. The statement It is necessarily the case that 9 is greater than 7 is true, while the statement It is necessarily the case that the number of planets is greater than 7 is false, although both expressions 9 and the number of planets have the same extension, namely the number 9. Other opaque contexts in which two expressions with an identical extension or meaning (i.e. denotation, see Frege 1892) and a different sense ( intension) cannot be freely substituted are contexts of knowledge and belief, that is, contexts of ‘propositional attitudes’ which are set by verbs such as know, believe, fear ( intensional context). The context it is true that S is an example of a transparent context. References Frege, G. 1892. Über Sinn und Bedeutung. Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik (new series) 100.25–50. (Repr. in his Kleine Schriften, ed. I. Angelelli. Darmstadt, 1967. 143– Dictionary of language and linguistics 838 62. Eng. trans. in Translations from the philosophical writings of Gottlob Frege, ed. P. Geach and M.Black. Oxford, 1960. Jackendoff, R. 1983. Semantics and cognition. Cambridge, MA. Kaplan, D. 1969. Quantifying. In D.Davidson and J. Hinitikka (eds), Words and objections. Dordrecht. 206–42. Linsky, L. 1971. Reference and referents. In D.D. Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics. Cambridge, MA. 76–85. Partee, B.H. 1970. Opacity, reference and pronouns. Synthese 21. 359–85. Quine, W.V.O. 1953. From a logical point of view. Cambridge, MA. ——1960. Word and object. Cambridge, MA. intension, reference open closed vs open open-class word autosemantic word operational definition definition operational procedures (also discovery procedures) Experimental analytical procedures in structural linguistics used both to determine and portray linguistic regularities, as well as to establish and test linguistic hypotheses and theories. By deleting, replacing, adding, or reordering linguistic elements in a set context (word, sentence, or text), regularities which are at first intuitively understood can be made more objective, and these linguistic regularities can be described, based on the procedures which are used to determine them. Consider, for example, the definition of phonemes as minimal sound elements whose ‘exchange’ results in a difference in meaning (bed vs red), or the determination of major constituents as elements which can be moved (commuted). There are a number of tests which are included in the category of operational procedures: (a) the commutation test, (b) the substitution test, (c) the reduction test, and (d) the contact test. While linguistic investigations have long been based on such heuristic procedures, the concept of analysis represented by taxonomic structuralism is in the main responsible for its systematization. When these procedures are compared to experimental approaches in the natural sciences, the fact is often A-Z 839 overlooked that in these linguistic tests, the judgment of grammaticality still relies on the intuition of the investigator or the informant, and thus is not purely ‘objective’ in the scientific sense, but a matter of the linguistic intuition of those performing the analysis. The same is the case in the study of dead languages. In the framework of generative transformational grammar, the procedures which are used in structuralist investigations as heuristic tests are formulated as elementary transformations. In this regard, the transformations deletion, adjunction, substitution, and permutation correspond to the reduction test, the contact test, the substitution test and the commutation test. References Bloch, B. 1948. A set of postulates for phonetic analysis. Lg 24. 3–46. Glinz, H. 1952. Die innere Form des Deutschen. Bern. Harris, Z.S. 1951. Methods in structural linguistics. Chicago, IL. (Repr. as Structural linguistics.) Hjelmslev, L. 1961. Prolegomena to a theory of language, trans. F.Whitfield. Madison, WI. Longacre, R.E. 1960. String constituent analysis. Lg 36. 63–88. ——1968. Grammar discovery procedures: a field manual. The Hague. Nida, E. 1951. A system for the description of semantic elements. Word 7. 1–14. Postal, P.M. 1964. Constituent structure: a study of contemporary models of syntactic description. Bloomington, IN. Wells, R.S. 1947. Immediate constituents. Lg 23. 71–117. operative sense eidetic vs operative sense operator 1 Generally, (a) an instrument or process for carrying out an operation, or (b) a symbol that signals a direction for a particular operation. 2 In formal logic, ‘operator’ is in the broadest sense a collective term for quantifier, logical predicate and logical particle ( logical connective); in the narrower sense the collective term (and frequent synonym) for quantifiers: operators are linguistic expressions (or their symbolizations) that serve to specify (=quantify) sets: all, none, every, among others. An operator connects a variable to a complete proposition. One differentiates between the following. (a) The existential operator (also existential quantifier) symbolized by or and read as: ‘there is at least one element x in set S for . which it is the case that…’; e.g. Some people are late risers is symbolized by The existential operator expresses a particular case and is in the truth-functional relation of disjunction (cf. the mnemotechnically motivated symbolization: (small) for disjunction, (big) for existential operator). Through negation the existential operator Dictionary of language and linguistics 840 can be carried over to the universal operator (cf. (b) below): Some people are late risers corresponds to the expression Not all people are late risers (notation: ). However, in contrast to the universal operator the existential operator presupposes the existence of the designated objects in the real world presupposition). (b) The universal operator (or universal quantifier), symbolized by ( or , and read as: ‘for all elements x in set S it is the case that…’. Everyday language example: All humans are mortal symbolized by where H=humans and M= mortal. The universal operator expresses a generalization and is in the truthfunctional relation of conjunction (cf. the mnemotechnically motivated symbolization: (small) for conjunction, (big) for the universal operator). The proposition All humans are mortal is, for a finite set S, equivalent to an enumeration of all elements, i.e. a and b and c…are mortal. Through this parallel, the distributive reading of the universal operator is confirmed: i.e. ‘for every single element it is the case that’ (in contrast to the collective reading of all). (c) The iota operator symbolized by iota (ι), the ninth letter of the Greek alphabet, or by i, and read as ‘that element x for which it is the case that…’. The iota operator serves to identify a particular entity by means of a characteristic that is true only of this entity ( definite description), e.g. to be the composer of ‘The Magic Flute’: ιx(Cx): ‘that element x of the set S that has the characteristic of being the composer of ‘The Magic Flute.’ (d) The lambda operator, symbolized by lambda (λ), the eleventh letter of the Greek alphabet, and read as ‘those xs for which it is the case that…’; e.g. λx(Lx): those people who are late risers. The lambda operator forms class names, i.e. complex one-place predicates, out of propositional functions (=open formulae). References formal logic 3 For the use of ‘operator’ in language acquisition theory, cf. pivot grammar. operator-operand relation complementation and modification opposition Fundamental concept introduced by the Prague School especially for phonology: two sounds are in a relation of phonological opposition if they alone are capable of differentiating two otherwise phonologically identical words with different meanings (e.g. /t/ and /d/ in tier vs deer, tank vs dank ( minimal pair). They are not necessarily A-Z 841 considered the smallest units capable of semantic differentiation since they themselves can be further analyzed as bundles of distinctive features. Since Trubetzkoy, a distinction is drawn in distinctive feature analysis between the following oppositions. Depending on the relation of opposition to the whole phonological system, there is: (a) multidimensional opposition: features common to both elements also occur in other phonemes (e.g. /p/ and /t/ since /k/ also has the features [+stop, -voiced]); (b) onedimensional (=bilateral) opposition: features common to both elements do not occur in any other phoneme of the language (e.g. /b/ and /p/, since no further phonemes share the features [+consonant, +bilabial]); (c) isolated opposition: the opposition found in two elements does not occur anywhere else within this system (e.g. /p/ vs /∫/); (d) proportional opposition: the opposition found in two elements is repeated in other phoneme pairs in the language (e.g. /d/: /t/, /b/ : /p/, /g/: /k/, all differentiated by [±voiced]). Depending on the relation between the individual opposition pairs there is: (e) privative opposition: pairs are distinguished by only one feature (e.g. voiced vs voiceless consonants); (f) gradual opposition: elements are distinguished by varying degrees of a feature as, for example, in the description of the vowels according to varying degrees of openness; (g) equipollent opposition: pairs are distinguished by several different features, i.e. they are neither privative nor gradual, but rather have the same logical value (e.g. /b/: /d/, /v/: /g/). With regard to the validity of opposition, a distinction is drawn between (h) constant, i.e. unrestricted, effective opposition and (i) neutralized opposition ( neutralization), both of which can be suspended in particular positions. For parallels in correlation. The principles of phoneme strings with the same types of opposition, opposition are also used in morphological and semantic analysis ( componential analysis). References phonology optative [Lat. optare ‘to choose’] Subcategory of verbal mood present in, e.g. Greek which expresses fulfillable wishes. While Greek has an independent paradigm for the optative, other languages express it by means of the subjunctive: Long live the Queen! References modality Dictionary of language and linguistics optional 842 obligatory vs optional oral [Lat. os, gen. oris ‘mouth’] Speech sound which, in contrast to a nasal, is formed without the use of the nasal cavity (i.e. with a raised velum). With the exception of [m], [n], and [ŋ], all consonants and also articulatory phonetics) vowels in English are orals. ( References phonetics oral proficiency interview proficiency ordering of rules extrinsic vs intrinsic ordering of rules ordinary language philosophy Linguistic theory of analytical philosophy represented by Ryle, Wittgenstein (in his later years), Strawson, Austin, Searle, and others, which—in contrast to logical semantics— takes everyday (colloquial) language as the basis for investigating philosophical and linguistic problems. Following Wittgenstein’s equation of meaning with use, ordinary language philosophy investigates the origin of meaning and the functioning of linguistic communication through observation and analysis of linguistic transactions in pragmatic contexts. ( also speech act theory) A-Z 843 References Austin, J.L. 1962. How to do things with words. Oxford. Keith, G. 1977. J.L. Austin: a critique of ordinary language philosophy. Hassocks. Rorty, R. (ed.) 1967. The linguistic turn. Chicago, IL. Strawson, P.F. 1952. Individuals: an essay in descriptive metaphysics. London. ——1971. Logico-linguistic papers. London. Wittgenstein, L. 1953. Philosophical investigations. Oxford. organon model of language [Grk órganon ‘instrument, tool’] Linguistic and semiotic model designed by K. Bühler in his Sprachtheorie (Theory of Language’) (1934:28) and founded on Plato’s metaphor of language as organon, i.e. ‘tool,’ by means of which ‘one person (i.e. sender) communicates to another person (i.e. receiver) about the things being communicated.’ Bühler distinguishes three factors constituting signs that correspond to these three functions of the linguistic sign. The linguistic sign is (a) a ‘symptom’ inasmuch as it ‘expresses the profound psyche of the speaker’ ( expressive function of language); (b) a ‘signal’ inasmuch as it is an appeal to the receiver ( appellative function of language); (c) a ‘symbol’ inasmuch as it refers to objects and states of affairs in reality ( representational function of language). ( also axiomatics of linguistics, functional grammar, Prague School) Dictionary of language and linguistics 844 References Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart, 1965.) Innis, R.E. (trans.) 1982. Karl Bühler: semiotic foundations of language theory. New York. origin of language There are various hypotheses or assumptions about the origin of language, none of which can be verified through linguistic theory. Relatively certain knowledge about language goes back approx. 5,000 to 6,000 years, but the development of humankind stretches over an assumed period of a million years. Thus, all hypotheses on language origin such as, among others, (a) the ‘onomatopoeic’ theory (imitation of animal sounds, onomatopoeia), (b) the ‘interjective’ theory (origin of language in the expression of emotions), or (c) the ‘synergastic’ theory (origin of language through co-operation in work) remain completely speculative and confirm J. Herder’s paradoxical formulation: ‘Humans are only human through l anguage, but in order to invent language, they would already have to be human’ (Gesammelte Schriften, VII, 47). References Armstrong, D.F. et al. 1995. Gesture and the nature of language. Cambridge. Bickerton, D. 1990. Language and species. Chicago, IL. Harnad, S., H.Steklis, and J.Lancaster (eds) 1976. Origins and evolution of language and speech. New York. Hawkins, J.A. and M.Gell-Mann (eds). 1992. The evolution of human language. Reading, MA. Herder, J.G. 1772. Abhandlung über die Ursprünge der Sprache. Berlin. Hockett, C.F. 1960. The origin of speech. Scientific American 203. 88–96. Landsberg, M.E. (ed.) 1988. The genesis of language: a different judgement of evidence. Berlin and New York. Lenneberg, E.H. (ed.) 1964. New directions in the study of language. Cambridge, MA. ——1967. Biological foundations of language. New York. Lenneberg, E.H. and E.Lenneberg (eds) 1976. Foundations of language development: a multidisciplinary approach, Vol. I. New York. Lieberman, P. 1975. On the origins of language: an introduction to the evolution of human speech. New York. Puppel, S. (ed.). 1995. The biology of language. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Raffler-Engel, W.von, J.Wind, and A.Jonker (eds) 1989. Studies in language origins, vol. 2. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Rosenkranz, B. 1971. Vom Ursprung der Sprache, 2nd edn. Heidelberg. Rousseau, J.-J. and J.G.Herder. 1986. On the origin of language, trans. J.H. Moran and A. Gode. Chicago, IL. Wescott, R.W. (ed.) 1974. Language origins. Silver Spring, MD. Wind, J. et al. (eds) 1989–94. Studies in language origins, 3 vols. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. ——et al. (eds) 1991. Language origin: a multidisciplinary approach. Dordrecht. A-Z 845 Bibliography Hewes, G.W. 1974. Abridged bibliography on the origin of language. In Language origins. R.W. Wescott (ed.), 239–86. Silver Spring, MD. origo I-now-here origo ornative [Lat. ornare ‘to equip, finish’] Semantically defined type of derived verbs (usually from nouns) whose meaning can be paraphrased by ‘furnished with something,’ (to) salt, (to) gag, (to) arm, (to) label, and so on. References word formation Oromo orthoepy Cushitic standard pronunciation orthography [Grk orthós ‘right, correct,’ gráphein ‘to write’] (also spelling) The study and/or instruction of systematic and uniform transcription with letters ( graphemes) and punctuation. The orthographic system of a given language is the result of different and, at times, controversial principles. The problems of English orthography can be seen as the result of overlapping and, often, incompatible principles. (a) Phonetic principle: every spoken sound should correspond exactly to one written character. This Dictionary of language and linguistics 846 principle constitutes only a basic tendency in natural languages. Thus, the written sign ‹c› represents [s] and [k], as in circle. (b) Phonological principle: a single written sign should correspond to every phoneme. The allophones [t] and are realized orthographically with the same sign ‹t›, as in American English late vs later. (c) etymology): etymologically related words should be spelled Etymological principle ( analogously. This idea can generally be traced to the interests of nineteenth-century spelling reformers who changed words like dette and receit to debt and receipt, respectively, to reflect etymology. (d) Historical principle: orthography should remain static over time. Thus, relics from earlier stages in the language are found (e.g. ‹gh› in bought represents a former fricative /χ/, which is no longer pronounced). (e) Homonymy principle: different words that sound alike should be spelled differently (thus, the differentiation of plane vs plain, though both words come from Latin plānus). (f) Principle of economy: superfluous letters should be dropped (e.g. judge, but judgment). (g) Principle of aesthetics: for various reasons, some letter combinations may not be doubled, such as certain consonants in word-final position (bet, but bettor; pin but pinned). (h) Pragmatic principle: for pragmatic reasons, some words (proper nouns and the pronoun I) are capitalized. All of these ‘principles’ are merely tendencies; the numerous non-systematic deviations make learning the orthography of the given language more difficult. Thus, discussions about orthographic reform are of interest not only to linguists, but also to those involved in making educational and political decisions because the practical orthography used and required by the speech community often differs from that demanded by linguists. References Carney, E. 1994. A survey of English spelling. London. Levitt, J. 1978. The influence of orthography on phonology: a comparative study (English, French, Spanish, Italian, German). Linguistics 208. 43–67. writing Oscan-Umbrian Italic oscillogram [Lat. oscillum ‘something that moves to and fro, a swing’] Resulting graphic representation of the oscillograph, a recording machine used in experimental phonetics to record electronically the fluctuations in acoustic air pressure ( spectrograph). A-Z 847 References phonetics Ossete Ostyak Iranian Finno-Ugric Oto-Mangue Language group in Central America consisting of approx. twenty-five languages, which, according to Suarez (1983), break down into eight branches, spoken in Central Mexico with some outlying groups in Nicaragua. The largest languages are Otomi and Zapotec (about 400,000 speakers each), Mixtec (about 300,000 speakers), and Mazahua (about 300,000 speakers). Characteristics: typically fairly complex sound systems, mostly tonal languages (especially in the Mexican province Oaxaca) with up to five distinctive tones (in Usila Chinantecan); register and contour tones, as well as downstep and upstep; tonality has helped make whistle languages possible. Relatively simple morphology, hardly any derivation, no case, hardly any number distinction. The verb is fairly complicated, with aspectual and personal affixes. Some Mixtecan languages have noun class systems. Word order: mostly VSO or SVO, VOS and SOV also occur. ( also North and Central American languages) References Hess, H.H. 1968. The syntactic structure of Mezqui- tal Otomi. The Hague. Hopkins, N.A. and K.Josseraud (eds) 1979. Estudios lingüísticos en lenguas otomangues. Mexico. North and Central American languages Dictionary of language and linguistics Otomi 848 Oto-Mangue oxymoron [Grk oxymoron ‘pointedly foolish’] A figure of speech of semantic abbreviation. A paradoxical connection of two opposite terms within a word or within a phrase, e.g. dry humor (from Lat. humor ‘moisture’), terribly nice. ( also antithesis) References figure of speech A-Z 849 P Paez Chibchan-Paezan Pahlavi Palaic Iranian Anatolian palatal [Lat. palatum ‘the roof of the mouth’] Speech sound classified according to its place of articulation (hard palate), e.g. [j] in in Ital. bagno ‘bath.’ ( also articulatory phonetics, palato[jεs] yes and alveolar, phonetics) References phonetics palatalization Change, conditioned through assimilation, in the place of articulation of consonants and vowels towards the hard palate ( secondary articulation). In consonants it usually involves dentals or velars with a neighboring front vowel (mostly i, y), cf. e.g. the Dictionary of language and linguistics 850 palatalization of Lat. [k] in centum [kentum]>Ital. cento [t∫ento]. In vowels, palatalization vowel harmony). generally involves a fronting of back vowels ( References phonetics palate The concave region of bony cartilage that covers the oral cavity and is connected behind the alveolus. palato-alveolar Alternate (see IPA chart, p. xix) term for lamino-post-alveolar. palatogram Contact diagram of the tongue reflexes against the palate in the articulation of speech sounds. palatolalia [Grk lalia ‘talk’] Term referring to an articulatory disorder due to an impairment of the palate (in most cases, cleft palate). Palatolalia may be combined with a disturbance in voice quality (palatophonia) or nasalization ( rhinophonia, rhinolalia). This term is not currently used in North America. A-Z 851 References articulation disorder palatophonia palatolalia Paleo-Siberian A group of small languages in northeastern Asia that do not form an established language family. Included in this group on purely geographical grounds are Gilyak (Nivkh, about 2200 speakers), Yukagir, and the Chukotko-Kamchatkan language family, whose largest language, Chukchi (about 11,500 speakers), is an ergative language. Ket (about 1,200 speakers), spoken along the Yenisey River, is typologically deviant (tonal language, very complex verb morphology). References Comrie, B. 1981. The languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridge. Pali Indo-Aryan palilalia [Grk páli ‘back(wards),’ lalía ‘talk’] In neurolinguistics, within the domain of language disorders, term referring to the continuous, involuntary repetition of words. This term is not currently used in North America. References language disorder Dictionary of language and linguistics 852 palindrome [Grk palindrómos ‘running back again’] A term for a word or phrase that reads the same backwards and forwards, e.g. able was I ere I saw Elba and the name Otto. This is a special type of anagram. Pama-Nyungan languages languages panchronic [Grk Australian ‘all, the whole,’ chrónos ‘time’] Term used by de Saussure to indicate the approach to language which sees linguistic regularities in a language which are not subject to change through time. ( also universals) References Jakobson, R. 1968. Child language. Aphasia and phonological universals. The Hague. Saussure, F.de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C.Bally and A.Sechehaye. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) Panjabi Indo-Aryan language with approx. 45 million speakers in India and Pakistan. Characteristics: tonal languages; three writing systems (Gurumukhi, Persian, Devanāgarī). References Bhatia, M. 1985. An intensive course in Punjabi. Mysore. A-Z 853 Bhatia, T. 1988. Panjabi. London. Dictionaries Bailey, T.G. 1919. An English-Panjabi dictionary. (Repr. Delhi 1976). Sandhi, B.S. 1982. English-Punjabi dictionary. Chandigarh. Singh, G. et al. 1981. Panjabi-English dictionary. 3rd edn. Amritsar. Bibliography Koul, O. and M.Bala. 1992. Punjabi language and linguistics: an annotated bibliography. New Delhi. Panoan Language family with approx. fifty languages; postulated by Greenberg (1987). References Greenberg, J.H. 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA. Key, M.R. 1968. Comparative Cavineña phonology and notes on Pano-Tacanan relationship. The Hague and Paris. Klein, H.M. 1988. Toba. London. South American languages Papuan Collective term for approx. 760 languages (with about 3 million speakers) in New Guinea and nearby islands; the most important language is Enga (about 150,000 speakers in the western highlands of Papua New Guinea). It has not yet been established whether or not all Papuan languages belong to a single group, the Indo-Pacific family, as postulated by Greenberg (1971). With a few exceptions, research on this group did not begin until the 1950s. Today the first good grammars are finally available and the classification of these strongly diverging languages is proceeding. Characteristics: complex verbs, (marking for person, tense, aspect, mood, direction, serial verb construction, circumstances of the action, emphasis, sentence mood, etc.) Dictionary of language and linguistics 854 Extensive switch-reference systems. Noun class systems (up to ten classes) with agreement. Often ergative languages. Word order: usually SOV. References Foley, W.A. 1986. The Papuan languages of New Guinea. Cambridge. Greenberg, J. 1971. The Indo-Pacific hypothesis. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.) Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 8, 808–71. Haiman, J. 1980. Hua: a Papuan language of the Eastern Highlands of New Guinea. Amsterdam. Roberts, J. 1987. Amele. London. Schumacher, W.W. et al. 1992. Pacific rim: Austronesian and Papuan linguistic history. Heidelberg. Wurm, S.A. 1982. Papuan languages of Oceania. Tübingen. Dictionary Haiman, J. 1991. A dictionary of Hua. Wiesbaden. paradigm [Grk parádeigma ‘pattern, model’] 1 Set of word forms which together form a declension or conjugation pattern. References inflection 2 Expressions of the same word category which are mutually interchangeable at the vertical level. They stand in contrast to elements which can be segmented at the horizontal level ( syntagms). ( also paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relationship) paradigm morphology Traditional approach of research in morphology where the word is seen as the central unit of grammatical description (in contrast to item and arrangement grammar, which posits the morpheme as the smallest unit of description.) The paradigm results from such grammatical (morphosyntactic) categories as tense and mood for verbs, gender and case for nouns. It can also result from the various word forms of a lexeme which are formed A-Z 855 by the stem and all inflectional endings. For a more exact theoretical distinction between this model and item and arrangement grammar, see Matthews (1974). References Hockett, C.F. 1954. Two models of grammatical description. Word 10. 210–34. Matthews, P. 1972. Inflectional morphology. Cambridge. ——1974. Morphology. Cambridge. Ch. 8. (2nd edn 1991.) paradigmatic leveling analogy paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relationship Basic linguistic relationships which describe the complex structure of a language system. Paradigmatic relationships between linguistic elements can be established by use of the substitution test at the vertical level. Thus the initial consonants in beer, deer, peer form a paradigmatic class, as well as words such as today and tomorrow in the sentence: She will arrive today/tomorrow. Syntagmatic relationships are defined by the ability of elements to be combined horizontally (linearly), e.g. the relationship between She will arrive and today. De Saussure (1916) called paradigmatic relationships ‘associative’ relationships, because they represent the relationship between individual elements in specific environments with such elements in the memory which can potentially replace them. Paradigmatic relationships are based on the criteria of selection and distribution of linguistic elements, and are, for example, the basis for establishing the phoneme inventory of a language through the construction of minimal pairs, the replacement of sounds in an otherwise constant environment that leads to a difference in meaning. Elements which are related to each other paradigmatically can potentially occur in the same context but are mutually exclusive in an actual concrete context because they stand in opposition to one another. The distinction between paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships is relevant to all levels of description; cf. in semantics the paradigmatic semantic relations (such as synonymy and antonymy) vs the syntagmatic relations between lexemes in selectional restrictions. ( also structuralism) References Happ, H. 1985. Paradigmatisch—syntagmatisch. Heidelberg. Saussure, F.de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C.Bally and A.Sechehaye. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) Dictionary of language and linguistics 856 paragrammatism [Grk pará ‘beside, along; in transgression of,’ grámma ‘writing’] In neurolinguistics and speech-language pathology, a term referring to a feature of acquired language disorder, with languagespecific characteristics (see also Bates et al. 1987). In English, paragrammatism is characterized by substitution errors of function words. The term, introduced by K.Kleist in 1914, was identified as a feature of Wernicke’s aphasia in contrast with agrammatism in Broca’s aphasia (see de Bleser 1987). Paragrammatism, for a time, was considered a virtual synonym for Wernicke’s aphasia. This strict association can no longer be maintained, since a given patient may produce agrammatical utterances in spontaneous speech and paragrammatical utterances in experimental situations (see Heeschen 1985). References Bates, E. et al. 1987. Grammatical morphology in aphasia: evidence from three languages. Cortex 23. 545–74. Bleser, R.de. 1987. From agrammatism to paragrammatism: German aphasiological traditions and grammatical disturbances. Cognitive Neuropsychology 4. 187–256. Heeschen. C. 1985. Agrammatism vs paragrammatism: a fictitious opposition? In M.L.Kean (ed.), Agrammatism. Orlando, FL. 207–48. Kolk, H. and C.Heeschen. 1992. Agrammatism, paragrammatism and the management of language. Language and Cognitive Processes 7. 89–129. paralalia [Grk lalía ‘talk’] A specific form of dyslalia in which one sound is consistently substituted for another, in particular a sound that is acquired later replaced by a sound acquired earlier (e.g. /s/ is used for /d/ or /f/). This term is not used in North America. A-Z paralanguage 857 paralinguistics, kinesics paralexeme A.J.Greimas’ term for compound words (Fr. arc-en-ciel ‘rainbow’) as opposed to noncompound words or simple lexemes, such as Fr. étoile ‘star.’ Reference Greimas, A.J. 1965. La semantique structurale. Paris. paralinguistics Within the comprehensive science of communication, paralinguistics deals with the investigation of phonetic signals of non-verbal character (i.e. signals that cannot be linguistically segmented) as well as with their communicative functions. Such paralinguistic factors are, for example, particular types of articulation and phonation (breathing, murmuring, whispering, or clearing one’s throat, crying, and coughing), individual types of language (pitch, timbre, rhythm of speech) and intonation. A distinction can be drawn between languagespecific vs language-independent signals as well as between language-associated vs separate signals. Many researchers include the investigation of non-vocal, non-verbal actions ( kinesics) in paralinguistics. ( also non-verbal communication, prosody) References Abercrombie, D. 1968. Paralanguage. Repr. in J. Laver and S.Hutcheson (eds), Communication in face to face interaction. Harmondsworth, 1972. 64–70. Argyle, M. 1967. The psychology of interpersonal behavior. Harmondsworth. ——1969. Social interaction. London. Birdwhistell, R.L. 1954. Introduction to kinesics. Louisville, KY. Crystal, D. 1974. Paralinguistics. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 12, 265–96. ——1975. The English tone of voice: essays in intonation, prosody and paralanguage. London. Crystal, D. and R.Quirk. 1964. Systems of prosody and paralinguistic features in English. The Hague. Dictionary of language and linguistics 858 Ekmann, P. and W.V.Friesen. 1969. The repertoire of nonverbal behaviour: categories, origins, usage and coding. Semiotica 1. 49–98. Grassi, L. 1973. Kinesic and paralinguistic communication. Semiotica 7. 91–6. Laver, J. and S.Hutcheson (eds) 1972. Communication in face to face interaction. Harmondsworth. Poyatos, F. 1993. Paralanguage: a linguistic and interdisciplinary approach to interactive speech and sounds. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Scherer, K.R. 1970. Non-verbale Kommunikation: Ansätze zur Beobachtung und Analyse der auβersprachlichen Aspekte von Interaktionsverhalten. Hamburg. Scherer, K.R. and P.Ekman (eds) 1982. Handbook of methods in nonverbal research. Cambridge. Trager, G.L. 1958. Paralanguage: a first approximation. SiL 13. 1–12. Watzlawick, P., J.H.Beavon, and D.D.Jackson. 1967. Pragmatics of human communication: a study of interactional patterns, pathologies and paradoxes. New York. Bibliography Davis, M. 1982. Body movement and nonverbal communication: an annotated bibliography, 1971– 1980. Bloomington, IN. parallelism [Grk parallēlismós ‘placing side by side’] A figure of speech of repetition for syntactically similar constructions of co-ordinated sentences or phrases, e.g. Time is passing, Johnny Walker is coming. ( also chiasm) References figure of speech parameter In transformational grammar, a variable (= parameter) in the rules or constraints of universal grammar, whose value is determined for individual languages. The determination and setting of the values of a particular parameter implies a grammar for a specific language that is consistent with universal grammar: the learner chooses a particular option for a specific language from within the framework of universal grammar. Such a system of universal principles and parameters must also be consistent with theories of language acquisition. Thus, it is often assumed that universal grammar A-Z 859 assigns forms an unmarked value which can be changed in the course of language acquisition on the basis of external evidence (i.e. the data). According to the current range of the grammar, the syntactically most local domain is assumed to be unmarked; it will be broadened to a less local domain, if there is a conflict with the data of the individual language (cf. domain extension). Parameters allow core grammatical problems to be formulated more flexibly by leaving certain details ‘open’ (see Yang 1983 on binding theory). On the other hand, parameters also interact with specific prognoses about language acquisition mechanisms and with theories of the markedness of individual languages (see Manzini and Wexler 1988). References Hyams, N. (ed.) 1986. Language acquisition and the theory of parameters. Dordrecht. Manzini, R. and K.Wexler. 1988. Parameters, binding theory and learnability. LingI 18. 413–44. Roeper, T. and E.Williams (eds) 1987. Parameter setting. Dordrecht. Yang, D.W. 1983. The extended binding theory of anaphors. LangR 19. 169–92. paraphasia [Grk phásis ‘utterance, expression’] In neurolinguistics, term denoting a characteristic of patients with aphasia (in particular Wernicke’s aphasia). Three kinds of paraphasia are traditionally distinguished: (a) phonemic or literal paraphasia: the simplification of consonant clusters (e.g. ‘paghetti’ for spaghetti), the permutation of sounds (e.g. ‘lispper’ for slipper), or the anticipation of a later sound (e.g. ‘partender’ for carpenter); (b) semantic or verbal paraphasia: the choice of a word of the same syntactic category with a close semantic relation to the intended word (‘cup’ for kettle); such paraphasia can be evoked by visual associations (e.g. ‘banana’ for sausage); (c) neologistic paraphasia ( neologism). ( also paragrammatism) References Butterworth, B. 1979. Hesitation and the production of verbal paraphasias and neologisms in jargon aphasia. B&L 8. 133–61. Caplan, D. 1987. Neurolinguistic and linguistic aphasiology. Cambridge. Freud, S. 1891. Zur Auffassung der Aphasien. Vienna. ——1901. Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens. Vienna. Fromkin, V. (ed.) 1973. Speech errors as linguistic evidence. The Hague. ——(ed.) 1980. Errors in linguistic performance. New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 860 paraphrase 1 Used idiomatically in the sense of ‘rewording’: a means for explaining, clarifying, or interpreting original communicative intentions. 2 Heuristic term for indicating synonymy between sentences (linguistics) as well as propositions (logic). (a) In the framework of propositional logic, paraphrase is identical with bilateral implication or equivalence relations: sentence 1 is a paraphrase of and equivalent to sentence 2 when S1 implies S2 and S2 implies S1 (formally (S1→S2) X (S2→S1)), e.g. Philip is older than Caroline implies Caroline is younger than Philip. (b) In the framework of generative transformational grammar, two sentences are paraphrases of a common deep structure if they have the same semantic meaning and are derived by different transformations which do not change meaning (e.g. passive transformation). Paraphrases are typically divided into syntactic paraphrases—I’ll give it to them tomorrow vs Tomorrow I’ll give it to them); lexical paraphrases—bachelor vs unmarried man; deictic paraphrases—Louise lives in New York vs Louise lives there; and pragmatic paraphrases—Please close the window vs It’s cold in here. References Chafe, W.L. 1971. Directionality and paraphrase. Lg 47. 1–26. Gleitman, L.R. and H.Gleitman. 1970. Phrase and paraphrase: some innovative New York. Nolan, R. 1970. Foundations for an adequate criterion of paraphrase. The Hague. Smaby, R.A. 1971. Paraphrase grammars. Dordrecht. parasite vowel uses of language. anaptyxis parasitic gap An empty position which does not result directly from a movement transformation but which is licensed secondarily by another transformation that does not itself affect the parasitic gap. Thus in the following ungrammatical sentence, the gap denoted by ‘e’ (empty) is licensed when the object of the matrix sentence undergoes wh -movement: *Philip filed the book without reading e (e=it=the book) vs Which book did Philip file without reading e (it)? A-Z 861 References Chomsky, N. 1982. Some concepts and consequences of the theory of government and binding. Cambridge, MA. Engdahl, E. 1983. Parasitic gaps. Ling&P 6.5–34. ——1985. Parasitic gaps, resumptive pronouns and subject extractions. Linguistics 23. 3–44. Felix, S. 1983. Parasitic gaps in German. In W. Abraham (ed.), Erklärende Syntax des Deutschen. Tübingen. 173–200. Kayne, R. 1984. Connectedness and binary branching. Dordrecht. Koster, J. 1987. Domains and dynasties: the radical autonomy of syntax. Dordrecht. Pesetsky, D.M. 1982. Paths and categories. Dissertation MIT, Cambridge, MA. Tellier, C. 1991. Licensing theory and French parasitic gaps. Dordrecht. transformational grammar parasitic vowel anaptyxis parataxis [Grk parátaxis ‘placing side by side’] (also co-ordination) Syntactic conjoining of sentences through coordination (as opposed to subordination, hypotaxis). This structural equivalence is marked in English by the use of co-ordinating conjunctions (and, or) or through juxtaposition ( asyndeton) with corresponding intonation. parenthetic(al) expression [Grk pará ‘beside,’ énthesis ‘insertion’] Expression (word, phrase, clause) inserted into a sentence from which it is structurally independent: Her new boyfriend—his name is Jacob—will be coming over tonight. In a wider sense interjections, vocatives, and parenthetic sentences are parentheticals. References Corum, C. 1975. A pragmatic analysis of parenthetic adjuncts. CLS 1. 133–44. Dictionary of language and linguistics 862 Emonds, J. 1974. Parenthetical clauses. In C.Rohrer and N.Ruwet (eds), Actes du colloque FrancoAllemand de grammaire transformationelle. Tübingen. Vol. I, 192–205. parenthetical verbs Class of verbs (such as to assume, to suspect) whose use leads to polysemic utterances: I assume that he’s coming today can be interpreted either as a ‘suspicion’ or as a ‘(cautious) statement’; the latter is a case of parenthetic use. ( also sentence adverbial) Reference Urmson, J.O. 1952. Parenthetical verbs. Mind 61. 192–212. parisyllabic word [Lat. par ‘equal’] A word which has the same number of syllables in all inflectional forms of the singular and plural (e.g. tree—trees). Words which have a different number of syllables in some paradigmatic positions are termed imparisyllabic words, (e.g. house—houses). parole langue vs parole, performance paronomasia pun paronymy [Grk ónyma ‘name’] 1 Phonic similarity between two expressions from different languages, e.g. Eng. summer and Ger. Sommer. A-Z 863 2 In word formation, obsolete term for derivations of the same word stem: work, worker, workable. paroxytone In Greek, a word which carries penultimate stress: analogía ‘analogy.’ parser Computer programs for syntactic analyses ( parsing2). parsing 1 Description of the syntactic structure of sentences using elementary units such as morphemes, words, phrases and their mutual interrelationships. The goals and methods of parsing are dependent on the grammatical theory in question. Thus the point of departure for parsing in traditional grammar is the relationship of subject to predicate; in structural linguistics, the breaking down of sentences into their immediate constituents; in dependency grammar, the dependency relationships of the individual elements of the sentence to the verb; and in communicativegrammar approach, the relationship between previously known and new information ( theme vs rheme, functional sentence perspective). On processes of parsing, operational procedures. 2 Machine-aided syntactic analysis of language for checking whether a particular word chain (e.g. a sentence) corresponds to the rules of a particular (formal or natural) language. If this is the case, then a representation of the syntactic (and/or semantic) structure (e.g., as a phrase structure diagram) for the word chain is produced. The linguistic basis of parsing may consist of very distinct grammar formalisms (or conceptual structures) such as Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (GPSG), Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG), and the like. Also, the parsing strategy (the application of rules) may vary: ‘top-down’ (from the sentence node to the terminal symbols) or ‘bottom-up’ (from the terminal symbols to the sentence node); alternatively, the parser can seek to satisfy a rule hypothesis until it can go no further (‘depth first’) or at every point first check all possibilities (‘breadth first’), every strategy or combination of partial strategies having its advantages and disadvantages. Lexical and structural ambiguity is a main cause of difficulties in parsing natural language utterances. Computer Dictionary of language and linguistics 864 programs for syntactic analysis are called ‘parsers.’ These are employed in machinealso ATN grammar, chart, aided translation, dialogue systems, and the like. ( definite clause grammar) References Aho, A. and J.D.Ullman. 1972. The theory of parsing, translation, and compiling, vol. 1: Parsing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Altmann, G., (ed.) 1989. Parsing and interpretation. Special issue of Language and Cognitive Processes, vol. 4. Hove and London. Berwick. R.C., S.P.Abney and C.Tenny (eds) 1991. Principle-based parsing. Dordrecht. Dowty, D., L.Karttunen, and A.Zwicky (eds) 1985. Natural language parsing. Cambridge. Earley, J. 1970. An efficient context-free parsing algorithm. Communications of the ACM 6. 94– 102. Kaplan, R. 1973. A general syntactic processor. In R. Rustin (ed.), Natural language processing. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Kay, M. 1982. Algorithm schemata and data structures in syntactic processing. In S.Allen (ed.), Text processing. Stockholm. 327–58. King, M. (ed.) 1983. Parsing natural language. London. Marcus, M. 1980. A theory of syntactic recognition for natural language. Cambridge, MA. Reyle, U. and C.Rohrer (eds) 1988. Natural language parsing and linguistic theories, London. Small, S. and C.Rieger. 1982. Parsing and comprehending with word experts. In W.G.Lehnert and M.H.Ringle (eds), Strategies for natural language processing. London. 89–147. Thompson, H. and G.Ritchie. 1984. Implementing natural language parsers. In T.O’Shea and M. Eisenstadt (eds), Artificial Intelligence: tools, techniques and applications. New York. 245–300. Tomita, M. (ed.) 1991. Current issues in parsing technology. Boston and Dordrecht. Vincenzi, M. de. 1991. Syntactic parsing strategies in Italian: the minimal chain principle. Dordrecht. Winograd, T. 1983. Language as a cognitive process, vol. 1: Syntax. Reading, MA. part of speech Result of the classification of the words of a given language according to form and meaning criteria. Such classifications reach back into antiquity. Because of the different classificatory approaches, the number of parts of speech in the various grammars varies between two and fifteen. The two classes of ‘ónoma’ (=names; nouns) and (=statements; verbs) of Plato are the result of a logical syntactic analysis ( argument, predicate) and represent both noun and subject as well as verb and predicate, respectively. Aristotle added a third group to these two parts of speech, the group of ‘indeclinables.’ Our current classification is based primarily on the teachings of the grammarian Dionsyios Thrax (first century BC), who proposed eight parts of speech: noun, verb, adjective, article, pronoun, preposition, adverb, and conjunction. In principle, all such divisions have as their basis the following three considerations, whose emphasis or A-Z 865 lack thereof is the cause for the diverging analyses of many grammarians: (a) morphology: the distinction between inflected (noun, adjective, verb, pronoun) and noninflected (adverb, conjunction, preposition) words; (b) syntax: for example, the ability to modify nominal or verbal elements (adjective vs adverb), to take an article (noun vs pronoun), to require a certain case of nouns or pronouns through government (preposition vs conjunction); (c) semantics: conceptualcategorial aspects—the three basic parts of speech, noun, adjective and verb, are based on the logical categories ‘substance,’ ‘property,’ and ‘process,’ while conjunctions and prepositions are based on the category ‘relation.’ Most of the criticism of parts of speech is directed at the unevenness of the classificatory criteria, which are partially contradictory or overlapping, for example, the numerals, which on the basis of common lexical features (= terms for numbers and quantities) form an independent group, while the individual representatives behave syntactically as nouns (thousands of people), adjectives (one book), indefinite pronouns (many), or adverbs (He called twice). In addition, words can change historically from one category to another through conversion. It must be remembered that words which sound the same due to homophony must often be assigned to different parts of speech according to usage, e.g. sound, which can occur as a noun (a loud sound), a verb (to sound like…), and an adjective (a sound reason). In generative transformational grammar, the classification follows distributional criteria: all linguistic units which are interchangeable in the deep structure for the same lexical constituent belong to the same category. In categorial grammar, however, only the nouns form an independent category, all other categories being defined according to the way and manner they, combined with nouns, form sentences. References Magnusson, R. 1954. Studies in the theory of the parts of speech. Lund. Shopen, T. (ed.) 1985. Language typology and syntactic description, vol. 3: Grammatical categories and the lexicon. Cambridge. part-whole relation (also partonymy relation) Semantic relation between linguistic expressions that designates the relation of a part to the whole or possessive relations: A possesses B. The part-whole relation is very similar to inclusion. Like true inclusion, it is asymmetric; but unlike inclusion, it is not transitive, e.g. An arm has a hand and A hand has five fingers, but not *An arm has five fingers ( symmetrical relation, transitive relation). Selection restrictions between certain verbs (have, possess) and different noun classes (A cat has a long tail, but not *A long tail has a cat) cannot be described in componential analysis with binary features, but rather only with relational features. Dictionary of language and linguistics 866 References Bendix, E.H. 1966. Componential analysis of general vocabulary: the semantic structure of a set of verbs in English, Hindi, and Japanese. The Hague. Bierwisch, M. 1965. Eine Hierarchie syntaktischsemantischer Merkmale. Stgr 5.29–86. Cruse, D.A. 1979. On the transitivity of the part-whole relation. JL 15. 29–38. Kiefer, F. 1966. Some semantic relations in natural language. FL 2. 228–40. Parthian Iranian participial construction Non-finite sentential expression composed of a participle and modifiers: Demoralized by so many failures, he finally gave up. Participial constructions can function semantically as temporal, modal, or causal complements, as well as attributes. They can be paraphrased ( paraphrase) by corresponding subordinate clauses. participle [Lat. particeps ‘having a share in, participating’] Non-finite verb form, in English the present participle and past participle: doing vs done. Participles have properties of both nouns and verbs. In keeping with their verbal character, participles govern objects and give temporal and aspectual information ( tense, aspect). The present participle designates the course of a process, while the past participle describes its result or effect(s). In addition, participles serve to form compound tenses (He has come, He was coming); the past participle is also used in forming passives (The book was written). Nominal features are: (a) it can be declined as an adjective in some l anguages; (b) it forms antonyms,e.g. fitting vs unfitting, satisfied vs dissatisfied; (c) it forms compounds, such as farreaching, near-sighted; (d) it can be used both attributively and predicatively, e.g. a much-read book vs The book is much read; (e) it is used in forming gerunds, e.g. reading books is good for you. A-Z 867 particle [Lat. particula ‘small part’] (also function/structural word) 1 Wide-reaching term, including all indeclinable word classes such as adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions and other particle classes such as scalar particles, discourse markers, modal particles, negation, interjections. 2 In a narrower sense: all invariant words which are not adverbs, conjunctions or prepositions, i.e. scalar particles, discourse markers, modal particles and interjections. They have weak lexical meaning and are ambiguous; a characteristic is the overlapping of the individual functions. ( also modal particle) References Dikken, M. den 1995. Particles. On the syntax of the verb-particle, triadic and causative constructions. Oxford. discourse marker, interjection, modal particle, scalar particle Bibliography Weydt, H. 1987. Partikel-Bibliographie: internationale Sprachenforschung zu Partikeln und Interjektionen. Frankfurt. partitive Morphological case in some languages (e.g. Finnish) which expresses ‘a part of; e.g. eat a fish vs eat some fish. The partitive is often expressed with the genitive case and can also take on a number of other meanings and functions. References case Dictionary of language and linguistics partonymy relation 868 part-whole relation Pashto Iranian language in Afghanistan and Pakistan (about 10 million speakers), official language of Afghanistan. Characteristics: phonologically and morphologically more complicated than Persian, structured ergatively ( ergative language) in the preterite. Word order: strictly SOV. References Lorenz, M. 1979. Lehrbuch des Pashto (Afghanisch). Leipzig. Lorimer, D.L.R. 1915. A syntax of colloquial Pashto. Oxford. Penzl, H. 1955. A grammar of Pashto. Washington, DC. Shafeev, D.A. 1964. A short grammatical outline of Pashto. Bloomington, IN and The Hague. (=IJAL 30:3, pub. 33.) Etymological dictionary Morgenstierne, G. 1927. An etymological vocabulary of Pashto. Oslo. Iranian passive Verbal voice contrasting with the active and in some languages the middle voice. Passive constructions describe the action expressed by the verb semantically from the point of view of the patient or another non-agentive semantic role. In this process the valence of the verb when used actively is usually changed: the subject becomes a prepositional object, usually optional, and an object, usually the direct object, becomes the subject: A neighbor saw the robber; The robber was seen by a neighbor. The passive is not the basic, or unmarked voice, as it is morphosyntactically the more complex construction (the passive is usually formed by specific auxiliaries or verb affixes) and is also subject to certain restrictions. The restrictions for forming the passive depend on the language; in English, for example, middle verbs (cost, weigh) as well as sentences with cognate objects (He died a cruel death vs *A cruel death was died by him) cannot form passives. A-Z 869 References middle voice, voice passive articulator place of articulation1 passive transformation voice past perfect (also pluperfect) Verbal tense formed in English with had+past participle. In some uses the past perfect indicates the end point of an event in the past (Caroline had finally achieved her goal). In complex sentences the past perfect is used as a relative tense which marks anteriority of an event relative to another event that was completed in the past: When we got to the station, the train had already departed. ( also sequence of tenses) References tense past tense imperfect, preterite patient [Lat. patiens ‘bearing, suffering’] Semantic role ( thematic relation) of elements which are affected by the action of the verb, in contrast to the agent, which is the performer of the action. In nominative languages such as English, the patient is usually marked as the direct object. ( also case grammar) Dictionary of language and linguistics 870 References case grammar patois 1 In French, term for a non-written regional dialect that is restricted to the most narrow social occasions. 2 Designation for a mixture of a regional dialect and standard language usually found in rural areas. PATR (acronym for parsing and translation) A grammatical formalism in generative grammar from the family of unification grammars. PATR was created and first used by Shieber as a computer language for the development of unification grammar. Context-free phrase structures and feature structures are kept distinct in the syntactic representations and rules. PATR is the simplest of the formalisms in unification grammar and is often used. References Hirsch, S. 1988. P-PATR: a compiler for Unificationbased Grammars. In V.Dahl and P.SaintDizier (eds), Natural language understanding and logic programming. Amsterdam. 63–78. Karttunen, L. 1986. D-PATR: a development environment for Unification-based Grammars. COLING 86. 74–80. Shieber, S.M. 1984. The design of a computer language for linguistic information. COLING 84. 362–6. ——et al. 1983. The formalism and implementation of PATR-II. Research on interactive acquisition and use of knowledge. SRI International. Menlo Park, CA. 39–79. A-Z 871 PATR-II pattern drill PATR pattern practice pattern practice (also pattern drill) In foreign-language instruction, especially in the audio-lingual method, a short sample text (usually a sentence) that is changed by inserting other words or grammatical elements. This type of language exercise, which is based on imitation and analogy, is believed to lead to the development of syntagmatic habits. paucalis [Lat. pauci ‘few’] Subcategory of number for indicating a small number of objects, e.g. in Arabic. pause 1 Brief interruption of the articulatory process between consecutive linguistic units such as sounds, syllables, morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences. Pauses are suprasegmental features. ( also intonation) 2 interruption Dictionary of language and linguistics p-Celtic PDA 872 Celtic push-down automaton peak nucleus2 pedagogical grammar Grammatical textbook or handbook for students or teachers of language that presents the grammar (usually prescriptive grammar) in a pedagogically based approach. Such handbooks are characterized above all by the selection of specific grammar items which are introduced in the form of an outline and are accompanied by explanatory notes on grammatical forms and usage. References Engels, L.K. 1977. Pedagogical grammars. Trier. Leitner, G. (ed.) 1986. The English reference grammar. Tübingen. pejorative [Lat. peior, used as comparative of malus ‘bad’] Semantic characteristic of linguistic expressions which invoke negative connotations: such derogatory meaning components can be created by new formations (e.g. wet-backs for ‘illegal Mexican immigrants’), by meaning change, (e.g. dame, originally ‘(noble) lady’), as well as by prefixes such as mal-, pseudo-. A-Z 873 Pennsylvania Dutch Language variety in North America based on Middle German dialects, spoken today by approx. 700,000 descendants of German immigrants who came to America in the eighteenth century from the Rhine valley and the Palatinate. It is used as the colloquial and ritual language, but also as the spoken and written poetic language. The American term Dutch is an incorrect rendering of deutsch ‘German’; it has nothing to do with Dutch as the name for the language spoken in the Netherlands. Reference Enninger, W. et al. (eds) 1986–9. Studies of the languages and the verbal behavior of the Pennsylvania Germans, 2 vols. Göttingen. penthouse principle A syntactic principle formulated by Ross (1973) and based on the theory that ‘more goes on upstairs than downstairs.’ It states that there can be syntactic processes which only occur in main clauses ( root transformation), but none which only occur in subordinate clauses. Reference Ross, J.R. 1973. The penthouse principle and the order of constituents. In C.Corum, T.C.SmithStark, and A.Weiser (eds), You take the high node and I’ll take the low node: papers from the comparative syntax festival. The differences between main and subordinate clauses. Chicago, IL. 397–422. transformational grammar penultimate The second to last syllable of a word. Dictionary of language and linguistics 874 Penutian Language group of North America whose reconstruction is still debated. In total there are over a dozen highly diversified languages, (Tsimshian, Chinookan, Takelma-Kalapuyan, Alsea, Siuslaw, Coosan, Sahaptian, Klamath, Molala, Maiduan, Wintuan, Yokuts, MiwokCostanoan, Zuni), few of which have more than 2,000 speakers; the largest language groups are Tsimshian in British Columbia and Sahaptian in Oregon and Washington state. Macro-Penutian is a substantially larger group which also includes the Gulf languages and the Central American languages such as Mayan. Characteristics: complex consonant system, typically with a series of glottalized plosives; implosives also occur. Vowel harmony. Rich case system, often ergative, complex verbs (derivation, voices, aspect, and mood markers, but rarely agreement). Morphological type: inflectional, reduplication, and root inflection sometimes occur. Relatively free word order. Occasionally dual forms in the pronominal system, noun classes. References Barber, M.A.R. 1964. Klamath grammar. Berkeley, CA. Barker, M.A. 1981. Klamath grammar. Berkeley, CA. Buckley, E. 1987. Coast Oregon Penutian: a lexical comparison. In Papers from the third Annual Pacific Linguistics Conference. Eugene, OR. Delancey, S. 1987. Klamath and Wintu pronouns. IJAL 53. 461–4. ——et al. 1987. Some Sahaptian-KlamathTsimshianic lexical sets. In W.Shipley (ed.), In honor of Mary Haas: from the Haas festival conference on Native American linguistics. Berlin and New York. 195–224. Dunn, J.E. 1979. A reference grammar for the Coast Tsimshian languages. Ottawa. Gamble, G. 1978. Wikchamni grammar. Berkeley, CA. Hinton, L. 1994. Flutes of fire: essays on California Indian languages. Berkeley, CA. Hymes, D.H. 1955. The language of the Kathlamet Chinook. Dissertation, Indiana University. ——1957. Some Penutian elements and the Penu- tian hypothesis. SJA 13. 69–87. Liedtke, S. 1994a. Penutian cognate sets. LDDS 4. ——1994b. Penutian, Mayan and Quechua. LDDS 10. Pitkin, H. 1984. Wintu grammar. Berkeley, CA. Shipley, W.E. 1964. Maidu grammar. Berkeley, CA. Silverstein, M. 1979. Penutian: an assessment. In L. Campbell and M.Mithun (eds), The languages of native America: historical and comparative assessment. Austin, TX. 650–91. Swadesh, M. 1956. Problems of long-range comparison in Penutian. Lg 32. 17–41. Dictionary Callaghan, C.A. 1987. Northern Sierra Miwok dictionary. Berkeley, CA. A-Z 875 Bibliography Golla, V. (to appear 1995). Penutian linguistic studies: a bibliography. IJAL. perception theory Phonetic study of the processes and conditions of speech perception ( phonetics, motor theory of speech perception). acoustic References Pisoni, D. and P.A.Luce. 1986. Speech perception: research, theory and the principal issues. In E. Schwab and H.Nusbaum (eds), Pattern recognition by humans and machines. Orlando, FL. Vol. 1, 1–50. phonetics percolate [Lat. percolare ‘to put through a filter, strain’] A term from X-bar theory which expresses the agreement of the morphosyntactic or semantic features of a phrase with the corresponding features of its lexical head. For example, in the phrase the delicious cream doughnuts, the feature [+plural] percolates or ‘drips down’ from the NP-node through the non-maximal projection of N, delicious cream doughnuts, and on to the lexical head, doughnuts, where it is realized phonologically as the inflected form, i.e. by -s. Many different formal mechanisms have been suggested for the percolation of individual features, cf. Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar, Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. References X-bar theory Dictionary of language and linguistics 876 perfect 1 Term for a verbal category linked to tense and aspect. 2 (also present perfect) In English, the perfect is formed with the auxiliary have and the past participle of the main verb and denotes an action as having begun in the past, but extending up to the present (either as a continuing process or in repetition): I have lived here all my life; She has given ten lectures this month; or some result of which is relevant to the present: She has just taken her exam (and is now waiting for the results). In American English, there is the tendency to use the simple past instead of the present perfect. References Dik, S. 1989. The theory of functional grammar, part I: The structure of the clause. Dordrecht. Fenn, P. 1987. A semantic and pragmatic examination of the English perfect. Tübingen. McCoard, R.W. 1978. The English perfect: tense-choice and pragmatic inferences. Amsterdam. Michaelis, L.A. 1994. The ambiguity of the English present perfect. JL 30. 111–57. Quirk, R. et al. 1985. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London. aspect, tense perfective imperfective vs perfective performance Chomsky’s term for the concrete individual linguistic event. Performance is based on the notion of competence as the intuitive knowledge of the ideal speaker/listener about the regularities of the language. The term ‘performance’ overlaps with de Saussure’s term parole to a great extent. ( competence vs performance, langue vs parole) References competence vs performance A-Z 877 performative analysis Hypothesis developed by Ross (1968) to describe illocutionary forces within the framework of transformational grammar. On the basis of syntactic observations of declarative sentences, Ross attempted to derive all sentences from a unified deep structure that had one performative sentence as a matrix sentence (hypersentence), consisting of a subject (=first person)+a performative verb+an indirect object (=second person); the performative sentence, if need be, would be eliminated via deletion rules in the subsequent derivation of the uttered sentence. However, since the identity of speaker, addressee, and illocutionary force are dependent upon the given utterance situation, the performative analysis constitutes an (inadequate) syntacticization of pragmatic phe nomena. For criticism of the performative analysis cf. Gazdar (1979). Sadock (1985) and McCawley (1985) have recently attempted to salvage the performative analysis, at least in part. References Boer, S.E. and W.G.Lycan. 1980. A performadox in truth-conditional semantics. Ling&P 4. 71– 100. Fraser, B. 1974. An examinationof the performative analysis. PIL 7. 1–40. Gazdar, G. 1979. Pragmatics: implicature, presupposition, and logical form. New York. Lakoff, R. 1972. Language in context. Language 48. 907–27. McCawley, J.D. 1985. What price the performative analysis? University of Chicago Working Papers in Linguistics. 1. 43–64. Ross, J.R. 1968. On declarative sentences. In R.A. Jacobs and P.A.Rosenbaum (eds), Readings in English transformational grammar. Waltham, MA. 222–72. Sadock, J.M. 1968. Hypersentences. Dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana. ——1974. Toward a linguistic theory of speech acts. New York. ——1985. On the performadox. or a semantic defense of the performative hypothesis. University of Chicago Working Papers in Linguistics 1. 160–9. Dictionary of language and linguistics 878 performative antinomy Performative antinomies are the illocutionary counterparts to the propositional (semantic) antinomy in the liar’s statement: This statement is false, which is true only if it is false. Analogously, an order like Don’t obey this order is obeyed if and only if it is not obeyed. ( also double-bind theory) References Lakoff, G. 1972. Performative antinomies. FL 8. 569–72. Vanderveken. D. 1980. Illocutionary logic and self-defeating speech acts. In J.R.Searle, F.Kiefer. and M.Bierwisch (eds), Speech-act theory and prag-matics. Dordrecht. 247–72. performative utterance J.L.Austin’s term which, in the first stage of his speech act theory, refers to utterances in the uttering of which, in appropriate circumstances, one performs particular actions. Performatives contrast with constative utterances, which describe actions or states. In developing his speech act theory further, Austin downplayed this distinction of two different utterance types in favor of a distinction between two different aspects of speech acts, the locutionary and illocutionary. The original distinction between performative and constative became increasingly problematic as Austin began to present all utterances as performative utterances in some respect or other. However, the distinction between (a) implicit (or primary or primitive) performative utterances and (b) explicit performative utterances remains. With the primary (implicit) utterance of you’re mistaken, one can just as easily assert that the addressee is mistaken as with the explicit utterance of I assert that you’re mistaken. Primary performative utterances in general have no lexical illocutionary indicators ( illocution); in contrast, explicit performative utterances usually have the form of a matrix sentence with a performative verb in the first person present indicative, an indirect object denoting the addressee, and an embedded sentence. The self-reference of the explicit performative utterance can be highlighted by insertion of hereby: I (hereby) christen this ship the ‘Queen Mary.’ References Austin, J.L. 1963. Performative—constative. In C.E. Caton (ed.) Philosophy and ordinary language. Urbana, IL. 22–54. speech act theory A-Z 879 performative verb Semantically and pragmatically defined class of verbs (e.g. to promise, to command, to christen, to swear, among others), the use of which in explicitly performative utterances causes precisely that action to be carried out that is expressed by the particular verb. Performative verbs are distinguished from perlocutive verbs such as to provoke, to convince, to humble, which cannot be used performatively (I hereby convince you to vote democratic) and instead describe reactions partly under the control of the addressee. Not all illocutionary verbs, that is, verbs that denote illocutions, are performative verbs. For example, to threaten is an illocutionary, but not a performative verb. This distinction is supported by the fact that only performative verbs can be used with hereby. I hereby promise you that…vs *I hereby threaten you that…. References Vanderveken, D. 1990–1. Meaning and speech acts, 2 vols. Cambridge. performative analysis, pragmatics, speech act theory peripheral compact vs diffuse periphrasis [Grk periphrasis ‘circumlocution’] Substitution of more words for fewer. In periphrasis a word is replaced by an expanded and more colorful expression for the purpose of linguistic variation, accentuation, or explanation, e.g. Berlin was ‘the divided city,’ Ireland is ‘the Emerald Isle.’ Definition is a special type of periphrasis. periphrastic verb forms Term from Latin grammar for verb forms that are not strictly morphological, but include additional ‘helping verbs’ (auxiliaries). Latin has at least two formations, the supine (laudaturus sum ‘I am about to praise’) and the gerundive (laborandum est ‘one must Dictionary of language and linguistics 880 work’). In English virtually all tenses are formed periphrastically, the only synthetic (=non-periphrastic) tenses being the present and the simple past (I am, I was vs I have been, I will be). perispomenon [Grk perispōménos, participle of ‘pronounce with a circumflex accent’] In Greek, a word with circumflex accent, presumably reflecting a rise-fall intonation on the last syllable, e.g. ‘I love.’ ( also properispomenon) perlocution [Lat. per- ‘through,’ loqui ‘to talk, speak’] In speech act theory, an aspect of speech acts that includes the causal effects (intentionally) brought about by a speaker by way of his/her utterance. Perlocut ionary acts consist in achieving effects in the hearer through the performance of an illocutionary act, for example, in cheering someone up by asserting that he/she did an excellent job. Just what perlocutionary effects are achieved, in the uttering of a particular illocution in context, may vary widely in differing circumstances. References speech act theory A-Z Permic 881 Finno-Ugric permutation [Lat. permutare ‘to exchange’] 1 Generally, the reordering of constituents. In the framework of generative operational procedures) transformational grammar, a formal two-step operation ( by which an element is placed in another position via substitution, and then deleted in its original position. References transformational grammar 2 In word order and linear syntax. term for reordering processes such as extraposition and topicalization. References word order permutation transformation transformation perseverative assimilation movement assimilation Persian (also Farsi) Largest Iranian language (about 50 million speakers), official language of Iran, in addition approx. 5 million speakers in Afghanistan (Dari dialect) and 2.2 million speakers in Tajikistan. Modern Persian, of which the first documentation occurs in the eighth century, is not a direct descendant of a Middle Iranian dialect. The lexicon was strongly Dictionary of language and linguistics 882 influenced by Arabic. Around AD 1300 a supraregional standard (Classical Persian) developed with a comprehensive literature; it was the court language of both the Ottoman Empire and northern India (Mogul Dynasty). Arabic script is used with a few additional characters. Characteristics: relatively simple sound system. Morphology: the Indo-European nominal and verbal inflection was almost completely lost and replaced by analytical constructions and enclitic pronouns. Differential object marking (marking of specific objects). Nominal syntagms can consist of the structure modifier—head—modifier. The modifier following the head is linked to it with an e, the so-called ezāfe: īn mīz-e-bozorg ‘this big table.’ Word order: SOV. References Towhīdī, J. 1974. Studies in the phonetics and phonology of modern Persian. Hamburg. Windfuhr, G.L. 1979. Persian grammar: history and state of its study. The Hague. Grammars Bātenī, M.R. 1370 (=1991). Towsīfe saxtemāne dasturīe zabāne fārsī. 4th edn. Tehran. Boyle, J.A. 1966. Grammar of modern Persian. Wiesbaden. Clair-Tisdall, W.S. 1923. Modern Persian conversa-tion grammar. London. Lambton, A.K.S. 1986. Persian grammar. Reissue (with corrections and repagination). Cambridge. Lazard, G. 1957. Grammaire du persan contempor-ain. Paris. Rastorgueva, V.S. 1963. A short sketch of Tajik grammar. Transl. and ed. by H.H.Paper. IJAL Part II. (Repr. Bloomington. IN 1992). ——1964. A short sketch of the grammar of Persian. Bloomington. IN and The Hague. (=IJAL 30:1. pub. 29.) Dictionaries Aryanpur Kashani, A. 1986. Combined new Persian—English and English-Persian dictionary. Lex-ington. Dekhodā, A.A. 1334/1962. Loghatnāme. Tehran. Haim, S. 1985. New Persian-English dictionary. 6th impr., 2 vols. Teheran. Hübschmann, H. 1895. Perische Studien. Straßburg (additions and corrections to Horn). Steingass, F. 1892. A comprehensive PersianEnglish dictionary. (8th impr. 1988.) London. Etymological dictionary Horn, P. 1893. Grundriss der neupersischen Etymologie. Strasburg. Iranian A-Z 883 person Morphological category of the verb used to mark the singular and plural finite verb forms as ‘speakers’ (first person), ‘addressees’ (second person), or a ‘person, state or thing’ referred to in the utterance (third person). In the first person plural, two different interpretations are possible: an inclusive interpretation, in which the speaker is included, and an exclusive interpretation, in which the speaker is not included. Some languages express this distinction morphologically ( inclusive vs exclusive). On different uses of pronominal form of address. forms of address, References personal pronoun, pronominal form of address person hierarchy Hierarchical ordering of the verbal categories of person which in some languages is important to the grammar. The typical hierarchy is first-second-third person (as in Guaraní); second-first-third also occurs (as in Algonquian). References hierarchy universal personal pronoun Subgroup of pronouns which refer to persons, either speakers (I, we), addressees (you) or other persons/things (he, she, it) ( inclusive vs exclusive). Three types of personal pronouns can be distinguished according to use: (a) anaphoric pronouns (=the antecedent precedes the pronoun): Philip is looking for his knife, which he desperately needs; (b) cataphoric pronouns (the antecedent follows the pronoun): Before she said anything, Caroline thought about it a long time; and (c) exophoric pronouns (the antecedent stands outside of the sentence): Caroline is glad that he is coming. The use of pronouns is subject to certain language-specific restrictions. Nevertheless, one general tendency is that pronouns cannot be used in the same clause as the antecedent they refer to; in such Dictionary of language and linguistics 884 situations, reflexive pronouns are used (e.g. Philip1 brushed *him1/himself1 off). In addition, personal pronouns (just as all pronouns in general) tend to follow their anaphora). so that cataphoric pronouns occur more rarely and are antecedents ( subject to greater restrictions than anaphoric pronouns. In older forms of transformational grammar, personal pronouns are derived from pronominalizing transformations which replace a noun phrase by a pronoun if both elements have identical reference. In more recent forms of transformational grammar personal pronouns are not handled by transformations, but rather by binding theory. References Bach, E. 1970. Problominalization. LingI 1. 121 ff. Ingram, D. 1978. Typology and universals of personal pronouns. In J.H.Greenberg et al. (eds), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. 213–47. Jackendoff, R.S. 1972. Semantic interpretation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. Kreimann, J. and A.E.Ojeda (eds) 1980. Papers from the parasession on pronouns and anaphora of the Chicago Linguistic Society. Chicago, IL. Langacker, R. 1966. On pronominalization and the chain of command. Repr. in D.A.Reibel and S.A. Schane (eds), Modern studies in English: readings in transformational grammar. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969. 160–87. Lasnik, H. 1976. Remarks on coreference. LingA 2. 1–22. Partee, B.H. 1970. Opacity, reference and pronouns. Synthese 21. 359–85. Postal, P.M. 1971. Cross-over phenomena: a study in the grammar of coreference. New York. ——1972. A global constraint on pronominalization. LingI 3. 35–60. Ross, J.R. 1967. On the cyclic nature of English pronominalization. Repr. in D.A.Reibel and S.A. Schane (eds), Modern studies in English: readings in transformational grammar. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1969. 187–200. anaphora, binding theory, reflexive pronoun persuasive A term from rhetoric for a communicative act in which the listener is convinced to relinquish one opinion and to adopt another against his/her real or supposed resistance. The spectrum of persuasive speech extends from argumentative discourse and legal defence to advertising and political propaganda. In accordance with its appellative intention ( text function), persuasive speaking is carefully planned and characterized by the most effective employment of linguistic means possible. ( advertising language, mass communication) References Brown, J.A.C. 1963. Techniques of persuasion. Harmondsworth. A-Z 885 Chase, S. 1954. The power of words. New York. Hawthorn, J. (ed.) 1987. Propaganda, persuasion and polemic. London. Hovland, C.J. et al. 1953. Communication and persuasion. New Haven, CT. Mey, J.L. 1985. Whose language? A study in linguistic pragmatics. Amsterdam. Mulholland, J. 1994. A handbook of persuasive tactics. London. Sandell, R. 1977. Linguistic style and persuasion. New York. Stevenson, C.L. 1944. Ethics and language. New Haven, CT. rhetoric pharyngeal [Grk phárynx ‘throat’] Speech sound classified according to its place of articulation (pharynx). Because of limitations to moving the pharynx, there are generally only two pharyngeals: the fricatives [ħ] and . Both occur in Arabic: ‘henna,’ ‘Jesus.’ ( also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics pharyngeal dysglossia pharyngealization dysglossia secondary articulation pharynx Chamber located between the root of the tongue and the back of the throat and between the larynx and the nasal cavity. Dictionary of language and linguistics 886 phatic act [Grk phátis ‘speech’] In J.L.Austin’s speech act theory, a phatic act consists in the production of words and strings of words in a particular construction with a particular intonation. Together with the phonetic act (=utterance of speech sounds) and the rhetic act (=use of words with a certain meaning, i.e. a certain sense and a certain reference), the phatic a ct is subsumed under the locutionary act (locution). References speech act theory phatic communion B.Malinowski’s term for communicative acts that fulfill an exclusively social function, that is, acts that serve to confirm ‘ties of union,’ such as the more or less formal inquiry about one’s health, remarks about the weather, or comments about trivial matters. References Laver, J. 1975. Communicative functions of phatic communion. In A.Kendon et al. (eds). Organization of behaviour in face-to-face interaction. The Hague and Paris. 215–38. Malinowski, B. 1923. The problem of meaning in primitive languages. In C.K.Ogden and I.A. Richards. The meaning of meaning (appendix). London. 296–336. Schneider, K. 1988. Small talk: analyzing phatic discourse. Marburg. phenotype [Grk phainómenon ‘that which appears’] Term which S.Šaumjan took from the study of inheritance and applied to semiotics. The term ‘phenotype’ refers to any outward manifestation of natural language that can be measured by empirical observation. This concrete linear linking of linguistic expressions is governed by correspondence rules with the genotype, the ideal, universal linguistic level which underlies all phenotypes. ( also applicational-generative model) A-Z 887 References applicational-generative model philosophical grammar general grammar philosophy of language In the framework of philosophy, a multitude of approaches and directions that are concerned with questions on the origin, characteristics, way of functioning and achievement of language. For the solution of the predominantly interdisciplinary problems logical, psychological, linguistic, biological, sociological, and other investigations and insights need to be taken into account. A central question of contemporary language philosophy is the connection between philosophical insight and knowledge on the one hand and the form and structure of language on the other, as was discussed especially in ‘Analytical Philosophy,’ with its interest in logical analysis. ( language criticism, ordinary language philosophy, origin of language) References Black, M. 1949. Language and philosophy. Ithaca, NY. Borgmann, A. 1974. The philosophy of language. The Hague. Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. Coseriu, E. 1969. Die Geschichte der Sprachphilosophie von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart, 2 vols. Tübingen. Dascal, M. et al. (eds) 1992/3. Philosophy of language: an international handbook of contemporary research. Vol. 1. Berlin and New York. Gabbay, D. and F.Guenthner (eds) 1989. Handbook of philosophical logic, vol. 4: Topics in the philosophy of language. Dordrecht. Grewendorf, G. and G.Meggle (eds) 1974. Linguistik und Philosophie. Frankfurt. Heintel, E. 1975. Einführung in die Sprachphilosophie. Darmstadt. Jespersen, O. 1925. The philosophy of language. London. Meulen, A.ter. 1988. Linguistics and the philosophy of language. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. I, 430–46. Rorty, R. 1967. Linguistic turn. Chicago, IL. Searle, J.R. (ed.) 1971. The philosophy of language. Oxford. Stegmüller, W. 1969. Hauptströmungen der Gegenwartsphilosophie, vol. 1. Stuttgart (7th rev. edn 1989.) Tugendhat, E. 1976. Einführung in die sprachanalytische Philosophie. Frankfurt. Dictionary of language and linguistics Phoenician phonation [Grk 888 Semitic ‘sound; voice’] One of four processes involved in the formation of speech sounds that refers to the different positions of the vocal cords and glottis. Five different positions play a role in voiced vs voiceless); (b) the vocal phonation: (a) the glottis is open in voicelessness ( cords form a crevasse and vibrate with normal voicing; (c) when whispering quietly, the vocal cords are tightly constricted in the front and form a crevasse in the back; with laryngeal sounds there is added vibration; (d) in murmuring, the vocal cords are not constricted and they vibrate; and, as in loud whispering, they form a triangle; (e) if the glottis is closed, there is no phonation. A glottal stop is achieved by closing and reopening the glottis. Different pitches are produced by vibrating the vocal cords. Some think that accent ( stress2) is brought about by varying the pressure of the pulmonic air; differences in quality are caused by varying the duration of the sound formation ( intonation, quantity). References phonetics phone 1 In acoustic phonetics, unit for measuring subjectively perceived volume that corresponds to 1,000 Hertz on a scale of normal sound. 2 (also segment, speech sound) In phonology, the smallest phonetic unit uncovered through segmentation of a spoken language (parole, langue vs parole) that has not yet been classified as a representative of a particular phoneme. Phones are notated in brackets: [fo:n]. A-Z 889 phoneme 1 Since the end of the nineteenth century, term used to denote the smallest sound units that can be segmented from the acoustic flow of speech and which can function as semantically distinctive units (notation: phonetic symbol between slashes, e.g. /a/). The inventory of phonemes in a given language can be determined by: (a) finding minimal pairs, i.e. two words with different meanings that differ by a single phonetic element (e.g. /g/ vs/ /k/ in gap: cap, /m/ vs /t/ in map : tap); (b) using commutation tests to isolate the phonetic elements (e.g. [g, k, m, t]) as word-initial consonants through syntagmatic segmentation and identifying them as phonemes through paradigmatic classification based on their substitutability in otherwise similar environments. In other words, the fact that each of the four expressions has a different meaning is signaled alone by the different initial consonants. (c) Phonemes are, however, not the smallest units of phonetic description, for each phoneme represents a class of phonetically similar sound variants, the allophones, which cannot be contrastively substituted for each other, i.e. cannot stand in semantically distinctive opposition. These allophones may be realized coincidentally as independent variants unaffected by their phonetic environment ( free variation). If allophonic differences are phonotactic (i.e. conditioned according to their placement/environment), languagespecific, and in complementary distribution, then the allophones are said to be ‘combinatory variants.’ Such phonetic variants cannot be freely substituted for one another. (d) Phonemes can be represented as bundles of distinctive (i.e. phonologically relevant) features (e.g. /p/ as [+stop, +bilabial −voiced, −nasal]. From the large number of articulatory and acoustic characteristics theoretically available as distinctive features, each language takes only a small number. The various definitions of what constitutes a phoneme are by no means standard; rather, depending on the theoretical thrust and perspective, the following functional aspects are stressed in the analysis: in the Prague School the semantically distinctive function, and in American structuralism the distributional conditions and operational procedures required to ascertain phonemes. For a discussion of the concept of ‘phoneme’ in generative phonology, phonology. 2 A more recent use of ‘phoneme’ is essentially unrelated to that found in linguistic technical literature. In the production of artificial language, ‘phoneme operators’ are machines that produce speech sounds. During this production, the frequency and volume of individual sounds can be modified in very small increments. Because of the modifiability of these individual sounds, technicians speak of ‘phonemes,’ even though such ‘phonemes’ do not correspond to those in a phonetic class of articulatory phonetics. References phonology Dictionary of language and linguistics 890 phoneme analysis Process for determining the phonemes of a language, their characteristics, relations, and combinatory rules in the framework of a particular language theory. The proceedings of the Prague School (N.Trubetzkoy, R.Jakobson) are based on the functional aspect of phonemes and their characteristics as semantically distinctive elements of language and primarily on the analysis of their distinctive oppositions. American structuralism (principally L.Bloomfield, Z.S.Harris) attempts to determine the pho nemic inventory by establishing the possible environments in which phonemes occur. Regardless of divergences in the theoretical approaches, certain procedures are fundamental to any (structuralist) phonemic analysis: the smallest distinctive sound units are identified and classified according to their distribution and phonetic similarities to other phonemes through segmentation of the air stream and substitution of different phonemes. Substitution tests are performed on minimal pairs, e.g. [gæb] vs [kæb] vs [thæb]. Sound units that can be substituted in the same position but are semantically distinctive are identified as phonemes. Differences between relevant (=distinctive) and irrelevant (=redundant) features of phonemes of a language, their distribution in different positions (initial, medial, final), as well as the rules governing their possible combinations are determined by constantly refining the process of segmentation and classification. For a criticism of classical phoneme analysis, see Chomsky and Halle (1965). ( also allophone, distribution, neutralization, opposition, phonemic inventory, phonology) References Chomsky, N. and M.Halle. 1965. Some controversial questions in phonological theory. JL 1. 97– 138. phonology, Prague School phoneme distance Degree of relatedness between two or more phonemes based on the number of common or different distinctive features. All phonemes can be distinguished by at least one (acoustic or articulatory) feature. For details on the conceptual system developed by N.Trubetzkoy to describe the relationships, opposition. A-Z 891 References phonology phoneme system The overall pattern of characteristics and relationships of the phonemes in the phonemic inventory of a given language. The phonological characteristics of the phonemes and their allophones are described by articulatory or acoustic features, the interrelationships between phonemes through oppositions. References phonology phonemic feature distinctive feature phonemic inventory The set of phonemes of a given language as determined by a phonological analysis of that language. Every language takes a limited number of articulatory/acoustic features from a virtually unlimited number of possibilities. For most known languages the inventory contains thirteen to seventy-five phonemes (see Hockett 1958:93). The phonetic characteristics of individual members of the inventory are, as a rule, given through matrices showing articulatory or acoustic features. Jakobson and Halle (1956) have provided a universal phonemic inventory. References Hockett, C.F. 1958. A course in modern linguistics. New York. Maddieson, I. 1984. Patterns of sounds. Cambridge. Jakobson, R. and M.Halle. 1956. Fundamentals of language. The Hague. (2nd rev. edn 1975.) phonology Dictionary of language and linguistics 892 phonemic paraphasia aphasia, paraphasia phonemic script phonography2 phonemic theory phonology phonemic variant allophone phonemics 1 Synonym for phonology. 2 Because of the historical connotations that since the time of the Neogrammarians were attached to the term phonology, which today is used for synchronic and diachronic studies, ‘phonemics’ was first used by the American structuralists for ‘synchronic phonology.’ This designation was also meant to distinguish the American structuralist approach from that of the European structuralists, especially those of the Prague School. References phonology phonemization In diachronic phonology process and result of the development of a phonological variant ( allophone) into a phoneme. ( also sound change) A-Z 893 phonetic act In J.L.Austin’s speech act theory, the partial speech act that consists in the production of language sounds or complex sound forms. Together with the phatic act and the rhetic act, the phonetic act constitutes the locutionary act (locution). References speech act theory phonetic relationship (also phonetic similarity) Characteristic of sound variants that belong to one and the same phoneme. The phonetic relationship cannot be defined exactly operationally; rather, in many cases it requires intuition or is independent of differences in the language used to describe the sounds. A phonetic relationship in complementary distribution is, as a rule, a criterion for considering two sound variants as belonging to one and the same phoneme. References phonology Dictionary of language and linguistics phonetic similarity 894 phonetic relationship phonetic symbolism sound symbolism phonetic transcription A system of symbols used for the written notation of spoken language. A distinction must visible speech), as be drawn between non-alphabetic (=analphabetic) systems ( developed by A.M.Bell, O.Jespersen, and K.L.Pike, and alphabetic systems. Among the last group are most of the alphabets for phonetic transcription developed since the nineteenth century, which are mainly of historical value. The IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet) developed by the International Phonetic Association, which is now in widespread use, is based primarily on the Latin alphabet (see chart, p. xix). Additional letters from Greek, reversed letters, and newly developed letters and diacritics (such as those needed to indicate long vowels and consonants, nasalization, and so on) are also part of the alphabet. As in the transcriptional system of D. Jones (1914), a distinction is made with regard to the degree of differentiation between ‘narrow’ and ‘broad’ transcriptions (e.g. [thæp¬] is narrow and [tæp] is broad). More recently, some modified or expanded transcriptional alphabets have been designed for special needs based on the IPA.Pullum & Ladusaw (1986) offer a good overview; the phonetic transcriptions in this dictionary are based on the system outlined in their book. References International Phonetic Association. 1989. The principles of the International Phonetic Association. Jones, D. 1914. Outline of English phonetics. London. Kuglerkruse, M. 1985. Computer phonetic alphabet. Bochum. Ladefoged, P. 1990. The revised International Phonetic Alphabet. Language 66. 550–2. Passy, P. and D.Jones. 1921. L’Écriture phonétique internationale, 3rd edn. Cambridge. Pullum, G.K. and W.A.Ladusaw. 1986. Phonetic symbol guide. Chicago, IL. Bibliography Wellisch, H. 1975. Transcription and transliteration: an annotated bibliography on conversion of scripts. Silver Spring, MD. phonetics A-Z 895 phonetics Linguistic subdiscipline that studies the phonetic aspect of speech with regard to the following processes: (a) articulatory-genetic sound production ( articulatory acoustic phonetics); and (c) phonetics); (b) structure of the acoustic flow ( auditory phonetics). neurological-psychological processes involved in perception ( An understanding of anatomy, physiology, neurology, and physics is fundamental to these studies. In contrast to phonology, phonetics studies the concrete articulatory, acoustic, and auditory characteristics of all the possible sounds of all languages. Instrumental phonetics makes use of electronic equipment, whereas experimental phonetics involves empirical and experimental processes. References Abercrombie, D. 1966. Elements of general phonetics. Edinburgh. Asher, R.E. and E.J.A.Henderson (eds) 1981. Towards a history of phonetics. Edinburgh. Catford, J.C. 1988. A practical introduction to phonetics. Oxford. Clark, J. and C.Yallop. 1995. An introduction to phonetics and phonology. 2nd edn. Oxford. Jespersen, O. 1904. Lehrbuch der Phonetik. Leipzig. Jones, D. 1922. An outline of English phonetics, 2nd edn. Berlin. Knowles, G. 1987. Patterns of spoken English: an introduction to English phonetics. London. Ladefoged, P. 1971. Preliminaries to linguistic phonetics. Chicago, IL. ——1975. A course in phonetics. 3rd edn 1993. Fort Worth, TX and Philadelphia, PA. Laver, J. 1994. Principles of phonetics. Cambridge. MacMahon, M.K.C. 1990. Language as available sound: phonetics. In N.E.Collinge (ed.), An encyclopedia of language. London. 3–29. Pike, K.L. 1943. Phonetics. Ann Arbor, MI. Pompino-Marshall, B. 1992. Einführung in die Phonetik. Berlin and New York. Thomas, J.M.C., L.Bouquiaux, and F.CloarecHeiss. 1976. Initiation a la phonétique. Paris. Trask, R.L. 1995. A dictionary of phonetics and phonology. London. Bibliography Laver, J. 1979. Voice quality: a classified research bibliography. Amsterdam. Journal Zeitschrift für Phonetik, Sprachwissenschaft und Kommunikationsforschung. Dictionary of language and linguistics phonogram 896 phonography phonography 1 In experimental phonetics, the recording of spoken language by means of records and tapes (phonograms). 2 (also phonemic script) Writing system whose signs relate to phonological units. All alphabetic writing systems and syllabic scripts are phonographic; however, only alphabetic writing systems come close to a one-to-one correspondence between sound (phoneme) and written sign. Letters or letter clusters as well as syllabograms are called phonograms. The purest form of phonography is found in the IPA ( phonetic transcription) in which, as a rule, each sign corresponds to a single sound. References phonetic transcription, writing phonological component In generative phonology the set of rules that phonetically interpret the underlying phonological form of sentences. References phonological rule phonological disorder Type of developmental language disorder wherein the child has difficulty learning language-specific speech sound categories, but seems capable of producing the requisite phonetic forms. This type of disorder may or may not be accompanied by atypical development in other linguistic domains. It has recently been distinguished from non- A-Z 897 standard pronunciation patterns which result from a limited phonetic repertoire due to articulation disorder) structural or neural deficiencies. ( References Benthal, J. and N.Bankson. 1988. Articulation and phonological disorders. 2nd rev. edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Elbert, M. and J.Gierut. 1986. Handbook of clinical phonology. San Diego. CA. Grunwell, P. 1987. Clinical phonology. London. phonological rule In generative phonology, type of transforma-tional rule ( transformation) that transfers the phonological representation of sentences into the phonetic transcription. Phonological rules are in the form of: A→B/X_____Y, i.e. ‘replace segment A with element B in the environment of immediately following X and immediately preceding Y.’ ( also phonology, transformational grammar) References Anderson, S. 1974. The organization of phonology. New York. 51–62. Blomberger, S. and M.Halle. 1989. Why phonology is different. LingI 20. 51–70. phonologically conditioned In morphology, such morpheme variants ( allomorph) whose occurrence is determined by the phonological environment. For example, in American English e.g. . intervocalic [t] is pronounced as a flap References lexical phonology Dictionary of language and linguistics 898 phonological transcription A transcription of language on the basis of its phonologically relevant elements (notation: phonetic symbol between slashes), using symbols from the phonetic alphabet. In contrast with a phonetic transcription which indicates every perceivable (allophonic) distinction in sounds as accurately as possible, a phonological transcription is restricted to the linguistically significant differences, i.e. both allophones in free variation (such as the difference between a front trilled r [r] and a back trilled r in German) and in complementary distribution (e.g. aspirated voiceless vs non-aspirated voiceless stops in English) are indicated by the same phonetic symbol in the transcription. References phonetic transcription phonologization morphologization phonology (also phonemics, phonemic theory) Linguistic subdiscipline concerned with semantically relevant speech sounds ( phoneme). and their pertinent characteristics, relations, and systems viewed synchronically and diachronically. Today, the term ‘phonology’ is used in this broadly defined sense and is differentiated at the same time from phonetics as the scientific study of the material aspect of speech sounds. Other definitions of phonology are only of peripheral or historical interest. The term was, at one time, used synonymously with phonetics. The French continue to draw a distinction between autonomous phonology and prosody, while in American linguistics phonology is occasionally used as an umbrella term for phonetics and phonemics. (a) Structuralist phonology: structurally oriented phonology started with N.Trubetzkoy ( Prague School) and quickly developed in several directions. While Trubetzkoy was concerned with the functional aspect of phonemic analysis, the principle of the opposition of phonemes as the basis of his phonological work, American structuralism bases its concept of phoneme largely on distributional criteria (see Bloomfield 1933; Harris 1951). Common to both varieties is the way in which phonology is understood as an autonomous level of linguistic description in contrast to generative phonology (see Chomsky & Halle A-Z 899 1968, among others). Phonology is considered a basic discipline of structuralist language operational procedure). This is particularly the case for the functional analysis ( principle of distinctiveness ( distinctive feature, opposition), the analytical process of segmentation and classification, but especially for the concept of the phoneme as a bundle of distinctive features and for the hypothesis of a universal inventory of phonological features as the basis for describing all languages of the world (see Jakobson & Halle 1956). (b) Generative phonology: in contrast to the structuralist interpretation of phonology as an autonomous level of linguistic description, in the framework of generative grammar, phonology refers to phonetic, phonological, and syntactic-morphological regularities (=systematic phonology). Instead of the phoneme, distinctive features of a universal character are considered the basic units of the phonological description ( distinctive feature theory). On the basis of relatively abstract and stable underlying forms, the phonetic variants of the surface structure are derived from extrinsically ordered rules (cf. as the underlying form . (c) From the criticism of classical transformational concepts ‘natural phonology’ and ‘natural generative phonology’ have developed. These concepts are based on the belief in a strict division of the two levels of phonology and morphology (see Hooper 1976; Dressler 1984). (d) The problems of generative phonology in the description of suprasegmental features have recently led to a paradigm change towards non-linear phonology. The methods and results of phonological theories are a prerequisite and challenge for numerous studies in neighboring (applied) disciplines such as psycholinguistics (especially in language acquisition and language loss, aphasia). contrastiveanalysis, as well as in writing and spelling problems. References General and introductions Archangeli, D. and D.Pulleyblank. 1994. Grounded phonology. Cambridge, MA. Carr, P. 1993. Phonology: an introduction. Basingstoke. Dinnsen, D.A. 1979. Current approaches to phonological theory. Bloomington, IN. Durand, J. and F.Katamba (eds) 1994. New frontiers in phonology. London. Ferguson, C.A. 1977. New directions in phonological theory: language acquisition and universals research. In R.W.Cole (ed.), Current issues in linguistic theory. Bloomington, IN. Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1992. Phonological investigations. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Fudge, E. 1990. Language as organised sound: phonology. In N.E.Collinge (ed.), An encyclopedia of language. London. 30–67. Giegevich, H.J. 1992. English phonology. Cambridge. Katamba, F. 1989. An introduction to phonology. London. Kaye, J. 1989. Phonology: a cognitive view. Hillsdale, NJ. Lass, R. 1984. Phonology: an introduction to basic concepts. Cambridge. Vennemann, T. 1986. Neuere Entwicklungen in der Phonologie. Berlin. Vihmann, M. 1995. The origins of phonology. Oxford. Dictionary of language and linguistics 900 Phonological theory Anderson, J.M. and C.J.Ewen. 1987. Principles of dependency phonology. Cambridge. Anderson. S.R. 1985. Phonology in the twentieth century. Chicago. IL. Basbøll, H. 1988. Phonological theory. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 1. 192–216. Durand, J. (ed.) 1986. Dependency and non-linear phonology. London. Fischer-Jørgensen, E. 1975. Trends in phonological theory: a historical introduction. Copenhagen. Foley, J. 1977. Foundations of theoretical phonology. Cambridge. Goldsmith, J. 1994. The handbook of phonological theory. Oxford. Hogg, R. and C.B.McCully, 1987. Metrical phonology. Cambridge. . J. 1973. The phoneme: introduction to the history and theories of a concept. Munich. Makkai. V.B. (ed.) 1972. Phonological theory: evolution and current practice. Lake Bluff, IL. Vennemann, T. 1978. Universal syllabic phonology. TL 5. 175–251. Structuralist phonemic theory Bloomfield. L. 1933. Language. New York. Harris, Z.S. 1951. Methods in structural linguistics. Chicago. IL. (Repr. as Structural linguistics.) Hockett, C.F. 1955. Manual of phonology. Bloomington, IN. ——1958. A course in modern linguistics. New York. Jakobson, R. and M.Halle. 1956. Fundamentals of language. The Hague. (2nd rev. edn 1975.) Twaddell, W.F. 1935. On defining the phoneme. Suppl. to Lg 16. (Also in M.Joos (ed.), Readings in linguistics, 4th edn. Chicago, IL, 1966.) Trubetzkoy, N. 1939. Grundzüge der Phonologie. Göttingen. (4th edn 1967.) Generative phonology Chomsky, N. and M.Halle. 1968. The sound pattern of English. New York. Dell, F. 1980. Generative phonology and French phonology, trans. C.Cullen. Cambridge. Durand, J. 1990. Generative and non-linear phonology. London. Foley, J. 1977. Foundations of theoretical phonology. Cambridge. Helff, B. 1970. Generative phonology. LingB 86–116. Hooper, J.B. 1976. An introduction to natural generative phonology. New York. Hyman, L.M. 1975. Phonology: theory and analysis. New York. Kenstowicz, M. and C.Kisseberth. 1977. Topics in phonological theory. New York. Kiparsky, P. 1981. Explanation in phonology. Dordrecht. Roca, I. 1994. Generative phonology. London. Schane, S. 1973. Generative phonology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Sommerstein, A.H. 1977. Modern phonology. London. Van der Hulst, H. and N.Smith. 1982. The structure of phonological representation. Dordrecht. Phonology and psycholinguistics Dressler, W.U. 1984. Explaining natural phonology. PY 1. 29–53. Linell, P. 1979. Psychological reality in phonology. Cambridge. A-Z 901 Historical phonology Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1978. Recent developments in historical phonology. The Hague. King, R. 1969. Historical linguistics and generative grammar. Englewood Cliffs. NJ. Martinet, A. 1955. Economie des changements phonétiques. Bern. phonetics, syllable phonostylistics A branch of stylistics which investigates the expressively stylistic properties of articulation and intonation. phonotactics Study of the sound and phoneme combinations allowed in a given language. Every language has specific phonotactic rules that describe the way in which phonemes can be combined in different positions (initial, medial, and final). For example, in English the stop+fricative cluster /gz/ can only occur in medial (exhaust) or final (legs), but not in initial position, and /h/ can only occur before, never after, a vowel. The restrictions are partly language-specific and partly universal. References phonology phonotagm Phonotactic unit ( phonotactics) that concerns the phonological structure of morphemes as phoneme combinations. Phonotagms are morphologically relevant phoneme combinations that—in contrast with phonotagmemes– are not semantically relevant, e.g. devoicing of voiced stops after a voiceless consonant (fished). Dictionary of language and linguistics 902 phonotagmeme Phonotactic unit ( etic vs emic analysis) that constitutes a morphologically relevant combination of phonemes on the level of parole ( langue vs parole) and which—in contrast to phonotagms—is semantically distinct from other phonotagms, e.g. ablaut in also phonotactics) sing vs song. ( phrase [Grk phrásis ‘expression’] 1 Term for word groups without a finite verb that belong together syntactically. In contrast, the term ‘clause’ denotes a syntactic construction with a finite verb; thus clause stands hierarchically between phrase and sentence. ( X-bar theory) 2 In phrase structure grammar, the term ‘phrase’ stands for a set of syntactic elements which form a constituent (=relatively independent group of words). The most important phrases are noun phrases (consisting of nominal expressions with corresponding attributive modifiers: Philip, good old Philip, he, Philip, who is a dreamer), verb phrases (dreams, sees the fire, thinks that he’s right), prepositional phrases (on the table) among others. ( also adjective phrase, determiner phrase) phrase marker The representation of the phrase structure of a sentence by a tree diagram or by labeled bracketing. phrase structure (abbrev. PS) The result of an immediate constituent analysis of a phrase. The PS of a sentence is the result of the hierarchical ordering of its constituents, as depicted in a tree diagram. References phrase structure grammar A-Z 903 phrase structure diagram tree diagram phrase structure grammar A type of grammar from the American structuralists. Phrase structure grammars describe the syntactic structure of sentences as constituent structures, i.e. as a hierarchy of obligatory vs optional) ordered constituents. Insights gained from optional rules ( justify the individual steps of segmentation and classification, upon which the establishment of the constituent structure of a language is based. Within the framework of transformational grammar, this type of grammar, originally formulated as a recognition grammar within the framework of generative grammar undergoes a strong formalization as well as a partial reinterpretation: the static, analytically descriptive rules can be interpreted as rewrite rules, e.g. S →NP+VP corresponds to ‘a sentence consists of a noun phrase and a verb phrase’ ( phrase structure rules, generative grammar). A phrase structure grammar which operates strictly at surface structure cannot adequately capture a string of syntactic-semantic problems, e.g. discontinuous elements, Philip called his brother up, or ambiguity, the discovery of the student (‘the student was discovered’ or ‘the student discovered something’); the paraphrase relationship between sentences, e.g. the paraphrase relationship between active and passive sentences. Generative grammar uses these difficulties in its own defense, to assign sentences complex syntactic representations, which are mediated by transformations. ( also Xbar theory, Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar) References Bar-Hillel. Y.M.Perles, and E.Shamir. 1961. On formal properties of simple phrase structure grammars. ZPSK 14. 143–72. Bhatt, C. et al. (eds) 1990. Syntactic phrase structure phenomena in noun phrases and sentences. Amsterdam. Borsley, R.D. 1993. Phrase structure grammar. In J. Jacobs et al. (eds). Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 570–80. Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic structures. The Hague. ——1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Gazdar, G. and G.K.Pullum. 1985. Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar: a theoretical synopsis. Cambridge. MA. Leffel, K. and D.Bouchard (eds) 1991. Views on phrase structure. Dordrecht. Postal, P.M. 1964a. Constituent structure: a .study of contemporary models of syntactic description. Bloomington, IN. ——1964b. Limitations of phrase structure grammars. In J.A.Fodor and J.J.Katz (eds), Readings in the philosophy of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 137–54. Rothstein, S. (ed.) 1992. Perspectives on phrase structure: heads and licensing. New York. universal grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics 904 phrase structure rules Phrase structure rules are rewrite rules for constituents of the form A→X1…Xn, e.g. S →NP+VP. This rule should be read as an instruction to replace the sentence symbol S with a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP). Thus, the symbol to the left of the arrow is replaced by the symbols to the right of the arrow. Parentheses are used to denote optional elements, and curly brackets are used for alternatives. Phrase structure rules can also be read as specifying the relationship of immediate dominance in a well-formed tree diagram. In the above example, S has the symbols NP and VP respectively as immediate constituents. Phrase structure rules are subject to a set of formal constraints: there must always be a single symbol to the left of the h isarrow replaced whicby one or more symbols (a chain) to the right of the arrow. It follows that neither the right symbol nor the left symbol may be zero, e.g. neither 0=Adj+N nor S=0 are possible. Also a chain cannot consist of nothing, nor can deletions follow in the derivation. Transpositions are also prohibited; NP+VP→VP+NP is ruled out. These restrictions are necessary to ensure that each phrase structure rule corresponds to a branching in the tree diagram. The duplication of the phrase structure rules by the tree diagram ensures the reconstructability of the derivational process. The basic components of generative grammar are derived from phrase structures rules. PS-rules are usually context-free, i.e. their use is independent of the environment of the symbols. Context-free rules are distinguished from context-sensitive rules, especially in the earlier versions of generative grammar. For example, a contextsensitive phrase structure rule for the verb visit would be V→Vtrans/#Ndu obj: replace a verb by a transitive verb if a direct object noun follows, e.g. Philip visits Caroline. ( also phrase structure grammar) References phrase structure grammar A-Z phraseology Phrygian phylum 905 idiomatics Indo-European language family pictogram pictography pictography [Lat. pictum ‘painted,’ Grk gráphein ‘to write’] Graphemic system in which linguistically independent concepts or meanings of linguistic utterances are expressed in pictorial signs (pictograms), whereby an individual sign can stand for complex concepts or whole meanings. Writing systems such as those used by the Alaskan Eskimos, and international symbols, like those used at airports and at the Olympic Games, are pictograms. ( also ideography) References writing pidgin (also hybrid language) The term ‘pidgin’ is probably a corruption of the English word business, as pronounced by the indigenous Chinese, and designates a mixed language that arises in situations where speakers of different languages are unable to understand each other’s native language and, therefore, need to develop a common means of communication. In such situations, the structure and vocabulary of the individual native languages are reduced Dictionary of language and linguistics 906 over time, in order to bring about general, mutual understanding. Gradually, a functional mixed language develops from the rudimentary contact language and is learned along with one’s native language. Pidgins developed principally in the European colonies during the height of European colonization. The dominant European languages became the primary source for vocabulary. Linguistically, pidgins are characterized by a limited vocabulary, a greater use of paraphrase and metaphor, a simplified phonological system, and a reduced morphology and syntax. It is also interesting to note, especially in view of naturalness theory and universals, that pidgin language systems are remarkably similar, regardless of whether they are related (English pidgins) or unrelated (English vs French pidgins). Pidgins that develop into full-fledged native languages are called creoles. References Arends, J., P.Muysken. and N.Smith (eds) 1995. Pidgins and creoles: an introduction. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Decamp, D. 1971. The study of pidgin and creole languages. In D.Hymes (ed.), Pidginization and creolization of languages. Cambridge. 13–39. Decamp, D. and I.F.Hancock (eds) 1974. Pidgins and creoles: current trends and prospects. Washington, DC. Ferguson, C.A. 1971. Absence of copula and the notion of simplicity: a study of normal speech, baby talk, foreigner talk, and pidgins. In D.Hymes (ed.), Pidginization and creolization of languages. Cambridge. 141–50. Foley, W., 1988. Language birth: the processes of pidginization and creolization. In F.J.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey, vol. 4: Language: the socio-cultural context. Cambridge. 162–83. Hall, R.A. 1966. Pidgin and creole languages. Ithaca, NY. Hancock, I. 1987. History of research on pidgins and creoles. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Soziolinguistik/ Sociolinguistics: an international handbook on the science of language and society. Berlin. 459–69. Holm, J. 1988–9. Pidgins and creoles, 2 vols. London. Hymes, D. (ed.) 1971. Pidginization and creolization of languages. Cambridge. Meisel, J. (ed.) 1977. Langues en contact: pidgins/ creoles; languages in contact. Tübingen. Mühlhäusler, P. 1986. Pidgin and creole linguistics. Oxford. Reinecke, J.E. 1971. Tay Bói: notes on the Pidgin French spoken in Vietnam. In D.Hymes (ed.), Pidginization and creolization of languages. Cambridge. 43–56. Romaine, S. 1988. Pidgin and creole languages. London. Singler, J.V. (ed.) 1990. Pidgin and creole tense—mood—aspect systems. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Todd, L. 1975. Pidgins and creoles. London. (2nd edn 1990). Valdman, A. (ed.) 1977. Pidgin and creole linguistics. Bloomington, IN. Verhaar, J. (ed.) 1990. Melanesian and Tok Pisin: proceedings of the First International Conference on Pidgins and Creoles in Melanesia. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Whinnom, K. 1965. The origin of European-based pidgins and creoles. Orbis 14. 509–27. ——1971. Linguistic hybridization and the special case of pidgins and creoles. In D.Hymes (ed.), Pidginization and creolization of languages. Cambridge. 91–115. A-Z 907 Bibliography Reinecke, J. et al. (eds) 1975. A bibliography of pidgin and creole languages. Honolulu. creole pied piping The optional movement of a NP or PP containing the item which is affected by a movement rule, described by Ross (1967). For example, normally, a relative pronoun is the first word in the relative clause, e.g. the lady, whom I saw pictures of. In a pied-piping construction, the whole phrase (NP) which includes the relative pronoun can be in initial position: the lady, pictures of whom I saw. References Klein, E.C. 1993. Toward second language acquisition: a study of null-prep. Dordrecht. Moritz, L. and D.Valois. 1994. Pied-piping and specifier-head agreement. LingI 25. 667–707. Ross, J.R. 1967. Constraints on variables in syntax. Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, MA. (Repr. as Infinite Syntax! Norwood, NJ, 1986.) Van Riemsdijk, H. 1985. Zum Rattenfängereffekt bei Infinitiven in deutschen Relativsätzen. In W.Abraham (ed.), Erklärende Syntax des Deutschen. Tübingen. 75–97. (Eng. rev. in J.Toman (ed.), Studies in German grammar. Dordrecht, 1985. 165–93). Pima-Papago Uto-Aztecan pitch 1 In acoustic phonetics, the number of tonal oscillations per second, or in auditory phonetics the auditory characteristics corresponding to the different tonal oscillations. 2 In phonology, suprasegmental feature of linguistic expressions. In tonal languages, pitch is distinctive. ( pitch accent) References phonetics Dictionary of language and linguistics 908 pitch accent (also musical accent) Word accent in which the change of pitch is distinctive, as in Serbo-Croatian and in Swedish (e.g. tanken with falling pitch on the first syllable ‘tank,’ with falling-rising pitch on the first syllable ‘thought’). In contrast to stress accent, the change in pitch is distinctive and, in contrast with tonal languages only one syllable per word has distinctive tone. ( also stress2) Reference Bruce. G. 1977. Swedish word accents in sentence perspective. Lund. Pitjantjatjara Australian languages pivot grammar Proposed by M.D.S.Braine, the distributional analysis of utterances in child language which are devoid of reference to the utterance meaning. In pivot grammar, frequently occurring closed-class words (primarily function words. ‘pivots’ or ‘operators,’ such as more, than, also) are distinguished from open-class words (nouns, verbs, and the like). In contrast to words of the second class, ‘pivots’ determine positional restrictions: thus, in utterances of two words, they can occur either only in the first or in the second position, and may not cooccur or stand alone. For criticism of this analysis, see Miller (1976); for a revision of this analysis, cf. Braine (1976). References Braine, M.D.S. 1963a. The ontogeny of English phrase structure. Lg 39. 1–13. ——1963b. On learning the grammatical order of words. PsychologR 70. 323–48. ——1976. Children’s first word combinations. MRCD 41:164. McNeill, D. 1970. Developmental psycholinguistics. In F.Smith and G.A.Miller (eds), The genesis of language. Cambridge, MA. 15–84. Miller, M. 1976. Zur Logik der frühkindlichen Sprachentwicklung. Stuttgart. Miller, W. and S.Ervin. 1964. The development of grammar in child language. In U.Bellugi and R. Brown (eds), The acquisition of language. MRCD 29:92. 9–34. A-Z 909 place of articulation (also point of articulation) 1 In the narrow sense (also passive articulator), upper and back parts of the oral cavity (upper lips, teeth, palate, uvula, etc.), which can be completely or partially contacted by articulator). In contrast to one of the (relatively mobile, active) articulatory organs ( the articulatory organs, the places of articulation are relatively stationary. (Although the uvula can vibrate, it is still a potential goal for some of the articulatory organs.) 2 In the broad sense, constriction of the air-stream during articulation, due to the contact or proximity of an articulatory organ with a place of articulation in the narrow sense. ( also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics placeholder dummy element placement of the tongue In vowels a distinction is drawn regarding the degree of openness of the front of the resonance chamber (of the oral cavity) between a high (e.g. [i]), high-mid (e.g. [e]), mid (e.g. [ə]), low-mid (e.g. [ε]), and low (e.g. [a]), placement of the tongue. One generally speaks of (e.g. in the IPA) closed, half-closed, mid, half-open, and open vowels, respectively. References phonetics Dictionary of language and linguistics 910 plane Term used by F.de Saussure and L.Hjelmslev for the division of a language system into a level (plane) of expression and a level of content. ( expression plane vs content plane) planned language In contrast to natural language, an artificially created linguistic system for the purpose of interlingua). international understanding ( Plateau Benue-Congo play on words A playful change of a word with the intention of causing surprise. It is a frequently used figure of speech in fashionable literature and advertising language. A play on words can come into existence (a) through the change in meaning, and therefore from homonymy and polysemy, (b) through the change of word forms and the rearranging of sound, e.g. an anagram, the rearranging of syllables or of morphemes, (c) by blend. ( also pun, polyptoton, malapropism) References Chiaro, D. 1992. The language of jokes: analysing verbal play. London. Redfern, W. 1984. Puns. Oxford. A-Z 911 pleonasm [Grk pleonasmós ‘superabundance, excess’] The addition of a superfluous expression which is already included in that which is said, e.g. three a.m. in the morning ( solecism). As any figure of speech, pleonasm can serve to strengthen a statement, e.g. I saw it myself, with my own eyes. A related form of semantic redundancy is tautology, the repetition of the same word or sentence. Expressions like boys will be boys only appear to be pleonastic. ( also emphasis) References figure of speech plerematics [Grk ‘full’] In glossematics, the study of the content plane of language ( content plane). expression plane vs plereme 1 In glossematics the smallest (‘complete’) unit on the semantic level which, together with its features, is classified as a glosseme. Pleremes correspond to semantic features in componential analysis. 2 Synonym for morpheme. In this context, the expression form of a plereme is the moneme, and its content is the sememe. References glossematics Dictionary of language and linguistics 912 plexus [Lat. ‘intertwined’] Syntactic process in L.Tesnière’s dependency grammar. Plexus is a result of overlapping connections within a stemma when sentence parts that have arisen by junction are subjected to a junction with different elements. For example, Susan and Figaro sing and dance. References dependency grammar plosive [Lat. plaudere ‘to make a clapping sound’] 1 Non-nasal speech sound (stop) formed with the pulmonic airstream mechanism by closure of the oral cavity. 2 glottal stop 3 Sound that is either an implosive or a click. pluperfect past perfect plural Subcategory of number of nouns and verbs which usually serves to indicate the presence of more than one element, but which can also have an individualizing function with certain common nouns (rock: rocks) and collective nouns (people: peoples). There are A-Z 913 also plural-only nouns (scissors, (eye) glasses, the Alps). In English, most plurals are formed by adding -(e)s (cats, dogs, bosses); other types of plural formation include foreign suffixes (phenomenon: phenomena) and changes in the stem (mouse: mice). ( also mutation) References Greenberg, J. 1974. Numeral classifiers and substantial number: problems in the genesis of a linguistic type. PICL 11. 17–37. Link, G. 1983. The logical analysis of plurals and mass terms. In R.Bäuerle et al. (eds). Meaning, use and interpretation. Berlin and New York. Schein, B. 1993. Plurals and events. Cambridge, MA. Unterbeck, B. 1993. Kollektion, Numeralklassifikation und Transnumerus. Frankfurt-on-Main. plural of majesty Manner of expression used by kings, queens, princes, etc., where the speaker refers to him/ herself in the plural (we instead of I) and/or was addressed or spoken of i n the plural (cf. Ger. Eure Majestät ‘Your Majesty’). Reference Dryry, D. 1986. The lofty and/or assumptive ‘we’. Verbatim 7:3. 11–13. plural of modesty (also editorial we) Use of plural form we instead of I or you where the speaker includes the speaker/reader, but actually means only him/herself or the addressee: We will only mention this point in passing’, or with children: Now it’s time for us to go to bed! ( also plural of majesty) Dictionary of language and linguistics 914 plural-only noun (also plurale tantum) Noun which can only occur in the plural. In English, there are a number of such nouns: scissors, (eye-)glasses, measles, the Alps, shorts. plurale tantum point of articulation plural-only noun place of articulation polarity 1 Cover term for semantic relations which categorize the vocabulary according to antonymy, incompatibility, particular dimensions of semantic opposition ( complementarity, conversion). 2 Characteristic of antonymous adjectives like short: long, easy: difficult, light: dark whose systematic difference in meaning can be described by the semantic feature [±polarity]. Assertions cannot be made about a particular state of affairs from a single perspective using a polar adjective pair, e.g. a thing cannot be both short and long. The restrictions on the use of polar expressions are notable, e.g. in unmarked questions (How old are you?, but not *How young are you?) and in nominalizations (the height of the building/mountain but not *the lowness of the building/mountain). References Cruse, D.A. 1977. The pragmatics of lexical specificity. JL 13. 153–64. Lehrer, A. 1985. Markedness and antonymy. JL 21. 397–429. Semantic relations A-Z 915 Polish West Slavic language with approx. 42 million speakers, predominantly in Poland (about 35 million speakers) and the United States (about 6 million speakers). Polish has existed as a written language since the fourteenth century, attested in the Papal Bull of Gniezno, which contains over 400 names. The oldest complete text, Kazania Świętokrzyskie ‘Holy Cross sermons’ dates from the fourteenth century. Polish literature flowered during the sixteenth century. Today Polish is written in the Latin alphabet with diacritics and special characters: ‹ł Ł›, ‹ż, Ż›. Characteristics: word stress, with a few exceptions, on the penultimate syllable; nasal , są vowels, which occur in word-final position and before fricatives, e.g. ‘are’; palatalization distinct for velars and labials; three-way distinction (dental, alveolar, prepalatal) for affricates and fricatives, morphologically expressed distinction in the nominal system of [±masculine animate] in the singular, and of [±masculine human] in the plural, verbal forms with conjunctions and certain particles: coś powiedieła vs co powiedziełaś ‘What did you (fem. informal) say.’ References Brooks, M.Z. 1975. Polish reference grammar. The Hague. Klemensiewicz, Z. 1961–72. Historia języka polskie-go, 3 vols. Warsaw (4th edn 1 980.) Schenker, A. 1954. Polish conjugation. Word 10. 469–81. ——1964. Polish declension. The Hague. Stieber, Z. 1973. A historical phonology of the Polish language. Heidelberg. Szober, S. 1971. Gramatyka języka polskiego, 12th edn. Warsaw. Westfal, S. 1985. The Polish language. London. Dictionary Doroszewski, W. (ed.) 1958–69. Słownik języka polskiego, 11 vols. Warsaw. Etymological dictionary Brückner, A. 1974. Słownik etymologiczny języka polskiego, 3rd edn. Warsaw. Bibliography Urbanczyk, S. (ed.) 1978. Encyklopedia wiedzy o języku polskim. Wrocław. Slavic Dictionary of language and linguistics 916 politeness Umbrella term for a combination of interpersonal considerations and linguistic choices affecting the form and function of linguistic interactions. Analysts from diverse fields pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and anthropology—argue that the specific ways in which speakers, as interactants, perform speech acts ( speech act classification. speech act theory) such as requests, commands, elicitations and offers, both express and reflect the nature of the relationship between them. Fluent speakers of a language have therefore learned (automatically) to take great care over, for example, how to phrase impositive requests. A central concept of politeness theory is ‘face’, which is taken to be important to individuals in both a positive and negative aspect. One preserves the negative face of an interactant by impeding or interfering with his/her actions and values as little as possible; one attends to the positive face of an interactant by endorsing and supporting the interactant’s presumed positive self-image as much as possible. Acts which involve the speaker in breaking away from either of these face-maintaining tendencies are known as ‘face-threatening acts.’ Ordering someone to do something is prima facie threatening to that person’s negative face; so, where other factors allow it, politeness considerations usually lead us to mitigate and minimize, linguistically, the degree of overt imposition: I’m sorry to bother you, but would you mind…?; Phil, I’m afraid I need you to…. Positive face is reflected in numerous ‘other-appreciative’ conversational gambits: I just love that sweater you’re wearing; (It was) good talking to you’, I’m sure you ‘ll do just fine; Have a nice day! One of the most interesting aspects of face and politeness, and their conventional encoding in the patterns of grammar and usage associated with particular kinds of speech acts, is that they differ from culture to culture and from language to language in ways that are difficult to calibrate. This has major consequences for truly felicitous cross-cultural communication. One can be near-native in one’s fluency in a foreign language and yet, if one does not have control of the pragmatics of politeness in the language, sound offensively abrupt in one’s requests or ludicrously flattering in one’s compliments. References Blum-Kulka, S. and G.Kasper. 1990. Special issue on ‘politeness.’ JPrag 14:2. Brown, P. and S.Levinson, 1987. Politeness. Cambridge. Leech, G.N. 1983. Principles of pragmatics. London. Sifianou, M. 1992. Politeness phenomena in England and Greece: a cross-cultural perspective. Oxford. Watts, R.J., S.Ide, and K.Ehlich (eds) 1992. Politeness in language: studies in its history, theory and practice. Berlin and New York. A-Z 917 Polynesian Approx. thirty closely related languages of the Malayo-Polynesian family, spoken in the Polynesian Islands. Characteristics: extremely reduced sound system (e.g. Hawaiian has thirteen phonemes). Word order: VSO; tendency towards ergativity ( ergative language). References Chung, S. 1978. Case marking and grammatical relations in Polynesian. Austin, TX. Krupa, V. 1973. Polynesian languages. The Hague. ——1982. The Polynesian languages: a guide. London. Seiter, W.J. 1980. Studies in Niuean syntax. New York. polyphonemic classification (also biphonemic classification) In phonological analysis, the classification of two consecutive, articulatorily different monophonemic classification. sounds as two different phonemes. In contrast, References phonology polyptoton [Grk polýptōton ‘employment of the same word in various cases’] The double play of varying sound and contrasting meaning in many aphorisms is achieved through the use of polyptoton: Few men speak humbly of humility, chastely of chastity, skeptically of skepticism (Pascal). The rhetorical repetition of a word with different intonation or inflection, e .g. my own heart ‘s heart, and my ownest own, farewell (Tennyson). ( also pun) Dictionary of language and linguistics 918 References figure of speech polysemy [Grk ‘sign’] Term coined by Bréal (1897). One speaks of ‘polysemy’ when an expression has two or more definitions with some common features that are usually derived from a single basic meaning. A distinction is traditionally drawn between polysemy and homonymy. The different meanings of homonyms can be traced to different etymological roots (thus different words are involved), whereas the semantic variants of polysemic expressions go back to a single root (see Heger 1963). However, the etymological criterion is vague and, if applied consistently, leads to conclusions which run counter to intuition. The distinction between polysemy and homonymy cannot be drawn precisely. This is abundantly clear in the way the same word may be listed as a polysemic expression in one dictionary, but as a homonym in another. The distinction frequently involves the question of ambiguity (see Fries 1980). References Bartsch, R. 1984. The structure of word meanings: polysemy, metaphor, metonymy. In F.Landman and F.Veltman (eds), Varieties of formal semantics. Dordrecht. 25–54. Bréal, M. 1897. Essai de sémantique: science des significations. Paris. Heger, K. 1963. Homographie, Homonymie und Polysemie. ZRPh 79. 471–91. Lakoff, G. 1982. Categories and cognitive models. Trier. Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics, 2 vols. Cambridge. Ruhl, C. 1975. Polysemy or monosemy: discrete meanings or continuum? In R.W.Fasold and R.W. Shuy (eds), Analyzing variation in language. Washington, DC. 184–202. Ullmann, S. 1962. Semantics: an introduction to the science of meaning. Oxford. Bibliography Fries, N. 1980. Ambiguität und Vagheit: Enführung und kommentierte Bibliographie. (Annotated bibliography.) Tübingen. semantics A-Z 919 polysyndeton The use of more conjunctions than ordinary usage demands. Stephen Crane employed a polysyndeton in writing The horizon narrowed and widened, and dipped and rose, and at all times its edge was jagged with waves. A polysyndeton can either emphasize the length of items enumerated or underscore the distinctiveness of each item from the others. References figure of speech polysynthesis Phenomenon common, among others, to some native American languages, where complex words are formed from morphemes of different types. Polysynthesis may involve incorporation, but need not necessarily do so. But in contrast to incorporation, these morphemes occur only as bound morphemes, never as free morphemes (e.g. the one-word sentence from Onondage ( Iroquoian) a? akwan, ohsahnin, ony, ó? ‘we are buying the houses’ with the verb root -hnin,o- ‘to buy,’ the subject -akwa-‘we,’ and the object -n, ohsa- ‘house’ with the plural marker -ny, ó-, which can only occur as elements of complex words. References Mithun. M. 1983. The genius of polysynthesis. In J.S. Thayer (ed.), North American Indians: humanistic perspectives. Norman, OK. Sasse, H.-J. 1988. Der irokesische Sprachtyp. ZS 7. 173–213. Dictionary of language and linguistics 920 polysynthetic construction incorporating language, polysynthesis polysystemic phonology prosody Port Royal grammar A general theoretical grammar, the Grammaire générale et raisonnée, written by A.Arnauld and E. Lancelot within the framework of French rationalism and named after the famous seventeenth-century Parisian abbey and schools of Port Royal. Reprinted as late as 1830, the Port Royal grammar attempts to develop grammatical categories on the basis of Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and modern European languages which would be valid for all languages ( also general grammar). For the foundation and justification of his model of generative transformational grammar, N.Chomsky referred to this concept of universal grammar. ( also Cartesian linguistics, rationalism) References Arnauld, A. and E.Lancelot. 1660 Grammaire générale et raisonnée. Paris. (A general and rational grammar, translated from the French of Messieurs de Port Royal. London, 1753.) Chomsky, N. 1966a. Topics in the theory of generative grammar. The Hague. ——1966b. Cartesian linguistics: a chapter in the history of rationalist thought. New York. ——1968. Language and mind. New York. Donze, R. 1971. La grammaire générale et raisonnée de Port-Royal, 2nd edn. Bern. Harris, R. and T.J.Taylor. 1989. Landmarks in linguistic thought. London. Ch. 8. Tsiapera, M. and G.Wheeler. 1993. The Port-Royal grammar: sources and influences. Münster. portmanteau morpheme [Fr. portemanteau ‘clothes-stand’] Term introduced by C.F.Hockett to denote phonomorphological units that blend several otherwise distinct morphemic units together, cf. Fr. au (=blend of à+le) which contains the meanings of ‘dative,’ ‘definite,’ ‘masculine,’ and ‘singular.’ A-Z 921 References Hockett, C.F. 1947. Problems of morphemic analysis. Lg 23. 321–43. morphology Portuguese Language belonging to the Ibero-Romance ( Romance languages) branch of IndoEuropean, the first language of approx. 140 million speakers in Portugal, Madeira, the Azores, and Brazil. Portuguese has fewer dialectal variations than the other Romance languages. The pronunciation and standard written form of Portuguese is based on the language of Lisbon and Coimbra. Historically, Portuguese derives from Galician Portuguese in northern Portugal and in what is now Spanish Galicia (Gallego). The pronunciation in Brazil differs in many ways from that in Portugal. Characteristics: special characteristics of Portuguese include a number of nasalized vowels (with numerous diphthongs and triphthongs); two /r/ phonemes (dental and uvular); no marking of word boundaries with correspondingly strong tendencies towards assimilation and sandhi. The inflectional morphology includes a synthetically formed past perfect as well as a declinable infinitive. References Costa Campos. M.H. and M.F.Xavier. 1991. Sintaxe e semântica do Português. Lisbon. Holtus, G., M. Metzeltin, and C.Schmitt (eds) 1994. Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik, vol. 6, 2.130–692. Tübingen. Mateus, M.H.M. et al. 1990. Fonética, fonologia e morfologia do Português. Lisbon. Mattoso Câmara, Jr, J. 1972. The Portuguese language, trans. A.J.Naro. Chicago. IL. Thomas, E.W. 1974. A grammar of spoken Brazilian Portuguese. Nashville, TN. Vâzquez Cuesta, P. and M.A.Mendes da Luz. 1971. Gramática portuguesa, 3rd edn, 2 vols. Madrid. History and dialectology Leite de Vasconcellos. J. 1901. Esquisse d’une dialectologie portugaise. (2nd edn Lisbon, 1970.) Messner, D. 1990. História do léxico Português. Heidelberg. Teyssier, P. 1980. Histoire de la langue portugaise. Paris. (Also pub. as Historia da lingua portuguesa. Lisbon. 1982.) Williams, E.B. 1938. From Latin to Portuguese: historical phonology and morphology of the Portuguese language. Philadelphia, PA. (2nd edn 1962.) Dictionary of language and linguistics 922 Dictionaries Almeida Costa, J. and A.Sampaio e Melo. 1952. Dicionário da lingua portuguesa. Lisbon. (6th edn 1984.) Da Cunha, A.G. 1982. Dicionário etimologico Nova Fronteira da lingua portuguesa. Rio de Janeiro. De Morais, A. 1949–59. Grande dicionário da lingua portuguesa, 11 vols, 10th edn. Lisbon. (1st edn 1789.) Bibliography Dietrich, W. 1980. Bibliografia da língua Portuguesa do Brasil. Tübingen. positional fields (also topological fields) Umbrella term for topological sections in German clauses which result from the positional characteristics of the finite and infinite parts of the verb; thus, in a propositional clause ( proposition) with the finite verb form in second position, the positional field before the finite verb is termed Vorfeld ‘front field’ or ‘prefield,” the position after the brace-closing element Nachfeld ‘end field,’ ‘final field,’ or ‘postfield’ and the section between the finite verb and the brace-closing element Mittelfeld ‘inner field’; cf. Niemand (front field) hat (brace-opening element) den Aufruf (inner field) gehört (brace-closing element) heute nacht (end field) ‘Nobody heard the summons tonight.’ ( also brace construction, dislocation, exbraciation, topicalization) References Haftka, B. 1993. Topologische Felder und Versetzungsphänomene. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax. An international handbook of contemporary research, Berlin and New York. 846–66. Lohnes, W. and F.W.Strothmann. 1967. German: a structural approach. New York. Olsen, S. 1982. On the syntactic description of German: Topological fields vs X-theory. In D. Welte (ed.), Sprachtheorie und angewandte Linguistik. Tübingen. 29–45. Reis, M. 1981. On justifying topological frames: ‘Positional fields’ and the order of nonverbal elements in German. DRLAV 22/23.59–85. brace construction, dislocation, exbraciation, topicalization, word order A-Z positive positivism 923 degree Neogrammarians possessive compound bahuvrihi possessive pronoun Subgroup of pronouns. The term ‘possessive pronoun’ is misleading, since it refers not only to possession (my/your book) but also to general relations between things: his pity, her father, our conviction. possible word Morphological approach ( word formation) developed by Fanselow (1985) that restricts the possibilities for forming and interpreting new words based on semantic and logical principles, in order to arrive at a definition of ‘a possible complex word.’ In the modular interaction of general semantic interpretative processes with the formal word structures, only those semantic representations are characterized as well formed which stand in unison with a correlation between syntactic categories and semantic types that is motivated independently by type logic. References Fanselow, G. 1985. What is a possible complex word? In J.Toman (ed.), Studies in German grammar. Dordrecht. 289–318. ——1988. ‘Word syntax’ and semantic principles. In G.Booij and J.van Marle (eds), Yearbook of morphology. Dordrecht. 95–122. Dictionary of language and linguistics 924 possible world (Metaphoric) term attributed to G.W.Leibniz (1646–1716) which assumes real situations to be hypothetically different and attempts to group all such situations or conditions into a plausible whole. In model-theoretic semantics, the interpretational function is relativized to possible worlds, for in order to establish whether the proposition of a statement is true or false, it is necessary to know the composition of the given world to which the statement refers. The status of the possible world as an undefined basic term is controversial: frequently, a definition is proposed depending on the set of propositions which holds true for a given world. In so-called ‘classic’ possible worlds, all logical connectives have a customary (set) interpretation, whereas so-called ‘non-classical’ possible worlds do not. The latter were proposed by M.J.Cresswell to encompass phenomena in intensional contexts. ( also intensional logic, Montague grammar) References Bruner, J. 1986. Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA. Cresswell, M.J. 1972. Intensional logics and logical truth. JPL 1. 2–15. ——1994. Language in the world. Cambridge. Hintikka, J. 1969. Models for modalities. Dordrecht. Hughes, G.E. and M.J.Cresswell. 1968. An introduction to modal logic. London. Kripke, S.A. 1963. Semantical considerations on modal logic. Acta Philosophica Fennica. 16. 83– 94. ——1972. Naming and necessity. In D.Davidson and G.Harman (eds), Semantics of natural language. Dordrecht. 253–355. 762–9. Lewis, D. 1970. General semantics. Synthese 22. 18–67. ——1973. Counterfactuals. Oxford. Lutzeier, P.R. 1981. Words and worlds. In J.Eikmeyer and H.Rieser (eds), Words, worlds, and contexts: new approaches in word semantics. Berlin. 75–106. Montague, R. 1974. Formal philosophy: selected papers, ed. R.H.Thomason. New Haven, CT. post-alveolar Speech sound classified according to its place of articulation (behind the alveolar , [∫], in Swedish ‘waterfall’, [∫ø:] ‘lake, sea’, ‘child.’ ( ridge), e.g. also articulatory phonetics, lamino-post-alveolar, retroflex) A-Z 925 References phonetics Post-Bloomfieldian linguistics American structuralism, also distributionalism post-dorsal post-dorsal velar dorsal articulation posteriority [Lat. posterior ‘later’] Temporal relationship in complex sentences between several actions: the action described in the dependent clause occurs after the action of the main clause: They kept calling him until he finally heard them. ( sequence of tenses) postposition adposition potential [Lat. potentialis from potentia ‘dynamics; state of that which is not yet fully realized’] Verbal mood which characterizes an action as possible or probable. The Indo-European lan-guages have no separate paradigm for this mood, using mainly the subjunctive to express it, e.g. the Latin subjunctive existimem ‘I would suspect.’ Dictionary of language and linguistics PP 926 prepositional phrase pragmalinguistics [Grk ‘deed, act’] 1 Synonym for pragmatics or pragmatically oriented studies in text linguistics and/or sociolinguistics. 2 Communication-oriented subdiscipline of a so-called ‘social pragmatics’ that describes the linguistic signs and their combination in the process of linguistic communication and attempts to complement them with the component of ‘action.’ In this connection, pragmalinguistics is subsumed under psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics, whereas linguistic pragmatics is generally associated with syntax and semantics. Reference Mey, J.L. (ed.) 1979. Pragmalinguistics: theory and practice. The Hague. pragmatics A subdiscipline of linguistics developed from different linguistic, philosophical and sociological traditions that studies the relationship between natural language expressions and their uses in specific situations. The term pragmatics comes from Morris’ (1938) general theory of signs: in this semiotic model (semiotics), pragmatics refers to the relationship of the sign to the sign user. In linguistics the distinction between pragmatics and semantics and syntax on the one hand and, in a broader sense, between pragmatics and sociolinguistics on the other hand depends wholly on the particular theory. Pragmatics can hardly be considered an autonomous field of study (as is the case for phonology, for example). In British-American linguistics, the term ‘pragmatics’ has only been in use for a relatively short time; this area was previously subsumed under the term ‘sociolinguistics’. The distinction between pragmatics and semantics, both of which investigate different aspects of linguistic meaning, is even less clear-cut. While semantics is concerned with the literal and contextually non-variable meaning of linguistic expressions or with the contextually non-variable side of the truth conditions of propositions or sentences, pragmatics deals with the function of linguistic utterances and the propositions that are expressed by them, depending upon their use in specific situations. Consequently, issues such as whether deixis is a pragmatic or semantic phenomenon are controversial; as a way of placing utterances in contexts deictic expressions are part of pragmatics, as factors in establishing the truth conditions of A-Z 927 sentences they are part of (indexical) semantics. Similar uncertainties arise with regard to topicalization, theme vs rheme structure and presupposition, among others. In the early 1970s, pragmatics became almost exclusively identified with speech act theory. Later it was concerned above all with empirical studies in conversation analysis. drawing on Grice’s (1975) maxims of conversation. It has also dealt with issues involving the differentiation of pragmatics and semantics (as in the case of deixis and presupposition mentioned above). As a result of a growing awareness of the close interaction of meaning and use, there has been a recent trend towards treating them together under the heading of a more broadly conceived semantics, especially in formally oriented work such as ‘situation semantics’ (Gawron and Peters 1990) and ‘illocutionary logic’ (Vanderveken 1990–1), which integrate complex circumstances and speech act theory, respectively, into semantics. References Blum-Kulka, S. and G.Kasper (eds) 1989. Crosscultural pragmatics: requests and apologies. Hove. Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart. 1965.) Burkhardt, A. (ed.) 1990. Speech acts, meaning and intentions: critical approaches to the philosophy of John R. Searle. Berlin and New York. Cole, P. (ed.) 1978. Syntax and semantics, vol. 9: Pragmatics. New York. Davis, S. (ed.) 1991. Pragmatics: a reader. Oxford. Franck, D. 1979. Seven sins of pragmatics: theses about speech act theory, conversational analysis, linguistics and rhetoric. In H.Parret, M.Sbisa and J.Verschueren (eds), Possibilities and limitations of pragmatics. Amsterdam. 225–36. Gawron, J.M. and S.Peters. 1990. Some puzzles about pronouns. In R.Cooper et al. (eds), Situation theory and its applications. Stanford, CA. Vol. 1, 395–431. Green, G.M. 1988. Pragmatics and natural language understanding. Hove. Grice, H.P. 1975. Logic and conversation. In P.Cole and J.L.Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York. 41–58. (Orig. 1968.) Gumperz, J. and D.Hymes (eds) 1972. Directions in sociolinguistics: the ethnography of communication. New York. Hickey, L. (ed.) 1989. The pragmatics of style. London. Hymes, D. 1968. The ethnography of speaking. In J.A.Fishman (ed.), Readings in the sociology of language. The Hague. 99–138. Leech, G. 1983. Principles of pragmatics. London and New York. Levinson, S.C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge. Mey, J. 1993. Pragmatics. An introduction. Oxford. Morris, C.W. 1938. Foundations of the theory of signs. Chicago, IL. Olesky, W. (ed.) 1989. Contrastive pragmatics. Amsterdam. Schegloff, E.A. and H.Sacks, 1973. Opening up closings. Semiotica 8. 289–327. Stalnaker, R.C. 1970. Pragmatics. Synthese 22. 272–89. Steiner, E.H. and R.Veltman (eds) 1988. Pragmatics, discourse and text. London. Vanderveken, D. 1990–1. Meaning and speech acts, 2 vols. Cambridge. Watzlawick, P., J.H.Beavin, and D.D.Jackson. 1967. Pragmatics of human communication: a study of interactional patterns, pathologies, and paradoxes. New York. Wierzbicka, A. 1991. Cross-cultural pragmatics: the semantics of human interaction. Berlin and New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 928 Bibliography Verschueren, J. 1978. Pragmatics: an annotated bibliography. Amsterdam. Journal Journal of Pragmatics. communicative competence, deictic expression, maxim of conversation, ordinary language philosophy, performative analysis, politeness, presupposition, reference, semantics, speech act theory, word order Prague School (also functional grammar, functional linguistics, functionalism) Branch of European structuralism arising from the Prague Linguistic Circle, which was founded in 1926 by V.Mathesius, B.Trnka, J. Vachek and others. The theses of this school were first presented at a Slavicist conference in The Hague (1928), and it has referred to itself as the ‘Prague School’ since the Amsterdam Phonetics Conference of 1932. In contrast to other branches of structuralism, especially glossematics, with its emphasis on form, the Prague School regarded language primarily as a functional means of communication whose structural sign system can be described through observation of concrete linguistic material in particular moments of use. The Prague School, therefore, abandons De Saussure’s strict separation of langue and parole ( langue vs parole), and also the primacy of synchrony vs diachrony, as it attempts to explain language change with structural principles. Premises common to the Prague School and the structuralist schools are (a) the decisive break from the positivistic atomism of the Neogrammarians, and (b) the representation of language as system and of linguistics as an autonomous science (independent of psychology, philosophy and other disciplines). Characteristic of the Prague School’s scientific procedure and also of its most decisive influence on the development of linguistics is its orientation towards the concept of ‘functionalism.’ The starting point of analysis is the intention of the speaker expressed through linguistic utterances; the analysis, then, begins with the ‘function’ of the utterance in order to describe its ‘form.’ The concept of function appears in various guises in all important areas of Prague School research, e.g. in the applications of functional sentence perspective, which sees the theme-rheme structure of a text as a structural principle, and especially in the phonology as conceived by Trubetzkoy (1890–1938) and further developed by Jakobson. The theoretical foundations and practical representations of this approach, such as binary opposition, distinctive feature, opposition and the phoneme, were summarized in Trubetzkoy’s posthumously published Grundzüge der Phonologie (‘Principles of A-Z 929 Phonology’) and supplemented by Jakobson, who postulated a universal inventory of phonetic/phonological features for all languages. Of lasting influence on generative transformational grammar is the level of morphophonemics, introduced by Trubetzkoy, within which the alternating phonological form of morphological units is described. Since the 1950s, Prague School linguists, such as J.Vachek (b. 1909) and J.Firbas (b. 1921), have been primarily concerned with the syntactic, semantic and stylistic problems of English and the Slavic languages. References Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. Garvin. P.L. 1964. A Prague School reader on esthetics, literary structure and style. Washington, DC. Grossman, R.E. et al. (eds) 1975. Papers from the parasession on functionalism. Chicago, IL. Jakobson, R. and M.Halle. 1956. Fundamentals of language. The Hague. Jespersen. O. 1924. The philosophy of grammar. London. Luelsdorff, P. (ed.) 1994. The Prague School of structural and functional linguistics. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Luelsdorff, P.A., J.Panevová, and P.Sgall (eds) 1994. Praguiana 1945–1990. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Martinet, A. 1955. Economie des changements phonetiques. Bern. Stunova, A. 1990. The Prague School as leitmotif in the communicative approach to language. IJSL 86. 143–9. Trubetzkoy, N. 1939. Grundzüge der Phonologie. Göttingen. Vachek, J. 1966. The linguistic school of Prague: an introduction to its theory and practice. Bloomington, IN. structuralism Prakrit Indo-Aryan predicate [Lat. praedicare ‘to declare; make ] mention of,’ corresponds to Grk 1 In school grammar a verbal constituent which, in conjunction with the subject, forms the minimal statement of an utterance. The predicate expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject ( predication). It consists of simple or compound verb forms or of a copular verb and a predicative complement. The predicate is linked to the subject through agreement and determines the number and kind of obligatory complements ( obligatory vs optional) through valence of the verb. The position of the finite verb form in English depends on the sentence type: verb first in interrogatives Dictionary of language and linguistics 930 (except wh-questions) and imperatives, otherwise after the subject. Communicatively, the predicate usually refers to new, unknown information, in contrast to the subject, theme vs which generally refers to known or previously mentioned information ( rheme, topic vs comment). The predicate is not the same thing as the verb phrase in generative transformational grammar, since, unlike the VP, in the tree diagram it dominates not only the verb, but also all elements ( objects) dependent on the verb. ( also part of speech, subject vs predicate) 2 In formal logic, especially predicate logic, the linguistic expression which, together with the expressions for the arguments, forms a proposition. The following expressions are (logical) predicates: (a) x sleeps/x is young/x was an atheist/x are reassured/x is thirsty; (b) x is younger than y/x loves y; (c) x lies between y and z/x points to y through z. Depending on the number of positions for arguments, predicates in (a) are one-place (they indicate characteristics of their argument), those in (b) and (c) are multi-place (they express relations between arguments). Generative semantics is based on this definition of predicate. 3 semantic primitive predicate calculus predicate logic predicate clause Dependent clause which fulfills the syntactic function of a predicate noun: He’s like he’s always been. predicate logic (also predicate calculus) In formal logic, a theoretical system for describing the inner structure of propositions. While propositional logic only analyzes the meaning of logical connectives in truthfunctional propositions based on the truth values of the propositional clauses, predicate logic differs in that it analyzes the internal make-up of propositions and expands on them by introducing generalized propositions (existential propositions and universal propositions). Predicates in the logical sense assign properties to individuals. Simple propositions consist of names for individuals and predicates, wherein a distinction is drawn between one-place and multi-place predicates, cf. Philip daydreams (one-place) vs Philip is giving Caroline a book (three-place). Simple propositions can be expanded by A-Z 931 being generalized into complex propositions that indicate to how many individuals the predicate of the simple proposition applies. In such cases, the names of the simple propositions are replaced by variables and the variables are connected by quantifiers ( operator). For example: Philip daydreams (x(x daydreams), read as ‘there is at least one x, for which it is true that x daydreams.’ This type of quantification is carried out by the existential quantifier or the universal quantifier (‘for all x it is true that y’). Naturallanguage sentences are frequently ambiguous when quantified owing to the different scope of the quantifier. This ambiguity can be translated into unambiguous readings in propositional logic, cf. Everybody loves somebody in the sense x y (x is a person and y x (y loves x and x is a person). Based on the y loves x) or in the sense of suppositions that the system of predicate logic corresponds to the underlying logical structure of natural-language sentences and that this ‘semantic deep structure,’ in turn, corresponds to the structure of extralinguistic states of affairs, predicate logic can be considered a fundamental metalanguage among more current semantic models (such as categorial grammar, generative semantics, Montague grammar, natural generative grammar). References Gamut, L.T.F. 1991. Logic, language, and meaning, vol. 1: Introduction to logic. Chicago, IL. Marciszewski, W. 1992. Logic from a rhetorical point of view. Berlin and New York. formal logic predicate noun predicative complement predication 1 Process and result of assigning properties to objects or states of affairs. Objects are specified by predication according to quality, quantity, space, time, etc. or are placed in relation to other ob jects. Predication is the basis of all forms of proposition. Linguistically it is realized by predicates. 2 In J.R.Searle’s speech act theory, part of the speech act which, together with reference, forms a propositional speech act ( propositional act). While the speaker refers to objects and states of affairs in the real world with reference acts, predication is used to assign these referents certain properties. 3 Relationship between subject and predicate (in linguistics) or between arguments and predicate in (formal) logic. 4 topic vs comment. Dictionary of language and linguistics 932 predicative adjunct predicative complement predicative complement (also predicative adjunct) Nominal complement which in some sentence patterns forms the predicate of the sentence in conjunction with a semantically weak copular verb such as to be, to stay, to become, to seem. Depending on its form, there are three types of predicative complements: (a) predicate nouns: He is my friend: (b) predicate adjectives: It’s getting dark; and (c) predicate clauses: What we didn’t reckon with was that he would abandon us so quickly. Depending on syntactic and semantic relations, predicative complements are divided into (1) predicative nominatives: Philip is a student and (2) predicative objects: We consider him a gifted scientist. pre-dorsal pre-dorsal palatal dorsal articulation preference In conversation analysis, the structural markedness of options such as those in adjacency pairs (e.g. an invitation followed by acceptance or decline). The unmarked preferred option (such as acceptance) has a less complex structure than the marked, nonpreferred option (decline), for example: A: Why don’t you come for dinner tonight? B: Love to. Shall I bring something ? vs A: Why don’t you come for dinner tonight? C: Sorry. [pause] Would love to, but I’ve got to work… A-Z 933 C’s turn is more complex in its structure because of the excuse, the delay (or significant interruption), and the reasoning. Furthermore, preferred and non-preferred pause, options differ in their position within the turn: the preferred option is realized early while the non-preferred option is realized late. For a different point of view on such interchanges, cf. remedial interchange. References Atkinson, J.M. and J.Heritage (eds) 1984. Structures of social action. Part II: Preference organization. Cambridge. 57–164. Pomerantz, A. 1978. Compliment responses. In J. Schenkein (ed.), Studies in the organization of conversation. New York. 79–112. Schegloff, E., G.Jefferson, and H.Sacks. 1977. The preference for self-correction in the organization of repair in conversation. Lg 53. 361–82. maxim of conversation, repair. sequential organization prefix A subclass of bound word-forming elements that precede the stem. Unlike suffixes, which are generally associated with a particular word class and create new words of that class (e.g. -er derives nouns from verbs, cf. swimmer), prefixes cannot be associated with a fixed category and tend to attach to one of two larger categories: verbs (be-, de-, dis-, en-, mis-, re-, under-, and so on) and substantives (i.e. nouns and adjectives) (in-, non-, un-, and so on), always producing verbs and substantives respectively (cf. misrepresent, unwise). Lexemes are transformed into words of various classes through the processes of conversion2 and derivation. The question of whether nominal and adjectival bases are verbalized by the prefix (encage<cage, endear<dear) or by the conversion of the nominal and adjectival stem into a verb with subsequent prefixation has been debated. ( also particle) References Lieber, R. 1981. On the organization of the lexicon. Bloomington, IN. Selkirk, E. 1982. Syntax of words. Cambridge, MA. Williams, E. 1981. Argument structure and morphology. LRev 1. 81–114. Wunderlich, D. 1987. An investigation of lexical composition: the case of German be-verbs. Linguistics 25. 283–331. derivation, word formation Dictionary of language and linguistics 934 prefixation Essential process of word formation in which an affix is attached to the beginning of a stem. The classification of prefixes is debated: on the one hand, prefixation, like suffixation, is considered a main type of derivation; on the other hand, prefixation is seen as a third main type of word formation next to derivation (=suffixation) and composition. References derivation preposition [Lat. praeponere ‘to place in front of’] Uninflected part of speech (usually) developed from original adverbs of place. Like adverbs and some conjunctions, prepositions in their original meaning denote relations between elements regarding the basic relations of locality (on, over, under), temporality (before, after, during), causality (because of), and modality (like). In all modern European languages, prepositions occur not only in the adverbial, but also in the verbal domain. ( also prepositional phrase) References Zelinsky-Wibblet, C. (ed.) 1993. The semantics of prepositions. Berlin and New York. Bibliography Gumier, C. 1981. Prepositions: an analytical bibliography. Amsterdam. A-Z 935 prepositional object (also oblique object) Object of a preposition which is determined by the government of the verb: He believes in ghosts, where the preposition in is required in this case by the verb to believe. ( also prepositional phrase) References syntactic function prepositional phrase (abbrev. PP) Complex syntactic category with differing categorial representations: along the steep road (preposition+noun phrase), since yesterday (preposition+adverb), hereby, hitherto (proprepositional phrase). Prepositional phrases function primarily as adverbials (Phil went hiking in the mountains), attributes (The cabin in the mountains) and objects (Phil thinks a lot about the mountains). The internal structure of prepositional phrases as well as their position and function in a sentence are analyzed differently depending on the theoretical approach. Reference Wunderlich, D. 1984. Zur Syntax der Präpositional-phrasen im Deutschen. ZS 3. 65–99. prescriptive grammar (also normative grammar) Form of grammatical description with the goal of instruction in the proper use of language and which is influenced by historical, logical and aesthetic considerat ions. Based on the example of other languages (for Indo-European languages, usually Latin), on the language of poets, writers, and scholars, certain researchers and institutions (for example, the Académie Française in Paris, Duden in Mannheim, Germany) attempt to codify a language in a binding fashion, which is considered ‘good style,’ and is regarded as ‘right’ or ‘wrong.’ A reaction against such grammars can be seen in the grammars Dictionary of language and linguistics 936 based on descriptive linguistics, which do not attempt to be regulative, but which represent various linguistic variants without evaluating them as ‘right’ or ‘wrong.’ As a rule, prescriptive grammars lag behind the development of theoretical, or descriptive grammars. This was apparent, for example, in the gradual replacement of traditional language-teaching methods (e.g. grammar-translation method) with language-teaching methods influenced by structuralism (e.g. audio-lingual method). The selection of a basic grammar model (above all the question of whether one should use one model or integrate various approaches) has led to intense controversies, all the more so since there is no consensus about the general goals of language instruction. The inventory of the pedagogical goals of native-language grammar instruction extends from a ‘view of formal structure and regularities of language,’ a ‘capacity for language analysis’ and the ‘enhancement of linguistic competence’ to the ‘capacity for language criticism,’ the ‘development of logical thinking’ and ‘emancipation,’ etc. These global statements are overlaid with very different extralinguistic factors such as pedagogical, educational psychological, sociocultural, educational political, and institutional expectations. ( linguistic norms, school grammar) References Alexander, L.G. 1989. Longman English grammar. London. linguistic norms present Verbal tense which has various temporal functions such as (a) expressing single or repeated events in the present; (b) general timeless states of affairs, especially in sayings, mathematical or logical propositions (three times three equals nine) and headlines (=general present); (c) events and states of affairs that are in the past but continue to effect the present: Socrates teaches that…; (d) events in the past that are made ‘present’ by using the present tense (= historical present):…and then he says…and then I say… References tense A-Z 937 present perfect perfect2 prespecifying vs postspecifying order word presupposition Self-evident (implicit) assumption about the sense of a linguistic expression or utterance. The term, taken from the analytical philosophy of language (Frege, Russell, Strawson), has been the subject of intensive debate in linguistics since 1970 and has led to some very distinct definitions. On the one hand, the term is unclear because the transfer of logical concepts to natural languages is not governed by an algorithmic set of transfer rules and, on the other hand, because the relationship between logic and linguistics and the role of both in the analysis of natural languages is, at best, unclear (see Garner 1971). The following definition is fundamental to the concept of presupposition in logic: S1, presupposes S2 exactly if S1, implies S2 and if not-S1 also entails S2. For example, The present king of France is bald or is not bald presupposes There is presently a king of France (Russell’s example). Various characteristics of or ideas about presupposition can be derived from this definition: (a) presuppositions are conditions that must be fulfilled so that a statement can be assigned a truth value (see Strawson 1952); (b) presuppositions remain constant under negation; (c) presuppositions refer to assertions (=declarative sentences). Investigations in this area dealt at first with the conditions of existence or individuality of particular expressions functioning as subjects (in the above example: the king of France); thus, the analysis concentrated primarily on proper nouns and (definite) descriptions. Since the phenomenon of presupposition is covered by a series of long-known problems in grammatical investigations (such as emphatic structure, subordination, topic vs comment, emotive vs connotative meaning ( connotation), the term was used partly synonymously with these corresponding linguistic concepts: cf. ‘quasiimplication’ in Bellert (1969), ‘covert categories’ in Fillmore (1969), ‘subordination’ in McCawley (1968), ‘selectional restrictions’ in Chomsky (1965). The transfer of the concept of presupposition from logic to linguistics was influenced both by Strawson (1950) and by Austin’s and Searle’s speech act theory and has brought about various controversies. (a) Are presuppositions relations between sentences, utterances, or attitudes of the speaker/hearer? (b) Are they logico-semantic, functional relations of truth values and therefore context-independent elements of meaning specific to the level of langue ( langue vs parole) or are they contextdependent, pragmatic conditions of the use of linguistic expressions, dependent upon linguistic behavior and conventions on the level of parole (Searle, Seuren, Fillmore, Wilson)? All these attempts at delineating and ordering are, in the last analysis, aimed at modeling the concept of Dictionary of language and linguistics 938 presupposition after one or more levels of language. In the case of (a), syntactic or constructionally based presupposition, there are difficulties regarding the dependence of presupposition on such phenomena as focus, topicalization, and subordination. With (b), semantically and lexically based presupposition, one must determine whether it is a matter of inherent semantic features or selection restrictions. And as far as (c), pragmatically based presuppositions (which correspond to Searle’s felicity conditions), are concerned, it remains questionable to what extent they are open to internal linguistic implicature, invited inference). The following linguistic indicators are description ( suspected to be so-called ‘P-inducers,’ that is, consistently likely to result in the same presuppositions in all conceivable contexts: definite noun phrases, factive predicates, quantification, conjunctions, particles, the theme-rheme division of sentences ( theme vs rheme), emphatic structure, subordination, subcategorization, or selection restrictions (see Reis 1977). Investigations on presupposition have played and continue to play a central role in linguistic approaches and in questions concerning the delineation of the linguistic disciplines. This has been especially apparent in the discussion and delineation of interpretive semantics vs generative semantics, logic vs linguistics, linguistics vs pragmatics, and linguistic vs encyclopedic knowledge, as well as in questions regarding textual coherence ( coherence, cohesion) and in the investigation of text constituents in text linguistics. In everyday language, the misuse of presupposition may lead to the manipulation of language, for example, when the cross-examiner asks the defendant When will you stop beating your wife? Denying an apparently obvious supposition is frequently less easy than contradicting an explicit statement. ( also conversation anal-ysis, formal logic) References Bellert, I. 1969. Arguments and predicates in the logicosemantic structure of utterances. In F.Kiefer (ed.), Studies in syntax and semantics. Dordrecht. 109–37. Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Fillmore, C.J. 1969. Types of lexical information. In: F.Kiefer (ed.), Studies in syntax and semantics. Dordrecht. 109–37. Frege, G. 1892. Über Sinn und Bedeutung. Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik, new series 100. 25–50. (Repr. in Kleine Schriften, ed. I Angelelli. Darmstadt, 1967. 143–62.) Garner, R. 1971. Presupposition in philosophy and linguistics. In C.J.Fillmore and T.D.Langendoen (eds), Studies in linguistic semantics. New York. 23–42. Gazdar, G. 1977. Implicature, presupposition and logical form. Bloomington, IN. ——1979. Pragmatics. New York. Hausser, R. 1976. Presuppositions in Montague grammar. TL 3. 245–80. Jackendoff, R.S. 1972. Semantic interpretation in generative grammar. New York. Keenan, E.L. 1971. Two kinds of presupposition in natural language. In C.Fillmore and D.T.Langendoen (eds), Studies in linguistic’ semantics. New York. 45–52. Kempson, R.M. 1975. Presupposition and the delimitation of semantics. London. Kiparsky, P. and C.Kiparsky. 1970. Fact. In M. Bierwisch and K.E.Heidolph (eds), Progress in linguistics. The Hague. 143–73. McCawley, J.D. 1968. The role of semantics in a Grammar. In: E.Bach and R.Harms (eds), Universals in linguistic theory. New York. 125–204. A-Z 939 Murphy, J., A.Rogers, and R.Wall (eds) 1977. Proceedings of the Texas conference on performatives, presuppositions and conversational implicatures. Washington, DC. Oh, C.-K. and D.A.Dineen (eds) 1979. Presupposition. New York. Petöfi, J.S. and D.Franck (eds) 1973. Präsuppositionen in Philosophie und Linguistik. Frankfurt. Reis, M. 1974. Präsuppositionen in Philosophie und Linguistik: Anmerkungen zur Anthologie von J.S. Petöfi und D.Franck, Präpsuppositionen in Philosophie und Linguistik. DSp 4. 287–304. ——1977. Präsuppositionen und syntax. Tübingen. Russell, B. 1905. On denoting. Mind 30.479–93. Searle, J.R. 1969. Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge. Seuren, P.A.M. 1985. Discourse semantics. Oxford. Strawson, P.F. 1950. On referring. Mind 67.320–44. ——1952. Introduction to logical theory. London. Von Fraassen, B.C. 1968. Presupposition, implication and self-reference. JP 65. 136–52. (Repr. in J.S.Petöfi and D.Franck (eds), Präsuppositionen in Philosophie und Linguistik. Frankfurt, 1973. 109–37.) ——1971. Formal semantics and logic. New York. Wilson, D. 1975. Presuppositions and non-truth-conditional semantics. London. Bibliography Petöfi, J.S. (ed.) 1978. Logic and the formal theory of natural language: selective bibliography. Hamburg. conversation analysis, formal logic, pragmatics presupposition test In order to distinguish presupposition from assertion, implicature, maxims of conversation and speech acts ( speech act theory), the following tests for monologues and dialogues or a combination thereof may be used (see Altmann 1976). (a) Negation test to determine assertion and presupposition: by definition, presupposition remains constant under (heavy) negation, while assertion and implicature convert to their opposites. However, only under certain conditions is the negation test sufficient, since negation in natural languages corresponds to logical negation only in assertions. Moreover the scope (i.e. elements of the sentence covered by the negation) is frequently ambiguous depending on stress and/or context. The negation of Caroline painted the picture, namely Caroline didn ‘t paint the picture, may refer—depending on the reading—to Caroline, to the picture, or to the whole situation. Especially in sentences with particles, a correct reading of the negation is clearly not always possible (strong, weak, or contrastive negation?) (see Seuren 1985). (b) Variation of the speech act type with non-variation of the proposition to determine the proposition: Is the present king of France bald? presupposes There is presently a king of France. (c) Conjunction test with and: individual aspects of meaning (assertion, proposition, conversational implicature) are placed before or after the given utterance, i.e. conjoined by and. This test is based on Dictionary of language and linguistics 940 the fact that presuppositions of grammatical sentences can be placed before and conversational implicatures after the conjunction, while both positions are possible for assertions. (d) Contradiction test with but: explicit contradiction of that which is presupposed in the previous utterance results in an ungrammatical sentence. References presupposition preterite [Lat. praeteritum ‘gone by; that has occurred in the past’] (also imperfect, past tense) 1 Term for past tense in languages that do not distinguish between aorist, imperfect, and perfect, as does, for example, Classical Greek. The preterite describes something that is completed before the speech act it occurs in, and is thus primarily used for epic narrative, i.e. recounting series of events. 2 In older usage, term used collectively for the perfect, imperfect, and past perfect. preterite-present Verb whose original Indo-European preterite form has taken on a present-tense meaning. The reinterpretation of tense and meaning is based on the aspectual character of the Indo-European tense system ( aspect): the basic inventory and model for preteritepresent verbs are found in the Indo-European perfect stem which denotes a condition caused by a previously occurring action: Grk oĩda ‘I have seen,’ therefore: ‘I know.’ The preterite of this class of originally strong verbs (i.e. verbs with a regular stem vowel change, ablaut) is newly formed by analogy with weak verbs ( strong vs weak verb). Characteristics of the preteritepresent verbs are (a) vowel differentiation in the singular and plural present tense (former preterite), cf. OE cann/cunnon ‘(I) can/(we) can,’ vs OE singa/singan’ (I) sing/(we) sing’ and (b) the third person singular present is endingless: he may, she can vs he does. Preterite-present verbs get their specific meaning from their syntactic use as modal auxiliary verbs. A-Z 941 References historical grammars primacy relation Relation described by Langacker (1966) between nodes in a tree diagram: two nodes A and B are in a relation of primacy, if (a) in the linear chain node A precedes node B and (b) node A commands node B, i.e. neither A nor B dominate each other, and the S-node which immediately dominates node A also dominates the node B. See the following tree diagram, in which node A precedes node B (precedence relation) and node A commands the nodes X and B: The primacy relation plays an important part in transformation processes such as pronominalization (see Langacker), but also generally in constraints for the application of rules (Reis 1974). References Langacker, R.W. 1966. On pronominalization and the chain of command. In D.A.Reibel and S.A. Schane (eds), Modern studies in English: readings in transformational grammar. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 160–86. Reis, M. 1974. Syntaktische Hauptsatzprivilegien und das Problem der deutschen Wortstellung. ZGL 2.299–327. transformational grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics primary stress 942 stress2 primate communication animal communication primate language animal communication primitive predicate semantic primitive principle of abstractive relevance Basic principle of K.Bühler’s (linguistic) sign theory, postulated in analogy to N.Trubetzkoy’s theory and exemplified by the distinction between phonetics and phonology: the constitution of the sign as a sign does not occur on the basis of its materially perceptible characteristics (i.e. the phonetic variety in its articulation), but rather on the basis of its ‘diacritically effective’ features which are relevant for distinguishing meaning. ( also axiomatics of linguistics, distinctive feature) References Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart 1965.) Innis, R.E. (trans.) 1982. Karl Bühler: semiotic foundations of language theory. New York. Trubetzkoy, N. 1929. Zur allgemeinen Theorie der phonologischen Vokalsysteme. TCLP 1. 39–67. axiomatics of linguistics A-Z 943 principle of compositionality (also Frege’s principle of meaning, Fregean principle) Principle usually ascribed to G.Frege (1848–1925) according to which the whole meaning of a sentence can be described according to the functional interdependency of the meanings of its well-formed parts. The methodological premise, that the semantic description of complex expressions in natural language can be conceived such that the meaning of these expressions (in particular sentences) can be reconstructed from the meanings of their individual elements and their syntactic relationship to one another, is based upon this empirical assumption. To this extent, the application of the principle of compositionality presupposes a syntactic analysis and yields, in the case of sentences, their sentence meanings but not the utterance meanings ( meaning, utterance). Possible problems with the principle of compositionality may be evident in idioms, metaphors, and intensionality. Categorial grammar and Montague grammar are based on the principle of compositionality. References Frege, G. 1962. Funktion, Begriff, Bedeutung, ed. G. Patzig. Göttingen. (4th edn 1975.) Partee, B.H. 1984. Compositionality. In F.Landman and F.Veltman (eds), Varieties of the Fourth Amsterdam Colloquium, September 1982. Dordrecht. 281–311. Seuren, P.A.M. 1985. Discourse semantics. Oxford. categorial grammar, formal logic, intensional logic, Montague grammar principle of cyclic rule application A provision for the repeated application of transformations in transformational grammar. According to the principle of cyclic rule application, syntactic and phonological rules operate from bottom to top, i.e. they begin on the lowest level of the tree diagram and then move to the next highest level until they reach the highest cyclic node, the matrix sentence. The application of a cyclic rule within a cyclic node assumes that no other cyclic rules have been applied to a higher cyclic node. According to the goal of formulating universal restrictions for the grammars of all natural languages, Chomsky (1968) postulated that the cyclic principle was an inherent organizational principle of universal grammar. In syntactic theory, trace theory has shown that the empirical predictions of the cyclic principle can also be derived from other constraints on transformations (see Freidin 1978). In phonology as well there are attempts to replace the cyclic principle with other restrictions (see Kiparsky 1982). ( also transformational grammar) Dictionary of language and linguistics 944 References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. ——1968. Language and mind. New York. Freidin, R. 1978. Cyclicity and the theory of grammar. LingI 9. 519–49. Kiparsky, P. 1982. From cyclic phonology to lexical phonology. In H.van der Hulst and N.Smith (eds), The structure of phonological representation, part 1. Dordrecht. 131–75. Pelletier, F.J. 1980. The generative power of rule orderings in formal grammars. Linguistics 18. 17– 72. Pullum, G. 1979. Rule interaction and the organization of a grammar. New York. Ross, J.R. 1967. On the cyclic nature of English pronominalization. In To honor Roman Jakobson: essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday, 11 October 1966. The Hague. Vol. 3, 1669– 82. Rudin, C. 1981. ‘Who what to whom said’: an argument from Bulgarian against cyclic whmovement. PCLS 17. 353–60. Soames, S. and D.M.Perlmutter. 1979. Syntactic argumentation and the structure of English. Berkeley, CA. Williams, E. 1977. Rule ordering in syntax. Dissertation, Bloomington, IN. ——1982. The NP-cycle. LingI 13. 277–95. constraints, transformational grammar principle of directionality A syntactic rule for co-ordinating structures. The first of two co-referential constituents can be deleted in a co-ordinating structure only if the constituent appears in the righthand branch of a node in a tree diagram, whereas the second element can be deleted only if it branches to the left. For example, Philip looks for Caroline and Philip finds Caroline can become Philip looks for and finds Caroline because the first instance of Caroline occurs to the right of looks for and the second instance of Philip occurs to the left of looks for. ( gapping) References co-ordination, transformational grammar A-Z 945 principle of expressibility theory principle of least effort speech act Zipf’s law private language Concept used by differing schools in philosophy (of language) comprising the idea that there is a language distinct from public language whose expressions refer exclusively to personal experiences and consciousness to such a degree that they cannot be understood by anyone but the speaker him-/herself. With various arguments, Wittgenstein, in his Philosophical Investigations, disputes the very consistency of the notion. References Chomsky, N. 1986. Questions about rules. In N. Chomsky (ed.), Knowledge of language: it’s nature, origin, and use. New York. 221–75. Jones, C.R. (ed.) 1971. The private language argument. London. Kripke, S. 1982. Wittgenstein on rules and private language. Oxford. Wittgenstein. L. 1953. Philosophical investigations. Oxford. private speech internal language privative [Lat. privare ‘to rob or deprive of’] Semantically defined class of derived verbs whose meaning can be paraphrased as ‘removal of something’: detoxify, unburden, behead, disinfect, etc. Dictionary of language and linguistics privative opposition 946 opposition PRO An abstract element in surface structure, which, as a phonologically empty category, projection principle). syntactically represents the logical subject of an infinitive ( Infinitival clauses are treated as whole sentences on the basis of the abstract representation of the subject by PRO ( complementizer). In contrast to the empty category marked by pro, the PRO element is always ungoverned, i.e. it occupies a position which no case-bearing NP could occupy. The distribution and semantic content of PRO is governed by the theory of control. References Vanden Wyngaerd, G.J. 1994. PRO-legomena: distribution and reference of infinitival subjects. Berlin and New York. control pro-adverb pronominal adverb probabilistic grammar Grammatical model developed by Salomaa (1969) and Suppes (1972) to describe social, regional, diachronic and situative variants in natural languages. On the basis of statistical hypotheses that are strongly supported by empirical evidence, every linguistic rule is assigned a degree of probability that predicts its occurrence within the framework of a ‘relational grammar’ which encompasses one of each variant. The development of such grammars, arranged according to probabilities, has proved to be a useful instrument for describing the processes of language change and language acquisition. References Salomaa, A. 1969. Probabilistic and weighted grammars. IC 15. 529–44. Sankoff, D. (ed.) 1978. Linguistic variation: models and methods. New York. A-Z 947 Suppes, P. 1972. Probabilistic grammars for natural languages. Synthese 22. 95–116. (Repr. in D. Davidson and G.Harman (eds), Semantics of natural language. Dordrecht. 741–62.) variational linguistics problominalization (also Bach-Peters paradox) Humorous term coined by Bach (1970) formed from contamination of probl(em) and (pron)ominalization which refers to certain difficulties in the derivation of pronouns from the deep structure. ( also personal pronoun) References Bach, E. 1970. Problominalization.LIn 1. 121ff. Karttunen, L. 1971. Definite descriptions with crossing coreference: a study of the Bach-Peters paradox. FL 7. 157–82. process vs action Semantic distinction of verbs, often handled as an aspect distinction. Process verbs describe dynamic events that are not caused by an agent: bloom, grow, rise. They are usually intransitive. Actions, on the other hand, are caused by an agent; they can occur in the imperative and can be combined with certain modal adverbs: dance joyfully. ( also stative vs active) References aspect Dictionary of language and linguistics prochievement test 948 language test proclitic Phonetic merging of a weakly stressed or unstressed word to the following word, as a rule with simultaneous phonetic weakening, cf. Fr. l’enfant ‘child.’ Proclitics are virtually also enclitic) non-existent in English. ( procope Diachronic or synchronic loss of one or more speech sounds at the beginning of a word, also aphesis) cf. bishop<Grk episkopos. ( pro-drop language A language in which an empty subject position that has been motivated by the projection principle and which has pronominal, i.e. referential, properties can appear in a finite sentence. Examples of such languages are Italian and Spanish, but not English, German, or French. For example, compare Italian [pro mangia] with English *[pro eats] for he eats. The pronoun he cannot be dropped in English. References Adams, M. 1987. From Old French to the theory of pro-drop. NL&LT 5. l-32. Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. ——1982. Some concepts and consequences of the theory of government and binding. Cambridge, MA. Perlmutter, D.M. 1971. Deep and surface structure constraints in syntax. New York. Picallo, M.C. 1984. The INFL node and the null subject parameter. LingI 15. 75–102. Platzack, C. 1985. The Scandinavian languages and the null subject parameter. Working Papers in Scandinavian Syntax 20. 1–65. Trondheim. (Repr. in NL&LT 5(1987).377–401.) Rizzi, L. 1982. Negation, wh-movement and the null subject parameter. In L.Rizzi (ed.), Issues in Italian syntax. Dordrecht. 117–84. ——1986. Null objects in Italian and the theory of PRO. LingI 17. 501–57. A-Z 949 pro-drop parameter The parameter which determines whether a language is a pro-drop language or not. A positive setting of the parameter allows an empty pro-element to be identified by its governor. This is the case in pro-drop languages. References pro-drop language productivity Ability of word-forming elements to be used to form new linguistic expressions. Productivity is a gradient concept that is broken down into unproductive elements (e.g. be-, cf. behead), occasionally productive (or ‘active’) elements (e.g. -ify and -ese, cf. beautify and motherese), and highly productive elements (e.g. re- and -er, cf. retry, player). The explanation and description of productivity is controversial: on the one hand, neologisms and their immediate comprehensibility parallel syntactic ‘creativity,’ but on the other hand, even as highly productive processes, they are, as a rule, not free of lexical gaps and exceptions (e.g. *topwards vs sidewards, *teen-something vs twenty-something, ? writable vs readable). ( also word formation) References Aronoff, M. 1976. Word formation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. Baayen, H. 1992. Quantitative aspects of morphological productivity. In G.Booij and J.van Marle (eds), Yearbook of morphology 1991. Dordrecht. 109–49. Baayen, H. and R.Lieber. 1991. Productivity and English derivation. Linguistics 29. 801–43. Frauenfelder, U. and R.Schreuder. 1992. Constraining psycholinguistic models of morphological processing and representation: the role of productivity. In G.Booij and J.van Marle (eds), Yearbook of morphology 1991. Dordrecht. 165–83. Kastovsky, D. 1986. The problem of productivity in word formation. Linguistics 24. 585–600. Marle, J.van. 1992. The relationship between morphological productivity and frequency. In G.Booij and J.van Marle (eds), Yearbook of morphology 1991. Dordrecht. 151–63. word formation Dictionary of language and linguistics 950 proficiency The ability to function competently in one’s native or in a second language, involving a sense for appropriate linguistic behavior in a variety of situations. Since the late 1960s, the proficiency movement has played a dominant role in foreign language instruction in the United States and Canada. The ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages) provisional proficiency guidelines, first disseminated in 1982, were developed in cooperation with American and international government, business and academic groups, and represent an adaptation of a scale formulated by linguists at the United States Foreign Service Institute in the early 1950s. The ACTFL guidelines outline levels for proficiency in the four skills of speaking, writing, listening, and reading. The levels (Novice Low, Mid, High; Intermediate Low, Mid, High; Advanced, Advanced High, and Superior; the Distinguished level also applies to the reading and listening skills) establish parameters for determining the degree of proficiency in the different skills. Oral proficiency, one of the key goals of the proficiency movement, is measured by the ‘oral proficiency interview,’ a test administered by a specialist trained in identifying the linguistic functions, contexts, text types, and accuracy levels characteristic of the different levels of proficiency. ( also second language acquisition) References American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. 1986. ACTFL proficiency guidelines. New York. Carroll, J.B. 1967. Foreign language proficiency levels attained by language majors near graduation from college. Foreign Language Annals 1. 131–51. Higgs, T.V. (ed.) 1984. Teaching for proficiency: the organizing principle. Lincolnwood, IL. Van Patten, B. and J.F.Lee. 1995. Making communicative language teaching happen. New York. pro-form (also pronominal copy, substitute) Linguistic elements which refer primarily to nominal antecedents. They represent other anaphora) or progressively ( elements by referring to them regressively ( cataphora), depending on whether or not the antecedent has been named previously or not. They reflect various aspects of their antecedent depending on their categorial function: person, number, gender, and case are expressed to various degrees by pronominals, while pronominal adverbs refer to semantic aspects such as location (there), temporality (then), causality (for that reason), and modality (like, thus). A-Z 951 References anaphora, reference, textual reference programming language Formal (artificial) language used in computers and designed for formulating tasks and algorithm, formal language). An executable program (‘source solving problems ( code’) written in a programming language is translated by a compiler or interpreter into a machine language (‘object code’). Every (higher-level) programming language is conceived for working on certain types of problems, e.g. ALGOL (‘algorithmic language’) principally for mathematical problems, COBOL (‘common business-oriented language’) for businessoriented problems. FORTRAN (‘formula trans-lation system’) for non-numeric scientific problems. In the framework of computational linguistics, LISP (e.g. for ATN grammars) and PROLOG (for definite clause grammar) play an important role. References Clocksin, W.F. and C.S.Mellish. 1981. Programming in PROLOG. Berlin (2nd edn 1984.) Garner, M. 1987. Artificial languages: a critical history. London. Wechselblat, R.L. (ed.) 1981. History of programming languages. London. Winston, P.H. and B.K.P.Horn, 1981. LISP. Reading, MA. (2nd edn 1984.) progressive (also continuative, continuous) Verbal aspect which indicates an action as taking place over a longer period of time relative to an implicitly or explicitly stated time of reference: Eng. John was singing (when I came in); Span. Juan está cantando, Icelandic Jón er aδ syngja. In some languages (such as English) this category is grammaticalized so that the use of the progressive is obligatory for expressing progressive meaning, although such forms can also acquire other meanings depending on the context: She is constantly smoking (emotive meaning implying disapproval or annoyance). Dictionary of language and linguistics 952 References Leech, G.N. 1971. Meaning and the English verb. London. Schopf, A. (ed.) 1974. Der englische Aspekt. Darmstadt. Vlach, F. 1981. The semantics of the progressive. In P.J.Tedeschi and A.Zaenen (eds), Tense and aspect. New York. 271–92. progressive assimilation assimilation prohibitive Verbal mood used to prohibit the addressee from doing something. In Latin. the prohibitive is expressed by the perfect subjunctive: ne dubitaveris ‘do not doubt!’ References modality projection 1 The process by which presuppositions of simple sentences are transmitted to complex sentences. References presupposition 2 In Chomsky’s Government and Binding theory, a mapping of syntactic-semantic properties, as they are stated in the lexicon, onto other levels of syntactic representation. References Baker, Mark. 1988. Incorporation: a theory of grammatical function changing. Chicago, IL. Dowty, David. 1991. Thematic proto-roles and argument selection. Language 67: 547–619. A-Z 953 Grimshaw, Jane. 1990. Argument structure. Cambridge, MA. Jackendoff, Ray. 1990. Semantic structure. Cambridge, MA. projection principle projection principle 1 A term introduced in Chomsky’s Government and Binding theory which links together the levels of syntactic description (surface structure, deep structure, and logical form). The projection principle states that a node which is present at one of these levels must be present at all levels. Therefore a moveme nt transformation must leave behind an empty category ( empty category principle) because the position in deep structure from which it was moved must correspond to an (empty) position in surface structure. ( trace theory) 2 A principle of GB theory that connects syntactic structures with lexical entries: the logical valence of predicates, which is established in the lexicon, must be represented at all syntactic levels of representation. As a result of this principle, semantically implied arguments of a verb that are not realized phonologically are represented syntactically as an empty category. The so-called ‘extended’ projection principle additionally requires that every clause projects a subject position, even if this position does not belong to the logical valence of the predicate. ( raising) References Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. control, pro-drop language, transformational grammar projection rule In Katz and Fodor’s (1963) theory of interpretive semantics, a semantic operation which arrives at the interpretation of the whole meaning of a sentence through the stepby-step ‘projection’ of the meaning of the individual constituents from the lowest level of derivation to the next higher level. Thus, projection rules function over the hierarchic relations of the constituents in the deep structure. According to Katz and Fodor, projection rules simulate the cognitive process in which the speaker and hearer comprehend the whole meaning of the sentence, using their knowledge of the lexicon (i.e. of the meaning of the individual elements) and of the syntactic relations. The process in which projection rules are applied is known as amalgamation. Dictionary of language and linguistics 954 Reference Katz, J.J. and J.A.Fodor. 1963. The structure of a semantic theory. Lg 39. 170–210. projectivity Term taken from mathematics which refers in linguistics to structures whose tree diagram and labeled bracketing are equivalent. This applies in the example Anne has promised the count a night of love, but not to the sentence Has Anne promised the count a night of love?, because the discontinuous elements has and promised would have to be expressed in the tree diagram by crossing branches, which cannot be expressed in brackets (see diagram below). prolepsis [Grk prólēpsis ‘taking beforehand’] 1 An argumentative figure of speech. The anticipation of an argument with the goal of tactical compromise, frequently in the form of a rhetorical question and answer. ( concession) 2 Syntactic construction in which one element (usually the subject) is ‘anticipated’ and placed at the beginning of the sentence outside the sentence frame and then expressed in the sentence by a pro-form, usually a pronoun: Now my boss, he wouldn ‘t put up with that sort of thing ( left vs right dislocation). References figure of speech PROLOG Programming language (name derived from Fr. programmation en logique and Eng. programming in logic) that realizes the principles of logical programming, that is, the execution of a program is conceived as carrying out a proof. This is based on the more general view that problem-solving may be construed as proving that certain target conditions can be met. PROLOG has been under development concurrently in Marseille and Edinburgh since the early 1970s and has played an increasingly important role in computational linguistics since the mid-1980s. A-Z 955 References Clocksin, W.F. and C.S.Mellish. 1981. Programming in PROLOG. Berlin (2nd edn 1984.) Gazdar, G. and C.S.Mellish. 1989. Natural language processing in PROLOG. Reading, MA. Kowalski, R. 1979. Logic for problem solving. New York. Pereira, F. and S.Shieber. 1987. PROLOG and natural language analysis. Stanford, CA. prominence In the study of suprasegmental features, a term encompassing stress2, duration, and tone. These features are always present to some degree in all utterances; the prominence of a unit is therefore relative to that of other units. pronominal adverb (also pro-adverb) Term used in a variety of ways which in general refers to linguistic elements which stand syntactically as pro-forms for prepositional phrases (objects or adverbials): thereon, hereby, hitherto, hereafter. pronominal copy pro-form pronominal form of address Pronominal expressions used for addressing the hearer; languages which make use of these generally have at least two forms whose use depends on the status of and relationship between the speakers. Investigations into the connection between social and linguistic aspects of pronominal forms of address have uncovered a series of regularities among most languages. The use of pronominal forms of address is dependent not only on a vertical status hierarchy (‘higher’ vs ‘lower’), but also on a horizontal dimension of ‘solidarity’ (i.e. belonging to a common ‘group’) or relational intimacy. Both dimensions intersect inasfar as the pronoun used symmetrically in intimate situations (e.g. Fr. tu, Ger. du ‘you’) is identical with the pronoun used in an asymmetrical Dictionary of language and linguistics 956 social situation from ‘higher to lower,’ while the more distant form (Fr. vous, Ger. Sie ‘you’) is used symmetrically in less intimate situations as well as for the address from ‘lower to higher’ socially. Research on pronominal forms of address has recently focused primarily on pragmatic, sociological, and ethnological aspects. ( also honorific) References Braun, F. 1988. Terms of address. Berlin. Brown, R. and A.Gilman. 1968. The pronouns of power and solidarity. In J.A.Fishman (ed.), Readings in the sociology of language. The Hague. 252–75. Brown, R. and S.Levinson. 1978. Universals of language usage: politeness phenomena. In E.N. Goody (ed.), Questions and politeness: strategies in social interaction. Cambridge. Ervin-Tripp, S.M. 1964. Imitation and structural change in children’s language. In E.H.Lenneberg (ed.), New directions in the study of language. Cambridge, MA. 163–89. Hymes, D. (ed.) 1964. Language in culture and society: a reader in linguistics and anthropology. New York. Metcalf, G.J. 1938. Form of address in German (1500–1800). Washington, DC. Silverberg, W.V. 1940. On the psychological significance of ‘du’ and ‘Sie.’ Psychoanalytic Quarterly 9. 509–25. Bibliography Braun, F, A.Kohz, and K.Schubert. 1986. Anredeforschung: kommentierte Bibliographie zur Soziolinguistik der Anrede. Tübingen. politeness A-Z pronominalization 957 personal pronoun pronoun (also shift word) Part of speech named for its function of standing for (‘pro’) the noun. Pronouns form a very heterogeneous group in regard to syntax and semantics. All pronouns share the property of deixis, but differ from nominal expressions in that nominal expressions such as proper nouns always refer to the same elements in the real world, independent of the specific speaker context, while pronouns refer to various objects in the real world in a way that is dependent on the specific linguistic context of the utterance. Thus, the proper name Mozart usually refers to the same individual, irrespective of the linguistic context, while the reference of a pronoun like he can only be determined from the context of the utterance, i.e. the man last mentioned, the individual pointed to by the speaker, etc. Morphologically, pronouns in inflectional languages generally have a complex inflectional pattern and are subject to agreement with their antecedents. Pronouns are divided into several syntacto-semantic subgroups, including personal, reflexive, possessive, demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative, and relative pronouns, as well as pronominal adverbs. References anaphora, clitics, personal pronoun pronunciation One generally speaks of the pronunciation of a language with regard to a speech community. Often this refers to the conventions of the writing system, and one speaks of the pronunciation of a letter or a word. ( also prescriptive grammar, standard pronunciation) References standard pronunciation Dictionary of language and linguistics proper name 958 proper noun proper noun (also name, nomen proprium, proper name) Semantically defined class of nouns that unequivocally identifies objects and states of affairs within a given context. By designating an object or a state of affairs in a given statement, proper nouns replace deictic, or pointing, gestures such that direct reference to that object or state of affairs is made. Whether proper nouns have meaning and how they differ from generic names and (definite) descriptions has been open to much debate. Onomastics, in its narrower sense, deals with proper nouns and differentiates them into personal names, place names, and names of bodies of water, among others. References Allerton, D.J. 1987. The linguistic and sociolinguistic status of proper names. JPsyR 11. 61–92. Conrad, B. 1985. On the reference of proper names. ALH 19. 44–124. Kripke. S. 1972. Naming and necessity. In D.Davidson and G.Harman (eds). Semantics of natural language. Dordrecht. 253–355, 762–9. Kuryłowicz, J. 1956. La position linguistique du nom propre. Onomastica 2. 1–14. Searle, J.R. 1969. Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge. onomastics properispomenon [Grk , ‘to pronounce the participle of penultimate syllable with a circumflex accent’] In Greek, a word with circumflex accent, presumably reflecting a rise-fall intonation on the penultimate syllable. e.g. ‘gift.’ ( also perispomenon) A-Z 959 proportional analogy analogy proportional clause Semantically defined modal clause functioning as an adverbial modifier to indicate a dependency relationship proportional to the state of affairs expressed in the main clause. They are introduced by the+comparative in both the dependent and independent clauses: The closer they came to the city, the more excited they became. proportional opposition opposition proposition [Lat. propositio ‘statement of the facts or substance of a case’] Term adopted by semantics and speech act theory from philosophy and formal logic (where a proposition is usually designated by ‘that p’). By ‘proposition’ one usually understands the language-independent common denominator of the meaning of sentences which express the factuality of a given state of affairs. In appropriate utterances of the sentences Phil smokes habitually. /Does Phil really smoke habitually? /It is not true that Phil smokes habitually. /If Phil smokes habitually, then he will not live much longer, every time the same reference (i.e. to Phil) and the same predication (i.e. of habitual smoking) is made, quite independent of the illocutionary force (assertion, question, denial, etc.). Thus, a proposition is the semantic kernel of a sentence that determines its truth conditions, regardless of the syntactic form and lexical filling of the given form of expression. A distinction is drawn between ‘coarser’ concepts of proposition, according to which, for example, all logically true sentences denote the same proposition, and ‘finer’ concepts of proposition, in which this is not the case. While older semantic models (cf. possible world semantics) conceived of propositions as unstructured units, the need for a structured concept of proposition in linguistics is now more and more accepted (cf. situation semantics). Since propositional acts (i.e. acts of expressing a proposition) are always constituents of illocutionary acts (illocution) and therefore cannot occur independently, they must be distinguished from statements (i.e. illocutionary acts) in which propositions are asserted and not just expressed. Dictionary of language and linguistics 960 References Austin, J.L. 1950. Truth. Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 24. (Repr. in his Philosophical papers. Oxford. 1961. 117–33.) Barwise, J. and J.Etchemendy. 1987. The liar: an essay in truth and circularity. Oxford. Cresswell, M.J. 1973. Logic and languages. London, Chs 3–4. ——1985. Structured meanings: the semantics of propositional attitudes. Cambridge, MA. Kearns, J.T. 1972. Propositions and truth in natural languages. Mind 81. 225–43. Nuchelmans, G. 1973. Theories of propositions. Amsterdam. Russell, B. and A.N.Whitehead. 1910/13. Principia mathematica. Cambridge. Searle, J.R. 1969. Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge. Stalnaker, R.C. 1984. Inquiry. Cambridge, MA. ——1985. Propositions. In A.P.Martenich (ed.), The philosophy of language. Oxford. 373–80. propositional calculus propositional logic propositional island constraint (also tensedS-condition, wh-island constraint) A constraint proposed by N.Chomsky on the use of transformational rules. In a structure such as […X… [s…Y…] …X…] no rules can refer to both X and Y, if S contains a finite verb, unless X is in the COMP position (complementizer) of S. The propositional island constraint refers above all to sentences introduced by question words. Compare, for example, What (=X) did she say—(=X in COMP) she saw—(=Y)? with *Philip (=X) is likely that—(=Y) will leave early. References constraints, wh-island constraint propositional logic Propositional logic as an elementary part of formal logic investigates the connection of simple (not analyzed) propositions to complex propositions. This connection occurs through the logical connectives such as and and or. Here it is a matter (in contrast with A-Z 961 intensional logic) of an extensional approach in which the actual semantic relations between the propositions are not taken into consideration in favor of studying the extensional rules for connecting propositions that are defined by the truth tables: the truth or falsity of complex propositions is the value of a logical function of the truth or falsity of the individual component propositions. The most important propositional connections between two propositions p and q are (a) conjunction: p and q (notation: p q); (b) disjunction: p or q (notation: p q); (c) implication: if p, then q (notation: p→q); (d) equivalence: p is equivalent to q (notation: p↔q); (e) negation: not p (notation: ¬P). Numerous more recent interpretations of language description are based on the terminology and rules of propositional logic and predicate logic. ( also generative semantics, Montague grammar) prosiopesis aphesis prosodeme [new formation after Grk prós ‘song,’ -em= ‘besides, in addition to,’ suffix denoting functional units] Phonological unit encompassing one or more (segmental) phonemes which is, therefore, considered a suprasegmental feature, such as intonation, stress2, juncture. References suprasegmental feature prosodic feature Feature that refers to units greater than a phoneme, thus to syllables, words, and also intonation, juncture, prosody, stress2, suprasegmental feature) sentences. ( Dictionary of language and linguistics 962 References suprasegmental feature prosodics The study of prosody. prosody [Grk prosōidía ‘song sung to a musical instrument; variation in pitch’] Linguistic characteristics such as stress2, intonation, quantity, and pauses in speech that concern units greater than the individual phonemes. Prosody also includes speech tempo and rhythm. ( also suprasegmental feature) References Selkirk, E.O. 1984. Phonology and syntax: the relation between sound and structure. Cambridge, MA. suprasegmental feature protasis vs apodosis In rhetoric, the distinction between the ‘tension-creating’ (protasis) and the ‘tensionrelaxing’ (apodosis), components of an antithetical idea or sentence. Structurally, protasis and apodosis can be in a relation of coordination or subordination. A-Z 963 References rhetoric prothesis [Grk prósthesis ‘addition’] Insertion of a sound (usually a vowel), at the beginning of a word through motivation of the given syllable structure. For example, initial /sp, st, sk/ clusters in Latin were broken up in Spanish and French by a prothetic e; cf. Lat. spiritus. stella, schola : Span. espíritu, estrella. escuela: Fr. esprit, étoile, école ‘spirit,’ ‘star,’ ‘school.’ References language change, sound change proto-language Term indicating an early stage of a language or language family that is not historically attested but rather reconstructed through the comparative method (e.g. Indo-European). ( also comparative linguistics, historical linguistics, genetic tree theory, reconstruction) prototype [Grk prótos ‘first,’ týpos ‘form, shape; image’] The prototype is (a) the model or proto-image of all representatives of the meaning of a word or of a ‘category.’ Thus, Shakespeare can be regarded as the or a prototype, as the ‘best example’ of the category poet. But it is only in exceptional cases that an individual ‘best example’ exists, and even this only becomes such a one by virtue of its typical features. Thus, a prototype is (b) the bundle of typical features of a category. The prototype of bird can be any given sparrow, but also an eagle; a penguin, however, is a less ‘good’ bird, as it lacks some of the typical features, such as the ability to fly. (c) The features themselves can also be more or less typical, i.e. they can have a higher or lower Dictionary of language and linguistics 964 ‘cue validity’; thus, twittering is less typical and specific to birds than flying (by one’s own strength). The determination of the typical features of a category is the task of lexical semantics, and, as prototype theory has been extended to grammatical categories, also of grammar. In principle, the typical features of a category do not correspond to the necessary and sufficient conditions of the membership in a category; thus, melon is no typical berry, although botanically it is classified as such. The meaning of a word is thus an ‘idealized cognitive model’ (ICM) or a social stereotype. The main question is always whether a central, most typical feature, i.e. a ‘basic meaning,’ can be found. To the degree that this is impossible, the prototypically organized structure of a word meaning disintegrates into ‘prototypical effects.’ References Coleman, L. and P.Kay, 1981. Prototype semantics: the English word I.II . Language 57. 26–44. Fillmore, J.C. 1975. An alternative to checklist theories of meaning. In C.Cogen et al. (eds). Proceedings of the first annual meeting of the Berkeley Linguistic Society. Berkeley. CA. 123– 31. ——1982. Towards a descriptive framework for spatial deixis. In R.J.Jarvella and W.Klein (eds), Speech, place and action. London. 31–59. Geeraerts, D. 1983. Prototype theory and diachronic semantics: a case study. IF 88. 1–32. Janicki, K. 1990. On the predecessors of prototype linguistics. Nordlyd, 16. 59–71. Kleiber, G. 1990. La semantique du prototype: categories et sens lexical. Paris. Lakoff, G. 1987. Women, fire and dangerous things: what categories reveal about the mind. Chicago and London. Rosch, E. 1973. Natural categories. CPsy 4.328–50. ——1978. Principles of categorization. In E. Rosch and B.Lloyd (eds), Cognition and categorization. Hillsdale, NJ. 27–48. Taylor, J.R. 1991. Linguistic categorization. Oxford. Tsohatsidis, S. 1990. Meaning and prototypes: studies in linguistic categorization. London. stereotype Provençal Occitan proxemics [Lat. proximum ‘neighborhood, vicinity’] Word coined by E.T.Hall from prox- and -emic ( etic vs emic analysis) to designate studies dealing with the differing perception and interpretation of spaces and its influence on communicative behavior in various cultural spheres. Proxemics (like kinesics) is a A-Z 965 newer subdiscipline of communication science, which treats non-linguistic aspects of communication. References Hall, E.T. 1963. Proxemics: the study of man’s spatial relations. In I.Galston (ed.), Man’s image in medicine and anthropology. New York. ——1963. A system for the notation of proxemic behavior. AA 65. 1003–26. ——1969. The silent language. New York. Watson, O.M. 1974. Proxemics. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 12, 311–44. proximate vs obviative Category of the personal pronoun systems in some languages (e.g. Algonquian, NaDené): personal pronouns are proximate if they refer to an object that has just been mentioned in the discourse; if they do not refer to something just mentioned, they are obviative. PS phrase structure pseudomorpheme Lexicalized morpheme occurring in lexicalized expressions in only one environment and whose basic meaning can no longer be analyzed synchronically, e.g. -gin in begin. If such a pseudomorpheme occurs in compounds with free morphemes, then it is called a semimorpheme (cf. cran- in cranberry). psycholinguistics Interdisciplinary area of research concerned with the processes of language production, language comprehension, and language acquisition, in which neurolinguistics, Dictionary of language and linguistics 966 discourse analysis, sociolinguistics, cognitive psychology, cognitive science, and artificial intelligence are closely allied. The central issues of psycholinguistics were taken up as early as the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries by Steinthal, Wundt and Bühler. The designation, concept, and program of psycholinguistics was developed in the summer of 1953 in a seminar at the Linguistics Institute of Indiana University by American psychologists and linguists (see Osgood & Sebeok 1954). It was determined that the linguistic structures discovered by linguists could be studied using the methods and theories of (experimental) psychology. Two important directions based on different assumptions about the relationship between language and cognition can be distinguished. (a) The first direction is oriented towards more recent linguistic theories (especially as a consequence of Chomsky’s work on transformational grammar in the 1960s and 1980s). It views grammar as an autonomous cognitive system ( modularity) and concerns itself with proving the psychological reality of linguistic constructs ( click2). (b) The second direction is more closely oriented towards models in cognitive psychology, in particular towards approaches that assume a more intensive interaction between the individual levels of linguistic description or between cognitive systems. In the 1980s models were tested that assumed a parallel processing of information in closely intertwined systems ( connectionism). For an overview, see Weissenborn & Schriefers (1987). References Aitchison. J. 1989. The articulate mammal: an introduction to psycholinguistics, 3rd rev. edn. London. Appel. G. and H.Dechert (eds) 1991. A case for psycholinguistic cases. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Blumenthal, A.L. 1970. Language and psychology: historical aspects of psycholinguistics. New York. Bresnan. J, (ed.) 1981. The mental representation of grammatical relations. Cambridge. MA. Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart. 1965.) Carroll, D.W. 1986. Psychology of language. Belmont. CA. Chomsky, N. 1968. Language and mind. New York. Clark, H.H. and E.V.Clark. 1977. Psychology and language: an introduction to psycholinguistics. New York. Flores d’Arcais, G.B. and W.J.M.Levelt (eds) 1970. Advances in psycholinguistics. New York. Fodor, J.A., T.G.Bever. and M.F.Garrett. 1974. The psychology of language. New York. Garman, M. 1990. Psycholinguistics. Cambridge. Garnham, A. 1985. Psycholinguistics: central topics. London. Gernsbacher, M.A. (ed.) 1994. Handbook of psycholinguistics. San Diego, CA. Glucksberg, S. and J. Danke. 1975. Experimental psycholinguistics: an introduction. New York. Johnson-Laird, P.N. 1983. Mental models. Cambridge, MA. Kess, J.F. 1991. Psycholinguistics: psychology, linguistics and the study of natural languages. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Lenneberg, E.H. 1967. Biological foundations of language. New York. Lenneberg, E.H. and H.E.Lenneberg (eds) 1976. Foundations of language development: a multidisciplinary approach, vol. 1. New York. Levelt, W.J.M. 1974. Formal grammars in linguistics and psycholinguistics, vol. 3: Psycholinguistic applications. The Hague. A-Z 967 ——1989. Speaking: from intention to articulation. Cambridge, MA. McWhinney, B. and E.Bates (eds) 1989. The crosslinguistic study of language processing. Cambridge. Miller, G. and P.N.Johnson-Laird. 1976. Language and perception. Cambridge, MA. Murray, D.J. 1990. On the early history of psycholinguistics. Historiographia Linguistica 17. 369– 81. Osgood, C and T.A.Sebeok (eds) 1954. Psycholinguistics: A survey of theory and research problems. Baltimore, MD. ——(eds) 1965. Psycholinguistics: a survey of theory and research problems. Bloomington, IN. Prideaux, G.D. 1985. Psycholinguistics: the experimental study of language. London. Reed, S.K. 1982. Cognition: theory and applications. Monterey, CA. Rosenberg, S. (ed.) 1982. Handbook of applied psycholinguistics. Hillsdale, NJ. ——(ed.) 1987. Advances in applied psycholinguistics, 2 vols. Cambridge. Slobin, D.I. 1979. Psycholinguistics, 2nd edn. Glenview, IL, and London. Steinberg, D.D. 1993. An introduction to psycholinguistics. London. Tannenhaus, M.K. 1988. Psycholinguistics: an overview. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 3, 1–37. Weissenborn, J. and H.Schriefers. 1987. Psycholinguistics. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Soziolinguistik/ Sociolinguistics. Berlin. 470–87. Bibliographies Prucha, J. 1972. Information sources in psycholinguistics: an interdisciplinary bibliographical handbook. The Hague. Sheldon, A. 1977. Bibliography of psychological, linguistic, and philosophical research on the psychological reality of grammar. Minnesota Working Papers in Linguistics and Philosophy of Language 4. 169–79. Journals Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, Applied Psycholinguistics. International Journal of Psycholinguistics. connectionism, modularity, language acquisition, language processing, language production, parsing, speech error, speech perception, translation Dictionary of language and linguistics psychological object psychology of language 968 focus psycholinguistics pulmonic [Lat. pulmo ‘lungs’] 1 Of or referring to the lungs. 2 Sounds formed with the pulmonic airstream mechanism. Most sounds in English, except stop consonants, are formed with the pulmonic airstream mechanism. References phonetics pulmonic airstream mechanism airstream mechanism pun (also paronomasia) A figure of speech of repetition. A play on words through the coupling of words that sound similar but which are very different semantically and etymologically, e.g. Is life worth living? That depends on the liver. ( figura etymologica, polyptoton) References A-Z 969 Redfern, W. 1984. Puns. Oxford. Ross, E. 1991. Aspects of the interpretation of puns in newspaper advertisements. In C.Feldbusch et al. (eds), Neue Fragen der Linguistik. Tübingen. Vol. 2, 439–46. punctual (also achievement) Verbal aspect included among the non-duratives ( durative vs non-durative): punctual verbs refer to a sudden change in a situation and thus cannot be combined with temporal modifiers denoting duration: *He found the key for an hour/an hour long. References aspect punctuation Rules for the optical arrangement of written language by means of non-alphabetic signs such as periods, commas, and exclamation marks. Such delimiting symbols clarify both grammatical and semantic aspects of the text. They indicate quotes, direct speech and contractions, and can reflect the intonation of spoken language. push chain vs drag chain Terms from the structuralist theory of language change ( structuralism) that denote phonologically motivated sound changes ( also sound shift). ‘Push’ in the sense of system pressure occurs when a phoneme /X/ encroaches on the allophonic field of a phoneme /Y/, which, in turn, moves over to the field of phoneme /Z/. The Great Vowel Shift in English is an example of this phenomenon. In this way, sound changes of this type preserve phonological distinctions. On the other hand, a gap in the phonological system can bring about a ‘drag chain’ which causes the empty slot to be filled by a new phoneme and, thus, ‘improves’ the system in the sense that it brings about preferred symmetry within the system. Dictionary of language and linguistics 970 References King, R.D. 1969. Push-chains and drag-chains. Glossa 3. 3–21. Martinet, A. 1952. Function-structure and sound change. Word 8. 1–32. ——1955. Economie des changements phonetiques. Bern. push-down automaton (abbrev. PDA; also push-down stack automaton, stack automaton) This is an automaton which has, in addition to the states and transitions of a finite state automaton, a push-down memory, i.e. one in which most recently stored information must be retrieved first. Chomsky proved that PDAs are essentially equivalent to contextfree grammars. ( formal language theory) Reference Hopcroft, J. and J.Ullman. 1979. Introduction to automata theory, languages and computation. Reading, MA. push-down stack automaton automaton Putenghua pushdown Chinese A-Z 971 Q q-Celtic Celtic qualitative ablaut ablaut quality (also timbre) Umbrella term for all articulatory and acoustic characteristics of speech sounds that do not involve quantity; particularly in vowels, e.g. degree of openness and rounding. ( also articulatory phonetics, distinctive feature, open vs closed, phonetics, rounded vs unrounded) References phonetics quantification In formal logic, quantification refers to the specification of for how many objects in a certain set a predicate is valid. Quantification is determined by quantifiers ( operator) which connect freely occurring variables in a sentence. A distinction is made between the existential quantifier, which says that the predicate in question is valid for at least one object in the given set, and the universal operator, through which the predicate in question is assigned to all elements of the underlying set of individuals. In quantification, the logical analysis is abstracted from the many colloquial interpretations, which may appear as the expressions several, some, many, by rendering these expressions Dictionary of language and linguistics 972 non-distinctive through the existential operator. On the other hand, ambiguities such as those found in the colloquial statement Everybody loves somebody can be specified in formal logic by illuminating the different scopes of the quantifying expressions. Such specifications constitute an important area of investigation for linguistic descriptions. Compare the approach of generative semantics (Lakoff 1971; Partee 1970) as well as the corresponding proposals of categorial grammar and Montague grammar, specifically Montague’s milestone essay of 1973, The proper treatment of quantification in ordinary English.’ (abbrev. PTQ) References Altham, J.E.J. 1971. The logic of plurality. London. Bartsch, R. 1973. The semantics and syntax of number and numbers. In P.Kimball (ed.), Syntax and semantics. New York. 51–93. Bellert, I. 1971. On the use of linguistic quantifying operators in the logico-semantic structure of representation of utterances. Poetics 2. 71–86. Cushing, S. 1982. Quantifier meanings: a study in the dimensions of semantic competence. Amsterdam. Hausser, R.R. 1974. Quantification in an extended Montague grammar. Austin, TX. Horn, L.R. 1972. On the semantic properties of logical operators in English. Los Angeles, CA. Jackendoff, R.S. 1968. Quantifiers in English. FL 4. 422–42. Keenan, E.L. 1971. Quantifier structures in English. FL 7. 255–84. Lakoff, G. 1971. On generative semantics. In D.D. Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics. Cambridge, MA. 232–96. Levin, H. 1982. Categorial grammar and the logical form of quantification. Naples. Löbner, S. 1986. Quantification as a major module of natural language semantics. In J.Groenendijk and M.Stokhof (eds), Information, interpretation, and inference: selected papers of the fifth Amsterdam colloquium. Dordrecht. 53–85. May, R.C. 1978. The grammar of quantification. Cambridge, MA. Montague, R. 1973. The proper treatment of quantification in ordinary English. In J.Hintikka, J.M.E. Moravcsik, and E.Suppes (eds), Approaches to natural language. Dordrecht. 221–42. (Repr. in Formal philosophy: selected papers of R.Montague, ed. R.H.Thomason. New Haven, CT, 1974. 247–70.) Partee, B.H. 1970. Negation, conjunction, and quantifiers: syntax vs semantics. FL 6. 153–65. Pelletier, F.J. 1979. Mass terms: some philosophical problems. Dordrecht. Van der Auwera, J. (ed.) 1980. Determiners. London. formal logic quantifier 1 In predicate logic, a frequently used synonym for operator in the narrower sense, that is, an umbrella term or synonym for the universal quantifier and the existential quantifier. 2 Linguistic term taken from predicate logic that designates operators that specify or quantify a set and are expressed in everyday language by indefinite adjectives or pronouns (all, some, several, and others), numerals (one, two, three, etc.), the definite article (The books are expensive), or indefinite plurals (Books are expensive). In transformational grammar quantifiers are derived from noun phrases in the deep A-Z 973 structure, in generative semantics they are introduced as higher-order predicates. In Montague grammar quantifying phrases like all humans denote sets of properties such that a universal proposition like All humans are mortal can be analyzed as simple predication: ‘mortal’ is a property that belongs to the set of properties that apply to all humans. This analysis corresponds to the syntactic structure of natural-language sentences and presents an important example of the methodological principle of principle of compositionality). compositionality in grammar theory and semantics ( It is a point of departure for more recent research on the semantics of natural-language quantifiers (see Barwise and Cooper 1981; Benthem and Meulen 1985). References Bartsch, R. 1973. The semantics and syntax of number and numbers. In P.Kimball (ed), Syntax and semantics. New York. Vol. 2, 51–93. Barwise, J. and R.Cooper, 1981. Generalized quantifiers and natural language. Ling&P 4. 159–219. Lakoff, G. 1971. On generative semantics. In D.D. Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics, Cambridge, MA. 232–96. Van Benthem, J. and A.ter Meulen (eds) 1985. Generalized quantifiers in natural language. Dordrecht. Van der Auwera, J. (ed.) 1980. Determiners. London. Westerstähl, D. 1989. Quantifiers in formal and natural language. In D.Gabbay and F.Guenthner (eds), Handbook of philosophical logic. Dordrecht. Vol. 4, 1–131. quantifier floating The placement of quantifiers such as all and both at a distance, so that they are separated by other elements from their ‘source NP,’ Who (all) was all there? They (both) were both infatuated with Rome. ( also quantification, quantifier) References Partee, B.H. (ed.) 1976. Montague grammar. New York. Vater, H. 1980. Quantifier floating in German. In J. van der Auwera (ed.), The semantics of determiners. London. 232–49. Dictionary of language and linguistics quantifier raising quantitative ablaut quantitative linguistics linguistics 974 raising ablaut statistical quantity Prosodic characteristic of speech sounds that so far has only been physically measured in approximate values, since objective parameters for boundaries between individual speech sounds cannot be ascertained owing to the fact that speech proceeds in an uninterrupted flow. While the absolute duration of speech sounds depends on the speech tempo and one’s personal way of speaking, the relative duration may function to differentiate meaning, for example in English the opposition of long and short vowels (e.g. heed vs hid) that is accompanied by qualitative characteristics ( quality). Three distinctive qualities are found, for example, in Estonian. Long and short consonants as well as long and short vowels are found, for example, in Greenlandic: [ma:'n:a] ‘now,’ [ma’na] ‘this,’ [u:'nεq] ‘burn’ [un:'εq] ‘leather,’ [a:'naq] ‘stepmother,’ [a’naq] ‘excrement.’ Long consonants (geminates) can also be differentiated from short ones in that they are formed when pulmonic (or in the case of ejectives, pharyngeal) air is forced with great pressure through the resonance chamber. ( fortis vs lenis) References phonetics Quechua Group of languages spoken from Columbia to Chile (about 7 million speakers); the largest language is the dialect of Cuzco (about 1 million speakers). Together with A-Z 975 Aymara it is supposed to form the Quechumaran branch of the Andean languages. There are also links with Penutian. Characteristics: complex sound system (five places of articulation and three types of articulation for plosives—normal, aspirated, glottalized). Verbs are morphologically complex, with suffixes indicating person, tense, various voices, mood, etc. Case system with about ten cases; there are also possessive suffixes and various suffixes to express diminutives, coordination, focus, and topicalization. Number markers are rare and first occurred as a result of Spanish influence. References Adelaar, W.F.H. 1977. Tarma Quechua: grammar, texts, dictionary. Lisse. Bills, G.D. et al. 1969. An introduction to spoken Bolivian Quechua. Austin, TX, and London. Cerron-Palomino, R. 1987. Lingüística Quechua. Cuzco. Cole, P. 1982. Imbabura Quechua. Amsterdam. Levinson, S.H. 1976. The Inga language. The Hague Liedtke, S. 1994. Penutian, Mayan and Quechuan. LDDS 10. Parker, G.J. 1969. Ayacucho Quechua grammar and dictionary. The Hague. Weber, D.J. 1983. A grammar of Huallaga (Huana-co) Quechua. Los Angeles. South American languages Quechumaran Andean, Quechua queclarative J.M.Sadock’s term, derived from question+ declarative, for sentences that are formulated as interrogatives, but are interpreted as declarative sentences in certain contexts, e.g. Are you crazy? with the suggested meaning ‘your behavior or claim is ridiculous and unsupportable.’ Reference Sadock, J.M. 1971. Queclaratives. CLS 7. 223–31. Dictionary of language and linguistics 976 question A type of illocution that attempts to elicit particular information, typically in the form of an answer. ( also interrogative) question tag Quiché tag question Mayan languages quotative Sentence mood which characterizes sentence content as ‘known through hearsay’ and which therefore relieves the speaker of any responsibility for the accuracy of what was said. In many languages the quotative is its own morphological category; in other languages other modal categories subsume the quotative function. Note, for example, the use of the subjunctive in the English sentence Phil said he would dine with us tomorrow evening. ( also direct vs indirect discourse, evidentiality) References Palmer, F.R. 1986. Mood and modality. Cambridge. direct vs indirect discourse, evidentiality, modality A-Z 977 R radical [Lat. radix ‘root’] 1 Speech sound classified according to its articulator (radix=root of the tongue). As a ) and pharyngeals (e.g. [ħ], ), rule, radicals are divided into uvulars (e.g. depending on their place of articulation. ( also articulatory phonetics, phonetics) References phonetics 2 Chinese writing Rain Forest Bantu Bantu raising In transformational grammar, a rule for deriving certain infinitive constructions by which the subject noun phrase of an embedded sentence is ‘raised’ into the subject or object position of the matrix sentence in the transition from deep structure to surface structure. The rest of the sentence is marked as ‘infinitive.’ The so-called accusative plus infinitive constructions were considered to be cases of raising in the early phases of transformational grammar: Caroline let/heard her brother come, in which the ‘logical’ or deep structure subject of come is raised to the ‘grammatical’ or surface structure object of let/hear (see Postal 1974). In later theories, object raising was discarded in favor of a non-transformational analysis. Constructions with auxiliary-like expressions are described as raising into the subject position: Philip seems [—to read a lot]. Whereas in constructions with control of a logical argument of the infinitive, the matrix verb (=control verb) must have a semantic argument as ‘controller,’ it is a characteristic of raising constructions that the grammatical subject of the matrix predicate is not the logical subject of the matrix verb (the so-called raising verb), but only of the embedded verb. This becomes clear in the paraphrase It seems that Philip reads a lot, in which Philip is not the logical argument of the raising verb seem. In the movement of quantified Dictionary of language and linguistics 978 expressions to a structurally higher position in the logical form, one also speaks of (quantifier) raising. References Bech, G. 1955/7. Studien uber das deutsche Verbum infinitum, 2 vols. Copenhagen. (Repr. Tübingen. 1983.) Olsen, S. 1981. Problems of ‘seem/scheinen’ constructions and their implications for the theory of predicate sentential complementation. Tübingen. Postal, P.M. 1974. On raising: one rule of English grammar and its theoretical implications. Cambridge, MA. transformational grammar raising vs lowering Sound change in vowels that results from a change in the place of articulation through vowel chart); usually conditioned through a higher or lower tongue position ( assimilation to neighboring high/low vowels ( umlaut, vowel harmony) or consonants; to be sure, some environment-free raising (particularly in the lower long vowels) and lowering (particularly in the higher extreme vowels in informal, ‘careless’ speech) are possible. Reference Donegan, P.J. 1978. On the natural phonology of vowels. Columbus, OH. sound change A-Z Rajasthani range 979 Indo-Aryan function rapid speech vs slow speech Different word forms can emerge from rapid speech when compared with slow speech. For example, perhaps in clearly articulated slow speech becomes ‘praps’ in rapid speech. rationalism [Lat. ratio ‘the faculty of reason’] Seventeenth century branch of philosophy based on the philosophies of R.Descartes and G.W. Leibniz, which admits reason as the sole source of human knowledge. N.Chomsky sees so-called ‘Cartesian linguistics’ as continuing the tradition of rationalism, especially in reference to (a) the concept of ‘innate ideas,’ (b) the idea of language as a specifically human activity, (c) the emphasis on the creative aspect of language use, and (d) the distinction between outer and inner forms of language (i.e. between surface structure and deep structure). ( also mentalism, Port Royal grammar) References mentalism, transformational grammar reading Analytic-synthetic process in which (a series of) written signs is converted through interpretation into information. This sensual reconstruction is a complex neurophysiological process ( neurolinguistics) in which the optic-perceptive and articulatory components function more or less simultaneously with the perception of Dictionary of language and linguistics 980 lexical meanings and the recognition of syntactic structures, or these components may mutually influence each other through a process of feedback (see Pirozzolo & Wittrock 1981). The process of reading is supported by the probability structure of language and writing ( Zipf’s law) as well as by redundancy on all descriptive levels. Such redundancies may include the aesthetic characteristics of the form of written symbols, morphological redundancy (e.g. the grammatical redundancy in Span. los libros nuevos), also language comprehension) or valence relationships on the level of syntax. ( References Barnett, M.A. 1989. More than meets the eye:foreign language reading theory and practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Bernhardt, E.G. 1991. Reading development in a .second language. Norwood, NJ. Grellet, F. 1981. Developing reading skills. Cambridge. Grey, W.S. 1956. The teaching of reading and writing: an international survey. Paris (UNESCO). Just, M.A. and P.A.Carpenter. 1980. A theory of reading: from eye fixation to comprehension. PsychologR 87. 329–54. Kieras, D.E. and M.A.Just (eds) 1984. New methods in reading comprehension research. Hillsdale, NJ. Lee, J.F. and D. 1988. Musumeci. On hierarchies of reading skills and text types. MLJ 72: 173– 187. Pearson, P.D. (ed.) 1984. Handbook of reading research. New York. Pirozzolo, F.J. and M.C.Wittrock (eds) 1981. Neuropsychological and cognitive processes in reading. London. Swaffar, J., K.Arens and H.Byrnes. 1991. Reading for meaning. An integrated approach to language learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Weaver, W.W. 1977. Towards a psychology of reading and language. Athens, OH. Bibliography Fay, L.C. et al. (eds) 1964. Doctoral studies in reading. Bloomington, IN. language comprehension, literacy readjustment component (also readjustment rule) Grammatical component in transformational grammar that contains the rules that operate between the syntactic and the phonological components and supply the formative of the terminal syntactic chains with the correct inflectional features in the surface structure. A-Z 981 References transformational grammar readjustment rule readjustment component real definition definition reanalysis The reorganization of a tree diagram in which the terminal nodes remain identical, but the hierarchical analysis of the construction is changed. For example, the controlled infinitive construction is described by a reanalysis rule which derives the surface structure by the deletion of an embedded sentence ( embedding) in the deep structure where the embedded verb forms a constituent with the once embedded matrix verb. Reference Haegeman, L. and H.van Riemsdijk. 1986. Verb projection raising, scope, and the typology of movement rules. LingI 17. 417–66. Dictionary of language and linguistics reasoning 982 argumentation received pronunciation standard pronunciation receptive aphasia aphasia, Wernicke’s aphasia recessive [Lat. recedere ‘to draw back, move away’] (also ergative verb or unaccusative) Intransitive interpretation of verbs like break, roll and boil which also have transitive interpretations, e.g. The sun is melting the ice vs The ice is melting. Recessives stand in converse relation to causatives. ( also unaccusative) References causative recipient Semantic role in case grammar for the participant (usually animate) that is affected indirectly by the action expressed by the verb. Recipient includes the receiver in verbs which describe a change of possession (They contribute money to various causes) and the addressees with verbs of communication (They told us stories about their stay abroad) and are usually expressed as an indirect object. ( also dative) A-Z 983 References case grammar recipient design In conversation analysis, term referring to the fact that—in their choice of verbal and non-verbal devices (e.g. gazing)—speakers orient themselves towards the expectations of the listeners. Thus, turns are constructed interactively. For excellent examples, see Goodwin (1979, 1981). References Goodwin, C. 1979. The interactive construction of a sentence in natural conversation. In G.Psathas (ed.), Everyday language. New York. 97–122. ——1981. Conversational organization. New York. Sacks, H., E.Schegloff, and G.Jefferson. 1974. A simplest systematics for the organisation of turntaking for conversation. Lg 50. 696–735. reciprocal assimiliation reciprocal pronoun assimilation reciprocity reciprocity [Lat. reciprocus ‘moving backwards and forwards’] Term for a bilateral relationship between two or more elements; in English, reciprocity can be expressed by reciprocal pronouns (one another, each other): Philip and Caroline love each other. The use of reciprocal pronouns is subject to the same kinds of restrictions as reflexive pronouns. ( also binding theory) Dictionary of language and linguistics 984 References Baldi, P. 1975. Reciprocal verbs and symmetric predicates. LingB 36. 13–20. Fiengo, R.W. and H.Lasnik. 1973. The logical structure of reciprocal sentences in English. FL. 9. 447–68. Langendoen, T. 1978. The logic of reciprocity. LingI 9. 177–97. Lichtenberk, F. 1985. Multiple uses of reciprocal constructions. Australian Journal of Linguistics 5. 19–41. binding theory reconstruction Procedure for determining older, non-recorded, or insufficiently attested stages of a language. Proceeding from our knowledge of possible (e.g. phonetic) types of change ( sound change), (pre)historic language systems are reconstructed little by little on the basis of synchronic linguistic data. Such data consist in alternating, varying forms that can be systematically traced back to historically invariable structures. Depending on whether such synchronic alternations can be observed in one language or between several genetically related languages, two methods of reconstruction are distinguished. (a) Internal (or language-internal) reconstruction: historical characteristics of structures are reconstructed on the basis of systematic relationships within a given language. Apart from ablaut and Verner’s law, the best example for internal reconstruction is laryngeal theory: in 1879, F.de Saussure hypothesized the existence of Indo-European laryngeals based on internal structural aspects. His theory was later corroborated through actual evidence of such traces in newly discovered Hittite. (b) External (comparative) reconstruction: reconstruction takes place by comparing particular phenomena in several related (or presumably related) languages. Comparative reconstruction became particularly significant and its methods underwent refinement in the nineteenth century with the elucidation of the Indo-European obstruent (= stops and fricatives) system, which was reconstructed by comparing the consonantal systems of the individual IndoEuropean languages ( Grimm’s law, Verner’s law). Comparative reconstruction forms the foundation of comparativ e linguisticsand was used primarily by the Neogrammarians in connection with their thesis of the regularity of sound laws. References Baldi, P. (ed.) 1990. Linguistic change and reconstruction methodology. Berlin and New York. Beekes, R. et al. 1992. Rekonstruktion und relative Chronologie: Akten der VIII. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Leiden. Innsbruck. Eichner, H. 1988. Sprachwandel und Rekonstruktion. In C.Zinko (ed.), Akten der 13. Österreichischen Linguistentagung. Graz. 10–40. Fox, A. 1995. Linguistic reconstruction. An introduction to theory and method. Oxford. A-Z 985 Haas, M.R. 1966. Historical linguistics and the genetic relationship of languages. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 3, 113–153. Hock, H.H. 1986. Principles of historical linguistics. Berlin and New York. (2nd edn, rev. and updated 1991.) Hoenigswald, H.N. 1960. Language change and linguistic reconstruction. Chicago. ——1973. The comparative method. In T.A. Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague, Vol. 11, 51–62. Incontri Linguistici 1984. Problemi della ricostruzione: un dibattito. Vol. 9, 67–152. Lehmann, W.P. 1962. Historical linguistics: an introduction. New York. (2nd edn 1973.) Lehmann, W.P. and H.-J.Herwitt. 1991. Language typology 1988: typological models in reconstruction. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Marchand, H. 1956. Internal reconstruction of phonemic split. Lg 32. 245–53. Meillet, A. 1925. La méthode comparative en linguistique historique. Oslo. Pedersen, H. 1962. The discovery of language. Bloomington, IN. (Repr. from Linguistic science in the nineteenth century. Cambridge, 1931.) Indo-European, language change, linguistics recoverability A constraint on deletion that ensures that no change in meaning occurs. After the deletion has taken place, the basic structure must always be visible at surface structure. The sentence (i) Philip is bigger than Caroline can be seen as the result of a permissible deletion in the sentence (ii) Philip is bigger than Caroline is big because the elements are deleted according to precise conditions and the recoverability of (ii) from (i) is guaranteed. References constraint, transformation recurrence [Lat. recurrere ‘to run back, return’] A term from text linguistics. The repetition of the same linguistic elements, e.g. syntactic categories or referentially identical words; also the repetition of the root of one word in other words (partial recurrence; figure of speech, polyptoton, pun). Recurrence is important for cohesion and coherence in a text. Dictionary of language and linguistics 986 References Beaugrande, R.de 1980. Text, discourse, and process: toward a multidisciplinary science of texts. London. Harris, Z.S. 1952. Discourse analysis. Language 28. 1–30. Koch, W.A. 1966. Recurrence and a three-modal approach to poetry. The Hague. Petöfi, J.S. 1973. Towards an empirically motivated grammatical theory of verbal texts. In J.S.Petöfi et al. (eds), Studies in text grammar. Dordrecht. 205–75. discourse grammar, figure of speech, text linguistics recursive definition recursive rule recursive rule A type of rule taken from mathematics that is formally characterized by the fact that the symbol to the left of the arrow also occurs to the right: e.g. N→AP+N. Here N is the recursive element, which ensures that the rule can be used on itself. Wherever the symbol N occurs, the expression to the right of the arrow can be inserted, which in turn contains the symbol N. References recursiveness recursiveness A term from mathematics used in linguistics for the formal properties of grammars, which use a finite inventory of elements and a finite group of rules to produce an infinite number of sentences. In this respect, such a grammatical model is able to grasp human competence ( competence vs performance) which is characterized by creativity. Although Chomsky formalized recursiveness through generalized transformations in Syntactic structures (1957), in the so-called aspects model of the standard theory (1965), he generates it in deep structure by phrase structure rules. The source of recursiveness is considered to be embedding, since all recursive constructions (attributive adjectives, prepositional attributes) can be traced back to relative clauses. For example, the interesting book the book that is interesting, the hood of the car the hood that A-Z 987 belongs to the car. The only essential recursive rule in deep structure, from which all surface-structure recursive constructions are derived, is NP→NP+S. Since generative semantics could not formulate semantically motivated derivations satisfactorily, the sole source for the generation of recursive structures was phrase structure rules. Thus the interesting book is generated with the help of NP→Det N and the recursive rule N→AN. References Bar-Hillel, Y. 1953. On recursive definitions in empirical science. In Proceedings of the eleventh international congress of philosophy. Brussels. Vol. 5, 10–165. Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic structures. The Hague. ——1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. transformational grammar reduction 1 Operational procedure in parsing: the shortening of complex sentence structures to the also reduction test) minimal obligatory structure. ( 2 The result of a transformation in which a complex element is replaced by a simple element, e.g. pronominalization. ( also substitution) apocope, syncope) or 3 In phonetics and phonology, the weakening of vowels ( consonants. reduction test Experimental analytic procedure in structural linguistics which is used to discover the most basic sentence structures ( kernel sentence) as well as to distinguish between optional and obligatory sentential elements. Thus in the sentence: (At that time.) Goethe already resided in Strassburg, the elements in parentheses can be eliminated, whereas in Strassburg cannot be eliminated, since it is an adverbial required by the valence of the verb to reside. ( also operational procedures) Dictionary of language and linguistics 988 redundancy (also hypercharacterization) 1 In general, excess information, that is, information expressed more than once and which hence could easily be forgone in some occurrences. However, since linguistic communication is constantly hampered by disruptive noises, idiolectal and other variation, inattention and misinterpretation, language has developed into a means of communication characterized by a great degree of redundancy. This is apparent on all levels of linguistic description, perhaps most clearly in the plethora of morphological markings (e.g. in Spanish the plural is morphologically realized throughout all endings in the NP los árboles verdes) and in lexical repetition. Redundancy is also intentionally used for rhetorical purposes: e.g. Each and every one was there. 2 In phonology ‘redundancy’ is occasionally used as a term to contrast with ‘distinctiveness’ ( distinctive feature). 3 In information theory, redundancy correlates in a statistically verifiable manner with the probability of occurrence of the particular element of information, that is, the more probable the occurrence of a particular sign, or the more frequently a particular expression is used, the less information value it has. References information theory redundancy rules A type of rule in transformational grammar for the specification of general regularities. They take the form of rewrite rules and state ‘If feature A exists, then insert feature B.’ Such generalizations affect morphological, syntactic, and semantic properties. They help simplify lexical entries, because they specify predictable features. For example, phonological redundancy specifies the predictability of phoneticphonological features in a general way: [+nasal]→[+voiced] since voicing correlates with nasality. References Jackendoff, R. 1975. Morphological and semantic regularities in the lexicon. Lg 51. 639–71. phonology, transformational grammar A-Z 989 reduplication Doubling of initial syllables of a root or stem with or without a change in sound to express a morphosyntactic category, e.g. the formation of the perfect in a number of Indo-European verbs (Lat. tango—tetigī ‘I touch—I touched’; Goth. haitan—haíhait ‘to be called—was called’) or plural formation in Indonesian. In word formation, repetition of morphemes indicates a strengthening of the expression: Lat. quisquis ‘whoever,’ Eng. goody-goody. References Marantz, A. 1982. Re reduplication. LingI 13. 435–82. sound symbolism, word formation reference 1 In traditional semantics, reference is the relation between the linguistic expression (name, word) and the object in extralinguistic reality to which the expression refers ( semiotic triangle). The division between denotation and extension seems to be problematic in this case. 2 In J.R.Searle’s speech act theory, which was developed along the lines of Strawson, language use and the speaker are brought into play. In this case, the speaker makes reference to the intra- and extralinguistic context by using linguistic and non-linguistic means, which, together with predication, constitute a partial act in the execution of a propositional speech act. By means of referential expressions (particularly personal pronouns, proper nouns, nominal expressions), the speaker identifies objects of reality, about which he/she says something. Distinctions are drawn between the following forms of reference: (a) situation-dependent reference expressed through pronouns, definite articles, deictic expressions ( deixis), ‘incomplete’ designations, and also through gestures; (b) situation-independent reference expressed through personal names ( proper noun) and ‘complete’ designations; (c) situation-defining reference expressed through illocutive expressions ( illocution; also anaphora). On the one hand, the properties of reference make the relations and distinctions of meaning and extension apparent, and, on the other hand, a more exact understanding of the role of reference in communication are currently of particular linguistic interest. The issue of reference is especially important for appropriate semantic interpretations that rely on the descriptive models of generative grammar ( binding theory). Dictionary of language and linguistics 990 References Atkinson, M. 1979. Prerequisites for reference. In E. Ochs and B.B.Schieffelin (eds), Developmental pragmatics. New York. 229–49. Barwise, J. 1991. Situationen und Kleine Welten. In A.V.Stechow and D.Wunderlich (eds), Semantik/ Semantics: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. 80–9. Bellert, I. 1972. On a condition of the coherence of texts. Semiotica 2. 335–63. Clark, H.H. and C.R.Marshall. 1981. Definite reference and mutual knowledge. In A.K.Joshi, B.L. Webber, and I.A.Sag (eds), Elements of discourse understanding. Cambridge. 10–53. Clark, H.H. and G.L.Murphy. 1982. Audience design in meaning and reference. In J.-F.LeNy and W. Kintsch (eds), Language and comprehension. Amsterdam. 287–99. Clark, H.H., R.Schreuder, and S.Buttrick. 1983. Common ground and the understanding of demonstrative reference. JVLVB 22.245–58. Conrad, B. 1985. On the reference of proper names. ALH 19.44–124. Cresswell, M.S. 1991. Die Weltsituation. In A.V. Stechow and D.Wunderlich (eds), Semantik/ Semantics: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. 71–9. Dik, S. 1968. Referential identity. Lingua 21.70–97. Donnellan, K. 1966. Reference and definite descriptions. Philosophische Rundschau 75.281–304. Lieb, H.H. 1979. Principles of semantics. In F.Henny and H.Schnelle (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 10: Selections from the third Groningen round table. New York. 353–78. Linsky, L. 1967. Referring. London. ——1971. Reference and referents. In D.D.Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics. Cambridge, MA. 76–85. Marslen-Wilson, W., E.Levy, and L.K.Tyler. 1982. Producing interpretable discourse: the establishment and maintenance of reference. In R.Jarvella and W.Klein (eds), Speech, place, and action: studies in deixis and related topics. Chichester. 339–78. Quine, W.V.O. 1973. The roots of reference. La Salle. Recanati, F. 1993. Direct reference. Oxford. Russell, B. 1905, On denoting. Mind 14.479–93. Schwarz, D.S. 1979. Naming and referring: the semantics and pragmatics of singular terms. Berlin. Searle, J.R. 1969. Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge. Shadbolt, N. 1983. Processing reference. JoS 2.63–98. Smith, B. 1978. Frege and Husserl: the ontology of reference. Journal of the British Society for Phenomenology 9.111–25. Strawson, P.F. 1950. On referring. Mind 67. 320–44. Vater, H. 1986. Einführung in die Referenzsemantik. Cologne. Wettstein, H.K. 1984. How to bridge the gap between meaning and reference. Synthese 58.63–84. anaphora, textual reference referent (also denotatum2, designatum) Object or state of affairs in extralinguistic reality or also a linguistic element to which the speaker or writer is referring by using a linguistic sign (noun phrases, possibly also adjective phrases, verb phrases). A-Z 991 References reference referential index A formal convention, a referential index marks the same or different referents of a text through numbers or small Roman letters. In the sentences (1) Philip1 promised me2 [to come to London1] and (2) Philip1 helped me2 [to come to London2] the subject of [to come to London] in (1) is referentially identical with Philip, in (2) with the speaker of the sentence. referential reading attributive vs referential reading referential semantics As a ‘language-external’ discipline, referential semantics investigates and describes the conditions and rules that govern the way language is used to refer to the extralinguistic world. Whereas a content-oriented semantics is concerned with the language-internal relations of linguistic expressions ( semantic relations), referential semantics, developed primarily within the framework of speech act theory, investigates the specific ways in which a speaker refers to the space-time structure of a given speech situation ( deixis), establishes relations, or refers to objects or ideas. ( also I-now-here origo, reference) References reference, speech act theory Dictionary of language and linguistics 992 reflection theory In Marxist linguistic theory, the teaching that language is the expression or the ideal reflection of objective reality through human consciousness. Linguistic signs are seen as the material realizations of mental images, i.e. concepts or assertions. The inquiry into the relationship between linguistic expressions and their mental counterparts is the task of semantics. ( also Marrism, materialistic language theory) References Marrism reflexive pronoun [Lat. reflexus ‘bent or curved back’] Subgroup of pronouns which are used when the pronoun is coreferential with the subject of the clause it is used in: Philip1 defended himself1. Reflexive pronouns are often handled as special cases of personal pronouns, since in many languages they have the same grammatical forms, particularly in the first and second persons (Fr. je me lave ‘I wash myself’ vs il me lave ‘he washes me’). There are some languages, however, where reflexivity is not expressed by pronouns but rather by verbal affixes (see Sells et al. 1987). In older forms of generative transformational grammar, reflexive pronouns are derived from a pronominalization transformation which replaces a full noun phrase with a reflexive pronoun when two elements in a text are coreferential. In more recent approaches of transformational grammar, reflexive pronouns are not handled by transformations, but rather by binding theory. Unlike English, some languages (e.g. German, French) have verbs that can only be used reflexively: Ger. sich schämen ‘to be ashamed.’ Also, many languages can use reflexive pronouns to describe reciprocal relationships and actions, where English uses reciprocal pronouns such as each other, one another, etc. ( also anaphora, reciprocity) References Edmondson, J. 1978. Ergative languages, accessibility hierarchies, governing reflexives and questions of formal analysis. In W.Abraham (ed.), Valence, semantic case and grammatical relations. Amsterdam. 633–60. Everaert, M. 1986. The syntax of reflexives. Dordrecht. Faltz, L.M. 1977. Reflexivization: a study in universal syntax. Ann Arbor, MI. A-Z 993 Geniusiene, E. 1988. The typology of reflexives. Berlin. Jackendoff, R.S. 1972. Semantic interpretation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. Kubinski, W. 1987. Reflexivization in English and Polish: an are pair grammar analysis. Tübingen. Nedjalkov, V.P. 1980. Reflexive constructions: a functional typology. In G.Brettschneider and C. Lehmann (eds), Wege zur Universalienforschung. Tübingen. 222–8. Ruszkiewicz, P. 1984. Aspects of reflexivization in English. Katowice. Sells, P., A.Zaenen, and D.Zec. 1987. Reflexivization variation: relations between syntax, semantics, and lexical structure. In M.Iida, S.Wechsel, and D.Zec (eds), Working papers in grammatical theory and discourse structure: interactions of morphology, syntax and discourse. Stanford, CA. 169–238. Zribi-Hertz, A. 1989. Anaphor binding and narrative point of view: English reflexive pronouns in sentence and discourse. Lg 65.695–727. reflexive relation In formal logic, the characteristic of a two-place relation R in a set S, which is true if every element x in S is in the relation R with itself (notation: R(x, x)). This is true, for example, for the relation of identity: every element is identical to itself. A relation R is non-reflexive in the cases where R(x, x) is not true for every element. This is, for example, the case in the relation of punishment, for not every individual punishes him/herself. One must distinguish between a non-reflexive relation R and a so-called irreflexive relation R', in which it is the case that for all elements ¬R'(x,x). Compare the (irreflexive) relation of being married: No one gets married to oneself. References formal logic, set theory reflexivity 1 Property of syntactic constructions where two arguments of an action or relationship described by a single predicate have identical reference. Reflexivity can be expressed by a reflexive pronoun (Philip hurt himself) or by verbal affixes, as in Dyirbal ( Australian languages): in bayi buybayir‘he hides (himself).’ Dictionary of language and linguistics 994 References Helke, M. 1979. The grammar of English reflexives. New York. reflexive pronoun 2 Property of human language to refer to itself, as in citations of words, for example. ( also metalanguage) reflexivization reflexive pronoun regional dictionary dialect dictionary register Manner of speaking or writing specific to a certain function, that is, characteristic of a certain domain of communication (or of an institution), for example, the language of religious sermons, of parents with their child, or of an employee with his/her supervisor. Registers play a prominent role in Halliday’s school of Systemic Functional Grammar. systemic linguistics) ( Reference Biber, D. 1995. Dimension of register variation. A cross-linguistic comparison. Cambridge. Halliday, M.A.K. et al. 1964. The linguistic sciences and language teaching. London. A-Z 995 regressive assimilation assimilation regulative rule Rules of behavior that regulate forms of behavior which exist independently of those rules (e.g. interpersonal relationships or street traffic or table manners), in contrast to constitutive rules which define forms of behavior. See Searle (1969: ch. 2.5). References Searle, J.R. 1969. Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge. speech act theory. reification [Lat. res ‘thing’] A term coined by Lakoff (1968) to denote the (systematic) semantic relations between the abstract meaning of a lexeme (e.g. dissertation) and the ‘concretization’ derivable from it: His dissertation deals with the philosophy of language vs His dissertation has more than 500 pages, where the first sentence refers to the concept ‘dissertation,’ whereas the second refers to its material realization. Reference Lakoff, J.D. 1968. The role of semantics in a grammar. In E.Bach and R.T.Harms (eds), Universals in linguistic theory. New York. 124–169. relation 1 In set theory and formal logic, the relation between at least two elements of an ordered pair: Philip is bigger than Caroline (notation: larger than (x, y) or L(x, y). Depending on the number of places, relations are created between two, three, or more objects, individuals, or states of affairs, the order of the elements not being arbitrary. In natural Dictionary of language and linguistics 996 language, syntactic-semantic relations in a sentence are determined by the valence of the verbal expressions, cf. x loves y, x falls between y and z, and expressed by noun phrases (and any corresponding case markers). For special characteristics of relation, symmetrical relation, transitive relation. reflexive relation, connex relation, converse relation; for relation in syntax, dependence, domination, constituency; for relation in semantics, semantic relation. ( also set theory) References formal logic, set theory 2 syntactic function relation judgment In formal logic, a judgment in which a relation between two or more objects with regard to size, serial order, placement in space and time, relatedness, among others, is expressed, for example, Philip is older than Caroline or Philip is the brother of Caroline. relational adjective adjective relational expression A noun with a one-place argument, such as father (of), foot (of), president (of). In many languages relational expressions differ syntactically and morphologically from nonrelational expressions, for example by having distinct possessive constructions ( alienable vs inalienable possession). relational grammar Model of a universal grammar put forward by D.M.Perlmutter, P.M.Postal, and D.E.Johnson, among others, as an alternative to transformational grammar. A basic A-Z 997 assumption of relational grammar is that grammatical relations (such as subject and object) play a central role in the syntax of natural languages. This distinguishes relational grammar from universal grammar models that use concepts of constituent structure for syntactic rules and the definition of grammatical relations. Because no universally valid syntactic function), definition of grammatical relations can be given ( transformational grammar of the 1960s did not succeed in describing universal phenomena (such as the passive) as uniform phenomena of all languages. This motivated two basic assumptions of relational grammar: (a) grammatical relations are primitives which cannot be further defined; and (b) representations in terms of syntactic constituent structure are not suited for describing universal phenomena. Instead, sentences are analyzed by means of relational networks. These contain at least one sentence node, from which ‘arcs’ for the predicate and its arguments proceed. Each major constituent of the sentence stands in precisely one grammatical relation to its dominating sentence node at every level of description. The most important grammatical relations are: subject (or 1relation), direct object (2-relation), indirect object (3-relation), genitive, locative, instrumental, and benefactive. The following are diagram illustrates the relational network of the sentence That book was reviewed by Louise (see Perlmutter 1983.16): 1, 2 and P represent the grammatical relations ‘subject,’ ‘direct object,’ and ‘predicate’ on two syntactic levels, which are represented by co-ordinate arcs (c1, c1). The network depicted here reconstructs the passive construction as follows: The direct object of the c1 level becomes the subject of the c1 level, and the subject of the c1 level does not have a grammatical relation to the predicate at c1 level but instead functions as a’chômeur’ (French for ‘unemployed person’). The constituent structure of the sentence, the linear order and the morphological marking of the sentence elements are not represented. Specific to relational grammar is the assumption of several successive syntactic levels and thus of several grammatical relations which an element in a given sentence bears to the sentence node. This is a natural consequence of the theoretical assumptions of relational grammar pertaining to grammatical relations, and tries to capture the fact that in many cases an element cannot be identified as the bearer of a certain grammatical relation, but rather has properties of both subject and object ( inversion, unaccusative). Relational grammar has concentrated on phenomena such as passive, verb agreement, and reflexives, and has established hierarchy universals for their description. A more recent development in relational grammar is ‘Arc Pair Grammar’ (see Johnson and Postal 1980; Kubinski 1988). Dictionary of language and linguistics 998 References Blake, B. 1990. Relational grammar. London. Johnson, D.E. 1976. Towards a theory of relationally based grammar. Bloomington, IN. ——1977. On relational constraints on grammar. In P.Cole and J.M.Saddock (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 8: Grammatical relations. New York. 151–77. Johnson, D.E. and P.M.Postal. 1980. Arc pair grammar. Princeton, NJ. Kubinski, W. 1988. Reflexivization in English and Polish: an are pair grammar analysis. Tübingen. Oppenrieder, W. 1993. Relationale Grammatik. In Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 601–9. Perlmutter, D.M. 1980. Relational grammar. In E.A. Moravcsik and J.R. Wirth (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 13: Current approaches to syntax. New York. 195–229. ——(ed.) 1983. Studies in relational grammar, vol. 1. Chicago, IL. Perlmutter, D.M. and C.Rosen (eds) 1984. Studies in relational grammar, vol. 2. Chicago, IL. Postal, P.M. and B.D.Joseph (eds) 1990: Studies in Relational Grammar, vol. 3. Chicago, IL. Bibliography Dubinsky, S. and C.G.Rosen. 1987. A bibliography on Relational Grammar. Bloomington, IN. relational typology Classification of the world’s languages according to ‘fundamental relations,’ i.e. according to how their constituents are encoded into nominative, ergative, and active languages. References Plank, F. (ed.) 1985. Relational typology. Berlin and New York. Primus, B. 1994. Relational typology. In Syntax: an international handbook on contemporary research. Vol. 2. Berlin and New York. 1076–109. ergative language A-Z 999 relative adjective adjective relative clause Subordinate clause which is dependent on a noun or pronoun, is usually introduced by a relative pronoun or relative adverb, and can refer to various elements (or even a whole sentence) except for the predicate. Depending on the semantic/pragmatic function, a distinction is usually made between defining/ restrictive and amplifying/non-restrictive relative clauses. Restrictive clauses limit the set of possible objects the noun specified by the clause can refer to: Here is the book that you were looking for (and none other than that one), while amplifying clauses specify their referent more exactly: Napoleon, who came from Corsica, was exiled to Elba. These two types of clause, which often allow for two or more interpretations, can be distinguished from one another by examining the following characteristics of the surface structure: in restrictive clauses, which are always a part of a definite description, the referent can be emphasized by using a demonst rative pronoun (that book, which), while in non-restrictive clauses the referent is often a proper noun or personal pronoun, and the whole sentence can usually be modified by adding words or phrases such as apparently or as is well known, which underline its purely attributive character. In addition, non-restrictive clauses are optional, while defining clauses are obligatory. This distinction is also supported by various intonational properties. References Bartsch, R. 1976. Syntax and semantics of relative clauses. Amsterdam. Downing, B.T. 1978. Some universals of relative clause structure. In J.H.Greenberg et al. (eds), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. 375–418. Helgander. J. 1971. The relative clause in English and other Germanic languages: a historical and analytical survey. Göteborg. Keenan, E.L. 1985. Relative clauses. In T.Shopen (ed.). Language typology and linguistic description. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 141–70. Kleiber, G. 1987. Relatives restrictives et relatives appositives: une opposition ‘introuvable.’ Tübingen. Lehmann, C. 1984. Der Relativsatz. Tübingen. Prideaux, G. and W.J.Baker. 1987. Strategies and structure: the processing of relative clauses. Amsterdam. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1000 relative pronoun Subgroup of pronouns which refer to an immediately preceding noun, noun phrase, clause, or sentence and which serve to introduce attributive subordinate (relative) clauses ( relative clause, subordinate clause). In English, relative pronouns include who, whom, which, that. relator In formal logic, a predicate with at least two empty slots, that is, one that requires at least two arguments (notation: aRb); cf. the relation judgment Caroline is the sister of Philip, where ‘be-sister-of’ is the relator. References formal logic relevance [Lat. relevare ‘to reduce the load of, alleviate’] The relevance of an entity for a particular goal is a measure of how much the entity contributes to the attainment of the goal. If it does not contribute anything, then it is considered to be irrelevant to that goal. If it is a necessary condition for it, then it is maximally relevant. In linguistic investigations, it is the relevance of an utterance for the mutually recognized purpose of discourse which is of particular interest. Grice’s maxim of relevance states simply: ‘Be relevant.’ The response Here’s five dollars to the utterance I’m hungry is relevant only in a situation in which one can buy oneself something to eat for five dollars, but not, for example, in the middle of a forest. ( maxim of conversation) References Blass, R. 1990. Relevance relations in discourse: a study with special reference to Sissala. Cambridge. Sperber, D. and D.Wilson. 1986. Relevance: communication and cognition. Cambridge, MA. A-Z 1001 Werth, P. 1985. The concept of ‘relevance’ in conversational analysis. In P.Werth (ed.), Conversation and discourse. London. 129–54. relevant feature In structural phonology, phonological features which in an individual language are distinctive, i.e. cause a difference in meaning, such as in English the feature of voiced vs voiceless with stops, which distinguish /b, d, g/ from /p, t, k/, e.g. beer /bi:r/ vs peer /pi:r/. Aspiration is not relevant in English (e.g. tar vs star, [thar] vs [star]). ( also distinctive feature) relic area enclave reordering transformation movement transformation repair In conversation analysis, those techniques that participants in conversations employ in order to achieve a smooth functioning of the interaction. Utterances need to be ‘repaired’ when the speaker has problems finding the right word or makes a mistake (see Schegloff et al. 1977). Repairs may be initiated or undertaken by the same or the next speaker. Since the organization of repairs is subordinate to the system of turn-taking (see Schegloff 1979), repair may lead to an impairment of the sequential organization; for instance, the sequentially implied next turn may have to be postponed ( adjacency pair, conditional relevance). For this reason a self-initiated repair within the same turn is preferred over other alternatives ( preference). References Goodwin, C. 1981. Conversational organization: interaction between speaker and hearer. New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1002 Jefferson, G. 1984. On embedded and exposed corrections. StL 14.58–68. Schegloff, E. 1979. The relevance of repair to syntaxfor-conversation. In T.Givón (ed.), Syntax and semantics, vol. 12: Discourse and syntax. New York. 261–86. Schegloff, E., G.Jefferson, and H.Sacks, 1977. The preference for self-correction in the organization of repair. Lg 53.361–82. Selting, M. 1988. The role of intonation in the organization of repair and problem handling sequences in conversation. JPrag 12.293–322. conversation analysis representational function of language Besides the expressive function of language and appellative function of language, one of the three subfunctions of the linguistic sign in K.Bühler’s organon model of language. The representational function of language refers to the relation between the linguistic sign and the object or state of affairs that it represents as a ‘symbol.’ ( also axiomatics of linguistics) Reference Bühler, K. 1990. Theory of language: the representational function of language, trans. D.F.Goodwin. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. resonance An increase in the strength of sound waves through a co-oscillation of other sources of sound whose own frequency is identical with the frequency of the primary sound source. In this manner, certain frequencies increase in speaking and singing by a change in the size and shape of the resonance chamber. References phonetics A-Z 1003 resonance chamber Term taken from musi cology (referring to wind instruments) for the anatomical region in which speech sounds are articulated: the upper laryngeal region, the pharyngeal, nasal, and oral cavities. These four resonance spaces are bordered by the vocal cords towards the inside of the body and the opening of the nose and mouth towards the outside of the body. resonant restricted code sonorant code theory restrictive Semantic property of conjunctions (but, only), adverbs (at least), or relative clauses (the book that you’re looking for is on the table) which express some sort of limitation relative to the statement in question. restrictive clause Semantically defined modal clause which functions as an adverbial modifier to express limitation on that which is expressed in the main clause. They are usually introduced by such conjunctions as as far as, except that: As far as I know, he’s been retired for years. restructuring Term used in transformational grammar for the change of underlying forms in a process of linguistic change. Restructuring always occurs when a linguistic change (e.g. a Dictionary of language and linguistics 1004 sound change) does not result in synchronously alternating surface forms. Consequently, this innovation cannot be acquired by children as a new or modified rule or series of rules, but rather takes place as a reorganization of the grammar; the original innovations are then understood to be part of the underlying forms. References King, R. 1969. Historical linguistics and generative grammar. Frankfurt. Traugott, E.C. 1976. On the notion restructuring in historical syntax. In D.D.Bornstein (ed.), Reader in the theory of grammar: From the seventeenth to the twentieth century. Cambridge. 94–103. Vennemann, T. 1974. Restructuring. Lingua 33.137–56. resultative (also accomplishment, achievement, conclusive, delimitative, effective, egressive, finitive, telic, terminative) Verbal aspect which forms a subclass of non-duratives ( durative vs non-durative). Resultatives are verbs which refer to an event that comes to a conclusion, e.g. to kill, to cut up, to burn down, to find, to eat an apple. Resultative verbs or constructions can be recognized from the fact that their imperfective variants (He was eating an apple) do not logically imply the perfective variant: *He ate the apple. In contrast, with a nonresultative verb such as to dance (He was dancing when I entered the room), the perfective variant follows logically: He danced. ( also telic vs atelic) References Nedjalkov, V.P. (ed.) 1988. Typology of resultative constructions. Amsterdam. aspect retroflex (also cacuminal) Speech sound classified according to its articulator (apical) and its place of articulation (post-alveolar). In the articulation of a retroflex, the tip of the tongue is bent A-Z 1005 towards the top and back of the mouth, .g. e , ‘child,’ ‘table,’ in Am. Eng. phonetics) , in Swed. ‘waterfall,’ ‘door.’ ( also articulatory References phonetics reversivity Relation of semantic opposition. In contrast to the general relation of incompatibility, reversivity is limited to expressions denoting processes. A relation of reversivity is said to exist between two expressions (e.g. enter vs leave) when both expressions contain an element of change from an initial state to a final state such that the initial state of the first expression corresponds to the final state of the second expression and vice versa. Frequently, reversivity is signaled by prefixes (Engl. ø vs un- (lock vs unlock). References Cruse, D.A. 1979. Reversives. Linguistics 17. 957–66. ——1986. Lexical semantics. Cambridge. Revised Extended Standard Theory transformational grammar rewrite rule A rule of transformational grammar of the type X→Y1…Yn, where the element to the left of the arrow, X, can be replaced by the elements to the right of the arrow. These rules correspond to the branching in tree diagrams ( phrase structure rules). There is a difference between context-free rewrite rules and context-sensitive rewrite rules. For example V →V transitive/#NP is a context-sensitive rule, where/means ‘in the environment of and # the empty space where the transposed element will be placed. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1006 References transformational grammar Rhaeto-Romance (also Rhaeto-Romansh) Collective term for the Romance languages and dialects derived from the Vulgar Latin spoken in the Alps between St Gotthard and the Gulf of Trieste. The unity of these languages was not recognized until the nineteenth century (G.I.Ascoli, T.Gartner). Today the following divisions are generally recognized: (a) Friulian (East Ladinian: Carnia to the Friulian lowlands, approx. 450,000 speakers); (b) (Central) Ladinian in the valleys surrounding the Sella range, with approx. 27,000 speakers; (c) Romansh (West Ladinian: Graubünden, Switzerland) with approx. 40,000 speakers. RhaetoRomance has been the fourth official language of Switzerland since 1938. The RhaetoRomance dialects, which fall typologically between French and northern Italian, differ greatly in terms of morphology and lexicon (numerous dialectal variants) and have been strongly influenced both by neighboring languages as well as by the multilingual nature of their speakers. References Billigmeier, R.H. 1979. A crisis in Swiss pluralism: the Romansh and their relations with the German-and Italian-Swiss in the perspective of a millenium. The Hague. Decurtins, A. 1993. Rätoromanisch: Aufsätze zur Sprach-, Kulturgeschichte und zur Kulturpolitik. Chur. ——1993. Viarva romontscha: contribuziuns davart il lungatg, sia historia e sia tgira. Chur. Ebneter, T. 1994. Syntax des gesprochenen Rätoromanischen. Tübingen. Gregor, D.B. 1982. Romontsch: language and literature. Cambridge. Haiman, J. and P.Beninca. 1992. The Rhaeto-Romance languages. London. Holtus, G. and J.Kiramer. 1986. ‘Rätoromanisch’ in der Diskussion, 1976–1985. In G.H.Ringger and K.Ringger (eds), Festschrift für W.T.Elwert. Tübingen. 1–88. Holtus, G., M.Metzeltin, and C.Schmitt (eds) 1989. Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik, vol. 3. Tübingen. Rohlfs, G. 1975. Rätoromanisch: die Sonderstellung des Rätoromanischen zwischen Italienisch und Französisch. Eine kulturgeschichtliche und linguistische Einführung. Tübingen. Grammars Candinas, T. 1982. Romontsch sursilvan: grammatica elementara per emprender igl idiom sursilvan. Chur. Ganzoni, G.P. 1977. Grammatica Ladina. Samedan. A-Z 1007 Dictionaries Dicziunari Rumantsch Grischun. 1939–. Chur. (Vol. 8,1986–91.) Dicziunari Tudais-Ch-Rumantsch Ladin. 1944. Chur. (2nd edn 1976.) Pirona, G.A. et al. 1935. Il nuovo Pirona: vocabolario friulano. Udine. (2nd edn 1967.) Bibliography Iliescu, M. and H.Siller-Runggaldier. 1985. Rätoromanische Bibliographie. Innsbruck. Rhaeto-Romansh rheme Rhaeto-Romance comment, focus, theme vs rheme rhetic act [Grk ‘subject of speech, matter; predicate’] In J.L.Austin’s speech act theory, the performance of a phatic act in a manner that establishes the meaning of this act, whereby the meaning of such an act is determined, if one has established, (a) what is being talked about and (b) what is being said about it. This term was replaced by J.R.Searle with the term ‘propositional act’ ( proposition) in his elaboration of Austin’s theory. References speech act theory rhetoric [Grk (téchnē)] Classical rhetoric was a politically and ethically established style of teaching effective public speaking. The system was codified by Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintillian into five Dictionary of language and linguistics 1008 departments: ‘invention,’ ‘arrangement,’ ‘style,’ ‘memory,’ and ‘delivery.’ Aristotle identified three branches of rhetoric: ‘deliberative’—legislative rhetoric, the purpose of which is to exhort or dissuade; ‘judicial’ or forensic rhetoric, which accuses or defends; ‘epideictic’ or panegyric rhetoric, which is ceremonial in nature and commemorates or blames. Classical rhetoric considered what is today studied in the domains of stylistics and pragmatics, and laid the foundations of modern linguistic theory. While medieval and early modern rhetoric retreated into the study of figures of speech and tropes, the ‘new rhetoric’ of the last thirty years has been conceptualized as a social-psychologically grounded tool of communication (new rhetoric, Hovland), as a means of researching intelligibility (applied rhetoric), as a theory of argumentation (nouvelle rhétorique, Perelman), and as a sociopolitical institution of democratic societies. Within linguistics, rhetoric can be seen as a part of the pragmatically grounded text linguistics, characterized by (a) the pragmatic aspects of a speech act, where one is conscious of its effect and perlocution, and (b) by the changing textinternal features of a situatively suitable, argumentative and stylistic structure. ‘Rhetorical’ here means any kind of persuasive use of language in private (everyday use) and in the public arena (politics, advertising, law). Rhetoric stands at the interdisciplinary intersection of linguistics, sociology, and language psychology. References Aristotle. 1982. ‘Art’ of rhetoric, trans. J.H.Freese. Cambridge, MA. Billig, M. 1987. Arguing and thinking: a rhetorical approach to social psychology. Cambridge. Erickson, K.V. (ed.) 1974. Aristotle: the classical heritage of rhetoric. Metuchen, NJ. Hovland, C.I. et al. 1953. Communication and persuasion. New Haven, CT. Kennedy, G. 1963. The art of persuasion in Greece. Princeton, NJ. ——1980. Classical rhetoric and its Christian and secular tradition from ancient to modern times. London. Lausberg, H. 1960. Handbuch der literarischen Rhetorik, 2 vols. Munich. (3rd edn Stuttgart, 1990.) ——1963. Elemente der literarischen Rhetorik, 2nd rev. edn. Munich. (4th corr. edn 1971.) Leith, D. and G.Myerson. 1989. The power of address: explorations in rhetoric. London. Levi, J.N. (ed.) 1990. Language in the judicial process. New York. Martin, J.E. 1992. Toward a theory of text for contrastive rhetoric. New York. Medhurst, M.J. 1990. Cold war rhetoric: strategy, metaphor, and ideology. New York. Murphy, J.J. 1974. Rhetoric in the Middle Ages: a history of rhetorical theory from St. Augustine to the Renaissance. Berkeley, CA. Nash, W. 1989. Rhetoric: the wit of persuasion. Oxford. Perelman, C. 1989. Rhétoriques. Brussels. Perelman, C. and L.Olbrechts-Tyteca. 1969. The New Rhetoric: a treatise on argumentation, trans. J.Wilkinson and P.Weaver. Notre Dame, IN. Renwick, J. (ed.) 1990. Language and the rhetoric of the Revolution. Edinburgh. Steinman, M., Jr. 1967. New rhetorics. New York. Bibliography Vickers, B. 1981. Bibliography of rhetoric studies 1970–1980. Comparative Criticism 3.316–22. A-Z 1009 argumentation, figure of speech, trope rhetorical question 1 In the broad sense, rhetorical questions are all uses of interrogative sentences to which the speaker does not expect an answer from the addressee. Some merely serve to raise an issue for discussion, others have the effect of declaring the speaker’s preference for one view or expectation over other possible ones: If winter’s here, can spring be far behind? 2 Rhetorical questions in the narrow sense are those questions that lead the addressee to understand the opposite, in a sense, of its propositional content, that is, the negative assertion in a positive yes/no-interrogative (Is it at all likely that he’s really sick?=‘He is not sick’) and the positive assertion in a negative yes/no-interrogative (Is it at all likely that he isn’t really sick? =‘He is indeed sick’) as well as the corresponding negative existential assertion in a positive wh-interrogative (Where can anyone get any peace and quiet? =‘One cannot get any peace and quiet anywhere’) and the corresponding positive universal assertion in a negative wh-interrogative (When has Philip not been in the theater?=‘Philip is always in the theater’). Occasionally, rhetorically used whinterrogatives have another, contextually determined use, namely, if there is a known exception to the indirectly expressed negative existential or positive universal assertion (Who shuffles like that around here with a derby, bowtie, and walking stick?—Only Charlie Chaplin shuffles like that…). 3 A figure of speech in the form of an apparent question that is used to intensify a corresponding comment (e.g. Are you blind?) or request (Would you like to keep quiet?). The rhetorical question can be analyzed pragmatically as an indirect speech act. ( prolepsis) rhinolalia [Grk rhís ‘nose’, lalía ‘talk’] Term referring to both a voice disorder and articulation disorder in which not only the voice is affected (as in rhinophonia) but also the articulation of sounds. This term is not used in North America. Dictionary of language and linguistics rhinophonia [Grk 1010 , ‘sound, voice’] Term referring to a voice disorder caused by a dysfunction of the velum, or physical changes in the nasal cavities. rhotacism [Grk , name of the Greek letter ‹ρ›] 1 In the broader sense, every change of a consonant to r. This change mostly concerns dental fricatives and l. It is found, for example, in numerous Italian dialects. 2 In the narrower sense, spontaneous change of Proto-Gmc [z] to West Gmc [r] intervocalically, cf. Goth. maiza, OE māra ‘more’. Synchronic reflexes of this change can still be recognized in the grammatical alternation of r: s in Eng. was vs were ( Verner’s law). 3 Speech disorder caused by stuttering of the r-sound. ( also language disorder) Rickmål Danish, Norwegian right-branching construction A phrase structure grammar construction. A structure is right branching if in the tree diagram each node which branches into con-stituents A and B is of the type that only the right branch, B, may branch. Reference Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. A-Z rising 1011 falling vs rising rising diphthong diphthong, intonation Algonquian Ritwan Romaji Japanese Romance languages Branch of Indo-European which developed from Italic, particularly from Latin and its various regional forms in the territories conquered by Rome (Vulgar Latin). A division is generally made between East Romance languages (Rumanian, Italian) and West Romance languages (Gallo-Romance, IberoRomance, and Rhaeto-Romance languages) based on phonological and morphological criteria (e.g. voicing or deletion of intervocalic voiceless stops in West Romance and the loss of final [s] in East Romance: Span. sabéis vs Ital. sapete ‘you (pl.) know,’ Span. las casas vs Ital. le case ‘the houses’). Included in Gallo-Romance are French, Occitan, and FrancoProvençal, while Spanish, Portuguese, Galician, and Catalan belong to Ibero-Romance. Some of the main factors contributing to the individual development of each territory include substratum and superstratum influences, the date of Romanization, and the extent of relations with Rome. The language which has changed the most from Latin is French, which underwent a thorough typological transformation (heavy loss of inflectional morphology due to the loss of final syllables and their replacement by elements such as personal pronouns, articles, prepositions, auxiliaries). In contrast, the southern Romance languages such as Spanish and Italian, as well as Rumanian, are much closer to Latin. Sardinian has a particularly conservative phonological inventory, and does not fit easily into the East/West distinction. References Agard, F.B. 1984. A course in Romance linguistics, 2 vols. Washington, DC. Elcock, W.D. 1975. The Romance languages, 2nd edn. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1012 Hall, R.A., Jr. 1974. External history of the Romance languages. New York. ——1983. Proto-Romance morphology. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Harris, M. and N.Vincent. 1988. The Romance languages. London. (Repr. 1990.) Holtus, G., M.Metzeltin, and C.Schmitt (eds) 1987. Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik. Tübingen. Hope, T.E. 1971. Lexical borrowing in the Romance languages, 2 vols. Oxford. Jensen, F. 1990. Old French and comparative GalloRomance syntax. Tübingen. Malmberg, B. 1971. Phonétique général et romane. The Hague. Posner, R. and J.N.Green (eds) 1980–93. Trends in Romance linguistics, 5 vols to date. Berlin and New York. Rohlfs, G. 1971. Romanische Sprachgeographie. Munich. Wright, R. (ed.) 1990. Latin and the Romance languages in the Early Middle Ages. London. Grammar Meyer-Lübke, W. 1890–9. Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen, 3 vols. Leipzig. (Repr. Hildesheim and New York, 1972.) Bibliography Romanische Bibliographie (suppl. to Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie). Tübingen. Dictionary Meyer-Lübke, W. 1935. Romanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg. (5th edn 1972.) Journals Probus Revue de Linguistique Romane. Romance Philology. Romanistisches Jahrbuch. Vox Romanica. Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie. A-Z Romanian 1013 Rumanian Romanization transcription, transliteration Romany Language of the Gypsies (called Sinti and Roma by themselves), genetically related to the Indo-Aryan languages. Since the beginning of the Gypsy migrations, around AD 1000, Romany has been increasingly influenced by other languages. References Hancock, I. 1988. The development of Romany linguistics. In M.A.Jazyery and W.Winter (eds), Languages and cultures: Studies in honor of E.C. Polomé. Amsterdam. Turner, R.L. 1926. The position of Romani in IndoAryan. Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society, 3rd series, 5:4.145–89. (Repr. in Collected papers. London, New York, and Toronto. 251–90.) Ventzek, T.V. 1983. The Gypsy language. Moscow. root 1 Diachronically, the historical basic form of a word, reconstructed from comparison of related languages and specific sound laws, which cannot be broken down into further elements, and which is seen phonetically and semantically as the basis for corresponding word families, e.g. the (reconstructed) Indo-European root *peror *par- for ‘all types of locomotion,’ which underlie fare, welfare, wayfarer, ferry. 2 Synchronically, synonym for ‘free’ morpheme or base. ( also word formation) Dictionary of language and linguistics 1014 References word formation root compound verbal vs root compound root determinative In historical word formation, a no longer transparent derivational element, such as (th)er, with an originally serializing function: father, mother, brother or Lat. pater, frater. References word formation root-isolating language isolating language root noun Noun that consists of only one free morpheme (=root) or of a base or stem (morpheme) without a recognizable derivational morpheme: box, fin, light. root transformation A term coined by J.E.Edmonds to describe transformations that apply to main sentences (main clauses, matrix sentences) rather than embedded sentences ( embedding). Nonroot transformations can operate at any level of embedding. Examples of root A-Z 1015 transformations include imperative transformations and subject-aux inversionin English questions. References Chomsky, N. 1975. Reflections on language. New York. Edmonds, J.E. 1976. A transformational approach to English syntax. New York. Hooper, J.B. and S.A.Thompson. 1977. On the applicability of root transformation. LingI 4.465–97. penthouse principle, transformational gram-mar rounded vs unrounded Binary phonological opposition in distinctive feature analysis basediculation. on art Rounded sounds are pronounced with a narrowing of the lips, unrounded with spread lips. The distinction describes the opposition between [y, ø] and [i, e]. References distinctive feature rounding labialization rückumlaut Term (from Ger. ‘reverse umlaut’) coined by J. Grimm for the change of non-umlauted and umlauted ( umlaut) vowels in paradigmatically related jan-verbs like OE sēcan— sōhta ‘seek—sought.’ Since the umlaut-conditioning i in the preterite (cf. Goth. sōkjan— sōkida) had already disappeared before umlaut was applied, because of pre-Old English syncope (OE sōhta), this form was never umlauted, so the term is actually misleading. Modern English reflexes can still be found in several verbs, e.g. bring—brought, buy— bought, teach—taught, tell—told, think—thought; in other cases, rückumlaut has been leveled out by analogy, e.g. kill—killed, quake—quaked, reach—reached, stretch— stretched, wake—waked. ( also sound change) Dictionary of language and linguistics 1016 Reference Vennemann, T. 1986. Rückumlaut. In D.Kastovsky et al. (eds), Linguistics across historical and geographical boundaries. Berlin. 701–23. rule Basic term in the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities as well as in various linguistic schools used to describe, explain, or regulate behavior. Depending on the context, the term can be used to describe such varying concepts as norms, (universal) rules of conduct, formal procedures in calculus or natural laws. In the framework of linguistics, the following interpretations can be established. (a) In school grammar. rules have the intention of being normative; actually, they are descriptions of regularities and exceptions based on selected examples whereby one is forced to call on readers and speakers to use their intelligence and linguistic intuition to fill in holes left by the sometimes vague formulations. (b) In descriptive linguistics, rules are descriptions of regularities that can be empirically observed; they do not have the same normative nature as rules in (a) above, but are still based on a static conception of rule. (c) In contrast to the static understanding of rule outlined above, transformational grammar uses a dynamic understanding of rule to describe linguistic competence. It refers to a production process and is an explicit indication of formal operations that are carried out. For technical details, phrase structure rules, recursive rule, transformation. (d) Based on Wittgenstein’s understanding of meaning, a theoretical understanding of rule oriented around language as act has developed in the framework of semantics and pragmatics since the beginning of the 1970s, which sees language as rule-derived (social) behavior. See J.R. Searle’s distinction between constitutive and regulative rules. References Chomsky, N. 1961. On the notion of ‘rule of grammar.’ In R.Jakobson (ed.), Structure of language and its mathematical aspects. Providence, RI. 255–7. ——1980. Rules and representations. New York. Gumb, R.D. 1972. Rule governed linguistic behavior. The Hague. Heringer, H.J. (ed.) 1974. Seminar: der Regelbegriff in der praktischen Semantik. Frankfurt. Wheatley, J. 1970. Language and rules. The Hague. A-Z 1017 rule inversion Term in (generative) historical phonology that denotes the inverse ‘reinterpretation’ of an original phonological rule. For example, in many varieties of English, postvocalic r is vocalic, but becomes non-vocalic in an intervocalic environment. This is also true in spoken language when an ‘intervocalic’ environment is spontaneously created by a following word that begins with a vowel. The inverse view reinterprets the vocalization of r, which does not occur in this environment, as r-insertion in hiatus; the original exception then occurs as a new rule. Thus, r is even inserted where it, historically, should not appear: the-idea-r-of-it, Americar-and-Europe. Reference Vennemann, T. 1972. Rule inversion. Lingua 19.209–42. rule of inference (also mood of affirming) In propositional logic, inference rule for implication: if the premises p and p implies q are true, then (according to the truth table) the conclusion p is also true (notation: p, p→q q, read as: ’/?. If p, then q. Therefore q’). For example, Philip lives in San Francisco (=p), If Philip lives in San Francisco, then he lives in California (p→q), thus: Philip lives in California (= q). See rule of negative inferenee for the formal criteria for distinguishing between presupposition and implication. References formal logic rule of negative inference (also mood of denying) In propositional logic inference rule for implication: if the premise p implies q is true and q is false, then p is also false (notation: ¬q, p→ q ¬p, read as: ‘not q. If p, then q. Therefore, not p'). For example, If Philip lives in San Francisco, then he lives in Dictionary of language and linguistics 1018 California (p→q). Philip does not live in California (¬q), thus: Philip does not live in San Francisco (¬p). The rule of negative inference and the rule of inference represent the criteria for formally distinguishing between presupposition and implication: while both rules apply to implication, only the rule of inference applies to presupposition. References formal logic Rumanian Balkan Romance branch of East Romance ( Romance languages) which is divided into four dialect groups: Daco-Rumanian, Arumanian, Megleno-Rumanian, and IstroRumanian. The standard language, based on DacoRumanian, contains both a large number of Slavic elements ( adstratum), and the replacement of the infinitive with the subjunctive, a typical feature of Balkan languages, as well as signs of strong French influence, dating from the beginning of the nineteenth century. There are approx. 25 million speakers of Rumanian. Characteristics: Rumanian differs from the other Romance languages especially in the area of morphosyntax: remnants of Latin nominal morphology (including the vocative), preservation of the Latin neuter, enclitic definite article (studentul ‘the student’), the socalled prepositional accusative (văd pe mama ‘I see mama’). References Agard, F.B. 1958. Structural sketch of Rumanian. Baltimore, MD. Deletant, D. 1983. Colloquial Romanian. London. Dimitrescu, F. 1978. Istoria limbii Române, 2 vols. Bucharest. Gramatica limbii române. 1966. 2 vols. Bucharest. Holtus, G., M.Metzeltin, and C.Schmitt (eds) 1989. Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik. Tübingen. Vol. 3, 1–52. Iordan, I. 1978. Limba română contemporană. Bucharest. Ivăonescu, G. 1980. Istoria limbii române. Iaşi. Mallinson, G. 1986. Rumanian. London. definitivâ, vol. I. Bucharest. Rosetti, A. 1986. Istoria limbii române: Dictionary Academia Republicii Socialiste Romania 1913–83. Dictionarul limbii române, 12 vols. Bucharest. A-Z 1019 Dialectology Atlasul lingvistic roman. Serie nouă. 1956–. Dahmen, W. and J.Kramer. 1985. Aromunischer Sprachatlas. Hamburg. Wild, B. 1983. Meglenorumänischer Sprachatlas. Hamburg. rune Scholarly term, taken from Danish in the seventeenth century, denoting the written symbols of the Germanic tribes that were used before the introduction of and, then concurrently with, the Latin writing system. Runes appear to have served magic and profane purposes. While their origins are unclear, it is believed that they developed from a mixed North Etruscan and Latin alphabet. Every rune represents a particular phone that is called by the first letter of its name, but also has a conceptual value (related to its use in magical contexts), cf. g ‘gift,’ n ‘need,’ s ‘sun.’ The earliest attested runes come from Scandinavia (beginning of the second century AD). Some 5,000 inscriptions (3,000 of them in Sweden alone) are known today. ( also writing) References Antonsen, E. 1975. A concise grammar of the older Runic inscriptions. Tübingen. Arntz, H. 1935. Handbuch der Runenkunde. Halle. (4th edn 1944.) Duwel, K. 1968. Runenkunde. Stuttgart. Elliott, R.W.V. 1989. Runes: an introduction. 2nd edn.Manchester and New York. Krause, W. 1970. Runen. Berlin. Krause, W. and H.Jankuhn. 1966. Die RunenInschriften im älteren Futhark, 2 vols. Göttingen. Musset, L. 1965. Introduction a la runologie. Paris. Bibliography Runebibliografi. 1990–1991. NRun 5 and 6. writing Russian East Slavic language with approx. 150 million speakers, spoken in Russia and many of the former Soviet republics. On the basis of (South Slavic) Old Church Slavic and spoken East Slavic, an Old Russian literary language developed that was used until well Dictionary of language and linguistics 1020 into the seventeenth century. But the existence of hundreds of birch bark letters found in Novgorod suggests that there may also have been a literary tradition less tied to the church and Old Church Slavic. The most important literary document is the Slovo o polku Igorevě, the ‘Lay of Igor’s Campaign’ (1185). The eighteenth century saw the development of modern Russian, in part due to the activities of Peter the Great (1672– 1725), whose greatest contribution to the language was the reform of the Cyrillic alphabet through the introduction of the graždánskaja ázbuka (‘people’s alphabet’). The last extensive spelling reform occurred in 1917 (including loss of redundant ‹ъ› in wordfinal position, and the loss of ,> , and in all positions. Characteristics: free word stress, reduction of unstressed vowels, distinction of palatalized vs unpalatalized consonants, verbal categories of number and gender distinguished in the past tense; numerous impersonal constructions; remnants of Old Church Slavic in the lexicon: e.g. grad ‘city’ in Leningrad vs East Slavic gorod ‘city’ in Novgorod. General Comrie, B. 1996. The Russian language in the twentieth century. Oxford. Hamilton, W.S. 1980. Introduction to Russian phonology and word order. Columbus, OH. Isačenko, A.V. 1980–3. Geschichte der russischen Sprache, 2 vols. Heidelberg. ——1962. Die russische Sprache der Gegenwart, part 1: Formenlehre. Halle. (3rd edn 1975.) Halle, M. 1959. The sound pattern of Russian. ’s-Gravenhage. Jones, D. and D.Ward. 1969. The phonetics of Russian. Cambridge. Grammars Garde, P. 1980. Grammaire russe. Paris. Švedova, N.J. et al. (eds) 1980. Russkaja grammatika, 2 vols. Moscow. Wade, T. 1992. A comprehensive Russian grammar. Oxford. Historical grammars Borkovskij, V.I. and P.S.Kuznecov. 1965. Istor-ičeskaja grammatika russkogo jazyka, 2nd edn. Moscow. Kiparsky, V. 1963–75. Russische historische Grammatik, 3 vols. Heidelberg. History and dialects Avanesov, R.I. and S.V.Bromlej. 1986- . Dialektologičeskij atlas russkogo jazyka, Vol. 2 1989. Moscow. Avanesov, R.I. and V.G.Orlova (eds) 1965. Russkaja dialektologija, 2nd edn. Moscow. Comrie, B. and G.Stone. 1978. The Russian language since the revolution. Oxford. Vinokur, G.O. 1971. The Russian language: a brief history. Cambridge. A-Z 1021 Dictionaries Harrison, W. and S.le Fleming. 1981. Russian dictionary. London. Slovar’ sovremennogo russkogo literaturnogo jazyka. 1950–65. 17 vols. Moscow. Zaliznjak, A.A. 1977. Grammatičeskij slovar’ russkogo jazyka. Moscow. Etymological dict ionaries Preobraženskij, A.G. 1951. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. New York. Šanskij, N.M. 1963–82. Etimologičeskij slovar’ russkogo jazyka, 8 vols. Moscow. Vasmer, M. 1953–8. Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg. (Russ. trans. and annotation by O.N.Trubačev. Moscow 1964–73.) Journals Russian Language Journal. Russian Linguistics. Russistik Slavic Rwanda Ryukyu Bantu Japanese Dictionary of language and linguistics 1022 S Sabir The term, from Provençal saber (‘to know’), designates a trade language that developed on the western coast of the Mediterranean and was based mostly on Provençal ( also lingua Occitan) mixed with elements from Spanish. Portuguese, and Greek. ( franca) Sahaptian Penutian Saharan Group of six languages in Nigeria and Chad, grouped by A.N.Tucker and M.A.Bryan as ‘East Saharan’ and considered by Greenberg (1963) to be a branch of the Nilo-Saharan languages. Largest language is Kanuri in northern Nigeria (over 4 million speakers). Characteristics: tonal languages, tone often has grammatical functions. Relatively complex case system, verb agreement. Morphological type: inflectional. Word order: SOV; postpositions. References Greenberg, J.H. 1963. The languages of Africa. Bloomington, IN. (2nd edn 1966.) Hutchinson, J.P. 1981. The Kanuri language: a reference grammar. Madison, WI. Tucker, A.N. and M.Bryan. 1956. The non-Bantu languages of north-eastern Africa. (Handbook of African languages, 3). Oxford. African languages, Nilo-Saharan A-Z Salish 1023 Salishan Salishan Language family in western North America with approx. thirty languages; the largest languages are Salish and Okanagan in Canada (with about 2,000 speakers each). Characteristics: extremely rich consonantal system (often eight points of articulation and five manners of articulation), including glottalized consonants and pharyngeals; in contrast, a very simple vowel system (typically three vowels+schwa in unstressed syllables). Noun-verb distinction only weakly evident. A sentence often consists of several smaller predications (example: A bear ate a rabbit is made into three predications: x ate y, x is a bear, y is a rabbit). Agents are marked as to whether or not they have control of the action. Polysynthesis, highly developed nominal classification ( noun class). Typologically milar si to the neighboring Wakashan languages. References Kinkade, M.D. 1975. The lexical domain of anatomy in Columbian Salish. In M.Kinkade et al. (eds), Linguistics and anthropology in honor of C.F. Voegelin. Lisse. 423–43. Kuipers, A.H. 1967. The Squamish language: grammar, texts, dictionary. The Hague. ——1974. The Shuswap language. The Hague. Newman, S. 1976. Salish and Bella Coola prefixes. IJAL 42.228–42. Thompson, L.C. 1979. Salishan and the Northwest. In L.Campbell and M.Mithun (eds), The languages of native America: historical and comparative assessment. Austin, TX. 692–765. Bibliography Mattina, A. 1989. Interior Salish post-Vogt: a report and bibliography. IJAL 55.85–94. North and Central American languages Dictionary of language and linguistics Samoan 1024 Malayo-Polynesian Samoyedic San Uralic Khoisan Sandawe Khoisan sandhi [Old Indic ‘putting together’] Term taken from Old Indic grammar ( Sanskrit) for the merging of two words or word forms and the resulting systematic phonological changes. Internal sandhi involves two morphemes within a word; external sandhi takes place between two consecutive words. An example of the latter is the variation of the indefinite article in English: a with a following consonant and an before a vowel (a book vs an egg). References Allen, W.S. 1962. Sandhi: the theoretical, phonetic and historical basis of wordjunction in Sanskrit. The Hague. Napoli, D.J. and M.Nespor. 1979. The syntax of word-initial consonant gemination in Italian. Lg 55.812–41. Vogel, I. 1986. External sandhi rules operating between sentences. In H.Andersen and J.Gvozdanović (eds), Sandhi phenomena in the languages of Europe. Dordrecht. 55–64. phonotactics e A-Z Sango 1025 Adamawa-Ubangi Sanskrit [Skt ‘put together; wellformed, refined, correct’] Term for various forms of Old Indo-Aryan. The oldest form is the language of the Vedas (ritual texts originating before 1000 BC but written down much later), followed by the language of speculative writings such as Brāhmanas and theoretical works like the grammar of Pānini. The language of the two great epics, the Mahābhārata and Rāmāyana, dates to the second and first centuries BC. The term Classical Sanskrit is used to denote the language still used today for the language of priests and scholars in India; especially important is the Devanāgarī script developed from the Brāhmi script. In some usage, only the classical language is called Sanskrit, the term Vedic being used for the older form, as this differs in many aspects (e.g. more complex morphology) from the classical language. Characteristics: rich morphology (for nominals eight cases, three numbers, three genders; for verbs various tenses, moods, and voices); especially in Classical Sanskrit, numerous word compounds. Word order: SOV. References General Burrow, T. 1955. The Sanskrit language. London. Goldmann, R. and S.Sutherland. 1986. Devarānipraveśikā. San Francisco, CA. Staal, J.F. 1967. Word order in Sanskrit and universal grammar. Dordrecht. ——(ed.) 1972. A reader on the Sanskrit grammarians. Cambridge, MA. Thumb, A., H.Hirt, and R.Hauschild. 1958–9. Handbuch des Sanskrit. Heidelberg. Wackernagel, J. and A.Debrunner. 1896–1954. Altindische Grammatik, 3 vols. (Reprints: vol. I 1978; vol. 11,1 1985; vol. II, 2 1987; vol. 3 1975.) Göttingen. Whitney, W.D. 1896. Sanskrit grammar, including both the classical language and the older dialects of Veda and Brahmana. (5th edn 1924.) Leipzig/ London. (Reprint Delhi, 1983.) Vedic Klein, J.S. 1985. Toward a discourse grammar of the Rigveda, 2 vols. Heidelberg. MacDonell, A.A. 1910. Vedic grammar. Strasburg. ——1916. Vedic grammar for students. Oxford. (Last reprint Delhi, 1990.) Renou, L. 1952. Grammaire de la langue védique. Paris. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1026 Classical Sanskrit Aklujkar, A. 1991. An easy introduction to an enchanting language, 3 vols. with cassettes. University of British Columbia. Egenes, T. 1989. Introduction to Sanskrit, 2 vols. San Diego, CA. MacDonell, A.A. 1927. A Sanskrit grammar for students, 3rd edn. Oxford. (Reprint Delhi, 1987.) Renou, L. 1968. Grammaire sanscrite, 2 vols. Paris. (2nd rev. edn 1984.) Dictionaries Apte, V.S. 1959. Sanskrit-English dictionary, rev. ed. Poona. An encyclopedic dictionary of Sanskrit on historical principles. 1979–. Ed. A.M.Ghatage et al. Vol. 4, 3 1992–3. Poona. Böhtlingk, O. von and R.Roth. 1855–75. Sanskrit Wörterbuch, 7 vols. (Reprint 1966.) St. Petersburg. Grassmann, H. 1976. Wörterbuch zum Rigveda, 5th repr. Wiesbaden. Monier-Williams, M. 1899. A Sanskrit-English dictionary, new edn, enlarged and improved with the collaboration of E.Leumann, C.Cappeller et al. Oxford. (Last reprint Delhi, 1990.) Schlerath, B. 1980. Sanskrit vocabulary, arranged according to word-families with meanings in English, German and Spanish. Leiden. Etymological dictionaries Mayrhofer, M. 1956–80. etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindischen/Concise etymological Sanskrit dictionary. 4 vols. Heidelberg. ——1986–. Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen. Vol. III. 1995. Heidelberg. Bibliographies Dandekar, R.N. 1946–73. Vedic bibliography, 3 vols. Bombay and Poona. Renou, L. 1931. Bibliographie védique. Paris. Indo-Aryan A-Z Santali 1027 Munda Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (also linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity) Hypothesis developed by B.L.Whorf (1897–1941) and based on the linguistic approach of his teacher, E.Sapir (1884–1939), which, in its strongest form claims that a language determines the thought and perception of its speakers. Whorf himself called this view the ‘linguistic relativity principle.’ In other words, just as time, space, and mass (according to Einstein) can be defined only in terms of a system of relationships, human knowledge similarly arises only in relation to the semantic and structural possibilities of natural languages. Through his work with Native American languages, whose vocabularies and grammatical structures deviate considerably from the regularities of Indo-European languages, Whorf came to the conclusion that ‘people who use languages with very different grammars are led by these grammars to typically different observations and different values for outwardly similar observations’ (Whorf 1956:20). Whorf s main interest at the time was the Hopi language and culture. He worked especially with the linguistic channels for space-time conceptualization in Hopi, with plural formation and peculiarities of counting, and from these observations derived the hypothesis that Hopi has no physical concept of time. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis stands in accord with von Humboldt’s theory of a ‘world view’ of languages, as is clearly seen in the title of his work on the Kawi languages of Java: On language: the diversity of human languagestructure and its influence on the mental development of mankind. However, Sapir and Whorf make no explicit reference either to von Humboldt or to contemporary parallel views. The continuing discussion of the function of language in cognitive processes tends increasingly towards assuming a reciprocal relationship between language and thought. For refutation of the strong form of this hypothesis, see Berlin, Berlin and Kay (1969). References Berlin, B., E.A.Berlin, and P.Kay. 1969. Basic color terms: their universality and evolution . Berkeley, CA. Gipper, H. 1972. Gibt es ein sprachliches Relativitätsprinzip? Untersuchungen zur SapirWhorfHypothese. Frankfurt. Grace, G.W. 1987. The linguistic construction of reality. London. Humboldt, W.von. 1836–9. Über die Kawi-Sprache auf der Insel Java, nebst einer Einleitung über auf die geistige die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Entwicklung des Menschengeschlechts, 3 vols. Berlin. (On language: the diversity of human language structure and its influen ce on e mental th development of mankind, trans. P.Heath. New York, 1988.) Dictionary of language and linguistics 1028 Lucy, J.A. 1992. Language diversity and thought: a reformulation of the linguistic relativity hypothesis. Cambridge. Miller, R.L. 1968. The linguistic relativity principle and Humboldtian ethnolinguistics: a history and appraisal. The Hague. Penn, J.M. 1972. Linguistic relativity versus innate ideas: the origins of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in German thought. The Hague. Sapir, E. 1921. Language. New York. ——1931. Conceptual categories in primitive languages. Science 74.578. Steinfatt, T.M. 1989. Linguistic relativity: toward a broader view. In S.Ting-Toomey and F.Korzenny (eds), Language, communication and culture: current directions. London. 35–75. Werlen, I. 1989. Sprache, Mensch und Welt: Geschichte und Bedeutung des Prinzips der sprachlichen Relativität. Darmstadt. Whorf, B.L. 1946. The Hopi language, Toreva dialect. In H.Hoijer (ed.), Linguistic structures of native America. New York. 158–83. ——1952. Collected papers on metalinguistics. Washington, DC. ——1956. Language, thought and reality: selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, ed. J.B. Carroll. Cambridge, MA. Hopi Sardinian Sardinian is the most archaic and independent of the Romance languages and fits in neither the West Romance nor the East Romance groups. In large parts of Sardinia, Italian has replaced Sardinian as the main language of literature and commerce. Attempts at reviving Sardinian in the twentieth century have been hampered by the large number of dialects. Spoken by approx. 1 million speakers, Sardinian is divided into two main dialect areas (with numerous subdialects): Central Sardinian (Logudorese, Nuorese) and South Sardinian (Campidanese). References Blasco Ferrer, E. 1984. Storia linguistica della Sardegna. Tübingen. ——1986. La lingua sarda contemporanea: grammatica del logudorese e del campidanese. Cagliari. Holtus, G., M.Metzeltin, and C.Schmitt (eds) 1988. Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik. Tübingen. Vol. 4, 836–935. Jones, M. 1993. Sardinian syntax. London. Pittau, M. 1972. Grammatica del sardo-nuorese. Bologna. ——1991. Grammatica della lingua sarda: varietà logudorese. Sassari. Wagner, M.L. 1951. La lingua sarda. Bern. A-Z Etymologi 1029 cal dictionary Wagner, M.L. 1960–4. Dizionario etimologico Sardo, 3 vols. Heidelberg. satellite phoneme [Lat. satelles ‘escort’] Term for phonemes that do not form the nucleus of a given syllable. References phonology Savannah Bantu Bantu scalar particle Subcategory of particles that in English include such words as only, also, already, still. Scalar particles indicate alternative degrees that are implicit either from the focusbackgrounding structure ( topic vs comment) or the context. Thus in the sentence Only Jacob is coming, only expresses the exclusion of other background people known from the context. Such particles can also often refer to scalar degrees, such as Even Jacob is coming, which focuses on Jacob as being particularly high on the scale in question. Statements modified by scalar particles are generally presuppositions or cases of conven-tional implicature (see Karttunen & Peters, 1979). References Altmann, H. 1976. Die Gradpartikeln im Deutschen. Tübingen. Fraser, B. 1971. An analysis of even in English. In Fillmore, C.J. and D.T.Langendoen (eds), Studies in linguistic semantics. New York. 150–78. Horn, L. 1969. A presuppositional analysis of only and even. In Chicago Linguistic Society 5.98– 107. Jacobs, J. 1983. Focus und Skalen. Tübingen. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1030 Karttunen, L. and S.Peters. 1979. Conventional implicatures. In C.Oh and D.Dinneen (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 11: Presuppositions. New York. 1–56. König, E. 1981. The meaning of scalar particles in German. In Eickmeyer, H.-J. and H.Rieser (eds), Words, worlds, and contexts. Berlin. Taglicht, J. 1984. Message and emphasis: on focus and scope in English. London. particle scalar verb vectorial vs scalar verbs scale and category linguistics linguistics scale and category model linguistics systemic systemic Scandinavian (also Nordic, North Germanic) Collective term for the Germanic languages Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese. References Haugen, E. 1976. The Scandinavian languages: an introduction to their history. London. ——1982. Scandinavian language structures: a comparative historical survey. Tübingen. Ureland, P.S. and I.Clarkson (eds) 1984. Scandinavian language contacts. Cambridge. A-Z 1031 schema Generalized knowledge about the sequence of events in particular sociocultural contexts, for example, going to a restaurant, purchasing a ticket, borrowing a book. Such structured everyday knowledge forms an essential basis for human language comprehension since it simplifies the interpretation of incomplete or ambiguous information. In this way the processing of stories is directed according to conventionalized knowledge about how stories are usually told, which sequences of occurrences are permissible and logical. Schema information is stored in one’s long-term memory and can be quickly recalled in the course of processing information. ( script) References Bartlett, F.C. 1932. Remembering: a study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge. Minsky, M. 1975. A framework for representing knowledge. In P.H.Winston (ed.), The psychology of computer vision. New York. 211–77. Rumelhart, D.H. 1975. Introduction to human information processing. New York. script schema-based text comprehension Numerous approaches of artificial intelligence to text comprehension (following work by the English psychologist F.C.Bartlett) proceed from the assumption that processes of text comprehension are based primarily on projecting pre-knowledge that exists in the form of schemas onto the contents in the text that is currently being worked on. This means that text construction is in the main a process of reconstruction ( frames, scripts). References Bartlett, F.C. 1932. Remembering: a study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge. frames, scripts Dictionary of language and linguistics 1032 school grammar (also traditional grammar) A type of grammar first developed in Europe in the eighteenth century, based on Aristotelian logic and ancient Greek and Latin grammars, often as an aid to learning these languages and interpreting classical texts. Its general characteristics are: (a) classification of data into formal categories, e.g. sentence type, part of speech (since these categories are taken from Greek and Latin, they often cannot be directly transferred onto other languages); (b) classification based on logical, semantic, syntactic, and extralinguistic criteria, with little attention paid to functional aspects of communication; (c) primarily a prescriptive attitude ( prescriptive grammar) i.e. concerned with judgments such as ‘correct,’ ‘incorrect,’ ‘affected,’ ‘awkward’; (d) usually written rather than spoken language as the subject; (e) grammatical explanations often confusing synchronic and diachronic aspects—a point especially criticized from a structuralist perspective ( synchrony vs diachrony, structuralism); (f) rules that are not explicit or exhaustive; they appeal to the reader’s intuition. Notwithstanding these methodological restrictions, there is no doubt that all modern linguistic approaches are based on data and results of school grammar or are attempts at systematization of what these grammars presented; see terms such hierarchy, universals, parts of speech. An example of this type of grammar in English is Curme (1925). Reference Curme, G.O. 1925. English grammar. New York. schwa (also neutral vowel) From Hebrew , diacritical vowel sign for a missing vowel or for the unstressed [ə]. In English, schwa is an unstressed vowel produced with the tongue in its (neutral) resting position, e.g. [pəlayt] polite. In Bulgarian gălăb [´gəłəb], the first occurrence of schwa is stressed. Reference phonetics A-Z 1033 scope In analogy to formal logic, where ‘scope’ denotes the range governed by operators ( logical connective, quantifier), in linguistics ‘scope’ denotes the range of semantic reference of negation, linguistic quantifiers, and particles. Corresponding to ‘scope’ in logic is the constituent that is modified by quantifiers or particles; cf. the adverb also in Louise was also hungry (not just thirsty) vs Louise was also hungry (not just the others). The interpretation of scope frequently depends on the placement of sentence stress ( intonation). References Aoun, J. and Y.A.Li. 1993. Syntax of scope. Cambridge, MA. formal logic, negation, quantification Scots-Gaelic Celtic, Gaelic scrambling A term coined by J.R.Ross to describe transformations which generate surface structures with varying word orders from a basic structure. Scrambling also refers to the relationships between the permuted parts of the sentence ( permutation). References Grewendorf, G. and W.Sternefeld. 1989. Scrambling and barriers. Amsterdam. Riemsdijk, H. van and N.Corver (eds) 1994. Studies on scrambling: movement and non-movement approaches to free word order. Berlin and New York. Ross, J.R. 1967. Constraints on variables in syntax. Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge. MA. (Repr. as Infinite Syntax! Norwood, NJ, 1986.) transformational grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics 1034 script 1 Schema-based approach of artificial intelligence for knowledge representation, in particular for machine-aided text comprehension. Knowledge about standardized events, including knowledge about typical participants and subevents, is represented in active data structures (scripts), i.e. data structures provided with procedural elements. Scripts are not formal alternatives to frames, but rather an orthogonal organizational scheme. References Schank, R. 1982. Dynamic memory. Cambridge. Schank, R. and R.Abelson. 1977. Scripts, plans, goals and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ. Schank, R. and C.Riesbeck. 1981. Inside computer understanding. Hillsdale, NJ. frame, story grammar 2 writing second language acquisition Term used with varying meanings: (a) the acquisition of a (first) foreign language; (b) the (essentially) non-directed acquisition of a foreign language in an environment in which that language is used as a trade language; (c) in an even narrower sense, the (essentially) non-directed acquisition of a second language before the acquisition of the first language has been completed. Second language acquisition research concentrates on the acquisition of a foreign language, in a natural environment as opposed to acquisition directed through classroom instruction (cf. Krashen’s distinction between ‘language acquisition’ and ‘language learning’). The following gave the main questions of interest: To what extent does second language acquisition follow an innate system which is independent of the acquisition of one’s native (first) language? How great is the similarity between this process of acquisition and that of first language? What role do positive and negative transfer from the native language (and from another earlier-acquired language) play in the acquisition of a second language and the production of errors? Can regularities in second language acquisition help explain the phenomena of language change and language contact ( pidgins, creoles)? Behaviorist theories ( behaviorism) explain second language acquisition according to general laws of behavior modification. Nativistic theories ( nativism) tend to assume a language-specific disposition towards learning which, in generative language theory ( generative grammar), has been developed into the concept of universal grammar. According to the universal grammar hypothesis, the language learner possesses an innate ‘knowledge’ of how language functions and only needs to set the A-Z 1035 ‘parameters’ that are right for the input data (i.e. for the second language in its given environment). The empirical evidence for this theory, according to many researchers in this field, can be explained with little speculation. For this reason, research has recently focused more directly on the perceivable manifestations, cognitive analyzability, and communicative relevance of the linguistic features to be learned as well as on the psychological implications of the linguistic process itself (perception, analysis, storage and recall). The study of natural second language acquisition is of great significance to foreignlanguage education, since foreign-language instruction can be most successful only if it is modeled after the principles of natural-language acquisition. References Arnaud, P.J.L. and H.Bejoint, (eds) 1992. Vocabulary and applied linguistics. Basingstoke. Bailey, C, M.Long, and S.Peck (eds) 1983. Second language acquisition studies. Rowley, MA. Beebe, L.M. (ed.) 1988. Issues in second language acquisition: multiple perspectives. New York. Chaudron, C. 1988. Second language classrooms: research on teaching and learning. Cambridge. Cook, V. 1993. Linguistics and second language acquisition. Basingstoke. Dechert, H.W. and M.Raupach. 1989. Transfer in language production. Hove. Dulay, H., M.Burt, and S.Krashen. 1982. Language two. New York. Ellis, Rod. 1985. Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford. ——1991. Second language acquisition and language pedagogy. Clevedon. ——1994. The study of second language acquisition. Oxford. Eubank, L. 1991. Point counterpoint: universal grammar in the second language. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Flynn, S. and W.O’Neil (eds) 1988. Linguistic theory in second language acquisition. Dordrecht. Freed, B.F. (ed.) 1991. Foreign language acquisition research and the classroom. Lexington, MA. Gass, S. et al. (eds) 1989. Variation in second language acquisition, vol. I: Discourse and pragmatics. Clevedon. Gass, S. and L.Selinker. 1992. Language transfer in language learning, rev. edn. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Gass, S. and J.Schachter (eds) 1990. Linguistic perspectives on second language acquisition. Cambridge. Harley, B. et al. 1990. The development of second language proficiency. Cambridge. Hatch, E. (ed.) 1978. Second language acquisition. Rowley, MA. House, J. and S.Blum-Kulka (eds) 1986. Interlingual and intercultural communication: discourse and cognition in translation and second language acquisition. Tübingen. Huebner, T. and C.A.Ferguson (eds) 1991. Crosscurrents in second language acquisition and linguistic theories. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. James, A.R. 1988. The acquisition of a second language phonology. Tübingen. Klein, W. 1986. Second language acquisition. Cambridge. Krashen, S. 1981. Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford. ——1982. Principles and practice in second language acquisition. New York. ——1985. The input hypothesis: issues and implications. London. Labarca, A. and L.Bailey. 1989. Issues in L2: theory as practice and practice as theory. Hove. Larsen-Freeman, D. and M.H.Long. 1991. An introduction to second language acquisition research. London. McLaughlin, B. 1987. Theories of second language learning. London. Odlin, T. 1989. Language transfer. Cambridge. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1036 Rutherford, W.E. 1987. Language universals and second language acquisition, 2nd edn. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Slobin, D. (ed.) 1985. The cross-linguistic study of language acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ. Smith, M.S. 1994. Second language learning: theoretical foundations. London. Van Patten, B. and J.F.Lee. 1990. Second language acquisition—foreign language learning. Perspectives on research and practice. Clevedon. White, L. 1989. Universal grammar and second language acquisition. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Journals Second Language Research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. applied linguistics, interlanguage, language acquisition, universals. second language learning second language acquisition second signaling system I.P.Pavlov’s term for human language in contrast to animal communication as the ‘first signaling system.’ The characteristic function of the second signaling system is the formation of concepts by generalizing of immediate sensory impressions, as represented in the first signaling system. ( also semantic generalization) Reference Pavlov, I.P. 1954. Essays on the patho-physiology of the higher nervous activity. Moscow. A-Z 1037 second sound shift Old High German consonant shift secondary articulation Secondary articulation is said to occur when, during the articulation of a speech sound, the airstream must bypass a second obstruction in the resonance chamber. Types of secondary articulation are as follows: (a) Labialization: an occlusion, approaching or rounding of the lips, e.g. [∫] vs [∫] in Engl. [∫ut] shoot; vs in Abkhazi-Adyge ‘ten’; vs [k] and [p] in the Bantu language Lingala ‘manioc root.’ (b) Palatalization: the front of the tongue approaching the front of the hard palate, e.g. vs [m] in Russian ‘knead,’ ‘mother’; [ø:] vs [o:] in German [‘bø:gŋ] ‘bows.’ (c) Velarization: the back of the tongue approaching the back part of the velum, e.g. [ł] vs in Russ. ‘onion’ vs [ļuk] ‘hatch.’ (d) Pharyngealization: the root of the vs [s] in Egyptian Arabic tongue approaching the back wall of the throat, e.g. ‘summer’ vs [se:f] ‘sword.’ ( also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics secondary motivation arbitrariness secret language System of language artificially constructed to keep communication secret (e.g. in political resistance movements), to separate a group of secret language speakers from the society at large, or to express solidarity within such a group. The languages of schoolchildren (e.g. pig latin) in which consonants are switched or syllables doubled according to a specific system are types of secret languages. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1038 References Leslau, W. 1969. Ethiopian argots. The Hague. Opie, I. and P.Opie. 1947. The lore and language of schoolchildren. Oxford. SEE (Seeing Essential English) language sign segment [Lat. segmentum ‘a piece removed by cutting’] A result of linguistic analysis that attempts to isolate minimal linguistic units, such as phones, morphs, syllables, from a language or speech continuum. segmental feature In American structuralism, such phonological features that can be broken down into further segments, that is, can be individually extracted from a linear series of sounds in the context of speech. Segmentability is a purely theoretical postulate, since speech is realized only as a continuum of sound without natural breaks, so that individual elements cannot be isolated in their articulation or acoustics ( coarticulation). For contrast, see the non-segmentable suprasegmental features. References phonology A-Z 1039 segmentation Elementary analytical process of taxonomic structuralism for isolating the smallest linguistic elements, such as phones, morphs, or syllables, among others. The criterion of segmentation is the substitutability of the isolated element with another such element of the same class, e.g. [k] in cap [kaep] can be isolated through segmentation and replaced by [g, 1, m, n, r, s, t] gap, lap, map, nap, rap, sap, tap. Through the complementary process of classification, one arrives at a class of consonants that can occur word-initially in English. ( also paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relationship, sound2) References operational procedures, phonology, structuralism selection collocation selectional feature Class of context-independent syntactic features (i.e. inherent features) of nouns (Chomsky 1965), or semantic features of whole noun phrases (McCawley 1968) that mark the selection restrictions between nouns or noun phrases and verbs. These selectional features are formulated as contextual indicators of the verbs. In this analysis, the two-place verb think (in its standard reading) can only be used with a [+human] subject and a prepositional phrase. References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. McCawley, J.D. 1968. The role of semantics in a Grammar. In E.Bach and R.Harms (eds), Universals in linguistic theory. New York. 125–204. selection restriction, subcategorization Dictionary of language and linguistics 1040 selection restriction In Chomsky’s grammar model the (non-categorial) semantic-syntactic restrictions on compatibility between lexical elements which prevent the derivation of agrammatical sentences like *The stone thinks. Much debate has centered on the question of whether selection restrictions are of a syntactic or a semantic nature. The violation of selection restrictions often underlies creativity in language and the poetic use of language. ( also inherent semantic relation, metaphor) References Chomsky. N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. McCawley, J.D. 1968a. Lexical insertion in a transformational grammar without deep structure. CLS 4.71–80. ——1968b. The role of semantics in a grammar. In E.Bach and R.T.Harms (eds), Universals in linguistic theory. New York. 124–69. subcategorization self-embedded construction A phrase structure grammar construction. Two phrases S1 and S2 form a selfembedded construction if (a) S1 is inserted into S2 so that elements of S2 are to the right and the left of S1, and (b) S1 and S2 are the same type of phrases (rather than encapsulated constructions). For example, the phrase (S1) who said he was a tight-rope walker is embedded in the sentence (S2) She talked to Philip, who admired the man who said he was a tight-rope walker very much. Reference Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. semanteme [Grk ‘sign’] Term proposed by A.Noreen that has various usages in structural semantics. It is generally synonymous with lexeme in the sense of ‘basic semantic unit’ of the lexicon. A-Z 1041 Reference Noreen, A. 1923. Einführung in die wissenschaftliche Betrachtung der Sprache. Halle. semantic antinomy [Grk antinomía ‘conflict of laws’] (also semantic paradox) Contradictory statement(s) whose truth value cannot be determined. Compare, for example, the semantic antinomy from classical times about the (lying) Cretan, who maintained: All Cretans are liars. This statement is true only when it is false. Such a logical contradiction can be resolved through the distinction of different linguistic levels ( object language vs metalanguage) which both occur in this example; the assertion of the Cretan that All Cretans are liars creates an impermissible statement about one’s self, which can only be resolved in the object language assertion All Cretans are liars and in the metalinguistic judgment of this assertion: namely, that it is not true. ( also formal logic, type theory) References Brendel, E. 1992. Die Wahrheit über den . Berlin and New York. Kripke, S. 1975. Outline of a theory of truth. JP 72.690–716. Levi, D.S. 1988. The liar parody. Philosophy 63.43–62. Martin, R. (ed) 1970. The paradox of the liar. New Haven, CT. Tarski, A. 1956. Logic, semantics, metamathematics. Oxford. semantic change Changes in the meaning of linguistic expressions, seen from a historical perspective, where semantic change refers both to changes in the relation between linguistic signs and extralinguistic reality and to changes in the relations between signs ( semantic relation). Classifying the different types of semantic change and ascertaining the cause for its rise and spread was the main goal of semasiological research ( semasiology); various theories for this can be found in Paul (1880: ch. 4) and Ullmann (1957: chs 2, 4). The following aspects are fundamental to most classifications. (a) In logic or rhetoric, regarding the relationship of old and new meaning, one distinguishes between (i) semantic narrowing: restriction of the semantic scope or context in which the word may be used; e.g. OE hund ‘dog’>Eng. hound ‘hunting breed’; (ii) semantic widening: Dictionary of language and linguistics 1042 whereas semantic narrowing refers to the specialization of the new as opposed to the older semantic scope, semantic widening is characterized by generalization; e.g. OE dogge ‘particular breed of dog’>Eng. dog ‘any kind of dog’; (iii) metaphor: Gmc *[‘bitraz] ‘biting’ (derived from the verb meaning ‘to bite’)>bitter ‘harsh in taste’ catachresis). Other forms of semantic (examples from Bloomfield 1933:426–7) ( transfer are hyperbole, litotes, metonymy, and synecdoche, among others. In regard to the causes of semantic change, one distinguishes between (b) changes in the extralinguistic reality, i.e. changes in states of affairs or knowledge about states of affairs as is reflected in expressions like fee (‘cattle’) or their objects of reference (in this case, ‘cattle’ as a commodity); (c) changes in social value: (i) semantic degeneration, as in Lat. potio ‘drink’ >Fr. poison ‘poison’; or (ii) semantic elevation, as in marshal (originally ‘keeper of the horses’) ( euphemism). (d) Semantic borrowing through language contact: semantic change occurs through the influence of foreign languages ( foreign vs second language), jargon, sociolects, or dialects, in that a lexeme in a particular language adopts aspects of the meaning of a lexeme in the other (influencing) language, as in write (originally ‘to scratch’), influenced by Lat. scribere ( loan word, borrowed meaning). (e) Intralinguistic causes: individual examples indicate that there is occa-sionally a connection between semantic change and a phonetic or grammatical change. To be sure, it is often uncertain whether the phonetic or grammatical change was in fact the precursor to semantic change ( also folk etymology). On the other hand, studies in lexical fields (see Trier 1931) have shown that within a specific lexical field every change of a lexeme is systematically connected with changes in related (‘neighboring’) lexemes. References Anttila, R. 1972. An introduction to historical and comparative linguistics. New York. (2nd rev. edn 1989.) Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. Chicago, IL. (Repr. 1984.) Fisiak, J. (ed.). 1985. Historical semantics—historical word-formation. Berlin. Meillet, A. 1921. Linguistique historique et linguistique générale. Paris. Paul, H. 1880. Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. Tübingen. (9th edn 1975.) Stern, G. 1931. Meaning and change of meaning. Bloomington, IN. Sweetser, E. 1990. From etymology to pragmatics. Cambridge. Traugott, E.C. 1985. On regularity in semantic change. Journal of Literary Semantics 14.155–73. Trier, J. 1931. Der deutsche Wortschatz im Sinnbezirk des Verstandes: die Geschichte eines sprachlichen Feldes, vol. I: Von den Anfängen bis zum Beginn des 13. Jahrhunderts. Heidelberg. Ullmann, S. 1957. The principles of semantics. Oxford. Voyles, J.B. 1973. Accounting for semantic change. Lingua 31.95–124. componential analysis, historical linguistics, language change, semantics. A-Z 1043 semantic differential A process developed by Osgood et al. (1957) that attempts to measure the connotative (affective) semantic components of linguistic expressions. This test is administered by presenting subjects with a list of antonymous pairs of related scalar adjectives (e.g. good—bad, happy—sad). The subjects are asked to differentiate the meaning of a given word by placing it on an associative ‘adjective scale.’ In one experiment it turned out that several pairs of adjectives correlated indirectly with one another, that is, their scales turned out to be the same for the given word from subject to subject. From the correlations, Osgood derived three ‘factors of semantic space’ according to which every word can be semantically localized, namely potency (strong/weak, hard/soft, etc.), activity (active/passive, excitable/quiet, etc.), and evaluation (sweet/sour, pretty/ugly, etc.). Osgood’s method for measuring meaning through a factorial analysis has run up against various criticisms, first because of its basically subjective concept of meaning ( connotation) and second because of doubts about the principles used in selecting the predetermined adjective scales (Carroll 1964; Weinreich 1958). Its application ranges from linguistic texts to market and opinion studies. References Carroll, J.B. 1964. Language and thought. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Osgood, C.E., G.J.Suci, and P.H.Tannenbaum. 1957. The measurement of meaning. Urbana, IL. Snaider, J. and C.E.Osgood. 1969. Semantic differential technique: A source-book. Chicago, IL. Weinreich, U. 1958. Travels through semantic space. Word 14.346–66. meaning, mediation semantic entailment implication semantic feature In structural semantics a class of theoretical constructs developed in analogy to the distinctive features of phonology which are considered to be the smallest semantic units for the description of linguistic expressions and their semantic relations, e.g. walk [+motion,+on ground,+upright] as opposed to stroll, which is further characterized by [+slowly,+portly]. Semantic features are generally expressions found in ordinary spoken language but treated as metalinguistic terms and are (as a rule) placed in brackets ( componential analysis for the derivation of semantic features). The theoretical status of Dictionary of language and linguistics 1044 semantic features is disputed. They do not directly represent physical characteristics of the real world, but reflect the psychological conditions according to which humans interpret their environment via language. Consider the classic example the deceased vs the corpse: both expressions denote the same state of affairs/condition in the real world, but in language there is a semantic differentiation, as evidenced by the difference in *I was a good friend of the corpse vs I was a good friend of the deceased. It is also noteworthy that—in contrast to the distinctive features of phonology—there is no universally recognized class of semantic features that can be used in the semantic also plereme, semantics, seme). description of all languages. ( References Lipka, L. 1979. Semantic components of English nouns and verbs and their justification. Angol Filológiai Tanulmányok 12.187–202. ——1985. Inferential features in historical semantics. In J.Fisiak (ed.), Historical semantics. Berlin. 339–54. componential analysis, semantics semantic feature analysis analysis semantic field semantic field theory componential lexical field lexical field theory semantic generalization In psycholinguistics, the experimentally proved mechanism according to which certain reactions of subjects which were conditioned to particular objects were also elicited by presenting the subjects with the linguistic expressions that denote these objects. The same is observed when words that are similar in sound or sense are presented to subjects: a reaction conditioned to a key word is also triggered when synonymous expressions or expressions that are similar in meaning are named. A-Z 1045 Reference Feather, B.W. 1965. Semantic generalization of classical conditioned responses: a review. PsyB 63.425–41 semantic implication implication semantic network Frequently used form of knowledge representation that uses a graph-like notation system. Originally developed to model associative memory, semantic networks have evolved into general knowledge representation schemes. Semantic networks represent by using a hierarchy of concepts organized by a primitive relation such as ‘is A’ or ‘PART OR’ Further two-place relations (roles) are defined by using these. The main task in developing semantic networks consists in establishing the inventory of semantic relations between concepts. Simple semantic networks are formally a restricted variant of predicate logic. Current developments in knowledge representation, such as KL-ONE, are based on semantic networks. References Brachman, M. and J.Schmolze. 1985. An overview of the KL-ONE knowledge representation system. CS 9.171–216. Findler, N.V. (ed.) 1979. Associative networks. New York. Quillian, M.R. 1968. Semantic memory. In M.Minsky (ed.), Semantic information processing. Cambridge, MA. 227–70. Schank, R. 1975. Conceptual information processing. Amsterdam. Sowa, J. 1984. Conceptual structures: information processing in mind and machines. Reading. MA. Dictionary of language and linguistics semantic paradox 1046 semantic antinomy semantic paraphasia paraphasia semantic pathology Disruption in the balance of a synchronous language system through polysemy and homonymy, especially where ambiguous expressions in similar contexts lead to communicative misunderstandings. ( also disambiguation, homonym conflict) semantic primitive (also primitive predicate, atomic concept) First introduced in generative semantics to describe causative verbs, semantic primitives are the smallest (possibly universal) basic terms whose relations (i.e. the semantic restrictions on their use) can be described in terms of meaning postulates (e.g. kill=make-becomenot-alive). The idea of describing the meaning of linguistic expressions by means of semantic primitives has lead to various controversies. ( also lexical decomposition) References generative semantics semantic relation 1 Cover term for all relations that exist between the meanings of expressions (words, sentences) in natural languages. Such relations of meaning concern either (a) syntagmatic wellformedness, i.e. semantic agreement between the subject and the finite verb, e.g. *The rock is fleeing (ungrammatical in its literal meaning) ( compatibility, selection A-Z 1047 restriction, inherent semantic relation) or (b) paradigmatically substitutable classes, e.g. Chicago is a big town/city (town and city are in the semantic relation of synonymy). The most important semantic relations are antonymy, hyperonymy, hyponymy, incompatibility, complementarity, conversion, paraphrase, and inference. The semantic relations of individual expressions to (all) other expressions and, subsequently, the semantic structure of the vocabulary of a whole language can be described with the aid of the logical operations of equivalence, implication, and negation. The descriptive methods and the languages involved in such a description depend upon the particular theory that is used; consider, for example, the use of semantic features in the componential analysis of structural semantics or the introduction of basic expressions semantic primitives) and meaning postulates in the framework of generative ( semantics. An even greater precision and independence from phenomena found in individual languages has been achieved in more recent approaches that attempt to describe semantic relations within the framework of an artificial language, such as Montague grammar. ( also intensional logic) References Cruse, D.A. 1986. Lexical semantics. Cambridge. Lipka, L. 1990. An outline of English lexicology (2nd edn 1992). Tübingen. Lutzeier, P.R. 1983. The relevance of semantic relations between words for the notion of lexical field. TL 10.147–78. Lyons, J. 1968. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Cambridge. ——1977. Semantics, 2 vols. Cambridge. Schnelle, H. 1974. Meaning constraints. Synthese 26.13–37. Ullmann, S. 1957. The principles of semantics, 2nd edn. Oxford. (Orig. 1951.) semantics 2 case grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics 1048 semantic role (also deep case, semantic relation, thematic relation) case grammar semantic triangle semiotic triangle semantics Term coined by Bréal (1897) for the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the analysis and description of the so-called ‘literal‘meaning of linguistic expressions. Depending on the focus, various aspects of meaning may be prominent: (a) the internal semantic structure of individual linguistic expressions, as described by componential analysis, meaning postulates, or stereotypes ( stereotype2, also prototype); (b) the semantic relations between linguistic expressions as in synonymy, antonymy; (c) the whole meaning of sentences ( sentence meaning, principle of compositionality) as the sum of the meaning of the individual lexemes as well as the grammatical relations between them; (d) the relation of linguistic expressions—or their meaning—to extralinguistic reality ( referential semantics). All questions under (a)—(d) can be examined both diachronically and synchronically. One traditional area of semantics is the historical semantics of single words ( semantic change, etymology). Under the influence of structuralism, semanticists began to focus on the semantic relations between words and, thus, on the semantic structure of present-day vocabulary. With the development of generative grammar, lexically oriented structuralist semantics was expanded to view problems concerning sentence semantics; the rivalry between interpretive semantics and generative semantics attests to the controversial state of research of the 1960s. More recent developments in semantics are characterized by an overlap within various areas of linguistic investigation; this applies both to pragmatic aspects of meaning ( pragmatics, speech act theory, maxim of conversation, presupposition) as well as to the descriptive approaches of formal logic which attempt to define meaning according to truth conditions ( predicate logic, intensional logic). Moving away from this preoccupation with truth values, some semanticists have attempted a direct semantic categorization of situations (see Barwise & Perry 1983), a semantic interpretation based on a mathematical concept of game theory (see Saarinen 1979), or a dynamism based on a mathematical concept of catastrophe theory (see Wildgen 1982). In the meantime, semantics has become more and more a branch of an interdisciplinary ‘cognitive science’ language and cognition). ( A-Z 1049 References Barwise, J. and J.Perry. 1983. Situations and attitudes. Cambridge, MA. Bendix, E.H. 1966. Componential analysis of general vocabulary: the semantic structure of a set of verbs in English, Hindi and Japanese. The Hague. Burling, R. 1964. Cognition and componential analysis: God’s truth or hocuspocus? AA 66.20–8. ——1965. Yankee kinship terminology: a problem in componential analysis. AA 67.129–287. Chafe, W.L. 1970. Meaning and the structure of language. Chicago, IL. Chierchia, G. and S.McConnell-Ginet. 1990. Meaning and grammar: an introduction to semantics. Cambridge, MA. Coseriu, E. and H.Geckeler (eds) 1981. Trends in structural semantics. Tübingen. Cruse, D. 1986. Lexical semantics. Cambridge. Davidson, D. and G.Harman (eds) 1972. Semantics of natural languages. Dordrecht. Dillon, G. 1977. Introduction to contemporary linguistic semantics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Eikmeyer, H.-J. and H.Rieser (eds) 1981. Words, worlds, and contexts. Berlin. Fillmore, C.J. and T.D.Langendoen (eds) 1971. Studies in linguistic semantics. New York. Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1985. Historical semantics: historical word-formation. The Hague. Fodor, J.D. 1977. Semantics: theories of meaning in generative grammar. New York. Goodenough, W. 1956. Componential analysis and the study of meaning. Lg 32.195–216. Gruber, J. 1976. Lexical structures in syntax and semantics, 2 vols. Amsterdam. Higginbotham, J. 1985. On semantics. LingI 16.537–93. Hoffmann, T.R. 1993. Realms of meaning: an introduction to semantics. London. Hüllen, W. and R.Schulze (eds) 1988. Under-standing the lexicon: meaning, sense and world knowledge in lexical semantics. Tübingen. Katz, J.J. 1972. Semantic theory. New York. Kefer, M. and J.van der Auwera (eds) 1992. Meaning and grammar. Berlin and New York. Landman, F. 1991. Structures for semantics. Dordrecht. Leech, G.N. 1974. Semantics. Harmondsworth. Linsky, L. (ed.) 1952. Semantics and the philosophy of language. Chicago, IL. Lipka, L. 1972. Semantic structure and word formation: verb-particle constructions in contemporary English. Munich. ——1990. An outline of English Lexicology (2nd edn 1992). Tübingen. Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics, 2 vols. Cambridge. Nida, E. 1975. Componential analysis of meaning: an introduction to semantic structure. The Hague. Saarinen, E. (ed.) 1979. Game-theoretical semantics: essays on semantics by Hintikka, Carlson, Peacocke, Rantala, and Saarinen. Dordrecht. Stamenov, M. (ed.) 1991. Current advances in semantic theory. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Stechow, A.von and D.Wunderlich (eds) 1991. Semantics: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. Steinberg, D.D. and L.A.Jakobovits (eds) 1971. Semantics: an interdisciplinary reader in philosophy, linguistics and psychology. Cambridge, MA. Ullmann, S. 1957. The principles of semantics. Oxford. Wallace, A.F.C. 1965. The problem of psychological validity of componential analysis. AA 67.229–48. Wierzbicka, A. 1992. Semantics, culture and cognition. Oxford. Wildgen, W. 1982. Catastrophe theoretic semantics: an elaboration and application of René Thom ‘s theory. Amsterdam. Zadeeh, E, E.D.Klemke, and A.Jacobson (eds) 1974. Readings in semantics. Urbana, IL. Zaefferer, D. 1991. Semantic universals and universal semantics. Berlin and New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1050 Bibliographies Gordon, W.T. 1980. Semantics: a bibliography, 1965–1978. London. Hofmann, T.R. 1975. Bibliography on the semantics of human language. Ottawa. Journals The Journal of Semantics. Natural Language Semantics. componential analysis. computational linguistics, formal logic, generative semantics, intensional logic, interpretive semantics, lexicography, lexicology, lexicon, meaning, meaning postulate, onomasiology, prototype, semantic change, stereotype, structural semantics. semasiology 1 Obsolete (original) term for semantics. 2 Subdiscipline and area of study within semantics that is concerned with the meaning of individual linguistic expressions, the semantic relations between linguistic expressions ( lexical field theory) as well as problems of semantic change. In contrast to onomasiology (the study of name-giving), semasiology studies the semantic characteristics of linguistic expressions (word forms). Reference Baldinger, K. 1980. Semantic theory: towards a modern semantics, trans. W.C.Brown, ed. R. Wright. Oxford. Kronasser, H. 1952. Handbuch der Semasiologie. Heidelberg. onomasiology, semantics sematology Term introduced by Bühler (1934) in which linguistics is viewed as the central object of a general theory of signs. In this sense, sematology corresponds to Saussure’s semiology. A-Z 1051 References Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart, 1965.) Innis, R.E. (trans.) 1982. Karl Bühler: semiotic foundations of language theory. New York. semiotics seme In A.J.Greimas’ semantic theory the basic unit of semantic analysis in the sense of the smallest distinctive component of meaning, by means of which the whole meaning of a linguistic expression is described in a lexicon entry. ( also semantic feature) References Greimas, A.J. 1966. Semantique structurale. Paris. componential analysis sememe 1 In structural semantics the basic semantic unit of the lexicon, which is described via semes (i.e. the minimal semantic components). In this sense, a sememe corresponds to the more current term lexeme. 2 In Bloomfield’s (1933) terminology, the sememe corresponds to the lexical meaning of a morpheme. Reference Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. 3 In Greimas’ (1966) terminology, the combination of the nucleus of the seme (i.e. invariant semantic content) with the contextually determined and variable semes. Reference Greimas, A.J. 1966. Semantique structurale. Paris. Dictionary of language and linguistics semeology 1052 semiology semi-affix [Lat. semi- ‘half’] Cover term for all affix-like derivational ele-ments that also exist as independently occurring stems. The criteria for classifying elements caught up in this transition from free to bound status are a series formation (fireproof, waterproof, winterproof) and a generalization of meaning. ( also semi-prefix, semi-suffix) semi-morpheme (also cranberry morph, unique morpheme) Lexical morpheme that is attached to one (and only one) base morpheme and whose original meaning can no longer be analyzed synchronically, as e.g. cran-, in cranberry. Pertinent to the classification of a semi-morpheme is that (a) the morpheme with which it occurs can be unequivocally classified, (b) the semimorpheme has a distinctive function in the paradigm (cf. cranberry vs boysenberry and huckleberry), but (c) does not form a series (by which it would be differentiated from other stems). If a semi-morpheme occurs in derivations, it is called a pseudomorpheme. References morphology semiology (also sematology, semeology, semiotics, semology) Term introduced by Saussure (1916) for the sketch of a general theory of signs subordinate to (social) psychology that studies signs ‘within the framework of social life.’ Linguistics is a discipline that is important for semiology, but none the less secondary to it, as semiology is concerned with the general properties of all possible signs and also A-Z 1053 comprises the study of other sign systems, such as sign language, forms of politeness, military signals, etc. References Lanigan, R.L. 1972. Speaking and semiology. Berlin and New York. (2nd edn 1991.) Saussure, F.de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) semiotics semiosis Term used in semiotics to designate the production and interpretation of a sign. semiotic triangle (also semantic triangle) Geometric schema developed by Odgen and Richards (1923) to illustrate the dependent relationship between symbol, thought, and referent; or, in more common terms, sign, meaning, and object (of reference). Germane to this approach, whose basic ideas are to be found as early as in the works of Parmenides (c. 540–470 BC), is the hypothesis that there is no direct relation between the symbol and referent, between the linguistic expression and the state of affairs in the real world; that is, linguistic expressions relate to the real world only through their meaning. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1054 Reference Ogden, C.K. and I.A.Richards. 1923. The meaning of meaning. New York. semiotics (also sign theory) The theory of linguistic and non-linguistic signs and signing processes to which the study of natural languages, as the most comprehensive system, is central. Besides language and communication theory, many humanistic disciplines are concerned with theories of nonlinguistic signs (aesthetics, graphic design, art, mythology, psychoanalysis, cultural anthropology, religious studies, to name a few). C.W. Morris distinguishes the following areas of study: (a) the syntactic aspect, i.e. the relation between different signs ( syntax); (b) the semantic aspect, i.e. the relation between the sign and its meaning ( semantics); and (c) the pragmatic aspect, i.e. the relation between the sign and the sign user ( pragmatics). ( also semiology) References Bense, M. and E.Walther (eds) 1973. Wörterbuch der Semiotik. Cologne. Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart, 1965.) Eco, U. 1976. A theory of semiotics. Bloomington, IN. ——1984. Semiotics and the philosophy of language. Bloomington, IN. Greimas, A.-J. and J.Courtes. 1979. Semiotique: dictionnaire raisonné de la théorie du langage. Paris. A-Z 1055 Haarmann, H. 1990. Language in its cultural embedding: explorations in the relativity of signs and sign systems. Berlin and New York. Krampe, M. et al. (eds) 1987. Classics of semiotics. New York and London. Manning, P.K. 1987. Semiotics and fieldwork. London. Morris, C.W. 1938. Foundations of the theory of signs. Chicago, IL. ——1946. Sign, language and behavior. New York. ——1971. Writings on the general theory of signs. The Hague. Peirce, C.S. 1931–58. Collected papers of Charles S. Peirce, ed. C.Hartshorne, P.Weiss, and A.W. Burks. 8 vols. Cambridge, MA. ——1955. Philosophical writings of Peirce, ed. J. Buchler. New York. Prower, E. 1990. Linguistics and C.S.Peirce’s semiotics: two incompatible paradigms? Linguistica Silesiana 11.7–20. Rey-Debove, J. 1979. Lexique semiotique. Paris. Saussure, F.de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale. Paris, (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) Schleifer, R. 1987. A.J. Greimas and the nature of meaning: linguistics, semiotics and discourse theory. London and Sydney. Sebeok, T.A. 1974. Semiotics. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 12, 211–64. ——1976. Contribution to the doctrine of signs. Bloomington, IN. ——(ed.) 1986. Encyclopedic dictionary of semiotics. Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam. (2nd rev. edn 1994.) ——1994. An introduction to semiotics. London. ——and I.Smith. 1991. American signatures: semiotic inquiry and method. Norman, OK. ——and J.Umiker-Sebeok (eds) 1987–. The semiotic web. Vol. 6 1992. Berlin. Singh, J. (ed.) 1992. Semiosis and semiotics: explorations in the theory of signs. Delhi. Spinks, C.W. 1991. Peirce and Triadomania: a walk in the semiotic wilderness. Berlin and New York. Tejerea, V. 1988. Semiotics: from Peirce to Barthes. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Tobin, Y. 1990. Semiotics and linguistics. London. Wolde, E.J.van. 1987. A semiotic analytical model: proceeding from Peirce’s and Greimas’ semiotics. Kodikas 10.195–212. Bibliographies Eschbach, A. 1974. Zeichen—Text—Bedeutung: Bibliographie zu Theorie und Praxis der Semiotik. Munich. Eschbach, A. and V.Eschbach-Szabo. 1986. Bibliography of semiotics, 1975–1985. 2 vols. Amsterdam. Eschbach, A. and W.Radler. 1976. SemiotikBibliographie. Frankfurt. ——1977. Kurze Bibliographie zur Geschichte der Semiotik. In R.Posner and H.-P.Reinecke (eds), Zeichenprozesse: semiotische Forschung in den Einzelwissenschaften. Wiesbaden. 355–67. Journals Kodikas. Semiotika. Zeitschrift für Semiotik. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1056 language and cognition semi-prefix Prefix-like word formation element like out in outsmart and outlook, that forms series and can occur freely in the same form but with a different meaning (put ‘adverb of location’). The capacity to form a series as well as semantic relatedness are parameters that allow a broad heterogeneous zone between composition and affixation. ( also semi-suffix) semi-suffix Suffix-like formatives such as -free in lead-free, -worthy in noteworthy, and -like in lifelike that form series of words, but (often) still have a corresponding base morpheme as well (free, worthy, like). At the same time, there is in many cases a development away from the content of the original word towards generalization. The distinction between suffix and semi-suffix is continuous. References word formation Semitic Named after Sem, the son of Noah, language family belonging to Afro-Asiatic. The oldest attested language is Akkadian in ancient Mesopotamia (2500–600 BC). Other branches: NorthWest Semitic (Phoenician, Ugaritic, Hebrew, Aramaic), South Semitic (Arabic, Old South Arabic, Neo-South Arabic), and Ethiosemitic (Ge’ez, Tigrinya, Tigre, Amharic, Gurage, Harari). The relationship between languages such as Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic was already recognized by the Jewish grammarians of the Middle Ages. The European study of the Semitic languages dates back to the sixteenth century, the term ‘Semitic’ was coined by L.von Schlözer in 1781. The turn of the century marked a flurry of research (C.Brockelmann, T. Nöldeke). A-Z 1057 Characteristics: a series of emphatic (pharyngealized or glottalized) consonants. Verbal morphology: two aspects with different conjugation patterns (perfect vs imperfect with the meaning preterite vs present/future), rich system of voices, subject agreement. Nominal morphology: two-way gender system (masculine/feminine), often three cases (nominative, genitive, accusative; dative and locative can be reconstructed, in the modern languages often no case for the noun), rich number system (dual forms, sometimes collective-singular distinction), so-called ‘status constructus’ (the governing noun in a ‘power,’ ä ‘power of the genitive construction is marked, cf. Ge’ez trinity’, name of the last Ethio-pean emperor). Root inflection: the roots consist of a few (usually three) consonants (so-called ‘radicals’) and are generally inflected by various vowels occurring between them (so-called ‘triliterality,’ example: from the Arabic radical k-t-b ‘write’ is derived kitāb ‘book,’ kataba ‘he wrote,’ yaktubu ‘he writes,’ kattāb ‘writer,’ maktab ‘office,’ etc.). Foreign words are also made to conform to this system, cf. film, pl. aflām. Word order: usually VSO, differentiation between nominal clause (without copula) and verbal clause. References Bergsträsser, G. 1928. Einführung in die semitischen Sprachen. Munich. (Introduction to the Semitic languages, trans. P.T.Daniels. Winona Lake, IN, 1983.) der vergleichenden Grammatik der semitischen Sprachen. Brockelmann, C. 1908–13. Berlin. (Repr. Hildesheim, 1961.) Moscati, S.A. et al. 1969. An introduction to the comparative grammar of the Semitic languages: phonology and morphology. Wiesbaden. (2nd printing.) Spuler, B. (ed.) 1953. Semitistik. (Handbuch der Orientalistik I, Vol. 3.) Leiden. (Repr. 1964.) Dictionary Cohen, D. 1970 . Dictionnaire des racines semitiques ou attestées dans les langues sémitiques. Paris and Leuven. Bibliography Hospers, J. (ed.) 1973–4. A basic bibliography for the study of the Semitic languages, 2 vols. Leiden. Journals Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages. Journal of Semitic Studies. Journal for Semitics. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1058 semivowel 1 (also glide1) Principally a phonologically defined subclass of approximants. A semivowel functions phonologically like a consonant, that is, does not constitute the nucleus of the syllable, e.g. [j] in Eng. [‘jelευ] yellow and in Fr. huit ‘eight.’ References syllable 2 In Old Church Slavic and in the reconstructed primary stages of contemporary Slavic languages, an overshort ĭ or ŭ (b or ъ). semology semiology sense Frege’s (1892) term (Ger. Sinn) for the characteristic or quality of the object denoted by the linguistic expression. Frege’s distinction of Sinn vs Bedeutung (translated as sense vs reference) corresponds to the dichotomies of meaning vs referent or that of intension vs extension. ( also connotation, denotation) References Carl, W. 1994. Frege ‘s theory of sense and reference. Cambridge. Frege, G. 1892. Über Sinn und Bedeutung. Zeitschrift für Philosophie und philosophische Kritik (new series) 100.25–50. (Repr. in Kleine Schriften, ed I.Angelelli. Darmstadt, 1967 143–62. (Also as: On sense and reference, trans. M.Black. In P. Geach and M.Black (eds), Translation from the philosophical writings of Gottlob Frege. Oxford. 56–78.) intension, meaning A-Z 1059 sensory aphasia aphasia, Wernicke’s aphasia sensory information storage memory sentence Unit of speech constructed according to language-dependent rules, which is relatively complete and independent in respect to content, grammatical structure, and intonation. During the history of linguistics, the vagueness of syntactic and semantic features which define sentences has led to repeated attempts at definitions, of which the following two more recent attempts will be highlighted. According to formal aspects, American structuralism (see Bloomfield 1933) provides a strict definition of ‘sentence’ as the largest independent syntactic form which cannot be embedded in any other syntactic form by any grammatical rule. Described syntactically, the sentence is the result of an analysis that proceeds from the smallest units (phonemes) through morphemes, words, and phrases to the synthesis ‘sentence.’ In transformational grammar, a sentence (abbreviated S) is the fundamental basis of syntactic analysis, where S is defined extensionally by giving the rules that, when applied, will result in the production of sentences. In both of these definitions, a sentence is seen as a unit of langue ( langue vs parole), in distinction to sentence as a parole-based concrete utterance, where it becomes especially problematic to identify a sentence, particularly in spoken discourse. Sentences can be classified according to the following aspects. (a) Formally, the position of the verb can be important: in English, verbinitial p osition is a marker for interrogatives or imperatives. (b) In reference to communicative-pragmatic functions, word order, mood, and intonation can be used to indicate four basic types of sentences: statements, interrogatives, imperatives and conditionals (if only…). (c) Based on varying degrees of complexity of the syntactic structure, sentences can be divided into simple, compound, and complex sentences: simple sentences may contain only one finite verb plus obligatory and optional ( obligatory vs optional) constituents; compound sentences contain at least two finite verbs, with clauses being joined through coordination; complex sentences contain at least two finite verbs, with all additional (dependent) clauses being joined to the main (=independent) clause via subordination. References Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. Fabb, N. 1994. Sentence structure. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1060 Kasher, A. 1976. Sentences and utterances reconsidered. FL 8.313–45. sentence adverbial (also adsentential) Adverbial construction which expresses the subjective attitude of the speaker towards some state of affairs. Sentence adverbials can occur as modal adverbs (hopefully, maybe) or prepositional phrases: Apparently/Surprisingly/ Without a doubt she figured it out. In contrast to modal adverbs, sentence adverbials modify the whole sentence ( scope) and have sentential characteristics, i.e. logically they are sentences about sentences. Thus in the utterance He’s probably been sick for a long time, the statement He ‘s been sick for a long time is restricted by the subjective evaluation of the speaker towards the state of affairs: I suspect it/that. References Allerton, D.J. and A.Cruttenden. 1974. English sentence adverbials. Lingua 34.1–30. Bellert, I. 1977. On semantic and distributional properties of sentential adverbs. LingI 8.337–51. Hetland, J. 1992. Satzadverbien im Fokus. Tübingen. adverbial sentence meaning The whole meaning of a sentence as opposed to that of an individual word ( lexical vs grammatical meaning). In philosophy and logic, sentence meaning is readily equated with propositions or, for the sake of simplicity, with truth values and thereby represents qualitatively something different as compared to the meaning of terms and predicates. However, this distinction does not generally apply in linguistics, since sentence meaning may be structurally derived from the principle of compositionality. To this extent, sentence meaning yields a completely structured whole. Since sentence meaning can be ascertained based only on what has been actually uttered, stereotypes or other knowledge about the world are usually necessary to understand sentence meaning. ( also sentence semantics) References meaning, semantics A-Z 1061 sentence mood Grammatical category referring to that part of sentential modality which is structurally encoded, for example, by verbal mood, such as indicative or imperative, and by word order. Sentential modality, in turn, is the communicative role played by a sentence’s propositional content in discourse (illocutionary force) as expressed by linguistic means. Please keep quiet! expresses the sentential modality of a polite request, the sentence mood is imperative. References Altmann, H. 1993. Satzmodus. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 1006–29. Grewendorf, G. and D.Zaefferer. 1991. Theorien der Satzmodi/Theories of sentence mood. In A.v. Stechow and D.Wunderlich (eds), Semantik/ Semantics: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. 270–86. Zaefferer, D. 1990. On the coding of sentential modality. In J.Bechert (ed.), Toward a typology of European languages. Berlin. 215–37. focus, intonation sentence pattern (also atomic sentence, kernel sentence) Elementary structure of a simple sentence based on the valence of the verb which remains after elimination of all structurally unnecessary (i.e. optional) elements. Some very traditional basic sentence patterns in English include: noun +verb (I think); noun+verb+direct object (I see the dog), noun+verb+indirect object+ direct object (I give the dog a bone). ( also atomic sentence, kernel sentence, valence) sentence root The basic state of affairs in a sentence which remains constant regardless of what sentence type ( declarative sentence, interrogative, imperative) it appears in. The sentence root in Philip is coming/Is Philip coming? /Come, Philip! describes the state of affairs in which the individual, Philip, is attributed with the process of coming. In Dictionary of language and linguistics 1062 categorial grammar, the sentence root is the basic category of sentence, while in logic and speech act theory it corresponds to proposition. References Lewis, D. 1970. General semantics. Synthese 22.18–67. categorial grammar sentence semantics The description of the semantic structure of sentences based on the meaning of individual lexemes and their syntactic roles in the given sentence. ( also meaning, principle of compositionality, sentence meaning) sentence type Distinction in school grammar between basic kinds of sentences: declarative, imperative, interrogative, exclamatory, wish sentences. This typology is based on (a) formal criteria such as position of the finite verb (verb-initial position in interrogative and imperative sentences), mood (imperative in imperative sentences), intonation, lexical means ( interrogative pronouns, modal particles) and (b) communicative aspects such as speaker intention ( speech act theory). The interplay of formal, lexical, and functional aspects is far more complex than these traditional types suggest. sentence word Individual words like yes, thanks, and bye that can appear outside a sentence and have sentential character. Their morphological-syntactic classification (as ‘particle’ or ‘adverb’) is unclear, as is their connection to ellipsis. References word formation A-Z 1063 sentential Property of participial and infinitive constructions which can be paraphrased with and used in the same way as clauses. They are subject to the same syntactic rules as clauses, such as extraposition. Thus the sentence Distressed by their helplessness (past participle), the mayor decided to support them more fully (infinitive) can be paraphrased as (a) The mayor was distressed by their helplessness, (b) The mayor decided (something); (c) The mayor will support them more fully. sentential infinitive infinitive construction sentential subject clause (also sentential subject complement) Dependent clause which functions syntactically as a subject. Sentential subject clauses in the form of conjunctive clauses are introduced by that, if, who, how, they can also be expressed by participial constructions: It became clear only later that he had no such intentions; Helping her (that) can be difficult. Semantically, sentential subject clauses are modifiers of a semantically empty (usually optional) dummy element in the main clause such as it, that, the fact that. ( also sentential) sentential subject complement subject clause sentential sentential subject constraint A constraint on transformations suggested by J.R.Ross, whereby no constituent may be moved out of a sentence which is the subject of a clause. For example, [*Who did [that Caroline was going out with—] bother you?]. In this respect, subject sentences are ‘islands’ from which no constituents can be moved. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1064 References constraints, island sentoid Term coined by J.J.Katz and P.M.Postal (derived from sentence) for structurally unambiguous chains of formatives2. In contrast to sentences, sentoids are structurally unambiguous readings of the deep structure of a sentence and thus can be described by a single structural description. In this analysis, the ambiguous chain of formatives Men and women with long hair must wear bathing caps is interpreted as one sentence but as two sentoids, namely as [men] and [women with long hair] or [men with long hair], and [women with long hair]. Reference Katz, J.J. and P.M.Postal. 1964. An integrated theory of linguistic description. Cambridge, MA. sequence of tenses Fixed order of tenses in complex sentences. This ‘relative’ use of tenses is strictly regulated in Latin. If the actions depicted in the main and relative clauses are simultaneous, the tense of the dependent clause depends on the tense in the independent clause: present in the main clause requires present subjun ctive in the dependent clause; preterite or past perfect in the main clause requires perfect subjunctive in the dependent clause. This strict ordering also occurs in English, such as in conditional sentences: If I knew the answer I wouldn’t ask vs If I had known the answer I wouldn ‘t have asked. sequential organization In conversation analysis, the struct uring of a conversation through various types of ‘actionsequences’ produced by different speakers. It is assumed that sequential organization is a resource for assigning meaning, that is, within a sequence, an utterance brings about one of various expected actions depending on the preceding turn, which A-Z 1065 alternately leads to the expectation of a particular next turn (taken from a limited set of possible next turns). In this manner, participants demonstrate how they have understood the preceding turn. Among such types of sequences, in which the choice of a particular first turn leads to a particular next turn, are adjacency pairs (such as question-answer, conditional relevance) or sequences with preferred options (such as the acceptance of an invitation instead of its decline, preference). Further evidence for the sequential organization of conversation is provided by expressions that mark misplacements (e.g. by discourse markers). Sequential organization is supported by the ‘local’ the way, management of turn-taking (see Sacks et al. 1974). For this reason, in conversation analysis, utterances are not analyzed in isolation, but rather within sequences. This approach distinguishes conversation analysis from other related approaches of discourse analysis, such as those of text linguistics or speech act theory. For impressive examples, see Turner 1976 and Jefferson 1981. References Jefferson, G. 1972. Side sequences. In D.Sudnow (ed.), Studies in social interaction. New York. 294–338. ——1981. The abominable ne? In P.Schröder and H.Steger (eds) Dialogforschung. Düsseldorf. 53– 88. Turner, R. 1976. Utterance positioning as an interactional resource. Semiotica 17.233–54. Levinson, S. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge. Sacks, H., E.Schegloff. and G.Jefferson. 1974. A simplest systematics for the organization of turntaking for conversation. Lg 50.696–735. Serbian Serbo-Croatian Serbo-Croatian South Slavic language with approx. 15 million speakers of the two main variants, Serbian and Croatian. Serbian is written in the Cyrillic alphabet with additional characters ‹Џ›, ‹љ›, ‹њ› and, in contrast to Macedonian, , and is spoken mainly in Serbia. Croatian is written in the Latin alphabet with numerous diacritics and the additional character , and is spoken mainly in Croatia. Agreement between the Serbs and Croats on the unity of Serbo-Croatian was reached in Vienna in 1850 based on the standard language created by Vuk Karadžić in Vienna (1813–18). Serbian, Croatian, and Slovene are to a large extent mutually intelligible. Characteristics of both variants: short and long vowels with rising and falling tone (in Slavic terminology: ‘intonation’); complex tense and aspect system. Differences between Dictionary of language and linguistics 1066 Serbian and Croatian include: Serb. ‹e› vs Croat. ‹je› or ‹ije›, both corresponding to Old Church Slavic ‹ě› in ded vs djed vs děd ‘grandfather,’ reka vs rijeka vs rěka ‘river.’ Lexical differences: Serb. krtola vs Croat. krompir ‘potato,’ Serb. pozorište vs Croat. kazalište ‘theater.’ Reference Gvozdanovíc, J. 1980. Tone and accent in standard Serbo-Croatian. Vienna. Grammars Leskien, A. 1914. Grammatik der serbokroatischen Sprache, Vol. I: Lautlehre, Stammbildung, Formenlehre. Heidelberg. Meillet, A. and A.Vaillant. 1969. Grammaire de la langue serbo-croate, 2nd edn. Paris. Partridge, M. 1972. Serbo-Croat: practical grammar and reader. 2nd edn. Belgrade. Dialects and history Ivić, P. 1958. Die serbokroatischen Dialekte: ihre Struktur und Entwicklung, Vol. I: Allgemeines und die štovakische Dialektgruppe. ‘s-Gravenhage. Popović, I. 1960. Geschichte der serbokroatischen Sprache. Wiesbaden. Dictionaries Benson, M. (ed.) 1990. Serbo-Croatian—English dictionary, 3rd edn. Cambridge. ——(ed.) 1990. English-Serbo-Croatian dictionary. Cambridge. Rečnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika. 1880–1976. 23 vols. Zagreb. Skok, P. 1971–4. Etimologijski rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika, 4 vols. Zagreb. Slavic Serer West Atlantic serial verb construction Type of construction that is found predominantly in isolating languages such as Chinese or the Kwa languages of West Africa. A series of verbs or verb-object complexes are juxtaposed without any kind of conjunction, certain verbs having more abstract or A-Z 1067 grammaticalized meaning, e.g. Yoruba ó gbé e wá lit. ‘he carry it come,’ i.e. ‘he brings it.’ References Déchaine, R.-M. 1993. Serial verb constructions. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 799–925. Lefebvre, C. (ed.) 1991. Serial verbs: grammatical, comparative and cognitive approaches. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Lord. C. 1993. Historical change in serial verb constructions. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Schachter, P. 1974. A non-transformational account of serial verbs. Studies in African Linguistics, supp. 5.253–70. Sebba, M. 1987. The syntax of serial verbs: an investigation into serialization in Sranan and other languages. Amsterdam. Steever, S.B. 1988. The serial verb formation in the Dravidian languages. Delhi. serialization word order set Basic concept in mathematics and, more specifically, in set theory: a set is a collection of elements that have a particular characteristic in common. The elements are contained or included in the set (i.e. in a relation of ‘inclusion’ to the set) (notation: x ε S, read as ‘x is an element (or member) of S’). Sets can be defined extensionally by naming the number of their elements (enumeration, extension), the order of the elements being insignificant, or intensionally by indicating the common characteristics of the elements (description) ( intension, predicate). In contrast to the everyday language use of the term ‘set,’ mathematical sets have the following characteristics. (a) Concrete objects as well as abstract concepts and mental constructs like numbers, names and phonemes may be elements of sets, which also means that sets, in turn, can be elements of other sets (e.g. the set of all verbs in English is at the same time an element of the set of all word classes in English, if a class is understood as a set of expressions). (b) A set can be empty (empty set, notation: ) (e.g. the set of all clicks in English). (c) A set can consist of a single element (singleton) (e.g. the set of initial symbols in a phrase structure grammar that have only the element S for ‘sentence’ as the initial node). (d) The number of elements of a set can be infinite (e.g. the set of natural numbers or the set of grammatical sentences in English). The following operations and relations between sets can be distinguished. (e) The identity of sets: two sets A and B are extensionally ‘the same,’ if they contain the same elements. (f) Equivalence: two sets are equivalent, if they can be mapped onto each other Dictionary of language and linguistics 1068 bijectively ( function). Equivalence is both a reflexive relation and a symmetric relation and a transitive relation. (g) The union set is that set S to which all elements belong that are included in at least one of the two original sets A and B (notation: = . The union set corresponds in propositional logic to the inclusive, i.e. to the ‘non-exclusive,’ or, the propositional conjunction of which is true if one or both statements are true ( disjunction). See the following Venn diagram for (with hachure): For example: let A and B be the sets of abstract words and words ending in -ion in English. The union set is, then, the set of abstract words or words ending in -ion in English (billion, carrion, nation, onion, etc.). (h) The intersection set is the set of those xεB}). elements that are contained both in set A and in set B (notation: A∩B:= For example: if A is the set of transitive and B the set of irregular verbs in English, then the intersection set of A and B is the set of transitive and irregular verbs in English (bind, eat, come). (i) Difference: the difference is that subset of A that contains exactly the same . The elements in A that are not also elements of B (notation: A\B:= union set of the difference A\B and B\A corresponds in propositional logic to the ‘exclusive’ or, the propositional conjunction of which is true only if one of the two statements linked by or is true (but not if both are true) ( disjunction, exclusive disjunction). See the following Venn diagram for A\B (with hachure): For example: let A be the set of the transitive verbs in English and B the set of irregular verbs in English. The difference A\B is, then, the set of regular transitive verbs in English (e.g. work). (j) Subset: a set A is a subset of a set B if all elements of A are also elements of B (notation: . A-Z 1069 For example: the set of transitive verbs in English is a (true) subset of the verbs of the English language, that is to say that in the set of English verbs there is at least one verb that is not an element of the subset of English transitive verbs. In propositional logic the subset corresponds to implication; in semantics ‘subset’ is germane to the relation of hyponymy. (k) Complement: the complement of A with respect to a certain universe of . discourse U is the set of all elements that are not elements of A It is the case that = U\A, that is, the complement of A with respect to U is the special case of the difference of . For example: let U be the set of all English words. If A is the set of all English verbs, then the complement of set A is the set of all English words except the verbs. (1) Power set: . In the power set of a set A is the set of all subsets of A (notation: this case, the number of elements of the power set corresponds to the number 2 raised to the power of the number of elements in the original set: if A contains the three elements {a, b, c}, then the power set has P(A) 23=8 elements: , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b), {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}. (m) Disjunction: two sets A and B are disjunct if their intersection (see (h)) , that is, if they do not have any elements in common. Put yields the empty set formally: . Dictionary of language and linguistics 1070 For example: let A be the set of transitive verbs and B the set of intransitive verbs in English; the intersection set is, then, , since no verb can be both intransitive and transitive at the same time. (n) Cartesian product (named for the French p hilosopher R. Descartes (1596–1650)): the Cartesian product of two sets A and B is the set of all ordered pairs ‹x, y›, wherein x is included in A and y in B, put formally as and read as ‘A cross B.’ AXB= For example: languages with intact inflectional systems use morphological markers for case and number. Let A be the set of grammatical cases in German {nominative, genitive, dative, accusative} and B the set of number {singular, plural}. The Cartesian product of AXB contains all possible combinations {nominative singular, dative plural, etc.}. References set theory set feature An extension of the descriptive apparatus of unification grammar for features with more than one value. Set features are used in Functional Unification Grammar, Lexical Functional Grammar, and Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. References unification grammar A-Z 1071 set phrase idiom set theory Basic mathematical discipline founded by G. Cantor (1845–1918) concerned with the axiomatization of the theory of sets. As a fundamental mathematical and logical discipline set theory, the terminology, and its definitions have found many applications in linguistics, particularly in computational linguistics. References Cooper, W.S. 1964. Set theory and syntactic description. The Hague. Halmos, R. 1960. Naive set theory. Princeton, NJ. Hockett, C.F. 1966. Language, mathematics, and linguistics. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.) Current trends in linguistics. The Hague, Vol. 3, 155–204. Lipschutz, S. 1955. Set theory and related topics, including 530 solved problems. New York. Mulder, J.W.F. 1968. Sets and relations in phonology: an axiomated approach to the description of speech. Oxford. Suppes. P. 1960. Axiomatic set theory. Princeton, NJ. Wall, R. 1972. Introduction to mathematical linguistics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. formal logic shibboleth From Heb. shibboleth (‘ear of corn,’ ‘stream’), shibboleth is a linguistic characteristic that is unique to a certain group and serves to distinguish that group from other groups. The term comes originally from the Book of Judges 12:5–6: ‘And the Gileadites took the fords of the Jordan against the Ephraimites. And when any of the fugitives of the Ephraim said, ‘Let me go over,’ the men of Gilead said to him, ‘Are you an Ephraimite?’ When he said ‘No,’ they said to him Then say Shibboleth,’ and he said ‘Sibboleth,’ for he could not pronounce it right; then they seized him and slew him at the fords of the Jordan.’ Dictionary of language and linguistics 1072 shibilant In analogy to sibilant, term used to denote sounds such as [∫] and and corresponding affricates as well as the . References phonetics shift word shifter short pronoun deictic expression Shlih Berber Shona Bantu long vs short, quantity short-term memory shortening memory lengthening vs shortening A-Z shuttering Siamese 1073 dysfluency Thai sibilant [Lat. sibilare ‘to make a hissing sound’] Subclass of auditorily similar fricatives as well as corresponding affricates that are produced through a narrow opening between the front of the tongue and the front palate. , in [haυs] ‘house,’ [zu] ‘zoo’ ‘genre,’ and For example [s], [z]. [∫], ‘shore.’ References phonetics Sievers’ Law This term covers two different sound changes of Indo-European that in more recent literature are differentiated as Sievers’ Law I and Sievers’ Law II. 1 Sievers’ Law I (also Sievers-Edgerton’s Law): this is a regularity in the syllable structure of Indo-European saying that the semivowels y and w following a short syllable alternate regularly with i (iy) and u (uw) following a long syllable. Thus, the same suffix in Gothic appears either as ji (=i+i) or as ei (î) (=i+i) depending on the length of the preceding syllable; cf. satjiþ ‘sets’ vs sôkeiþ ‘searches’. The original Sievers’ Law underwent numerous modifications; the most significant reformulation was made by F.Edgerton. References Collinge, N.E. 1985. The laws of Indo-European. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. 159–178. Edgerton, F. 1934. Sievers’ law and Indo-European weak grade vocalism. Lg 10.235–65. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1074 Seebold, E. 1972. Das System der indogermanischen Halbvokale; Untersuchungen zum sogenannten ‘Sieversschen Gesetz’ und zu den halbvokalhaltigen Suffixen in den indogermanischen Sprachen, besonders im Vedischen. Heidelberg. Sievers, E. 1878. Zur accent-und lautlehre der germanischen sprachen, II: zum vocalischen auslautsgesetz. PBB 5.101–63. 2 Sievers’ Law II: this concerns the development of the IE labiovelar kw. Through Grimm’s Law, this regularly becomes Proto-Germanic hw>OHG h; cf. IE *akwa ‘water’>ProtoGerm. *ahwo>OHG aha>NHG Ache. However, the development is different in Verner surroundings ( Verner’s Law); here, the original labiovelar becomes gw through Grimm’s Law, then Proto-Germ. u>OHG w or u; cf. again IE *akwa>Proto-Germ. *agwo; with i-derivation Proto-Germ. *awio ‘of or belonging to water’>OHG ouwa>NHG Aue. Such word pairs with respectively different sound development of labiovelars depending on the position of the word accent can also be found for Indo-European voiced-aspirated stops. Thus, in summary, this law says that in Verner surroundings the labial component of the Indo-European labiovelar survived, whereas under other conditions the velar component was retained. References Seebold, E. 1967. Die Vertretung idg. *gwh- im Germanischen. ZVS 81.104–33. Sievers, E. 1878. Zur accent- und lautlehre der germanischen sprachen. PBB 5.63–164. Sievers-Edgerton’s Law Sievers’ Law1 sign Basic element of a general theory of signs ( semiotics). Abstract class of all sensually perceivable signals that refer to the same object or state of affairs in the real world. A distinction is made between natural signs (or ‘symptoms’), which are founded upon a causal relationship between the sign and the signified (e.g. jaundice as a symptom of a particular illness; index) and artificial signs (or ‘representational signs’), which are based on convention and distinct from language to language (e.g. yellow as the denotation for a particular segment of the color spectrum; symbol). Linguistic signs have specific basic characteristics (see de Saussure 1916). (a) Bilaterality, that is, every sign has two aspects, the material sign (or ‘signifier’), which is realized phonetically or graphemically, and a conceptual sign (or ‘signified) ( signifier A-Z 1075 vs signified). In contrast to de Saussure’s diadic sign, others, for example C.S. Peirce, assume that the sign has a triadic structure and distinguish between the material sign, the signified, and the speaker. (b) Arbitrariness, that is, the co-ordination between the signifier and the signified is, of course, predetermined by convention, yet nevertheless arbitrary, to the extent that it differs from language to language and the relation between signifier and signified is not motivated. (c) Linearity, that is, as a sensually perceptible signal the linguistic sign exists exclusively within the framework of time. In sign theory, three or four areas of study are differentiated: (1) the syntactic aspect, syntax); (2) the semantic aspect, or the or the relation between different signs ( relation between sign and meaning ( semantics); and (3) the pragmatic aspect, or the pragmatics). ( also icon, organon model of relation between sign and sign user ( language, semiotics) References Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart, 1965.) Morris, C.W. 1938. Foundations of the theory of signs. Chicago, IL. ——1946. Sign, language and behavior. New York. ——1971. Writings on the general theory of signs. The Hague. Peirce, C.S. 1931–58. Collected papers of Charles S. Peirce, ed. C.Hartshorne, P.Weiss and A.W. Burks. 8 vols. Cambridge, MA. Sangdhansen, H. 1954. Recent theories on the nature of the language sign. Copenhagen. Saussure, F. de 1916. Cours de linguistique générale. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R. Harris. London. 1983.) semiotics sign language 1 In the broadest sense, gestural systems used by religious or secret societies (i.e. Trappist monks, Freemasons) or hand signals used in sports, auctions, diving, ritual dance, etc. These manual systems do not have the structural complexity or communication range of natural languages. 2 In the narrow sense, ‘sign language’ refers to the natural languages which have evolved over time in deaf communities throughout the world and used for the same wide ran ge of communicative purposes as spoken languages. There are national sign languages and their regional dialects, as well as sociolects, style, and register distinctions. The linguistic structure utilizes the visual/gestural modality of the language; sign languages are thus independent of the spoken languages used in the same region. Nevertheless, sign languages have been found to be constrained to ‘general restrictions on structure and organization proposed for oral languages’ (Padden 1988b). Modern research on sign languages began relatively recently, beginning with research showing that manual signs, formerly regarded as unanalyzable global units, were Dictionary of language and linguistics 1076 composed of a limited set of sublexical units (‘aspects’ according to Stokoe 1960; ‘parameters’ according to Klima and Bellugi 1979). Whereas the early studies emphasized that the visual/ gestural modality allows for extensive simultaneous as well as sequential production of sublexical elements, more recent research, using autosegmental or hierarchical syllable frameworks, has emphasized the sequential arrangement at the phonological level. (Liddell and Johnson 1989; Sandler 1990; Wilbur 1990; Coulter 1993). Several different notation systems have been developed for sublexical components (Stokoe et al. 1965; Prillwitz and Zienert 1990; McIntire et al. 1987). An unusual characteristic of this visual language is the grammatical use of the threedimensional space around the signer (see Engberg-Pedersen 1993; Lucas 1990). Signals given by the facial expression, head, trunk, and eye gaze have also been found to function linguistically (Baker-Shenk 1983; Liddell 1980; Bergman 1984). The mouthing of wordlike elements from the spoken language has been reported to be an important loan element in several European sign languages (see Schermer 1990; Ebbinghaus and Hessmann 1990). All sign languages studied to date have been found to have a rich morphology. Different groups of verbs can mark subject-object agreement, locative relations, path and manner of motion, and several kinds of temporal aspect (Padden 1988a; Klima & Bellugi 1979; Bergman & Dahl 1990; Supalla 1982; Newport 1988). Engberg-Pedersen (1993) describes verbs in Danish Sign Language in terms of being more or less ‘polymorphemic’ and temporal relations expressed by means of several different kinds of ‘time lines.’ Derivational processes for adjectives, verbs, and nouns have been studied (Klima and Bellugi 1979; Bellugi and Newkirk 1981). Syntactical issues have been addressed for American Sign Language (Liddell 1980; Padden 1988a; Fischer and Siple 1990; Lucas 1990) and other sign languages (Brennan and Turner 1994). Several forms of ‘contact signing’ (Lucas and Valli 1989) are used in communicative situations involving deaf or hearing persons bilingual in both a signed and an oral language (Ahlgren and Hyltenstam 1994). Signs used simultaneously with spoken language in educational situations are not considered a form of deaf sign language but rather a pedagogical system for making the oral language more ‘visible’ to deaf children (Wilbur 1979). Non-verbal communication of signers has been studied by Reilly et al. (1990; 1992). Deaf children exposed to the language from infancy acquire sign language at a rate and through a process similar to their hearing peers’ acquisition of spoken language (Volterra and Erting 1990; Newport and Meier 1985). Sign language is considered by deaf persons to be a core characteristic of Deaf culture (Padden and Humphries 1988). American Sign Lan guage has been accepted as fulfilling the foreign-language requirement in many US universities (Wilcox 1992). An extensive international bibliography of research on sign language can be found in Joachim and Prillwitz (1993). References Ahlgren, I. and K.Hyltenstam (eds) 1994. Bilingualism in deaf education. Hamburg. Baker-Shenk, C.L. 1983. A microanalysis of the nonmanual components of questions in American Sign Language. Unpublished dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. A-Z 1077 Bellugi, U. and D.Newkirk. 1981. Formal devices for creating new signs in American sign language. Sign Language Studies 30.1–35. Bergman, B. 1984. Non-manual components in signed language: some sentence types in Swedish sign language. In F.Loncke et al. (eds), Recent research on European sign languages. Lisse. 49–59. Bergman, B. and Ö.Dahl. 1990. Idiophones in sign language? The place of reduplication in the tenseaspect system of Swedish Sign Language. In C. Bache et al. (eds) Tense-aspect-modality: new data—new approaches., The Hague. Brennan, M. and G.Turner. 1994. Word-order issues in sign language working papers. Durham. Coulter, G.R. (ed.) 1993. Phonetics and phonology, vol. 3: Current issues in ASL phonology. San Diego, CA. Deuchar, M. 1984. British sign language. London. Ebbinghaus, H. and J.Hessmann, 1990. German words in German sign language. In S.Prillwitz and T.Vollhaber (eds), Current trends in European sign language research. Hamburg. 97–112. Engberg-Pedersen, E. 1993. Space in Danish Sign Language. Hamburg. Fischer, S. and P.Siple (eds) 1990. Theoretical issues in sign language research. Chicago, IL. Kendon, A. 1989. Sign languages of Aboriginal Australia. Cambridge. Klima, E.S. and U.Bellugi (eds) 1979. The signs of language. London. Lane, H. and F.Grosjean (eds) 1989. Recent perspectives on American sign language. Hove. Liddell, S.C. and R.E.Johnson. 1989. American sign language: the phonological base. Sign Language Studies 64.195–277. Liddell, S.K. 1980. American sign language syntax. The Hague. Lillo-Martin, D.C. 1991. Universal grammar and American sign language. Dordrecht. Lucas, C. (ed.) 1990. Sign language research: Theoretical issues. Washington, DC. Lucas, C. and C.Valli. 1989. Language contact in the American deaf community. In C.Lucas (ed.), The sociolinguistics of the deaf community. San Diego. CA. 11–40. McIntire, M. et al. (eds) 1987. Hands and faces: a preliminary inventory for written ASL. Sign Language Studies 56.197–241. Newport, E.L. 1988. Constraints on learning and their role in language acquisition: Studies of the acquisition of American Sign Language. LangS 10.147–72. Newport, E.L. and R.P.Meier. 1985. The acquisition of American Sign Language. In D.L.Stobin (ed.), The cross-linguistic study of language acquisition, 2 vols. Hillsdale, NJ. Padden, C.A. 1988a. Interaction of morphology and syntax in American Sign Language. New York. ——1988b. Grammatical theory and signed languages. In Frederick Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: The Cambridge survey. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 250–66. Padden, C. and T.Humpries. 1988. Deaf in America. Cambridge. Prillwitz, S. and H.Zienert. 1990. Hamburg notation system for sign language: development of a sign writing with computer application. In S.Prillwitz and T.Vollhaber (eds.), Current trends in European sign language research. Hamburg. 355–79. Reilly, J.S. et al. 1990. Faces: the relationship between language and affect. In V.Volterra and C.J.Erting (eds), From gesture to language in hearing and deaf children. Berlin. 128–41. ——1992. Affective prosody in American sign language. Sign Language Studies 75.113–28. Sandler, W. 1990. Temporal aspects and ASL phonology. In S.Fischer and P.Siple (eds), Theoretical issues in sign language research, vol. 1: Linguistics. Chicago. 7–35. Schermer, T.M. 1990. In search of language: influences from spoken Dutch on Sign Language of the Netherlands. Delft. Stokoe, W. 1960. Sign language structure: an outline of the visual communication systems of the American Deaf. Buffalo, NY. Supalla, T. 1982. Structure and acquisition of verbs of motion and location in American Sign Language. Unpublished dissertation, University of California, San Diego. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1078 Volterra, V. and C.J.Erting (eds) 1990. From gesture to language in hearing and deaf children. Berlin. Wilbur, R. 1979. American Sign Language and sign systems. Baltimore, MD. ——1990. Why syllables? What the notion means for ASL research. In S.Fischer and P.Siple (eds), Theoretical issues in sign language research, vol. 1. Linguistics. Chicago, IL. 81–108. Wilcox, S. (ed.) 1992. Academic acceptance of American Sign Language. Burtonsville. Dictionary Stokoe, W.C. et al. 1965. A dictionary of American sign language on linguistic principles. Washington, DC. Bibliography Joachim, G.H.G. and S.Prillwitz. 1993. International bibliography of sign language. Hamburg. sign theory semiotics signal In information theory the state or change of material (acoustic, electromagnetic, or biochemical) systems. Signals are potential carriers of information and, thus, have in and of themselves no symbolic character. They provide for the spatial transmission or temporal indication of information, and their interpretation is dependent on the given signaling system. References information theory, semiotics A-Z signatum 1079 signifier vs signified signeme Term formed from sign- and -eme, which is used to refer to all distinctive elements at the various levels of linguistic description. significant signifier vs signified significative meaning signified connotation2 signifier vs signified signifier (also significant) vs signified (also signatum) Distinction established by F.de Saussure between the form of a linguistic sign and its content, wherein both aspects are of a mental nature and the relation between these two sides of the (linguistic) sign is arbitrary ( arbitrariness, sign). ( also expression2, and cf. meaning, denotatum) References arbitrariness, sign Dictionary of language and linguistics 1080 simultaneity Temporal relationship in complex sentences with several actions, where the action described in the subordinate clause occurs simultaneously with the action in the main clause: When I arrived in New York, it was raining. ( also sequence of tenses) simultaneous interpreting interpreting simultaneous translation interpreting Sindhi Singhalese Indo-Aryan Indo-Aryan single-only noun (also singulare tantum) Noun which can only be used in the singular. These include mass nouns (wood, air), abstracts (righteousness, anger, ubiquity), and collective nouns (fruit, rice, cattle). A-Z 1081 singleton set singular Subcategory of number which refers to single elements (a house vs many houses), generalizing statements (Man shall not live by bread alone), and collective terms (The wolf’s cunning). Nouns which can only be used in the singular are called single-only nouns. singulare tantum single-only noun singulative Subcategory of number which designates a single entity. In contrast to the singular, the singulative is a marked form of a collective noun, e.g. Arabic dabbān ‘fly, flies’ (unspecified) vs dabbāne ‘a fly.’ Sinitic Sinn (Ger.) Sino-Tibetan sense; see also intension, meaning Dictionary of language and linguistics 1082 Sino-Tibetan Language group of Central and East Asia with approx. 300 languages which are divided into the Sinitic (Chinese) and Tibeto-Burman branches, all of which have a long written tradition. Characteristics: typically isolating, monosyllabic tonal languages. Remnants of older prefixal morphology are recognizable. No developed distinction between noun and verb. References Benedict, P.K. 1972. Sino-Tibetan: a conspectus. Cambridge. McCoy, J. and T.Light (eds) 1986. Contributions to Sino-Tibetan studies. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Shafer, R. 1974. Introduction to Sino-Tibetan. Wiesbaden. Bibliography Shafer, R. et al. (eds) 1957/63. Bibliography of Sino-Tibetan languages, 2 vols. Wiesbaden. Siouan Language family of North America with approx. twelve languages; the largest language is Lakhota with approx. 30,000 speakers. E. Sapir grouped them together with Iroquoian and Caddoan into a Macro-Siouan group. Characteristics: sound symbolism used for making diminutives and/or argumentatives (diminutive: dental fricative; argumentative: velar fricative). Noun classes (animate vs inanimate), complex verbs with several prefixes, including markers for instrument, ergativity ( ergative language) in the personal inflection of the verb, complex possession distinctions (alienable, body parts, and kinship terms are distinguished). Word order: SOV. References Chafe, W.L. 1976. The Caddoan, Iroquoian and Siouan language. The Hague. Levin, N.B. 1964. The Assiniboine language. Bloomington, IN, and The Hague (=IJAL 30:3, pub. 32). Matthews, G.H. 1965. Hidatsa syntax. London. Rood, D.S. 1979. Siouan. In L.Campbell and M. Mithun (eds), The languages of native America: historical and comparative assessment. Austin, TX. 236–98. A-Z 1083 Williamson, J.S. 1984. Studies in Lakhota Grammar. San Diego, CA. North and Central American languages SIS (sensory information storage) memory sister adjunction Sister adjunction refers to the relationship between two or more constituents which are immediately dominated by the same node in a tree diagram. References transformational grammar situation semantics A formal theory of meaning of natural (or artificial) languages based on situation theory and a recent competitor to possible world semantics. It was developed in the late 1970s by Barwise with the collaboration of Perry, Cooper, Peters, Etchemendy, and others. It is based upon the following basic assumptions: (a) properties and relations are assumed to be primitives and are not set-theoretically construed from other entities; (b) there is a single world, namely the real one, and not a multitude of possible worlds; (c) well-formed propositions are about this world or its parts, which are called ‘situations’; (d) the meaning of a declarative sentence S is a relation between the type of situations in which S is assertively expressed and the type to which those situations belong that are described by it (‘relational theory of meaning’). Two phenomena, which were viewed more peripherally in earlier theories, are now considered central to this theory, namely the efficiency of language (i.e. the way one and the same expression has multiple uses) and the partiality of information (i.e. that information is incomplete). References Barwise, J. 1989. Situations and small worlds. In J. Barwise (ed.), The situation in logic. Stanford, CA. 79–92. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1084 Barwise, J. and J.Etchemendy. 1987. The liar: an essay in truth and circularity. Oxford. Barwise, J. and J.Perry. 1983. Situations and attitudes. Cambridge, MA. slang British or American variant of carelessly used colloquial language with explicitly social and regional variants. Corresponding to the French argot, slang is characterized by the innovative use of common vocabulary as well as newly coined words. Slang corresponds to the older designation cant which originally referred to secret languages and sublanguages. References Ayto, J. and J.Simpson. 1992. The Oxford dictionary of modern slang. Oxford and New York. Beale, P. (ed.) 1991. A concise dictionary of slang and unconventional English, based on the work of E.Partridge, 9th edn. London. Berry, L.V. and M.van den Bark. 1953. The American thesaurus of slang, 2nd edn. New York. Butcher, A. and C.Gnutzmann. 1977. Cockney rhyming slang. LingB 50.1–10. Franklyn, J. 1992. A dictionary of rhyming slang, 2nd edn. London. Goldin, H.E. (ed.) 1970. Dictionary of American underworld lingo. New York. Landy, E.E. 1971. The underground dictionary. New York. Major, C. 1971. Black slang: a dictionary of AfroAmerican talk. London. Partridge, E. 1949. A dictionary of slang and unconventional English. London. (8th edn. 1984, reissue 1991.) ——1950. A dictionary of the underworld: British and American. New York. (3rd edn London, 1968.) Thorne, T. 1990. Bloomsbury dictionary of contemporary slang. London. Weingarten, J.A. 1955. An American dictionary of slang and colloquial English. Brooklyn, NY. Wentworth, H. and S.B.Flexner (eds) 1975. Dictionary of American slang, 2nd rev. edn. New York. Slavic Family of Indo-European languages which show similarities to the Baltic languages, perhaps deriving from a common Balto-Slavic group. There are numerous phonological, morphological, and lexical correspondences between these two language families. The Slavic languages are commonly divided into three groups containing the following official languages: East Slavic (Russian, Belorussian, Ukrainian), West Slavic (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Sorbian), and South Slavic (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene). Kashubian is a member of the West Slavic group, but now has only a few A-Z 1085 thousand speakers. Old Church Slavic in its numerous variants continues to be used in Orthodox Christian services. Characteristics: virtually all the Slavic languages have a developed aspect system for the verb, pairing perfective and imperfective verbs. Imperfectives can be constructed by adding various suffixes. Base verbs are almost invariably imperfective; prefixation renders a verb perfective and usually alters its meaning. Suffixation can provide an exact imperfective partner for a prefixed perfective. All Slavic languages, except Bulgarian and Macedonian, have well-developed case systems. References Arumaa, P. 1964–85. Einführung in das vergleichende Studium der slavischen Sprachen, 3 vols. Heidelberg. Bernštejn, S.B. 1961–74. Očerk sravnitel’ noj grammatiki slavjanskix jazykov, 2 vols. Moscow. Birnbaum, H. 1975. Common Slavic: progress and problems in its reconstruction. Columbus, OH. Bräuer, H. 1961–9. Slavische Sprachwissenschaft. Berlin. Carlton, T.R. 1991. Introduction to the phonological history of the Slavic languages. Columbus, OH. Comrie, B. and G.G.Corbett (eds) 1993. The Slavonic languages. London. de Bray, R.G.A., de. 1980. Guide to the Slavonic languages, 3 vols, 3rd edn. Columbus, OH. Jakobson, R. 1955. Slavic languages: a condensed survey. New York. Picchio, R. and H.Goldblatt. 1984. Aspects of the Slavic language question, 2 vols. Columbus, OH. Schenker, A.M. and E.Stankiewicz (eds) 1980. The Slavic literary languages: formation and development. New Haven, CT. Shevelov, G.Y. 1964. A prehistory of Slavic: the historical phonology of Common Slavic. Heidelberg. Stone, G. and D.Worth (eds) 1985. The formation of the Slavonic literary languages. Columbus, OH. Panzer, B. 1991. Die slavischen Sprachen in Gegenwart und Geschichte: Sprachstrukturen und Verwandtschaft. Frankfurt-on-Main. Rehder, P. (ed.) 1991. Einführung in die slavischen Sprachen, 2nd rev. edn. Darmstadt. Vaillant, A. 1950–77. Grammaire comparée des langues slaves, 5 vols. Paris. Bibliographies Birnbaum, H. and P.T.Merrill. 1983. Recent advances in the reconstruction of Common Slavic (1971–1982). Columbus, OH. Stankiewicz, E. and D.S.Worth. 1966–70. A selected bibliography of Slavic linguistics, 2 vols. The Hague. Dictionary Trubačev, O.N. 1974–. Ėtimologičeskij slovar’ slavjanskix jazykov. Vol. 20, 1994. Moscow. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1086 Journals International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics. Journal of Slavonic Studies. Slavjanskoe i balkanskoe jazykoznanie. slip of the tongue speech error slogan [Scots ‘war cry, battle cry,’ from Gaelic sluaghghairm, from sluagh ‘host’+gairm ‘shout, cry’] A precise and impressingly formulated expression with a persuasive function, frequently formed as an elliptic sentence and equipped with figures of speech such as advertising slogans (e.g. Have you driven a Ford lately?) or political slogans (e.g. Give me liberty or give me death, Better dead than red). References persuasive slot empty position Slovak West Slavic language with approx. 4.5 million speakers, primarily in Slovakia. After a number of unsuccessful attempts in the early nineteenth century, Slovak became a literary language, in large part due to L.Štúr’s (1848) programmatic writings. Since 1968, Slovak has been the language of government in Slovakia and was recognized and used as an official language in former Czechoslovakia from 1945. The writing system is based on A-Z 1087 the Latin alphabet with numerous diacritics: ‹ĺ›, ‹1’›, ‹ŕ› and, in contrast to Czech, ‹ä›, ‹dz›, ‹dž›, ‹ô›. Characteristics: Syllabic l and r, both long and short: vlk ‘wolf’ vs vĺča ‘little wolf’; srdce ‘heart’ vs hŕba ‘pile.’ Stress is on the first syllable, as in Czech. Animacy ( animate vs inanimate) is distinguished in masculine declension. References Bartoš, J. and J.Gagnaire. 1972. Grammaire de la langue slovaque. Bratislava. Krajčovič, R. 1975. A historical phonology of the Slovak language. Heidelberg. Mistrík, J. 1983. A grammar of contemporary Slovak. Bratislava. Oravec, J. et al. 1982/4. Súčasný slovenský spisovný jazyk, vol. I: Syntax, vol. II: Morfológia. Bratislava. (Vol. I 2nd edn 1986.) Pauliny, E. et al. 1981. Slovenská gramatika. Bratislava. Štole, J. et al. 1968–84. Atlas slovenského jazyka, vols I–IV. Bratislava. Swan, O.E. and S.Galova-Lorinc. 1990. Beginning Slovak. Columbus, OH. Dictionary Slovník slovenského jazyka. 1959–68. 6 vols. Bratislava. Slavic Slovene South Slavic language with approx. 1.8 million speakers, primarily in Slovenia, but also in Carinthia (Austria), the northeastern provinces of Italy, and in Croatia. The Freising fragments comprise the oldest sizable written Slavic text, dating from about 1000 AD, and are in Old Slovene, written in the Latin alphabet based on Old High German spelling. The development of a Slovene literature dates from the sixteenth century; Slovene uses the Latin alphabet with additional diacritics. Characteristics: moveable accent; tone; dual forms; split relative pronoun; eightvowel system. References Breznik, A. 1982. Jezikoslovne razpravy. Ljubljana. Lencek, R.L. 1982. The Structure and history of the Slovene language. Columbus, OH. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1088 Grammar Svane, G.O. 1958. Grammatik der slovenischen Schriftsprache. Copenhagen. Dictionaries Kotnik, J. 1967. Slovensko—angelski slovar, 6th edn. Ljubljana. Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika. 1970–91. 5 vols. Ljubljana. Etymological dictionary Bezlaj, G. 1976-. Etimološki slovar slovenskega jezika. Ljubljana. Bibliography Lencek, R.L. 1975. American linguists on the Slovene language: a comprehensive annotated biblio-graphy. New York. Journal Slovene Studies. Slavic social dialect social dialectology sociolect sociolect, code theory social network network A-Z 1089 sociolect (also social dialect) In analogy to ‘dialect,’ ‘sociolect’ describes a language variety that is characteristic for a socially defined group. ( code theory, sociolinguistics) sociolinguistics Scientific discipline developed from the cooperation of linguistics and sociology that investigates the social meaning of the language system and of language use, and the common set of conditions of linguistic and social structure. Several areas of sociolinguistic investigation are differentiated. (a) A primarily sociologically oriented approach concerned predominantly with the norms of language use. (When and for what purpose does somebody speak what kind of language or what variety with whom?) Here language use and language attitudes as well as larger and smaller social networks are in the foreground. These facets are studied mainly by using quantitative methods; connections between socioeconomics, history, culture, ethnic differentiation, social class structure, and language varieties are included in the investigation ( diglossia, code theory). (b) A primarily linguistically oriented approach that presumes linguistic systems to be in principle heterogeneous, though structured, when viewed within sociological parameters. For an appropriate description of linguistic variation, a new type of rule— differentiated from rules found in generative grammar—is proposed, the so-called ‘variable rule,’ which expresses and establishes the probability that a particular linguistic form will result from the influence of different linguistic and extralinguistic variables, e.g. social class, age, etc. ( variational linguistics). The results of this sociolinguistic approach have particularly important implications for the theory of language change: in a series of empirical investigations the relevance of social conditions to the processes of language change was demonstrated and proved, such that synchronically present variational structures can be seen as a ‘snap shot’ of diachronic changes. (c) An ethnomethodologically oriented approach with linguistic interaction as the focal point, which studies the ways in which members of a society create social reality and rule-ordered behaviour. Here a formal distinction must be drawn between conversation analysis, which deals with the structure of conversations, and ethnographic conversation analysis ( ethnography of speaking), which investigates interactive processes in the production of meaning and understanding ( contextualization). References Ager, D. 1990. Sociolinguistics and contemporary French. Cambridge. Ammon, J., N.Dittmar, and K.J.Mattheier (eds) 1987. Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society, 2 vols. Berlin and New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1090 Bell, R.T. 1976. Sociolinguistics: goals, approaches and problems. London. Bierwisch, M. 1975. Social differentiation of language structure. In A.Kasher (ed.), Language in focus. Dordrecht. 407–56. Bolton, K. 1991. Sociolinguistics today: international perspectives. London. Downes, W. 1984. Language and society. London. Fasold, R. 1984. The sociolinguistics of society. New York. Giles, H., N.Coupland, and J.Coupland (eds). 1992. Contexts of accommodation: developments in applied sociolinguistics. Cambridge. Gumperz, J.J. 1982. Discourse strategies. Cambridge. Holmes, J. 1992. An introduction to sociolinguistics, London. Hudson, R.A. 1980. Sociolinguistics. Cambridge. Hymes, D. 1974. Foundations in sociolinguistics: an ethnographic approach. Philadelphia, PA. Labov, W. 1972. Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia, PA. Milroy, L. 1980. Language and social networks. Oxford. Montgomery, M. 1995. An introduction to language and society. 2nd edn. London. Romaine, S. 1982. Socio-historical linguistics: its status and methodology. Cambridge. ——1994. Language in society: an introduction to sociolinguistics. Oxford. Ryan, E.B. and H.Giles. 1982. Attitudes towards language variation: social and applied contexts. London. Shuy, R.W. 1990. A brief history of American sociolinguistics, 1949–1989. Historiographia Linguistica 17.183–209. Trudgill, P. 1974. Sociolinguistics: an introduction. Harmondsworth. Wardhaugh, R. 1986. An introduction to sociolinguistics. Oxford. Whorf, B.L. 1956. Language, thought and reality: selected writings of B.L.Whorf, ed. J.B.Caroll. Cambridge, MA. Bibliography Simon, G. (ed.) 1974. Bibliographie zur Soziolinguistik. Tübingen. Journals International Journal of the Sociology of Language. Language in Society. Sociolinguistica. A-Z 1091 Black English, English, feminist linguistics, terminology Sogdian Iranian solecism [Grk soloikismós ‘incorrectness in the use of language’] A term from rhetoric for an infraction of the rules of grammar. Solecism, like barbarism, affects the principle of correctness of language, which is the first of the four qualities of style in classical rhetoric. References figure of speech, rhetoric solidarity Term used in glossematics for the syntagmatic relation (not only but also) which indicates the reciprocal dependence of two elements ( interdependence), such as the obligatory simultaneous occurrence of case and number in Latin. References glossematics Dictionary of language and linguistics Somali 1092 Cushitic sonant [Lat. sonare ‘to make a sound’] 1 Voiced speech sound that can function as the nucleus of a syllable, e.g. in [I] and given 2 Voiced speech sound used syllabically, e.g. [i] in [invεriəbl] invariable. 3 Sonorant1 consonant. in References phonetics Songhai Relatively isolated language in Mali and Niger, spoken along the Niger River (about 1 million speakers), the language of the old Songhai Empire. Greenberg (1963) considers it a member of the Nilo-Saharan family. References Greenberg, J.H. 1963. The languages of Africa. Bloomington, IN. (2nd edn 1966.) Nicolaï. R. 1981. Les dialectes des songhay. Paris. sonorant (also resonant, sonant consonant) 1 In the narrower sense, voiced speech sound that is not an obstruent, that is, all sounds [a:] in Czech Dvořák; [r], [n], in English except stops or fricatives; A-Z 1093 in Czech Brünn (town name). In [r] is a sonant consonant and moreover the nucleus of the syllable, while is a sonant vowel. References phonetics 2 In the broader sense, voiced speech sound ( articulatory phonetics). References phonetics sonority Auditory characteristic of a speech sound. According to Jespersen (1904), the following ranking of relative sonority can be ascertained when the air pressure is stable: vowels with a low, vowels with a mid, vowels with a high tongue position, r-sounds, nasals, and laterals, voiced fricatives, voiced plosives, voiceless fricatives, voiceless plosives. References Jespersen, O. 1904. Lehrbuch der Phonetik. Leipzig. (7th edn 1912.) phonetics sonorization The substitution of a voiceless consonant by a homorganic voiced consonant. For example, in Dutch ik ben ‘I am’ is a sonorized [k] through assimilation with the following voiced [b]. Sonorization as a historical process is found in Italian strada vs strāta The opposite process is called devoicing (or ‘desonorization’). Examples of this are final devoicing of consonants in German [li:p] lieb ‘dear,’ the devoicing of voiced obstruents in absolute final position in Russian (e.g. [‘ju·gə] ‘south’ (gen.sg.) with [juּk] ‘south’ (nom.). Dictionary of language and linguistics 1094 References phonetics Sorbian West Slavic language with two variants: (a) Upper Sorbian in Oberlausitz (Germany) with approx. 35,000 speakers (primarily Catholic); and (b) Lower Sorbian in Niederlausitz (Germany) with approx. 15,000 speakers (primarily Protestants). During the eighth century the Sorbian-speaking territory extended to the Saale River valley. In the German dialects spoken in the formerly Sorbian territories, there are a number of words borrowed from Sorbian. Influence of German on Sorbian can be seen in the instrumental, which is formed with the preposition z (ze ‘with’), in contrast to most other Slavic languages. The first written documents date from the sixteenth century during the course of the Reformation; the first book in Lower Sorbian appeared in 1574, while Bible translations in Upper Sorbian date from 1670. Lower Sorbian has been disappearing since 1930. Both dialects of Sorbian have been protected as minority languages since 1947. Characteristics: word stress on the initial syllable (as in Czech); no distinction of vowel length (as in Polish); dual form; uvular r. References Fasske, H. 1981. Grammatik der obersorbischen Schriftsprache der Gegenwart: Morphologie. Bautzen. Hauptmann, J.G. 1791. Nieder-Lausitzsche Wendische Grammatica. Lübben. (Fotomechanical reprint Bautzen, 1984.) Janas, P. 1984. Niedersorbische Grammatik, 2nd edn. Bautzen. Sorbischer Sprachatlas. 1965–. Bautzen. Stone, G.C. 1972. The smallest Slavonic nation: the Sorbs of Lusatia. London. Slavic sound 1 In the narrow sense, a vibration wave causing a disturbance in the pressure and density of the air and having a frequency within the range of 20 to 20,000 oscillations per second that are detectable by the organs of hearing. A-Z 1095 2 In the broader sense, general term for the smallest acoustic or articulatory element of spoken language that can be perceived. Since speech and articulation occur in a coarticulation), the concept of a sound continuous ‘chain’ without natural breaks ( being segmentable is merely hypothetical. Only by using special methods of analysis within phonology can one arrive at the abstract units of sound, namely phonemes, which can be identified as segments of utterances. ( also speech sound) References phonetics sound change Historical changes in the sound system of a language. Different types of sound change can be distinguished (see Bartsch and Vennemann 1982). (a) Phonetically motivated changes: a type of change related to the trend towards simplicity in the articulatory effort. (i) Simplification of segments: the inherent complexity of segments is reduced as more complicated articulatory positions disappear, e.g. the simultaneous lowering of the velum in the denasalization of nasal vowels. (ii) Sequential simplification: far less articulatory effort achieved by an adjustment of sounds to be more like the surrounding sounds ( assimilation, umlaut, vowel harmony), simplification of syllable structure ( anaptyxis, epenthesis, metathesis, prothesis), and reductions (aphesis, apocope, lenisization ( weakening), syncope). (b) Phonologically motivated changes: a type of change related to the trend towards maximal contrast and distinctiveness of speech sounds in the process of communication. This type has been studied foremost by the structuralists: consider, for example, the concept of push chain vs drag chain, which operates on the principle of the retention of contrast of different phonemes. (c) Changes motivated by language-external factors: a type of change related to social/socialpsychological motivation (trend towards maximum radius of communication, optimal individuation in interactions with others, adaptation to norms of specific social groups, and so on) in which idiosyncratic or systematic characteristics of other, more prestigious, varieties are adopted (see also sound substitution). (d) Changes motivated by analogy: a type of change related to the trend towards simplifying acquisition, conceptual simplicity and economy, in which the individual words or groups of words are modeled after phonetically similar units or units that belong together conceptually ( analogy). Regarding the manner in which sound changes spread, two aspects can be differentiated. (a) Language-internal spread involves the question of gradual lexical and/or phonetic spread, i.e. whether a sound change occurs at the same time and in the same form for one sound in all environments or if it occurs ‘quasi-analogously’ only from word to word ( lexical diffusion), and whether this happens phonetically in minimal steps (steadily) or in qualitative jumps (abruptly). There is a definite tendency for different modes of spread to fit into different sound change types (e.g. language-external Dictionary of language and linguistics 1096 borrowing as a lexically gradual, but phonetically abrupt change). A comprehensive explanation, however, is still lacking (see Labov 1981). (b) Languageexternal spread concerns the problem of (social) origin and of the social and regional spread of a change, until all speakers of a linguistic community use the new forms in all situations. Here the sociolinguistics) are pertinent. ( also historical results of sociolinguistic research ( grammars, language change) References Baldi, P. and R.N.Werth (eds) 1978. Readings in historical phonology. London. Bartsch, R. and T.Vennemann. 1982. Grundzüge der Sprachtheorie. Tübingen. Bynon, T. 1977. Historical linguistics. Cambridge. Eckert, P. (ed.) 1992. New ways of analyzing sound change: quantitative analyses of linguistic structure. New York. Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1978. Recent developments in historical phonology. The Hague. Fónagy, I. 1956. Über den Verlauf des Lautwandels. Acta Linguistica (Budapest) 6. 173–278. Hagège, C. and A.Haudricourt. 1978. La phonologie panchronique: comment les sons changent dans les langues. Paris. Hock, H.H. 1986. Principles of historical linguistics. New York. (2nd edn 1990.) Jones, C. (ed.) 1993. Historical linguistics: problems and perspectives. London and New York. King, R. 1969. Historical linguistics and generative grammar. Frankfurt. Kiparsky, P. 1968. Linguistic universals and linguistic change. In E.Bach and R.T.Harms (eds), Universals in linguistic theory. New York. 170–202. ——1970. Historical linguistics. In J.Lyons (ed.), New horizons in linguistics. Harmondsworth. 302–15. Labov, W. 1963. The social motivation of a sound change. Word 19. 273–309. ——1981. Resolving the neogrammarian controversy. Lg 57. 267–308. ——1994. Principles of linguistic change, vol. I: Internal factors. Oxford and Cambridge. Labov, W., M.Yaeger, and R.Steiner. 1972. A quantitative study of sound change in progress. Philadelphia, PA. Locke, J.L. 1983. Phonological acquisition and change. New York. Martinet, A. 1955. Economie des changements phonétiques. Bern. Ohala, J. 1992. What’s cognitive, what’s not, in sound change. Lingua e Stile 27. 321–63. Paul, H. 1880. Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. Tübingen. (9th edn 1975.) Weinreich, W., W.Labov, and M.I.Herzog. 1968. Empirical foundations of language change. In W.P. Lehmann and Y.Malkiel (eds), Directions for historical linguistics. Austin, TX. 95–188. historical grammars, language change, Neogrammarians sound class Class of phonetically similar sound variants (= phones) that can be described on the basis of listening tests according to similar acoustic or articulatory features. A-Z 1097 References phonetics sound image acoustic image sound law Central notion of the historical linguistic description of the Neogrammarians. The use of this term is based on the assumption that—in analogy to natural scientific regularities— certain sounds of a given language undergo certain phonetic changes in the same way without exception. Such changes have a physiological basis and occur under the same conditions, e.g. the Germanic sound shift ( Grimm’s law; also umlaut, diphthongization). In those cases in which exceptions are ascertained in spite of the law, analogy and language mixing, i.e. adoptions from other varieties of languages ( sound substitution) are considered to be at cause. References Collinge, N.E. 1985. The laws of Indo-European. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Fónagy, I. 1956. Über den Verlauf des Lautwandels. ALASH 6. 173–278. Labov, W. 1981. Resolving the neogrammarian controversy. Lg 57. 267–308. Paul, H. 1880. Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. Tübingen. (9th edn 1975.) Schneider, G. 1973. Zum Begriff des Lautgesetzes in der Sprachwissenschaft seit den Junggrammatikern. Tübingen. Schuchardt, H. 1885. Über die Lautgesetze: gegen die Junngrammatiker. Berlin. (Repr. in Hugo Schuchardt-Brevier: ein Vademecum der allgemeinen Sprachwissenschaft, ed. L.Spitzer, 2nd edn. Halle, 1928. 51–86.) Wechssler, E. 1900. Gibt es Lautgesetze? In Forschungen zur romanischen Philologie: Festschrift für H.Suchier. Halle. 349–538. Wilbur, T.H. (ed.) 1977. The Lautgesetz-controversy: a documentation (1885–86). Amsterdam. analogy, Bartholomae’s Law, Grassmann’s Law, Grimm’s Law, Neogrammarians, Sievers’ Law, sound change, Thurneysen’s Law, Verner’s Law Dictionary of language and linguistics 1098 sound physiology Articulatory phonetics as practised by the Neogrammarians. sound shift Term for a set of sound changes occurring systematically, so that a whole sound system also Great Vowel Shift, Grimm’s Law, push chain vs drag chain) is shifted. ( References sound change sound substitution 1 Process in which foreign words are adopted into another language and their sounds assimilated to those in the adopting language. As a rule, sounds of a foreign language that are not found in one’s own language system are replaced by those sounds in one’s own and [θ] language that are most similar to the foreign sound, e.g. the imitation of Eng. (written ‹th› for the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives) as Ger. [d] or [z], [t], or [s] in these vs thick. 2 Sound substitution is also found when sounds are adopted from a prestigious language variety within a given language community, for example in the often haphazard substitution of standard American pronunciation in favor of a sometimes imagined British standard, e.g. [toma:to:] instead of [təme:to:]. Since this sound substitution happens consciously, it occurs word by word, and is replete with exceptions, the Neogrammarians referred to it as a ‘process of irregular sound alteration,’ as opposed to regular, unconsciously occurring sound change. In historical linguistics, particularly in the study of place-names, ascertaining regularities in sound substitution between different languages is a significant method for substantiating and dating regional language contact. References sound change A-Z 1099 sound symbolism (also phonetic symbolism, synaesthesia) Hypothesis about the relationship of linguistic sounds to acoustic or optical phenomena in the extralinguistic world. Sound-symbolic word formations (as in cuckoo, bang) raise the question of the psycholinguistic origin of naming extralinguistic states of affairs onomatopoeically ( onomatopoeia). Even if sound symbolism is not a universal phenomenon, numerous experiments do appear to demonstrate certain similarities in the way individuals perceive the relationship between language sounds and sensory impressions. Thus, a majority of speakers of different languages attribute the expression malume to the round and takete to the pointy stick figure (see figures below), though both figures are inherently meaningless (see Köhler 1947). In another experiment, 80 percent of the informants (to whom the expressions mal and mil were given to mean ‘table’) indicated that mal designated the larger table and mil the smaller table (see Sapir 1929). Thus, it seems that high-pitch sounds in many languages designate small objects, while low-pitch sounds generally designate larger objects. International comparative investigations have led some researchers, such as Osgood (1962), to believe in universal sound symbolism. References Brown, R. 1958. Words and things. Glencoe, IL. Hinton, L. et al. (eds). Sound symbolism. Cambridge. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1100 Köhler, W. 1947. Gestalt psychology. New York. Osgood, C.E. 1962. Studies on the generality of affective meaning systems. AmP 17. 10–28. Sapir, E. 1929. A study in phonetic symbolism. JEP 12. 225–39. semantic differential source language 1 Language from which one translates into the target language. 2 Native language of the learner in second language acquisition, especially from a contrastive and error-analytic perspective. South American languages Research on the South American languages started in the sixteenth century (primarily grammatical descriptions by Spanish and Portuguese missionaries); today the knowledge of individual languages and the reconstruction of language families still has some gaps. Since numerous languages have various names, the exact number of languages in this group is still unknown; usual estimates range from 550 to 2000 with about 11 million speakers (before colonization). Today a large number of languages are either dead or dying out. An important first work on the classification of these languages was undertaken by F.S.Gilij (1782); more recent classifications by Loukotka (latest 1968, with 108 language families), Greenberg (1956; four families with considerable deviation in details), and Suarez (1974, 1982; 82 families). Greenberg (1987) believes that all South American languages as well as the Central American and most North American languages belong to one language group, Amer-indian. References Derbyshire, D.C. and G.K.Pullum (eds) 1986–8. Handbook of Amazonian languages, 2 vols. Berlin. Gilij, F.S. 1780–84. Saggio di storia americana o sia storia naturale, civile e sacra, de’ regni e delle provincie spagnuole de terra ferma nell’ America Meridionale. 4 vols. Rome. Greenberg, J. 1960. The general classification of Central and South American languages. In: A. Wallace, (ed.) Selected Papers of the Fifth International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences. 791–794. Philadelphia. ——1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA. Key, M.R. 1979. The grouping of South American Indian languages. Tübingen. Klein, H.E.M. and L.R.Stark. 1985. South American Indian languages: retrospect and prospect. Austin, TX. A-Z 1101 Loukotka, Č. 1968. Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles, CA. Sebeok, T.A. 1977. Native languages of the Americas. New York. Suarez, B. 1974. South American Indian Languages. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 792–9. South Caucasian (also Kartvelian) Branch of Caucasian in the southern Caucasus with four languages: Mingrelian, Laz, Svan, and the largest language Georgian. References Deeters, G. 1930. Das khartwelische Verbum, vergleichende Darstellung des Verbalbaus der südkaukasischen Sprachen. Leipzig. Harris, A.C. 1985. Diachronic syntax: the Kartvelian case. Orlando, FL. ——(ed.) 1991. The indigenous languages of the Caucasus, vol. I: The Kartvelian languages. Delmar, NY. Schmidt, K.H. 1962. Studien zur Rekonstruktion des Lautstandes der südkaukasischen Grundsprache. Wiesbaden. Journal Bedi Kartlisa. Spanish A Romance language belonging to the Indo-European family which is spoken by approx. 300 million speakers in Spain, Central and South America, the Canary Islands, the United States, and other countries. The basis for the standard language is the Castilian dialect, which developed from the variety of Vulgar Latin spoken in Spain during the time of the Roman Empire. Castilian Spanish was spoken only in the northern Cantabrian provinces until the Arabs were expelled from Spain during the ‘reconquista.’ Some characteristic features of Castilian Spanish include the development of [f] to [h] (possibly due to a Basque substratum), the change of [kt] to [t∫] (Lat. factum >Sp. hecho ‘done’) as well as the introduction of the phoneme /x/ (Lat. filius>Sp. hijo [ixo] ‘son’). The standard language has a so-called ‘prepositional accusative’ for persons (Veo a Felipe ‘I see Felipe,’ but Veo et libro ‘I see the book’); the lexicon contains numerous Arabic elements. The dialect structure of central and southern Spain (Andalucia) became increasingly leveled due to the influence of Castilian Spanish, while the northern regions Dictionary of language and linguistics 1102 show stronger dialectal variation (Leon, Aragon; Catalan, Portuguese, Galician). The Spanish spoken in South America, which in the written language diverges only slightly from European Spanish, is based phonetically and morphologically on Andalucian. References Amastae, J. and L.Elias-Olivares (eds) 1982 Spanish in. the United States. Cambridge. Entwistle, W.J. 1962. The Spanish language, together with Portuguese, Catalan, and Basque, 2nd edn. London. Holtus, G., M.Metzeltin, and C.Schmitt (eds) 1992. Lexikon der romanistischen Linguistik, vol. 6, 1. Tübingen. King, L.D. 1992. The semantic structure of Spanish: meaning and grammatical form. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Lang, M.F. 1990. Spanish word formation. London. Stevenson, C.H. 1970. The Spanish language today. London. Whitley, M.S. 1986. Spanish/English contrasts. Washington, DC. Grammars Alcina, J. and J.M.Blecua. 1975. Gramática española. Barcelona. Butt, J. and C.Benjamin. 1988. A new reference grammar of Modern Spanish. London. Coste, J. and A.Redondo. 1965. Syntaxe de l’espagnol moderne. Paris. Marcos Marin, F. 1980. Curso de gramática española. Madrid. Real Academica Española. 1973. Esbozo de una nueva gramática de la lengua española. Madrid. History and dialectology Cotton, E. and J.Sharp. 1986. Spanish in the Americas. Georgetown, KY. Lapesa, R. 1942. Historia de la lengua española. Madrid. (9th edn 1981.) Lipski, J. 1994. Latin American Spanish. London. Menéndez Pidal, R. 1926. Orígenes del español. Madrid. (6th edn 1968.) Penny, R. 1991. A history of the Spanish language. Cambridge. Vidal Sephiba, H. 1986. Le Judéo-espagnol. Paris. Zamora Vicente, A. 1960. Dialectología española. Madrid. (2nd edn 1970.) Dictionaries Corominas, J. and J.A.Pascual. 1980–91. Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, 6 vols. Madrid. Moliner, M. 1970/1. Diccionario del uso del español, 2 vols. Madrid. (2nd edn 1984.) Real Academia Española. 1992. Diccionario de la lengua española, 21st edn. Madrid. A-Z 1103 Bibliographies Bialik Hubermann, G. 1973. Mil obras de lingüística española e hispanoamericana. Madrid. Solé, C.A. 1970. Bibliografía sobre et español en America 1920–1967. Georgetown, KY. Romance languages specific language impairment Term referring to significant difficulties with language aquisition which are not accompanied by commensurate delays in cognitive development, sensory-motor deficits, frank neurological pathology, or social-emotional disturbances. The causes and fundamental nature of such impairment are unknown, although in some instances there is evidence of genetic influence. Children with specific language impairment show varying profiles of linguistic ability, but are likely to show developmental asynchronies, that is, divergent rates of learning in the various linguistic domains. Formal aspects of grammar appear to be particularly vulnerable (see Johnston 1988). Symptoms of specific language impairment may persist into adulthood. Earlier terms for this condition are ‘childhood aphasia’ and ‘developmental dysphasia.’ ( also developmental language disorders) References Beitchman, J.H. and A.Inglis. 1991. The continuum of linguistic dysfunction from pervasive developmental disorders to dyslexia. Psychiatric Clinics of North America14. 95–111. Bishop, D.V.M. 1992. The underlying nature of specific language impairment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 33. 3–66. Clahsen, H. 1991. Child language and developmental dysphasia: linguistic studies of the acquisition of German. trans. K.Richman. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Fletcher, P and D.Hall (eds) 1992. Specific speech and language disorders in children. London. Johnston, J.R. 1988. Specific language disorders in the child. In N.Lass et al. (eds), Handbook of speech-language pathology and audiology. Philadelphia, PA. 685–715. Neville, H. and S.Coffery. 1993. The neurobiology of sensory and language processing in languageimpaired children. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 5. 235–53. Watkins, R. and M.L.Rice. 1994. Specific language impairments in children. Baltimore, MD. Wyke, M.A. (ed.) 1978. Developmental dysphasia. London. Wyke, M.A., S.Chiat and A.Hirson. 1987. From conceptual intention to utterance: a study of impaired language output in a child with developmental dysphasia. British Journal of Disorders of Communication 22. 37–64. developmental language disorders Dictionary of language and linguistics 1104 specific vs non-specific reading The reference of an indefinite noun phrase can be understood either as a definite element of the extension of the noun (‘specific reading’) or as any given element of the extension of the noun (‘non-specific reading’). For example, the sentence A song is sung has two possible readings: the first is a statement about a particular song; the second about any song in general. Such ambiguities are especially apparent in verbs of seeking, wishing, etc. (cf. Philip is looking for a friend). Interpretations of such readings can often be disambiguated in English through aspect: for example, the interpretation of A song is sung or A child cries can be made clear through the progressive aspect: A song is being sung or A child is crying (specific reading). In formal approaches, ambiguities are handled by ascertaining differences in the scope of the existential quantifier ( operator). References Ioup, G. 1977. Specificity and the interpretation of quantifiers. Ling&P 1. 233–45. intension, Montague grammar specified subject condition (also opacity constraint) A constraint suggested by Chomsky (1973) on movement transformations like whmovement (also for reflexivization later on). No rule can affect X and Y when they appear in the structure […X…[a…Z…Y]…], where (a) α is a cyclic node (i.e. S or NP), (b) the subject Z is specified by α (i.e. is not under the control of X), and (c) X is not in the COMP position of S. The specified subject condition is replaced by the binding theory in Chomsky (1981). References Chomsky, N. 1973. Conditions on transformation. In S.R.Anderson and P.Kiparsky (eds), Festschrift for Morris Halle. New York. 232–86. 1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. constraints, transformational grammar A-Z specifier 1105 modifier spectral analysis [Lat. spectrum ‘image’] Process in acoustic phonetics for determining the acoustic features of speech sounds by spectrograph). means of electrical instruments ( References phonetics spectrogram Product of a spectral analysis that graphically represents the acoustic features of sounds such as amplitude, quantity, frequency. ( also spectrograph, visible speech) spectrograph Machine with electric filters that acoustically analyzes (speech) sounds for their frequency, intensity, and quantity. The result can be read as varying degrees of dark lines on special light sensitive paper. ( also spectrogram, visible speech) speculative grammarians (also Modistae) Authors of the medieval treatises on the modi significandi, i.e. on the semantic and deictic functions of words and word classes. The most famous of these writers was Thomas of Erfurt, with his extensively transmitted work Grammatica speculativa (approx. 1300). In the classical tradition of Aristotle, the speculative grammarians attempted to correlate words and word classes with logical, extralinguistic criteria such as Dictionary of language and linguistics 1106 substance, quality, time, and action. The wealth of detail in terminology and definition has had a lasting influence on the systematicity of traditional grammar. References Bursill-Hall, G.L. 1971. Speculative grammarians of the Middle Ages: the doctrine of ‘Partes Orationes’ of the Modistae. The Hague. ——1972. ‘Grammatica speculativa’ of Thomas of Erfurt. London. Covington, M.A. 1984. Syntactic theory in the high Middle Ages. Cambridge. Harris, R. and T.J.Taylor. 1989. Landmarks in linguistic thought. London. Ch. 6. Pinborg, J. 1972. Logik und Semantik im Mittelalter: ein Überblick. Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt. Scaglione, A. 1990. The origins of syntax: Descartes (1596–1650) or the Modistae? PICHoLS 4/1.339–47. speech 1 Process and result of oral or written linguistic production. 2 Form for retelling of utterances through (a) literal/direct speech: She said, ‘I am tired’, (b) dependent (or indirect) speech: She said she was tired ( direct vs indirect speech). 3 Synonym for Fr. parole which designates concrete acts of language as opposed to the language system ( langue vs parole). speech act classification A typology of speech acts according to their illocutionary force. Diverging critically from Austin (1962), Searle (1975) distinguishes five classes of illocutionary acts and bases his typology upon illocutionary and grammatical indicators as well as upon the relationship of ‘word’ and ‘world’ as differently defined by different speech acts: (a) assertives (previously also representatives): the intention of the speaker is to commit him-/herself to the truth of the expressed proposition, cf. to maintain, to identify, to report, to assert; (b) directives: the speaker tries to cause the hearer to take a particular action, cf. to request, to command. A-Z 1107 Structure of speech acts to beseech, to advise; (c) commissives: the sp eaker obligates him-/herself to carry out a future action, cf. to promise, to pledge, to threaten; (d) expressives: the speaker expresses the attitude specified in the sincerity condition towards the state of affairs expressed in the proposition, cf. to congratulate, to give condolence, to excuse, to thank; and (e) declarations: by successfully carrying out a declaration, the speaker brings reality into accord with the propositional content of the declaration, cf. to define, to christen, to pronounce guilty, to declare a state of war. A different classification is proposed in Meggle and Ulkan (1992). References Austin, J.L. 1962. How to do things with words. Oxford. Meggle, G. and M.Ulkan. 1992. Informatives and/or directives? (A new start in speech act classification.) Protosoziologie 4. Searle, J.R. 1975. A taxonomy of illocutionary acts. In K.Günderson (ed.), Language, mind, and knowledge: Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science. Minneapolis, MN. Vol. 7. speech act theory speech act theory Influenced by ordinary language philosophy, and particularly by Wittgenstein’s theory of meaning as use, J.L.Austin (1962) and, later, Searle (1969) developed a systematic account of what people do when they speak (cf. the title of Austin’s lectures ‘How to do things with words’). According to Austin, it is not individual words or sentences that are the basic elements of human communication, but rather particular speech acts that are performed in uttering words and sentences, namely illocutionary acts ( illocution) or speech acts in the narrow sense. To this extent speech act theory pursues language theory as a part of a comprehensive pragmatic theory of linguistic behavior ( pragmatics). Dictionary of language and linguistics 1108 Every speech act is comprised of several sub-acts performed simultaneously (cf. the diagram above for an overview of the terminological differences between Austin and Searle). Searle distinguishes among (a) utterance acts ( also locution): the articulation of linguistic elements in a particular grammatical order; (b) propositional acts ( proposition): the formulation of the content of an utterance through reference (i.e. reference to an object in the extralinguistic world) and predication (attribution of particular characteristics), e.g. this mushroom (=reference) is poisonous (= predication); (c) illocutionary act: the indication of the way the proposition is to be related to the word and of the communicative function of the speech act as, for example, an assertion, an ascertainment of fact, or a warning. In rare cases the illocutionary function is explicitly expressed by a performative verb in the first person singular present tense indicative (I hereby warn, maintain, promise…). Where this is not the case (as in all nonproblematized communicative situations) other means, such as intonation, accent, sentence mood, adverbs, particles, or verb mood, are illocutionary indicators. In these cases one speaks of ‘primary performative’ acts. If the literally indicated illocution is different from the actually performed illocution, one speaks of ‘indirect’ speech acts. Illocutionary acts may have effects that are not conventionally associated with them; if these are intended by the speaker, they are called ‘perlocutionary effects,’ and the speaker has simultaneously carried out a (d) perlocutionary act ( perlocution). According to Searle, for an illocutionary act to be successfully performed, four kinds of conditions—apart from general input and output conditions (conditions for normal speaking and understanding)—must be characteristically fulfilled. The specific expression of each of these four conditions is decisive for the classification of speech acts: (a) propositional content conditions, (b) preparatory conditions, (c) sincerity conditions, (d) essential conditions. In this scheme, (d) has the format of a constitutive rule, while (a)—(c) correspond to regulative rules. In formulating ‘felicity conditions’ (which assure the successful performance of speech acts) as rules for using pertinent illocutionary indicators, Searle also speaks of the ‘principle of expressibility,’ which alone allows the (basically pragmatic) analysis of speech acts to be equated with the (semantic) analysis of expressions. It should be noted that the relationship between the two is debated. Accordingly, one can distinguish between two diverging lines of thought: a speech act theory that is more semantically oriented (that is concerned with the analysis of expressions that characterize speech acts) and a pragmatically oriented speech act theory (that takes communication processes as its starting point). References Austin, J.L. 1962. How to do things with words. Oxford. Bach, K. and R.Harnish. 1979. Linguistic communication and speech acts. Cambridge, MA. Ballmer, T. and W.Brennenstuhl. 1981. Speech act classification. Berlin. Burkhardt, A. (ed.) 1990. Speech acts, meaning and intentions: critical approaches to the philosophy of J.R. Searle. Berlin and New York. Clark, H.H. and T.B.Carlson. 1982. Hearers and speech acts. Language 58. 332–73. Cole, P. and J.L.Morgan (eds) 1975. Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York. A-Z 1109 Franck, D. 1979. Seven sins of pragmatics: theses about speech act theory, conversational analysis, linguistics and rhetoric. In H.Parret et al. (eds), Possibilities and limitations of pragmatics. Amsterdam. 225–36. Fraser, B. 1975. Hedged performatives. In P.Cole and J.L.Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York. 187–232. Grice, H.P. 1968. Logic and conversation. In P. Cole and J.L.Morgan (eds), Speech acts. New York. 41–58. Katz, J.J. 1977. Propositional structure and illocutionary force. New York. Levinson, S.C. 1983. Pragmatics. Cambridge. Sadock, J.M. 1974. Toward a linguistic theory of speech acts. New York, San Francisco, and London. Searle, J.R. 1969. Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge. ——(ed.) 1971. The philosophy of language. Oxford. ——1975a. A taxonomy of illocutionary acts. In K.Gunderson (ed.), Language, mind and knowledge: Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science. Minneapolis, MN. Vol. 7. (Repr. in Expression and meaning. Cambridge, 1979. 1–29.) ——1975b. Indirect speech acts. In P.Cole and J.L.Morgan (eds), Syntax and semantics, vol. 3: Speech acts. New York. 344–69. Searle, J.R., F.Kiefer, and M.Bierwisch (eds) 1980. Speech act theory and pragmatics. Dordrecht. Strawson, P.F. 1964. Intention and convention in speech acts. PhR 73. 439–60. Streeck, J. 1980. Speech acts in interaction: a critique of Searle. DPr 3. 133–54. Tsohatzidis, S.L. (ed.) 1994. Foundations of speech act theory. London. Ulkan, M. 1992. Zur Klassifikation von Sprechakten: eine grundlagentheoretische Fallstudie. Tübin-gen. Venderveken, D. 1990–1. Meaning and speech acts: principles of language use, 2 vols. Cambridge. Wittgenstein, L. 1953. Philosophical investigations. Oxford. Bibliographies Meyers, R.B. and K.Hopkins. 1977. A speech-act bibliography. Centrum 5. 73–108. Verschueren, J. 1976. Speech act theory: a provisional bibliography with a terminological guide. Bloomington, IN. ——1978. Pragmatics: an annotated bibliography. Amsterdam. conversation analysis, performative analysis, pragmatics speech community 1 Total set of speakers of the same (native) language. In this definition language and speaker are equated without social or cultural aspects being taken into consideration. 2 In sociolinguistics, speech community is related more strictly to interactional conditions: a set of speakers who, through frequent, rulegoverned interaction and the use of a common linguistic repertoire of signs (thus not necessarily a single language!) constitute a group. This group is distinguished from others by significant differences in language use. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1110 3 Not so much the ‘objective’ use of particular linguistic elements, but rather for the ‘feeling’ of belonging to a group or being in agreement with specific norms is central to this further definition. These norms ‘may be observed in overt types of evaluative behavior, and by the uniformity of abstract patterns of variation’ (Labov 1972:121). 4 The term is most radically construed and at the same time finally resolved in the consistently integrative view of linguistic, social, social-psychological and individualpsychological factors; according to Bolinger (1975:333), ‘there is no limit to the ways in which human beings league themselves together for self-identification, security, gain, amusement, worship, or any of the other purposes that are held in common; consequently there is no limit to the number and variety of speech communities that are to be found in also network) society.’ ( References Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. Bolinger, D. 1975. Aspects of language, 2nd edn. New York. Gumperz, J.J. 1962. Types of linguistic communities. AnL 4.28–40. Labov, W. 1972. Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia, PA. Le Page, R.B. 1968. Problems of description in multilingual communities. TPS 189–212. variational linguistics speech comprehension language comprehension speech error (also Freudian slip, slip of the tongue) Disruption in the production of speech through a conscious or unconscious linguistic deviation from the apparently intended form of an utterance. Linguistic speech error analysis is based on the hypothesis that the phenomena of deviation observable in different components are limited by the structure of the language and can be described and explained on the basis of grammatical units and regularities and that speech errors cause one to posit inferences to basic mental abilities and representations. The following types of speech errors are distinguished according to their level of linguistic description. (a) Phonological substitutions rest primarily on identical beginning or ending segments, similarity of syllable, or accent structure: e.g. heft lemisphere instead of left hemisphere; a morphophonological example is It’s not tell ussing anything new instead of It ‘s not telling us anything new. (b) Substitutions based on semantic relationships are based A-Z 1111 above all on semantic relations like synonymy, antonymy, or membership in the same lexical field: e.g. unsure instead of sure. The mental reality of both types appears to confirm the linguistic relevance of morphological analyses and of general rules of word formation. (c) Speech errors in the area of syntax relate to serial order errors, whereby each syntactic category remains intact, but the exact morphophonological form accommodates the new context: Take the freezes out of the steaker instead of… steaks out of the freezer. (d) Blending of contextually similar words and/or phrases as the result of the intention to say two different (and competing) things usually marks most transitions between changing informational intentions: Mozart’s symphonatas— symphonies vs sonatas. S.Freud’s interest in speech errors related above all to the basic psychological mechanisms, the suppressed causes of utterance intentions that compete with each other. ( also error analysis, paraphasia) References Abd-el-Jawad, H. and I.Abu-Salim. 1987. Slips of the tongue in Arabic and their theoretical implications. LangS 9.145–71. Cutler, A. 1982. Slips of the tongue and language production. Berlin. Del Viso, S. 1991. On the autonomy of phonological encoding: evidence from slips of the tongue in Spanish. JPsyR 20.161–85. Dell, G.S. and P.A. Reich. 1981. States in sentence production: an analysis of speech error data. JVLVB 20.611–29. Dittmann, J. 1988. Versprecher und Sprachproduktion: Ansätze zu einer psycholinguistischen Konzeption von Sprachproduktionsmodellen. In G. Blanken (ed.), Sprachproduktionsmodelle, neuround psycholinguistische Modelle der menschlichen Spracherzeugung. Freiburg. 35–82. Dressler, W.U., L.Tonelli, and E.Magno Caldognetto. 1990. Phonological paraphasias versus slips of the tongue in German and Italian. In J.-L. Nespoulous (ed.), Morphology, phonology and aphasia. New York. 206–12. Ferber, R. 1991. Slips of the tongue or slips of the ear? On the perception and transcription of naturalistic slips of the tongue. JPsyR 20.105–22. Fodor, J.A. 1983. The modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA. Freud, S. 1901. Zur Psychopathologie des Alltagslebens. Monatschrift für Psychiatrie und Neurologie 10.1–13. ——1917/89. Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse. In A.Mitscherlich et al. (eds), Studienausgabe. Darmstadt. Fromkin, V.A. (ed.) 1973. Speech error as linguistic evidence. The Hague. (Repr. 1984.) ——1980. Errors in linguistic performances: slips of the tongue, ear, pen and hand. London. ——1988. Grammatical aspects of speech errors. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: the Cambridge Survey. Cambridge. Vol. 2, 117–38. Gerken, L.A. 1992. A slip-of-the-tongue approach to language development. In J.Charles-Luce et al., (eds), Spoken language: perception, production, and development. Norwood, NJ. Jaeger, J.J. 1992. Phonetic features in young children’s slips of the tongue. L&S 35.189–205. Kutas, M. and S.A.Hillyard. 1983. Event-related brain potentials to grammatical errors and semantic anomalies. Memory and Cognition 11.539–50. Laubstein, A.S. 1987. Syllable structure: the speech error evidence. CJL 32.339–63. Meringer, R. and K.Mayer. 1895. Versprechen und Verlesen: eine psychologisch-linguistische Studie. Stuttgart. Meyer, A.S. 1992. Investigation of phonological encoding through speech error analyses: achievements, limitations, and alternatives. Cognition 42.181–211. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1112 Picard, M. 1992. Syllable structure, sonority and speech errors: a critical assessment. FoLi 26.453– 65. Postma, A. and H.H.J.Kolk. 1993. The covert repair hypothesis: prearticulatory repair processes in normal and stuttered dysfluencies. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 36.472–87. Safi-Stagni, S. 1990. Slips of the tongue in Arabic. In M.Eid (ed.), Perspectives on Arabic linguistics. Amsterdam. Vol. 1, 271–90. Shattuck-Hufnagel, S. 1992. The role of word structure in segmental serial ordering. Cognition 42.213–59. Stemberger, J.P. 1989. Speech errors in early child language production. JMemL 28.164–88. ——1992. Vocalic underspecification in English language production. Lg 68.492–524. Ubozono, H. 1989. The mora and the syllable structure in Japanese: evidence from speech errors. L&S 32.249–78. Bibliographies Cutler, A. 1982. Speech errors: a classified bibliography. Bloomington, IN. Wiedenmann, N. 1992. Versprecher und die Versuche zu ihrer Erklärung: ein Literaturüberblick. Trier. speech island enclave speech-language pathology The study of the diagnosis and treatment of language, articulation, and voice disorders language disorder, developmental language disorder, articulation disorder, ( voice disorder); also, the related professional practice. The term has been used in North America since the 1970s (formerly ‘speech pathology’). The domains of speech-language pathology are variously organized in the institutions and professional schools of different cultures and countries. Thus speech-language pathology does not correspond to logopedics or clinical linguistics. References Smith, B.R. and E.Leinonen. 1991. Clinical pragmatics. London. language disorder A-Z speech perception speech production 1113 speech recognition language produc-tion speech recognition In computational linguistics the recognition of linguistic signs and structures on electronic channels, such as the isolation of phones from an acoustically perceivable stream of signs (cf. character recognition for optical media). Speech recognition is necessary for computer language processing, especially for reducing speech to texts (cf. speech synthesis for the reverse). Outside linguistics, voice recognition is used in criminal investigations to identify persons on the basis of voice quality. References Altmann, G.T.M. (ed.) 1991. Cognitive models of speech processing: psycholinguistic and computational perspectives. Cambridge, MA. Fraser, H. 1992. The subject of speech perception: an analysis of the philosophical foundations of the information-processing model of cognition. Basingstoke. Goodman, J.C. and H.C.Nusbaum (eds) 1994. The development of speech perception. Cambridge, MA. Lobacz, P. 1984. Processing and decoding the signal in speech perception. Hamburg. Waibel, A. and K.-F.Lee. 1990. Speech recognition. San Mateo, CA. speech sound Abstract unit derived from a continuum of sound that is characterized by the set of its phonetic features ( phone). References phonetics Dictionary of language and linguistics 1114 speech synthesis The production of speech sounds by mechanical means, generally from text input. Speech synthesis is now a common technology, used in telephone information systems (in the United States) and in reading machines for the blind. Speech recognition reverses the conversion, extracting text from acoustic signals. Reference Denes, P. 1973. The speech chain: the physics and biology of spoken language. Garden City, NY. spelling orthography spirant [Lat. spirare ‘to breathe’] Term denoting fricatives, any kind of constrictive, or a median without friction. References phonetics spirantization Replacement of plosives through homorganic fricatives. For example, in the Old High German consonant shift, where Gmc p, t, k are shifted to the double fricatives ff, zz, hh initially and after vowels; compare OHG offan with OS opan ‘open,’ OHG mahhon with OS makon ‘make.’ Spirantization with sonorization is found in the historical development of Danish: compare [th] with in Icelandic; with Dan. ‘street.’ A-Z 1115 References sound change spoken language In terms of its historical development (as well as its importance to historical linguistics and language acquisition), spoken language is the primary form of communication. Interest in spoken language became gradually intensified in the 1960s. In the first studies, which were almost exclusively contrastive in nature and oriented towards syntax, spoken language was considered either a linguistic system that deviated from the written language and had its own rules or a ‘deficient’ linguistic system; the most characteristic traits of spoken language are short, often incomplete sentences (free-standing dependent clauses, sentence clipping, ellipsis); mixing of sentence structures (anacoluthon); frequent use of specific syntactic structures such as left vs right dislocation, hanging topic, and so on; dominance of parataxis vs hypotaxis (co-ordination vs subordination); more frequent use of discourse particles ( discourse marker), among other characteristics. Thr ough the influencespeech of act theory and ethnomethodological discourse analysis, there has been a greater interest in the communicative function of the typical linguistic devices of spoken language (e.g. intonation). Of primary interest are the structural elements of a conversation (the opening and closure of conversation, the system of turn-taking for speaker and hearer, the direction of conversation, and procedures for the production of meaning and the assurance of understanding (paraphrase, repair, etc.). From this perspective many of the traits of spoken language previously regarded as deficient are shown to be instrumental in the organization and contextualization of conversations. References Akinnaso, F.N. 1982. On the differences between spoken and written language. L&S 25.97–125. ——1986. On the similarities between spoken and written language. L&S 28.323–59. Biber, D. 1988. Variation across speech and writing. Cambridge. Brazil, D. 1995. A grammar of speech. Oxford. Chafe, W.L. and D.Tannen. 1987. Th e tion rela between written and spoken language. Annual Review of Anthropology 16.383–407. Čmejrková, S. et al. (eds) 1994. Writing vs speaking. Tübingen. Geluykens, R. 1992. From discourse processes to grammatical constructions: on left-dislocation in English. Amsterdam. ——1994. The pragmatics of discourse anaphora in English: evidence from conversational repair. Berlin. Redeker, G. 1984. On the differences between spoken and written language. DPr 7.43–55. Schegloff, E.A. 1979. The relevance of repair to ‘syntax for conversation.’ In T.Givón (ed.), Syntax and semantics, vol. 12: Discourse and syntax. New York. 261–86. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1116 Schiffrin, D. 1987. Discourse markers. Cambridge and New York. Tannen, D. (ed.) 1982a. Analysing discourse: text and talk. Washington, DC. ——1982b. Spoken and written language: exploring orality and literacy. Norwood, NJ. spoonerism Type of speech error in which two segments are switched. The term refers to the British clergyman William A. Spooner, who is credited with first noting these kinds of slips of the tongue, e.g. Take the flea of my cat and leave it at the louse of my mother-in-law instead of Take the key of my flat and leave it at the house of my mother-in-law. Spoonerisms play a role in the evaluation of grammar models: a strict (left-to-right) grammar that sees every word as a stimulus for the word that immediately follows cannot adequately describe speech errors involving such switching of segments. References speech error s-structure stack automaton surface structure push-down automaton stammering dysfluency Standard Average European Collective term used by B.L.Whorf for all European languages derived from IndoEuropean, whose common grammatical and lexical features he compares to the North American language of the Hopi. ( also Sapir-Whorf hypothesis) A-Z 1117 References Sapir-Whorf hypothesis standard language Since the 1970s this term has been the usual designation for the historically legitimated, panregional, oral and written language form of the social middle or upper class. In this sense it is used synonymously with the (judgmental) term ‘high variety’ ( high vs low variety). Because it functions as the public means of communication, it is subject to extensive normalization (especially in the realm of grammar, pronunciation, and spelling), which is controlled and passed on via the public media and institutions, but above all through the school systems. Command of the standard language is the goal of formal language instruction. ( also national language, prescriptive grammar, orthography, standard pronunciation) References Joseph, J. 1984. The elaboration of the emerging standard. LangS 6:1.39–52. Leuvensteijn, J.V. and J.Berns (eds) 1992. Dialect and standard language in the English, Dutch, German and Norwegian language areas. Amsterdam. Nickel, G. and J.C.Stalker (eds) 1986. Problems of standardization and linguistic variation in present day English. Heidelberg. Stein, D. and I.Tieken-Boon. 1993. Towards Standard English, 1600–1800. Berlin. References grammar, linguistic norms, orthography, standard pronunciation, stylistics standard pronunciation (also orthoepy, Received Pronunciation (Brit.)) The customary pronunciation of the educated class; that pronunciation generally taught in formal language instruction. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1118 References Avanesov, R.I. 1950. Russkoe literaturnoe proiznošenie. Moscow. Avery, P. and S.Ehrlich. 1991. Teaching American English pronunciation. Oxford. Duden. l962. Aussprachewörterbuch. Mannheim. Jones, D. 1917. Everyman’s English pronouncing dictionary. London. (New edn by A.C.Gimson and S.Ramsaran. Cambridge 1991.) Price, G. 1991. An introduction to French pronunciation. Oxford. Warnant, L. 1968. Dictionnaire de la prononciation française. Gembloux. standard theory aspects model starred form A written linguistic expression marked with an asterisk, meaning that the expression is either a reconstruction of an unattested expression, as in Indo-European *bher- root of ‘to bear,’ or agrammatical, as in *catched for caught or *buyed for bought. statal passive Passive voice distinct from the actional passive in some languages (e.g. German, Russian), which indicates a state resulting from an action rather than the action itself, cf. Ger. Die Polizei wird gewarnt ‘The police are being warned’ with the focus on the action vs Die Polizei’ist gewarnt The police are warned’ (i.e. ‘have been warned’), with the focus on the state. A-Z statal verb 1119 stative vs active statement (also assertion) 1 Term used by J.R.Ross for statements which in deep structure are dependent on verbs such as assert, maintain, say. Thus, the unmarked utterance Prices are falling can be derived from I tell you (that)prices are falling. This derivation is also considered a performative analysis. 2 Synonym for proposition. statistical linguistics (also quantitative linguistics) Experimentally oriented subdiscipline of mathematical linguistics. Using statistical methods, statistical linguistics investigates the quantification of linguistic regularities in a controlled fashion. Its methods are used in the production of frequency dictionaries, stylistic text analysis, and in natural-language processing, where it is used to guide parsing and recognition hypothesis. References Butler, C.S. 1985. Statistics in linguistics. Oxford. Woods, A., P.Fletcher, and A.Hughes. 1986. Statistics in language studies. Cambridge. Bibliography Köhler, R. 1995. Bibliography of quantitative linguistics. Amsterdam. computational linguistics. lexicostatistics, mathematical linguistics Dictionary of language and linguistics 1120 stative verb Semantically and syntactically defined group of verbs that share the semantic feature [+static] (e.g. be, own, know, understand, etc.). Stative verbs (a) are not normally used in the imperative mood (‘Understand me), (b) do not form true passives (*The book is being owned by him), (c) cannot occur as predicates in dependent clauses after verbs of telling (*He advised her to understand the lecture). Adjectives are also subject to this semantic dichotomy (e.g. old, rich, spontaneous vs fast, helpful). ( also stative vs active) stative vs active Basic distinction of aspect. Stative verbs such as know, feel, own and be able to describe properties or relations which do not imply a change in state or motion and which cannot be directly controlled by the entity possessing the property, i.e. stative situations cannot be started, stopped, interrupted, or brought about easily or voluntarily. Related to this is the fact that stative verbs cannot usually occur in the imperative (*Know Louise!, but Know [what you ‘re doing] before you go!) and cannot be combined with such modal adverbs as voluntarily or secretly. Active verbs, which include all process verbs and action verbs such as wither, work, and read imply a change or a transition from one state to another; in the case of action verbs, this is caused by an agent. The distinction stative vs active is relevant not only for verbs but also for subcategories of adjectives (old, rich vs fast, helpful), and plays an important role in the grammars of many languages. For example, in many languages, stative verbs cannot occur in the passive; in English, they cannot be used in the progressive *He is knowing Phil. The distinction stative vs active verb is also important in active languages. References Åquist, L. 1974. A new approach to the logical theory of actions and causality. In S.Stenlund (ed.), Logical theory a nd semantic analysis. Dordrecht. 73–91. Kenny, E. 1963. States, performances, activities. In E.Kenny (ed.), Action, emotion and will. New York. 171–86. Lee, D.A. 1973. Stative and case grammar. FL 10.545–68. Vendler, Z. 1967. Linguistics and philosophy. Ithaca, NY. aspect A-Z 1121 steady-state sounds vs transitional sounds In early phonetics, the speech process—in analogy to writing the letters of the alphabet— was seen as a series of discrete individual sounds (steady-state sounds) in which the articulatory organs did not move. For the transition from one steady-state sound to another, transitional sounds were hypothesized. stem 1Morphemes or morpheme constructions on which inflectional endings ( inflection) can appear. Based on this criterion, base morphemes (easy) as well as derivations (uneasy, easiness) and compounds (easy-going) are considered word stems. 2 In synchronic language analysis that base morpheme that underlies all words of the same word family and that is the carrier of the (original) lexical base meaning. Thus, the stem work underlies working, worker, unworkable’, its part of speech and meaning are specified by the word forming morphemes (-ing, un-, -able). ( also morphology, word formation) References morphology, word formation stem vowel In Latin, stem vowels, most clearly evident in the genitive plural (a, ō, i, u, ē), indicate the declensional class to which a particular substantive (noun or adjective) belongs: mensārum (1st declension), cervōrum (2nd), civium (3rd), fructuum (4th), diērum (5th). In Indo-European distinction is drawn between thematic verbs (those with a theme vowel inserted between the root and the personal ending, e.g. leg-i-tis, leg-u-nt) and athematic verbs (those in which the personal ending is attached directly to the root, es-t, es-tis). ( also linking morpheme, linking vowel) Dictionary of language and linguistics 1122 stereotype [Grk stereos ‘firm, solid,’ typós ‘form, shape, image’] 1 Borrowed from sociology and originating in printers’ jargon (stereotype ‘lines printed tightly together’ in contrast with movable type), the term denotes any (pre-)judgments— deeply rooted in emotion and usually unconscious about a particular group. Stereotypes as ‘aids’ in judging and leveled primarily at racial, national, religious, or professional groups, may function to defuse situations of personal or public conflict. Semantic differentials or content analysis provide a linguistic method to determine stereotypes. References Lippman, W. 1922. Public opinion. London. Quasthoff, U. 1978. The uses of stereotypes in everyday argument. JPrag 2.1–48. Schaff, A. 1984. The pragmatic function of stereotypes. JSL 45.89–100. cliché 2 In the framework of Putnam’s (1975) philosophical theory of semantics, term denoting the collection of semantic associations that are firmly connected with a particular word or the beliefs about characteristics of typical examples of natural classes (e.g. cats, roses, water) in ‘normal’ situations. These (stereotypical) assumptions may be empirically correct or incorrect (e.g. gold has the stereotypical features of ‘valuable metal’ and ‘yellow,’ even though as a chemical alloy it is actually white). It therefore follows that not all elements belonging to the extension of an expression must necessarily exhibit all of the characteristics of the stereotype: for example, there are possibly also white tigers, even though ‘striped’ is part of the stereotype of tiger. Moreover, not every speaker must know all the stereotypes of an expression to be able to refer successfully to the element designated by it. As demonstrated in the psychological tests of Rosch (1973), stereotypes are the result of the perceptual classification of an inherently structured world through categories established by humans (though in this regard the concept of ‘prototype’ is more common). As part of the whole meaning of linguistic expressions, the concept of ‘stereotype’ plays—in addition to the concepts of ‘intension’ and ‘extension’—an important role in more recent semantic theories, specifically in lexical semantics and morphology (see Eikmeyer and Rieser 1981). Lakoff and Johnson (1981) establish the connection with the first definition of stereotype above, by showing how natural languages have fixed (pre-)judgments and how speakers use them, mostly unconsciously, as a structure for understanding their environment. References Clark, E.V. and H.H.Clark. 1979. When nouns surface as verbs. Lg 5.767–811. Dahlgren, K. 1978. The nature of linguistic stereotypes. In D.Farkas (ed.), Papers from the parasession on the lexicon. Bloomington, IN. 58–70. A-Z 1123 Eikmeyer, H.-J. and H.Rieser. 1981. Meanings, intensions, and stereotypes: a new approach to linguistic semantics. In H.-J.Eikmeyer and H. Rieser (eds), Words, worlds, and contexts. Berlin. 133–50. Lakoff, G. 1982. Categories and cognitive models. Trier. Lakoff, G. and H.Johnson. 1981. Metaphors we live by. Chicago, IL. Leyens, J.-P. et al. 1994. Stereotypes and social cognition. London. Putnam, H. 1975. The meaning of meaning. In K. Gundersen (ed.), Language, mind, and knowledge. Minneapolis, MN. 131–93. Rosch, E. 1973. Natural categories. CPsy 4.328–50. ——1975. Cognitive representations of semantic categories. JEP 104.192–233. prototype stimulus-response Central notion of behavioral psychology ( behaviorism) according to which human (and thus also linguistic) behavior can be explained or reconstructed after a model of a mechanical apparatus. All forms of experience, ideas, and intentions are interpreted as the result of an interchange between observable stimuli and the corresponding responses. Regarding the reactions, one differentiates between ‘immediate’ and ‘conditioned’ reflexes. Immediate reflexes are spontaneous, involuntary reactions to stimuli, such as squinting when bright lights are turned on; conditioned reflexes, on the other hand, are artificial, acquired reactions to stimuli picked up through the process of learning. The first experiment in stimulus-response was undertaken with a dog by the Russian physiologist I. Pavlov (1849–1939), in which it was demonstrated that the immediate natural reflex of salivation when the dog saw its food occurred as a conditioned reflex after corresponding training, when a bell sounded (initially simultaneously with the offering of food), itself given as a stimulus. This process is known as classic conditioning. This one-dimensional schema is differentiated by taking a non-observable, mediating case of stimulus-response into consideration. Such a modified model of stimulusresponse is the basis of the so-called mediation theory of meaning. References behaviorism, mediation Dictionary of language and linguistics STM (short-term memory) 1124 memory stochastic grammar A grammar of any type ( formal language theory) in which rules are assigned probabilities by a probability density function. Stochastic grammars are applied to the problem of speech recognition, in which hypotheses must be evaluated with reference to confidence values, and to a range of other problems in which information is unsure. ( hidden Markov model, Markov process) Reference Wetherell, C. 1980. Probabilistic languages. Computing Surveys 12. stop Speech sound classified according to its manner of articulation, in which at least one ; (b) nasals2 closure is formed with the glottis or in the oral cavity: (a) glottal stop , ; (e) ejectives [p’]; (f) [m], [n]; (c) plosives1 [p], [t], [b], [d]; (d) implosives1 , . A plosive in which the stop is formed orally and released without friction clicks is called an explosive sound. If the oral release occurs during the formation of non-nasal oral stops (in the cases of (c)-(f)) with friction, then they are called affricates. An oral , as in Yoruba ‘thank you.’ Subclasses of stops double stop is present in involve labialization, palatalization, velarization, pharyngealization ( secondary nasal harmony), glottalization. Further articulation), aspiration, nasalization ( classificatory features are phonation, articulators, and places of articulation. The use of the term stop is not uniform: at times it refers to (a)—(f), but not (b); at times only to (a) and (c); at times only to (c). ( also articulatory phonetics) References phonetics A-Z 1125 story grammar Expansion of the concept of generative grammar from the sentence level to the level of (narrative) texts. In story grammar, the text structure is seen as primary in comparison to the background knowledge. From this stance, a controversy with the proponents of script theory ( script) developed in the early 1980s. References Black, J. and R.Wilensky. 1979. An evaluation of story grammars. CSc 3.213–39. Budniakiewicz, T. 1992. Fundamentals of story logic: introduction to Greimassian semiotics. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Mandler, J. and N.Johnson. 1980. On throwing out the baby with the bathwater: a reply to Black and Wilensky’s evaluation of story grammars. CSc 4.305–12. Rumelhart, D. 1975. Notes on a schema for stories. In D.Bobrow and A.Collins (eds), Representation and understanding. New York. 211–36. ——1980. On evaluating story grammars. CSc 4.313–16. language processing stratic [Lat. stratum ‘level’] Sociocultural or class-specific feature used in investigations in dialectology. stratificational grammar Descriptive analysis developed by S.M.Lamb, based on structuralist ( structuralism) principles which plays a role in computer linguistics and machine translation. Lamb views language primarily as a highly complex means of communication, whose structure can be described as a relational net of hierarchically ordered systems and subsystems (i.e. strata, stratum). In sharp contrast to American branches of structuralism, semantics functions as the highest stratum, that is, the starting point for linguistic description is meaning, which is restructured from stratum to stratum until it finds its material realization on the phonetic level. Lamb (1966) distinguishes six strata for English, two for each of the traditionally described levels: semantics, syntax, and phonology. The combinatory restrictions on the individual levels are ensured by the so-called ‘tactical’ rules and, depending on the stratum, Lamb speaks of semotactics, lexotactics, morphotactics, and phonotactics. The linguistic units asigned to each level appear in Dictionary of language and linguistics 1126 triads: (a) sememe, lexeme, morpheme, phoneme, and others as abstract emic units ( etic vs emic analysis); (b) semon, lexon, phonon, among others, as constitutive elements of the abstract units; and (c) sema, lex, phone, among others, as the material realization. The terminological neologisms and notational system of stratificational grammar are extremely complex. There is to date no complete representation of a language that exhaustively employs this theoretical apparatus. References Hartmann, R.R.K. 1973. The language of linguistics: reflections on linguistic terminology with particular reference to ‘level’ and ‘rank.’ Tübingen. Hockett, C.F. 1966. Language, mathematics and linguistics. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics, vol. 3: Theoretical linguistics. The Hague. 155–204. Lamb, S.M. 1966. Outline of stratificational grammar. Washington, DC. Lockwood, D.G. 1972. Introduction to stratificational linguistics. New York. Sampson, G. 1970. Stratificational grammar: a definition as an example. The Hague. Bibliography Fleming, I. 1969. Stratificational theory: an annotated bibliography. JEngL 3.37–65. stratum 1 Level of classification whose elements define the elements of the next highest level. For example, morphophonemes are defined by phonemes. 2 In S.M.Lamb’s stratificational grammar, structural levels which are ordered hierarchically and have a systematic character: the lowest level corresponds to phonology (=hypophonemic and phonemic stratum); the intermediate level corresponds to syntax (=morphemic and lexemic stratum); and the highest level corresponds to semantics (=sememic and hypersememic stratum). References stratificational grammar A-Z 1127 stress 1 In the narrow sense, a suprasegmental feature which, together with pitch, duration, and sonority, makes up the prominence of sounds, syllables, words, phrases, and sentences. Articulatory characteristic ( articulation): increased muscular activity. Acoustic characteristic: increase in intensity (volume). 2 In the broad sense (also ‘accent’), the syntagmatic ( paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relationship) prominence of a linguistic element. (a) Two basic types of stress are ‘dynamic stress’ (=‘dynamic accent,’ ‘expiratory accent,’ ‘stress accent’) and ‘musical stress’ (=‘pitch accent’). Dynamic stress is achieved through intensified muscle activity during articulation (e.g. word accent in English), musical stress through change or distribution of pitch over one or more linguistic elements (e.g. Swedish, Classical Greek). These two types actually occur together, with one or the other being predominant. (b) According to the prosodic ( prosody) unit affected, a distinction is drawn between syllable stress, word or word group stress, and sentence stress. These units can carry (c) primary (=main), secondary, or weak stress, i.e. varying gradations of emphasis. (d) A further distinction is drawn with regard to the regularity of occurrence: ‘fixed stress’ refers to those languages in which stress always or almost always occurs on a particular syllable (e.g. the initial syllable in Czech, Lithuanian, Hungarian, and Finnish, the penultimate syllable in Polish, the final syllable in French), and thereby marks word boundaries; ‘free stress’ is found in Germanic languages (generally on the root syllable), Russian, Bulgarian, Spanish, and Italian. In free-stress languages, stress can be used to distinguish between different lexemes (bláckbird vs blàck bírd), different parts of speech (présent vs presént), or different grammatical categories (Ital. canto ‘I sing’ vs cantò ‘he/she/it sang’). Stress can have a significant diachronic ( synchrony vs diachrony) influence on sound change: cf. the ‘exceptions’ to the Germanic sound shift ( Grimm’s law), elucidated in Verner’s law, which resulted from the ProtoIndo-European free stress. ( also intonation, metrical phonology, phonetics, phonology) References Beckmann, M.E. 1986. Stress and non-stress accent. Berlin and New York. Burzio, L. 1994. Principles of English stress. Cambridge. Halle, M. and J.-R.Vergnaud. 1987. An essay on stress. Cambridge, MA. Hayes, B. 1981. A metrical theory of stress rules. Bloomington, IN. ——1994. Metrical stress theory. Chicago, IL. Liberman, M. and A.Prince. 1977. On stress and linguistic rhythm. LingI 8.249–336. Schmerling, S.F. 1976. Aspects of English sentence stress. London. Visch, E. 1990. A metrical theory of rhythmic stress phenomena. Berlin and New York. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1128 Generative theories Haraguchi, S. 1991. A theory of stress and accent. Berlin and New York. Kenstowicz, M. 1990. Stress and generative phonology. Rivista di Linguistica 2.55–86. intonation, phonetics, suprasegmental feature stress accent (also dynamic accent, expiratory accent) Word accent that is distinguished by a greater sound intensity or a non-distinctive change in pitch, as opposed to pitch accent. ( also stress2) stress-timed vs syllable-timed Typological distinction ( language typology) to do with the rhythm of a language. In stress-timed languages (e.g. English, German), the intervals between the stressed syllables tend to be qualitatively even ( ictus); in syllable-timed languages (e.g. French, Italian, Hungarian), it is the intervals between individual syllables that tend to be quantitatively even. Reference Dauer, R. 1983. Stress-timing and syllable-timing reanalysed. JPhon 11.51–62. A-Z 1129 strict implication implication strident vs mellow strident vs nonstrident strident vs non-strident [Lat. stridere ‘to make a high-pitched sound’] (also strident vs mellow) Binary phonological opposition in distinctive feature analysis, based on acoustically analyzed and spectrally defined criteria (cf. acoustic phonetics, spectral analysis). Acoustic characteristics: higher/lower noise intensity in the higher/lower, respectively, frequencies. Articulatory characteristics: greater or lesser impediment of friction in the resonance chamber, cf. the opposition between [f, s, ∫] vs [v, z, . References Jakobson, R. et al. 1951. Preliminaries to speech analysis. Cambridge, MA. 23–6. (6th edn 1965.) phonetics string analysis Method of grammatical analysis of sentences developed by R.E.Longacre and Z.S.Harris within the framework of tagmemics. In contrast to phrase structure grammar, which assumes a hierarchical structure for sentences, string analysis is based on the hypothesis that language is a linear ordering of individual elements. Every sentence, then, is analyzable as a kernel sentence which is surrounded by zero or more complements ( also adjunct); the complements are in turn made up of necessary elements. Each word is classifiable on the basis of its morphosyntactic characteristics, so that sentences can be represented as strings of category symbols On the basis of an openended list of axiomatic elementary strings, sentences are parsed into partial strings that can occur to the right or left of the central kernel string. In other words, acceptable sentences are Dictionary of language and linguistics 1130 conceived as combinations or expansions of elementary units (phonemes, morphemes, words, syntagms, sentences). References Harris, Z.S. 1962. String analysis of sentence structure. The Hague. Longacre, R.E. 1960. String constituent analysis. Lg 36.63–88. strong vs weak verb Formal classification of verbs in Germanic languages according to their pattern of conjugation. This distinction, first suggested J.Grimm, refers to the ability of strong verbs to form the preterite (past tense) stem ‘on its own’ by changing the root vowel ( ablaut, e.g. Eng. see/saw, rise/rose), as well as the need for weak verbs to employ an additional formal element (a dental suffix realized as -ed, -d, -t: worked, heard, burnt), irregular verb. The strong verbs stem from older processes in Indo-European, while the weak verbs are a Germanic innovation. References Barbour, J.S. 1982. Productive and non-productive morphology: the case of the German strong verbs. JL 18.331–54. Barnes, M. and H.Esau. 1973. Germanic strong verbs: a case of morphological rule extension? Lingua 31.1–34. Bech, G. 1963. Die Entstehung des schwachen Präteritums. Copenhagen. Kern, P.C. and H.Zutt. 1977. Geschichte des deutschen Flexionssystems. Tübingen. Lehmann, W.P. 1943. The Germanic weak preterite endings. Language 19.313–19. Meid, W. 1971. Das germanische Präteritum. Innsbruck. Seebold, E. 1970. Vergleichendes und etymologisches Wörterbuch der germanischen starken Verben. The Hague. Tops, G.A. 1974. The origin of the Germanic dental preterite: a critical research history since 1912. Leiden. Veith, W.H. 1984. The strong verb conjugation in modern English compared with modern German. LB 73.39–57. A-Z 1131 structural analysis In transformational grammar, the presentation of sentences in the form of a tree diagram or labeled bracketing as the output of the application of transformational rules. References transformational grammar structural meaning lexical meaning vs grammatical meaning structural semantics Collective term for different descriptive models in lexical semantics, all of which are based on the basic principles of structuralism. The common characteristics of these approaches are: (a) the meaning of a word cannot be described in isolation, but is a function of its relation to other lexemes of the same conceptual area ( lexical field theory, semantic relation); (b) the whole meaning of a word can be analyzed as smaller semantic elements ( componential analysis, lexical decomposition). As in phonology, this assumption is based on the hypothesis that there is a universal inventory of semantic components from which every individual language makes specific selections. Structural semantics sets out to describe the structure of the lexicon by analyzing individual meanings and semantic relations like synonymy and antonymy, among others. References Bendix, E.H. 1966. Componential analysis of general vocabulary: the semantic structure of a set of verbs in English, Hindi, and Japanese. The Hague. Coseriu, E. 1970. Einführung in die strukturelle Betrachtung des Wortschatzes. Tübingen. Geckeler, H. 1971. Strukturelle Semantik und Wortfeldtheorie. Munich. ——(ed.) 1978. Strukturelle Bedeutungslehre. Darmstadt. ——1981. Structural semantics. In H.-J.Eikmeyer and H.Rieser (eds), Words, worlds, and contexts: new approaches in word semantics. Berlin. 381–413. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1132 Greimas, A.J. 1966. Semantique structurale. Paris. Leisi, E. 1973. Praxis der englischen Semantik. Heidelberg. Lyons, J. 1963. Structural semantics: an analysis of part of the vocabulary of Plato. Oxford. semantics structuralism Collective term for a number of linguistic approaches in the first half of the twentieth century, all based on the work of F. de Saussure, but strongly divergent from one another. Depending on theoretical preconceptions, the term ‘structuralism’ is used in several ways. In its narrower sense, it refers to the pregenerative phase of linguistics before N. Chomsky’s Syntactic structures; in its broader sense, to all linguistic theories which focus on an isolated investigation of the language system, which would include generative transformational grammar. The most important centers of ‘classical’ structuralism are (a) the Geneva School, concerned primarily with the work of de Saussure, (b) American structuralism, following the work of L.Bloomfield, (c) the Copenhagen Linguistic Circle with L. Hjelmslev’s glossematics, (d) contextualism ( Firthian linguistics), centered in London, and (e) the Prague School, represented chiefly by N.Trubetzkoy, A.Martinet, and R.Jakobson. All variations of structuralism have certain theoretical premises in common, which result in part from the influence of empiricism and in part from a common reaction against the nineteenth century positivistic atomism of the Neogrammarians. Even though de Saussure did not use the term ‘structure’ in his posthumously published Cours de linguistique générale (1916, based on lecture notes from the years 1906–11), but rather the terms système and mécanisme, he is none the less recognized as the ‘father’ and pioneer of structuralism, and his Cours is seen as a summary of the fundamental principles of structuralist linguistic description. De Saussure assumes that language is a relational system of formal, not substantial, elements, which can be precisely recorded and exactly represented. He sees research into the internal relations of language as the central task of linguistics and linguistics as an autonomous sicence that has no need to resort to psychology or the social sciences for aid in explanation. The following basic assumptions found in de Saussure’s work are viewed as fundamental for structuralist linguistic analysis. (a) ‘Language’ can be regarded from three aspects as langue ( langue vs parole) (a particular language stored in the minds of all of its speakers), as parole (actual instances of speech in concrete situations), and as faculté de langage ( langage) (general competence for the acquisition and use of language). In this view, langue and parole condition each other. The object of linguistic investigation is langue, which can only be described through an analysis of the expressions of parole. (b) Language (in the sense of langue) is regarded as a system of signs. Each sign consists of two (mutually conditioning) aspects, the acoustic image, and the concept. The connection of these aspects to one another is arbitrary ( arbitrariness), i.e. languagespecific and dependent on convention. (c) These linguistic signs form a system of values which stand in opposition to one another. Each sign is defined by its relation to all other A-Z 1133 signs in the same system. The fundamental structuralist concept of the ‘distinctive principle’ is characterized by this principle of ‘contrast’ (d) These element relationships can be analyzed on two levels: the syntagmatic level, i.e. the level of linear co-existence; and the paradigmatic level, i.e. the level of interchangeability of elements in a particular paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relationship). (e) Since language (langue) position; ( is understood to be a system of signs, its analysis must be pursued along strictly synchronic lines, i.e. as the description of a state of affairs that exists at a given time ( synchrony vs diachrony). (f) Linguistic analysis is based on a representative corpus, whose regularities are defined by way of two steps, segmentation and classification, segmentation taking place on the syntagmatic level, classification on the paradigmatic ( also distribution). The central level of investigation in structuralism, especially in the Prague School, is phonology. Methods of analysis were tested on its inventory of elements and possible combinations. These methods, when applied to the analysis of syntax, led to phrase structure grammar; the limits of these procedures are shown most clearly in the area of semantics ( componential analysis, lexical field theory). While ‘structuralism’ in its narrower sense refers to de Saussure’s linguistic theories, in its broader sense it is an umbrella term for approaches in anthropology, ethnology, sociology, psychology, and literary criticism, which - in analogy to linguistic structuralism-concentrate on synchronic analysis rather than on genetic/historical preconditions, in order to expose the universal structures at work under the surface of social relations (see especially R.Barthes, C.Lévi-Strauss). References Albrecht, J. 1988. Europäischer Strukturalismus. Darmstadt. Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York. Harris, Z.S. 1951. Methods in structural linguistics. Chicago, IL. ——1965. Transformational theory. Lg 41.363–401. (Repr. in Papers in structural and transformational linguistics. Dordrecht, 1970. 531–77.) Harris, R. 1987. Reading Saussure. London. Hjelmslev, L. 1943. Omkring sprogteoriens grundlaeggelse. Copenhagen. (Prolegomena to a theory of language, trans. F.J.Whitfield. Baltimore, MD, 1953.) Holdcroft, D. 1991. Saussure: signs, systems and arbitrariness. Cambridge. Joos, M. (ed.) 1966. Readings in linguistics, vol. 1: the development of descriptive linguistics in America, 1925–1956. Chicago, IL. Joseph, J.E. 1990. Bloomfield’s (1887–1949) Saussureanism. Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure, 43.43–53. Koerner, E.F.K. 1990. L.Bloomfield (1887–1949) and the Cours de linguistique générale. Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure, 43.55–63. Mohrmann, C. et al. (eds) 1961. Trends in European and American linguistics, 1930–1960. Utrecht. Newmeyer, F.J. Linguistic theory in America. Orlando, FL. Sapir, E. 1921. Language. New York. Saussure, F.de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) Trubetzkoy, N. 1939. Grundzüge der Phonologie. Göttingen. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1134 Von der Gabelentz, G. 1891. Die Sprachwissen-schaft: ihre Aufgaben, Methoden und bisherigen Ergebnisse. Tübingen. American structuralism, distributionalism, linguistics, Prague School structure-preserving constraint A constraint postulated by J.E.Edmonds from the observation that many transformations generate structures that could be generated independently of these transformations by the basic rules of the grammar. This became the accepted constraint for changes in structure by transformations in later versions of transformational grammar. Constituents can only be moved to positions in the tree diagram which could have been generated by the phrase structure rules independently of the transformations. Reference Edmonds, J.E. 1976. A transformational approach to English syntax. New York. structure word stuttering synsemantic word dysfluency style [Lat. stilus ‘a pointed instrument for incising letters,’ metonymically ‘pen,’ i.e. ‘way of writing’] The characteristic use of language in a text. When referring to the speaker, style is more or less the controlled choice of linguistic means, whereas in referring to texts, style is the specific form of language. For the reader or listener, style is the variation (or confirmation) of possible expectations, i.e. the observation and interpretation of linguistic specifics. Stylistics has fluctuated in basing its definitions of style on one or the other of these aspects and has correspondingly developed different goals and procedures for A-Z 1135 description. The following qualifications are generally valid: (a) style is based on individual linguistic elements (elements of style); (b) style is a feature of texts (stylistic features); (c) style is contingent upon historical, functional, and individual components. ( also usage vs use) References stylistics stylistic feature The characteristic property of the language of a text. The stylistic feature is based on the repetition or mixing of elements of style and, therefore, on the particulars of the grammatical form, e.g. nominal vs verbal ( nominal style), on the vocabulary (e.g. modern, vulgar, graphic), or on the structure of the text (e.g. argumentative, visual, boring). Other derived styles like telegraphic style, editorial style, or oral style are based on the correspondingly typical element of style of particular classes of text. ( also style) References stylistics stylistics Stylistics developed in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries from the traditions of fostering the mother tongue, from rhetoric and from the interpretation of literature. Correspondingly, the discipline is quite broad: (a) methodically, stylistics is a procedure for the analysis of texts; (b) normatively, stylistics is a directive for what is right in the use of language; (c) descriptively, stylistics is a text linguistic discipline, which explains the style of a text and sets it in relation to other features of the text (style). This newest branch of stylistics forms the foundation for scientific analysis of style as well as for practical stylis tics, the standardization yle, andofthe st fostering of the mother tongue. The results of functional stylistics are particularly important for research into the connection between the style and the function of a text (or type of text). Since functionally explicable properties of style are also fundamental for rhetorical texts, Dictionary of language and linguistics 1136 stylistics overlaps here with its ancestors and with the modern neighboring discipline of rhetoric. References Carter, R. (ed.) 1989. Language, discourse and literature: an introduction reader in discourse stylistics, London. Carter, R.A. and W.Nash. 1990. Seeing through language: an introduction to styles of English writing. Oxford. Chatman, S. (ed.) 1971. Literary style: a symposium. Oxford. Ehrlich, S. 1990. Point of view. London. Enkvist, N.E. 1973. Linguistic stylistics. The Hague. Enkvist, N.E. et al. 1967. Linguistics and style. London. Esser, J. 1993. English linguistic stylistics. Tübin-gen. Gaitet, P. 1991. Political stylistics. London. Haynes, J. 1989. Introducing stylistics. London. ——1995. Style. London. Hickey, L. (ed.) 1989. The pragmatics of style. London. Jucker, A. 1992. Social stylistics: syntactic variation in British newspapers, Berlin. Ledger, G.R. 1989. Re-counting Plato: a computer analysis of Plato’s style. Oxford. Taylor, T.J. 1981. Linguistic theory and structural stylistics. Oxford. Toolan, M.J. 1990. The stylistics of fiction: a literary-linguistic approach. London. Ullman, S. 1973. Meaning and style: collected papers. Oxford. Wales, K. 1990. A dictionary of stylistics. London. Bibliographies Bailey, R. and D.M.Burton. 1968. English stylistics: a bibliography. Cambridge, MA. Bennett, J.R. 1986. Bibliography of stylistics and related criticism, 1967–83. New York. Journal Language and Literature. subcategorization [Lat. sub ‘under’; Grk katēgoría ‘predicate’] In Chomsky’s transformational grammar, a specification of lexical categories (noun, verb) into syntactically and semantically motivated subclasses, which correspond to the compatibility between syntactic functions in the sentence. Regarding the subcategorization of nouns and verbs, one distinguishes between context-free and A-Z 1137 context-sensitive rules. (a) Context-free subcategorization rules (for nouns) apply independently of the specific use of the lexical item. An example is the complex symbol book, which consists of the following subcategorizations [+noun, -living, -human,…]. (b) Contextsensitive subcategorization rules for verbs, whose subcategorization is dependent on the syntactic context. There is a difference depending on whether it is a question of purely formal properties dependent on the valence of the verb or of the semantic-lexical relationships. (i) Strict subcategorization defines the obligatory syntactic framework of the verb, e.g. it differentiates between transitive and intransitive verbs. Strict subcategorization in this sense is strictly local. That is to say, the subcategorization rule relates only to co-constituents of the verb. For example, the rule for the verb find is V→[+V+transitive]/[#NPA]; that is: replace a verb by a transitive verb if a direct object follows. (ii) Selectional subcategorization specifies semantic-lexical features, which determine the compatibility between lexemes in a particular syntactic position. Such selectional relationships exist between the verb and the subject of a sentence (*the stone died), the verb and the object (*Carol drinks stones), and the verb and the adverb (*Stella willingly weighs a ton). References Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Grimshaw, J. 1982. Subcategorization and grammatical relations. In A.Zaenen (ed.). Subjects and other subjects: proceedings of the Harvard conference on the representation of grammatical relations. Bloomington, IN. 35–55. Jacobs, R.A. and P.S.Rosenbaum. 1968. English transformational grammar. Waltham, MA. transformational grammar subjacency (formed after adjacency) A constraint advanced by N.Chomsky for movement transformations whereby a constituent may not be moved over more than one (i.e. S or NP) node ( principle of cyclic rule application). Subjacency means that transformations may only operate on one or at most two adjacent levels, so that a transformation may only move a constituent out of a single subjacency-relevant node. An example of a violation of subjacency is [*The man [who I identified the dog [which bit—]]. The subjacency constraint is not uncontroversial. In substance it corresponds to several of Ross’ (1967) individual restrictions; the sententialsubject constraint (if one assumes that sentential subjects are dominated by S and NP), the complex NP constraint (complex NPs are islands for transformations) and the wh-island constraint. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1138 References Ross, J.R. 1967. Constraints on variables in syntax. Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, MA. (Repr. as Infinite syntax! Norwood, NJ, 1986.) constraint subject Main syntactic function in nominative languages, such as English, which is marked morphologically, positionally, and structurally depending on the specific language. The most common morphological marker is the nominative case. On other possibilities, see Keenan (1976) and Sridhar (1979). The subject can be marked positionally by initial, unmarked word order. In the constituent structure of a sentence, the subject is immediately dominated by the S-node in contrast to the object, which is immediately dominated by the verb or predicate phrase. The subject constituent plays a prominent role in the sentence in so far as it is less likely than an object constituent to be affected by language-specific restrictions ( hierarchy universal). Thus the verb usually agrees only with the subject in most languages, which is also the most preferred antecedent for pronouns ( reflexive pronoun). The specific semantic role of the subject is that of the agent of an action; the subject can take on very different roles, especially in the passive voice, e.g. This information was kept secret by the government until now. In such cases, where the formal and semantic criteria for the subject do not concur, a distinction is made between the grammatical (i.e. syntactic) subject (this information) and the logical subject, which is also termed the underlying subject (by the government). In reference to pragmatics and communicative aspects, the subject is usually the theme (that which is known) of the sentence, while the predicate is usually the rheme (that which is new) ( theme vs rheme). References Andrews, A. 1985. The major functions of the noun phrase. In T.Shopen (ed.), Language and typology and syntactic description, vol. 1: Clause structure. Cambridge. 64–154. Faarlund, J.T. 1988. A typology of subjects. In M.T. Hammond, E.A.Moravcsik, and J.W.Wirth (eds), Studies in syntactic typology. Amsterdam. 193–208. Fillmore, C.J. 1968. The case for case. In E.Bach and R.T.Harms (eds), Universals in linguistic theory. New York. 1–88. Foley, W. and R.D.van Valin. 1977. On the viability of the notion of ‘subject’ in universal grammar. BLS 3.293–320. Hasan, R. and P.H.Fries (ed.) 1995. On subject and theme: a discourse functional perspective. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. Johnson, D.E. 1977. On Keenan’s definition of ‘subject of.’ LingI 9.673–92. A-Z 1139 Keenan, E.L. 1976. Towards a universal definition of ‘subject.’ In C.N. Li (ed.), Subject and topic. New York. 303–34. Sridhar, S.N. 1979. Dative subjects and the notion of subjects. Lingua 49.99–125. Van Oosten, J. 1977. Subjects and agenthood in English. CLS 13.459–71. Zaenen, A. (ed.) 1982. Subjects and other subjects. Bloomington, IN. syntactic function, relational grammar subject-predicate model model actor-action subject to object raising accusative plus infinitive construction subject vs predicate Fundamental grammatical relation based on the binary sentence analysis of school grammar, which is derived from the logical categories of Aristotle. The interdependence of subject and predicate is the basic requirement for a sentence as an independent linguistic unit. In contrast to attributive and adverbial relations, in which a one-sided dependence between the modified expression (noun, verb) and the modifier (attributive and adverbial elements) exists, a bilateral dependency holds between the subject and the predicate. The valence of the verb (or its selection restrictions) determines the choice of the subject, while the subject determines the agreement (transference of number and person) between the subject and the verb. Many objections, based mostly on formal grounds, have been raised against the binary analysis of subject/predicate, which was continued in the division of NP and VP in transformational grammar. For instance, the binary analysis cannot be demonstrated, at least in the surface structure, for such sentences as Jump! A more serious challenge has been presented by dependency grammar, which denies the centrality of the subjectpredicate relation and instead considers the verb to be the highest node of the sentence. For a somewhat different analysis of non-Indo-European languages, see Sasse (1987). Dictionary of language and linguistics 1140 References Bellert, I. 1970. On the semantic interpretation of subject-predicate relations in the sentence of particular reference. In M.Bierwisch and K.E.Heidolph (eds), Progress in linguistics. The Hague. 9–26. Geach, P.T. 1950. Subject and predicate. Mind 59.461–82. Sandmann, M. 1979. Subject and predicate: a contribution to the theory of syntax, 2nd edn. Heidelberg. Sasse, H.-J. 1987. The thetic/categorial distinction revisited. Linguistics 25.511–80. subject subjunction implication, conjunction subjunctive [Lat. subiunctivus (transl. of Grk hypotaktikós), from subiungere ‘to fix under; to attach in a subordinate capacity’] Subcategory of verbal mood in many languages, which, in contrast to the neutral indicative, portrays the state of affairs described by the verb as ‘relative.’ It can be used to express a subjective evaluation by the speaker, such as a wish (If only he were here!), a doubt or an expression of possibility. Virtually all Indo-European languages still possess a morphological subjunctive system, although it is greatly reduced in English as compared to German and French. In many languages, other forms such as modal auxiliaries and sentence adverbials (probably, maybe) have taken on some of the functions of the subjunctive. In English, the subjunctive occurs only in a limited number of constructions: (a) wishes: If only I had a million dollars!; (b) some set expressions: Long live the Queen! Be that as it may…, God bless!; (c) clauses containing recommendations, requirements, demands, etc.: It is recommended that each participant come early; (d) in hypothetical or unreal sentences as the first element: If I were benevolent dictator of the world… Such sentences are followed by the conditional ( sequence of tenses). The form of the subjunctive in English depends on its use. (1) For types (a)—(c), the subjunctive is identical to the infinitive form (without to); the main differences are in the forms of to be, and in the third person singular, where the indicative adds -s: I demand that he attend/be present vs He attends/is present. (2) For hypothetical constructions, two forms of subjunctive are used: (a) for present or timeless conditions, present subjunctive, identical in form to the past tense with -ed (or were): If I were you…, If you worked harder…; (b) for conditions in the past, had + past participle: If you had been there…, If you had worked harder. A-Z 1141 Reference James, F. 1986. Semantics of the English subjunctive. Vancouver. conditional, modality sublanguage 1 Term coined by Harris (1968) to describe a subset of sentences in a language which can be generated from a special set of grammatical rules, some of which belong to the grammar of the language, others of which are unique to the sublanguage itself. Thus, in the sublanguage of an aviation hydraulics maintenance manual the-deletion is required: Depressurize Ø hydraulic system. Disconnect Ø electrical connector on Ø pressure switch. Sublanguages are also characterized by constraints on collocations. For example, in the sublanguage of stock market reports, intransitive verbs of motion (e.g. plunge, drop) are combined only with certain nouns and certain adverbs, while these same combinations are not found in the standard language: Mines plunged sharply, The gold index drop ped sharply . Recent research in sublanguages has concentrated above all on the facilitation of automated translation, especially between English and French sublanguages. 2 In a broader sense ‘sublanguage’ refers to those language variants that deviate from the standard language as they arise in various social-, gender-, and age-specific groups as well as in professional and academic groups. 3 Socially determined sublanguages are differentiated from terminology-based speech variants, i.e. jargons; but since professionally based groupings frequently overlap with social classes, the transition between sublanguage and jargon is unclear. Following the organization of the speech community into social groups, sublanguages are also designated as group, class, or professional languages ( jargon). The differences from the standard language lie above all in the vocabularies of the different sublanguages, which were developed according to the interests and needs specific to each group. This is particularly obvious in the speech of hunters, fishers, miners, vintners, printers, students, beggars, and thieves. While, on the one hand, sublanguages develop their unique variants through the innovative (metaphoric) use of pre-existing expressions in the lexicon and grammar of the mother tongue, they also contribute to the proliferation of new elements in the mother tongue itself, when elements of the sublanguage are adopted into the standard language. References Harris, Z. 1968. Mathematical structures of language. New York. ——1982. Discourse and sublanguage. In R. Kittredge and J.Lehrberger (eds), Sublanguage: studies of language in restricted semantic domains. Berlin. 231–6. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1142 Hirschman, L. and N.Sager, 1982. Automatic information formatting of a medical sublanguage. In R. Kittredge, R. and J.Lehrberger (eds), Sublanguage: studies of language in restricted semantic domains. Berlin. 27–69. Kittredge, R. 1982. Variation and homogeneity of sublanguage. In R.Kittredge and J.Lehrberger (eds), Sublanguage: studies of language in restricted semantic domains. Berlin. 107–37. Lehrberger, J. 1986. Sublanguage analysis. In R. Grishman and R.Kittredge (eds), Analyzing language in restricted domains: sublanguage description and processing. Hillsdale, NJ. 19–38. Sagar, N. 1986. Sublanguage: linguistic phenomenon, computational tool. In R. Grishman and R. Kittredge (eds), Analyzing language in restricted domains: sublanguage description and processing. Hillsdale, NJ. 1–17. subordinate clause (also constituent clause, dependent clause) In contrast to the structurally independent main clause (also matrix sentence), a formally subordinate clause, i.e. one that is dependent on a main verb in respect to word order, tense, and mood, as well as illocution. Important aspects for classifying subordinate clauses are formal markers (introduced by a conjunction or not), function in the sentence ( subject, object, adverbial), as well as semantic considerations (temporal, causal, modal, or conditional clauses). (a) Formally, dependent clauses introduced by a conjunction are divided into the following: (1) relative clauses introduced by a relative pronoun (who, which) or adverb (when, where); (2) relative clauses introduced by an interrogative pronoun (who, how, what) or interrogative adverb (when, where), whose identification is established by the meaning of the finite verb of the main clause (He wondered where she could be); they can appear as subjects, objects, or adverbials (and are also called ‘free relative clauses’); (3) conjunctive clauses (introduced by subordinating conjunctions or pronominal adverbs). Unpreceded dependent clauses often appear in reported speech ( direct vs indirect discourse) (She says she’ll come as soon as she can). Similar to subordinate clauses are such constructions as infinitive constructions (She promises to come as soon as possible) and participle constructions (Being heavily under the influence of alcohol, he couldn’t remember anything). (b) In respect to their function in the main clause: (1) clauses that have sentential functions: Everyone was glad that she came; (2) attributive clauses that refer to an antecedent in the main clause (He refused to give up the hope that she would still come); (3) clauses which do not refer to specific elements in the main clause, but rather to the clause as a whole: She’s coming tomorrow, which is good news to everyone. (c) Semantically subordinate clauses are divided into different groups depending on the conjunction or adverb: temporal, causal, modal, and conditional clauses. The distinction between restrictive vs non-restrictive relative clauses also rests on semantic considerations. A-Z 1143 The use of the term ‘subordinate clause’ is not treated uniformly in all grammars: in the narrower sense, all clauses listed in (c) are considered subordinate clauses; in the broader sense, all forms of dependent sentential syntactic structures are included in the definition. In this definition, subordinate clauses are equivalent to the term constituent clause used in generative transformational grammar. For universal typological aspects of clauses, see Shopen (1985). References Shopen, T. (ed.) 1985. Language typology and syntactic description, vol. 2: Complex constructions. Cambridge. syntax subordinating conjunction conjunction subordination 1 hyponymy 2 In addition to dependency, interdependence, and co-o rdination, the most important relationship between syntactic elements. A dependency relationship of subordination exists, for example, between predicate and object/adverbials, between heads and modifiers, between main and dependent clauses, as well as between dependent clauses of various degrees of dependency in complex sentence struct ures. Grammatical terms which are based on subordination include dependency, hypotaxis, subordinate clause, government, valence. Dictionary of language and linguistics subordinator 1144 complementizer subset set substance In glossematics, the material aspect of the linguistic system (e.g. sound waves, characters of a script); substance refers to the expression plane as well as to the content plane ( expression plane vs content plane): the substance of the expression plane is phonetic events (individual unclassified sounds), the substance of the content plane is the set of unordered thoughts and concepts that are differently structured from language to language by the form (see Hjelmslev 1943: ch. 9). References Hjelmslev, L. 1943. Omkring sprogteoriens grundlaeggelse. Copenhagen. (Prolegomena to a theory of language, trans. F.J.Whitfield. Baltimore, MD, 1953.) glossematics substantive [Lat. substare ‘to be present, exist’] 1 In its narrower sense, a synonym for noun. 2 In its broader sense, a comprehensive term for nominals, which some grammars define as all declinable words (nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and numerals), but which others define as only nouns and adjectives. substitute Element which can replace another element A-Z 1145 having the same function in certain contexts, e.g. pronoun for noun, e.g. The book/It’s on the table. substitution 1 In generative transformational grammar, a formal syntactic operation by which certain constituents of a tree diagram are replaced by other constituents between the deep structure and the surface structure. There are two forms of substitution: (a) reduction: an element replaces an original element that is larger: the old man→he; (b) expansion: an element replaces an element that is smaller (i.e. the opposite of reduction). All forms of substitution consist of the two elementary transformations, deletion and insertion. 2 Synonym for substitution test. ( also operational procedures) substitution test 1 In general, an experimental method of analysis in structural linguistics for the establishment of elements which belong to the same grammatical category. Any elements that can be paradimatically substituted for each other, belong to the same class of constituents. ( also operational procedures) 2 In glossematics, substitution tests are used to discover linguistically relevant invariants on the levels of content and expression ( expression vs content plane). For example c can be substituted for b in English, but this phonetic change (expression level) also leads to a change in meaning (content level): cat vs bat. In German, the difference between the trilled r and the uvular r is manifested only at the level of expression; this allophonic variation is not important at the level of content. References glossematics Dictionary of language and linguistics 1146 substitution theory A text grammar model by R.Harweg which is based on syntagmatic substitution as the basic method of forming a text. Reference Harweg, R. 1968. Pronomina und Textkonstitution. Munich. substratum In language contact theory, ‘substratum’ refers to the native language of an indigenous people influenced by the language of a dominant people as well as to its influence upon the dominating language. Examples of a linguistic substratum include the remnants of Celtic in the Romance languages or the influence of Scandinavian on English. The opposite effect is called a superstratum, while the mutual influence of two equally prestigious languages is known as an adstratum. References language contact succedent In formal logic, the second part of a complex proposition in a propositional connection (cf. antecedent). suffix [Lat. suffigere ‘to attach’] Morphological element that is attached finally to free morpheme constructions, but does not occur as a rule as a free morpheme. In regard to morphosyntactic function, a A-Z 1147 distinction is drawn between inflectional suffixes ( inflec tion) and derivational derivation, word formation). The latter serve both for systematic semantic suffixes ( differentiation (e.g. father: fatherhood (abstract noun), book: booklet (diminutive)) and for determining word class, e.g. read, reader, readable (verb, noun, adjective). As a result, suffixes (in contrast with prefixes) are tied to specific word classes, e.g. noun suffixes like -er, -ity, -ling, -ness, -tion, and the adjectival suffixes such as -able, -ive, ish, -ous. References Selkirk, E. 1982. The syntax of words. Cambridge, MA. word formation suffixation The formation of complex words or word forms through the addition of a suffix to the also derivation, inflection) word stem. ( References word formation Suislaw Penutian Sumerian Language of ancient Mesopotamia with unknown genetic affiliation; the language with the oldest writing tradition. First written documents (cuneiform) 3100 BC; the language was spoken until 2000 BC and was then replaced by Akkadian, but remained in use for two further millennia as a written language. Characteristics: agglutinating language with ergative case system. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1148 References Attinger, P. 1993. Eléments de linguistique sumérienne. Fribourg and Göttingen. Civil, M. 1973. The Sumerian writing system: some problems. Orientalia n.s. 42. 21–34. Cooper, J.S. 1973. Sumerian and Akkadian in Sumer and Akkad. Orientalia n.s. 42. 239–46. Falkenstein, A. 1949/50. Grammatik der Sprache Gudeas von Lagasš, 2 vols. Rome. ——1959. Das Sumerische. (Handbuch der Orientalistik I, vol. 2.) Leiden. Gostony, C.-G. 1975. Dictionnaire d’étymologie sumérienne et grammaire comparée. Paris. Hayes, J.L. 1990. A manual of Sumerian: grammar and texts. Malibu, CA. Jacobsen, T. 1988. Sumerian grammar today. JAOS 108. 123–33. Michalowski, P. 1980. Sumerian as an ergative language. Journal of Cuneiform Studies 32. 86– 103. Thomsen, M.L. 1984. The Sumerian language: in troduction to the history and grammatical structure. Copenhagen. Sundanese Malayo-Polynesian superdental alveolar superiority condition Constraint introduced by Chomsky (1973) for transformations according to which a whelement X in the configuration…Y… […Z…X…]…may not be moved to Y, if Z can be moved to Y and Z is ‘structurally higher’ than Y (i.e. Z c-commands X). This restriction blocks the derivation of *I know whati (=Y) who (=Z) saw t1 (=X), as wh-movement is applicable to who (cf. I know whoi ti saw what) and who commands the d-structural position of what. References Chomsky, N. 1973. Conditions on transformations. In S.R.Anderson and P.Kiparsky (eds), Festschrift for Morris Halle. New York. 232–86. transformational grammar A-Z 1149 superlative [Lat. superlativum, from superferre ‘to carry to a higher degree’] Morphological category of adjectives which is the highest level of degree and in English is formed with the suffix -est: oldest, longest. When a superlative refers semantically to the highest degree of a property (comparing at least three elements), it is termed a relative superlative: This theory is the most convincing (of all theories). If it refers to a high degree without comparison, it is termed an absolute superlative (also elative): This theory is most convincing. References degree superordinate superordination hyperonymy hyperonymy superstratum [Lat. stratum ‘level’] In language contact theory, the dominant language as well as its influence on the native language of the indigenous people. ( also substratum, adstratum) References language contact Dictionary of language and linguistics 1150 superstructure A term from text linguistics referring to the characteristic semantic structure of a text type. The superstructure is at the foundation of the changing text content (macrostructure). It can be understood as a conventional schema of ordering that is comprised of text-type typical categories and combination rules. ( also argumentation, narrative structures) Reference Van Dijk, T.A. and W.Kintsch. 1983. Strategies of discourse comprehension. Orlando, FL. supine [Lat. supinus ‘lying back; upturned’] Abstract verbal form in Latin which is derived from verbs of motion. There are two types of supine in Latin: (a) supine I ends in -tum and has adjectival meaning, indicating a direction or purpose: Salutatum venire ‘to come for the purpose of greeting’; (b) supine II ends in -u and appears after certain adjectives: Haec res est facilis intellectu ‘This is easy to understand.’ suppletivism Completion of a defective inflectional paradigm by a lexically similar but etymologically unrelated stem morpheme. For instance, the different stem morphemes in the inflectional paradigm of the verb be, am, is, was, been, or in Latin the combination of the paradigm of ferre ‘to carry’ from the three suppletive stems ferro-tuli-latum. References Dressler, W.U. 1986. Suppletivism in wordformation. In J.Fisiak (ed.) Historical semantics, historical word formation. Berlin. 97–112. Matthews, P.H. 1974. Morphology. Cambridge. (2nd edn 1991.) Mel’čuk, I.A. 1976. On suppletion. Linguistics 170.54–90. Osthoff, H. 1900. Vom Suppletivwesen in den indogermanischen Sprachen. Leipzig. A-Z 1151 suprasegmental feature (also prosodic feature) Term coined by American structuralists for a distinctive feature that—unlike a phoneme—cannot be segmented individually from linguistic utterances, e.g. differences in juncture, stress, pitch, accent, prosody, intonation, syllable breaks. References Crystal, D. 1974. Paralinguistics. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. vol. 12, 265–95. ——1975. The English tone of voice: essays in intonation, prosody and paralanguage. London. Crystal, D. and R.Quirk. 1964. Systems of prosodic and paralinguistic features in English. The Hague. Lehiste, I. 1970. Suprasegmentals. Cambridge, MA. Wittmann, H. 1970. The prosodic formatives of modern German. Phonetica 22. 1–10. intonation surface structure 1 I n a general sense, the directly observable actual form of sentences as they are used in communication. 2 In the terminology of transformational grammar, a relatively abstract sentence structure which results from the application of base rules and transformational rules and which is the input for the phonological component. That is, surface structure must undergo phonetic interpretation in order to correspond to (1). At the same time, phonologically identical interpretations can arise from different surface structures. For example, red roses and tulips is ambiguous and can be interpreted as [[red roses] and tulips] or [red [roses and tulips]]. The basing of the syntactic description of language only on its surface structure is a hallmark of structuralist ( structuralism) analysis, e.g. as in phrase structure grammar. Phenomena like the following examples have led to the positing of multiple representations, especially in the distinction between surface structure and deep structure: (a) The surface structure can be ambiguous (ambiguity), e.g. the choice of the chairman=the chairman chose X or the chairman was chosen. (b) Differing surface structures can be semantically synonymous (paraphrase), e.g. the blue sky and the sky which is blue. (c) Information can be missing from the surface structure and be understood intuitively by the listener, e.g. Philip promised to come to California, where it is understood that the logical subject of to come is Philip. (d) The representation of discontinuous elements, e.g. Caroline will call me up tomorrow, where call and up are syntactically discontinuous but form a single semantic unit.—These problems led to the Dictionary of language and linguistics 1152 acceptance of syntactic deep structure, which delineates the abstract basic structure of all grammatical relations and also explicitly contains all information which is necessary for semantic interpretation and for the application of syntactically motivated transformations (transposition, deletion). Several revisions of the original model have given rise to a new definition of the syntactic levels: the surface structure is enriched by traces ( trace theory) of transpositional transformations and by other empty positions, so that the structural information of the deep structure is maintained in the surface structure ( projection principle). This new surface structure which contains information from the deep structure is called s-structure. The actual deep structure in this case is called dstructure. In the revised theory, the semantic interpretation originates at surface structure, and since s-structure contains disambiguating information and since ambiguities can only be handled in the semantic component of the grammar, the motivation for a level of dstructure independent of surface structure is lost in trace theory. ( also transformational grammar, surface syntax). References Chomsky, Noam. 1992. A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory. Cambridge, MA. deep structure, transformational grammar surface syntax Collective term for various directions in syntax research which, in contrast to some stages of generative transformational grammar, assumes the syntactic structures of the surface structure to be the basis for the interpretation of sentence meaning. Linguistic theories with surface syntax include that of Hudson (1976), daughter dependency grammar (so called because it allows not only dependency relations between sister nodes of constituents, e.g. between new and book in new book, but also dependency relations between daughter and mother nodes, as between new and new book), H.H.Lieb’s ‘Integrational Linguistics,’ as well as categorial grammar, which is more or less similar to surface syntax. ( also integrational linguistics, Montague grammar) References Fiengo, R. 1981. Surface structure: the interface of autonomous components. New Haven, CT. Hudson, R. 1976. Arguments for a non-transformational grammar. Chicago, IL. Lieb, H.H. 1977. Outline of integrational linguistics. Berlin. A-Z Svan 1153 South Caucasian svarabhakti [Old Indic ‘vowel part’] Term from Sanskrit grammar to denote epenthesis before consonants (especially before r, l, m, n) which functions as a way to form syllables, e.g. West Gmc *fugl>Ger. Vogel anaptyxis). ‘bird’ ( Swahili Bantu language of the East African coast and off-shore islands, official language of Tanzania and Kenya. Used as a lingua franca for the East African slave and spice trade, Swahili incorporated numerous Arabic and later English words, but has still maintained the typical grammatical structure of a Bantu language. Documents (in Arabic script) since about 1700; from 1890 in Latin alphabet. References Adam, H. 1987. Kiswahili: elementary course with key. Hamburg. Ashton, E.O. 1944. Swahili grammar (including intonation). London. Polomé, E.C. 1967. Swahili language handbook. Washington, DC. Vitale, A.J. 1981. Swahili syntax. Dordrecht. Swedish Scandinavian language with approx. 9 million speakers in Sweden and Finland. The development of an independent written language dates from Sweden’s independence from Denmark (1526) and was strongly influenced by the Bible translation (1541) commissioned by Gustav I. Characteristics: definite article -en as a nominal suffix (from Common Scandinavian), cf. en dag vs dagen ‘a day’ vs ‘the day.’ Word order: SVO. References Dictionary of language and linguistics 1154 Collinder, B. 1974. Svensk språklära. Stockholm. Holmes, P. and I.Inchliffe. 1993. Swedish: a comprehensive grammar. London. Thorell, O. 1973. Svensk grammatikk. Stockholm. Dictionary Swedish dictionary. 1995. London. Scandinavian switch reference 1 Grammatical coding in subordinate or paratactical clauses ( subordinate clause) that expresses whether, for example, the subject of this clause is referentially identical with the subject of the main clause or not. The latter case is termed switch reference in a narrower sense; cf. Lango (Nilo-Saharan) Dákó òpòyò ní (‘The woman remembers that’) ècégò dógólà (‘she closed the door,’ i.e. the woman herself) vs òcègò dógólá (‘he/she closed the door,’ i.e. someone else). Switch reference is widespread, e.g. in languages of New Guinea, Australia, America, and Africa. 2 In discourse grammar, the structured presentation of information from utterance to utterance in a text. The information contained in an utterance can be classified according to different referential domains such as time, place, person, object. The switch reference within these domains is comprehended by means of descriptive categories such as ‘introduction’, ‘reception’, ‘postponement’. In the framework of discourse analysis, the concept of switch reference is used to describe characteristic features of text types. One proceeds from the assumption that a specific communicative objective, the ‘text question’ provides certain ‘givens’ with regard to the text structure which are then comprehended as models of switch reference ( coherence, text typology). References Finer, D.L. 1985. The formal grammar of switch reference. New York. Givón, T. 1982. Topic continuity in discourse. The functional domain of switch reference. In J.Haiman and P.Munro (eds), Switch reference and universal grammar. Amsterdam. 51–82. Heydrich, W. et al. (eds) 1989. Connexity and coherence. Berlin. Marslen-Wilson, W. et al. 1982. Producing interpretable discourse: the establishment and maintenance of reference. In R.Jarvella and W.Klein (eds), Speech, place and action. New York. 339–78. Stirling, L. 1993. Switch reference and discourse representation. Cambridge. Tomlin, R.S. 1985. Foreground-background information and the syntax of subordination. Text 5. 85–122. A-Z 1155 syllabary Generally, the (ordered) inventory of signs in a syllabic writing system. syllabic law Sound changes that relate to the prosodic unity ( assimilation. prosody) of the syllable, such as syllable Basic phonetic-phonological unit of the word or of speech that can be identified intuitively, but for which there is no uniform linguistic definition. Articulatory criteria include increased pressure in the airstream ( stress2), a change in the quality of sonority), a change in the degree to which the mouth is opened. individual sounds ( Regarding syllable structure, a distinction is drawn between the nucleus (= ‘crest,’ ‘peak,’ i.e. the point of greatest volume of sound which, as a rule, is formed by vowels) and the marginal phonemes of the surrounding sounds that are known as the head (=‘onset,’ i.e. the beginning of the syllable) and the coda (end of the syllable). Syllable boundaries are, in part, phonologically characterized by boundary markers. If a syllable ends in a vowel, it is an open syllable; if it ends in a consonant, a closed syllable. Sounds, or sequences of sounds that cannot be interpreted phonologically as syllabic (like [p] in supper, which is phonologically one phone, but belongs to two syllables), are known as ‘interludes.’ References Awedyk, W. 1990. Is a phonetic definition of the syllable possible? Studia Phonetica Posnaniensia 2. 5–12. Bell, A. and J.B.Hooper (eds) 1978. Syllables and segments. Amsterdam. Clements, G.N. and S.J.Keyser. 1983. CV phonol-ogy: a generative theory of the syllable. Cambridge, MA. Hooper, J.B. 1972. The syllable in phonological theory. Lg 48. 524–40. Rosetti, A. 1963. Sur la théorie de la syllabe, 2nd edn. The Hague. Vennemann, T. 1974. Words and syllables in natural generative grammar. In A.Buck et al. (eds), Papers from the parasession on natural phonology. Chicago, IL. 346–74. ——1978. Universal syllabic phonology. TL 5. 175–215. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1156 ——1988. Preference laws for syllable structure and the explanation of sound change. Berlin. accent, intonation, phonetics, phonology syllable break An important prosodic feature ( prosody) related to vowel length. A distinction is drawn between the close and the loose association of consonants and vowels, depending on the manner in which the consonant ‘breaks’ the preceding vowel. References Trubetzkoy, N. 1939. Grundzüge der Phonologie. Göttingen. (4th edn 1967.) syllable syllable nucleus syllable stress nucleus2 stress2 syllable weight Language-specific characteristic of syllables that bear word stress. Reference Hyman, L. 1985. A theory of phonological weight. Dordrecht. A-Z syllepsis 1157 zeugma syllogism [Grk syllogismós ‘computation, calculation’] A method of formal logic to deduce a conclusion from two premises. For example, If all humans die and Socrates is human, then Socrates will die. In a correctly formed syllogism, the truth of the conclusion necessarily follows from the truth of the premises. A syllogism is always true on the basis of its structure ( implication), even if all its also argumentation, enthymeme) premises are false. ( References formal logic symbol [Grk sýmbolon ‘token (serving as proof of identity)’] 1 In the semiotics of Peirce (1931), a class of signs in which the relation between the sign and the denoted state of affairs rests exclusively upon convention. The meaning of a symbol is established within a given language or culture. This is the case both for linguistic signs and for gestures (modes of address) or visual representations (e.g. the dove as a symbol of peace). ( also icon, index) Reference Peirce, C.S. 1931–58. Collected papers of Charles S. Peirce, ed. C.Hartshorne, P.Weiss, and A.W. Burks. 8 vols. Cambridge, MA. 2 A conventionalized sign used in formal metalanguages (e.g. one in the inventory of signs used for grammatical categories in transformational grammar (NP, VP)), formally prescribed signs (e.g. the double arrow ( ) indicating a transformation), and conventions for the use of brackets and parentheses. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1158 symbol field of language In Bühler’s (1934) two-field theory, the level of the linguistic context in contrast to the index field of language of individual communicative situations. Both the symbol field of language and the index field are determined by the given I-now-here origo, which functions as the origin of the two co-ordinates. Aids for constructing and understanding the linguistic context can be classified according to how their elements are used in the synsemantic field of language, the sympractical field of language, or the symphysical field of language. References Bühler, K. 1934. Sprachtheorie. Jena. (Repr. Stuttgart, 1965.) Innis, R.E. (trans.) 1982. Karl Bühler: semiotic foundations of language theory. New York. axiomatics of linguistics symbolic logic formal logic symmetrical relation A two-place relation R for which, with regard to any objects x and y, it is true: R(x, y)→R(y, x). This is the case, for example, for the relation of ‘being married’: if x is married to y, then y is also married to x. If both pairs in the relation cannot be reversed in any case, then the relation is not symmetrical: for example, x is the sister of y cannot be reversed to y is the sister of x, if y=[+male]. A relation R is asymmetric, if there are not two objects x and y for which both R(x, y) as well as R(y, x) is the case; for example, this is the case in the relation ‘is the daughter of.’ References formal logic, set theory symphysical field of language [Grk sýmphysis ‘growing together’] A-Z 1159 Term used by K.Bühler to designate the way in which inherently context-free utterances are ‘affixed to the things’ they name, e.g. trademarks on goods, book titles, texts on monuments, and signposts. References axiomatics of linguistics sympractical field of language [Grk syn‘with,’ ‘action’] Term coined by K.Bühler, inspired by Gestalt psychology, to designate the situative context of utterances. The sympractical field of language comes especially into effect in the interpretation of isolated utterances. When such utterances occur with little or no context, they are, according to Bühler, used empractically ( empractical use of language). References axiomatics of linguistics synaeresis Contraction of two vowels from originally different syllables from between which a consonantal element has been dropped due to stress2 on the root syllable, e.g. Lat. vidēre> Span. ver ‘see.’ The opposite process is called diaeresis. References language change Dictionary of language and linguistics synaesthesia 1160 sound symbolism synaloepha [Grk ‘stopping of a hiatus, coalescing’] Contraction of two vowels, in which a vowel in final position runs into the following vowel in initial position through (a) elision (=loss of both vowels) (e.g. in Fr. masc. article before initial vowel: I’ air instead of *le air ‘air’), (b) synaeresis (=contraction of two contiguous vowels to a diphthong) (e.g. Lat. vidēre> Span. ver ‘see’), or (c) contraction (=contraction to a single long vowel) (Goth. maiza, OE māra>Mod. Eng. more. ( also language change) synapsis [Grk sýnapsis ‘contact’] In E.Benveniste’s terminology, a semantic unit in French consisting of several lexemes that are syntactically related to one another, in which the determined element precedes the determining element and every lexeme retains its original separate individual meaning: machine-à-coudre ‘sewing machine,’ arc-en-ciel ‘rainbow.’ Reference Benveniste, E. 1966. Problèmes de linguistique générale. Paris. (Problems in general linguistics, trans. M.E.Meek. Coral Gables, FL, 1971.) A-Z 1161 syncategorematic word synsemantic word synchrony vs diachrony [Grk chrónos ‘time’] After the distinction langue vs parole, the most important methodological distinction established by F. de Saussure for the interpretation and investigation of language as a closed system. It is only on the axis of simultaneity (i.e. a fixed moment in time) that language can be analyzed as a system of values in which the value of an individual element results from the relational context of all values in the system. Synchrony refers to a state fixed in time, while diachrony refers to changing states of a language between different time periods. While descriptive synchronic research investigates the relationship of individual elements to a balanced linguistic system that can be described structurally, historically oriented diachronic investigations can, according to de Saussure, only address the replacement of single elements by other elements, or the change of individual elements. This devaluation of historical investigation, which was a reaction against the historical linguistics advocated by the Neogrammarians, was in turn subject to criticism (see W.von Wartburg, A.Martinet, and E. Coseriu). Owing to this, diachronic (historical) linguistics of the structuralist variety is still lively today. Coseriu and poststructuralist linguistic research influenced by W.Labov argue against the distinction synchrony-diachrony as having any basis in reality. References Baumgärtner, K. 1969. Diachronie und Synchronie der Sprachstruktur. In H.Moser (ed.), Sprache: Gegenwart und Geschichte. Düsseldorf. 52–64. Coseriu, E. 1958. Synchronie, Diachronie und Geschichte. Munich. Kanngiesser, S. 1972. Aspekte der synchronischen und diachronischen Linguistik. Tübingen. Labov, W. 1965. On the mechanism of linguistic change. In C.W.Kreidler (ed.), Report on the sixteenth annual round table meeting. Washington, DC. Labov, W., W.Weinreich, and M.I.Herzog. 1968. Empirical foundations of language change. In W.P. Lehmann and Y.Malkiel (eds), Directions for historical linguistics. Austin, TX. 95–188. Martinet, A. 1955. Economie des changements phonétiques. Bern. Saussure, F.de. 1916. Cours de linguistique générale, ed. C.Bally and A.Sechehaye. Paris. (Course in general linguistics, trans. R.Harris. London, 1983.) Wartburg, W.von. 1946. Problèmes et méthodes de la linguistique. Paris. (2nd rev. edn 1963.) Zwirner, E. 1969. Zu Herkunft und Funktion des Begriffspaares Synchronie—Diachronie. In H. Moser (ed.), Sprache: Gegenwart und Geschichte. Düsseldorf. Dictionary of language and linguistics syncope [Grk 1162 ‘cutting off’] Loss of an unstressed vowel (or, more rarely, a consonant) within a word. Compare, for and Brit. example, two common pronunciations of laboratory: Am. Eng. ( apocope). Eng. References language change syncretism [Grk ‘mixed together’] Historical language change: formal collapse of different, originally separate grammatical functions, especially apparent in the case system of various languages, thus the ablative, locative, and instrumental in other Indo-European languages correspond to the dative in Greek, while the functions of the instrumental and, in part, those of the locative are subsumed under the ablative in Latin; in German, the nominative case has assumed the function of the vocative. A result of syncretism is that grammatical categories come to be no longer morphologically marked: for instance, syncretism in the development of English led to the loss of case marking and the stabilization of word order. syndeton [Grk syndéton ‘bound together’] Connection of linguistic expressions (words, syntagms, or sentences) with the aid of also asyndeton) conjunctions. ( A-Z 1163 synecdoche [Grk ‘understanding one thing with another’] A rhetorical trope that refers to something with a semantically narrower term (particularizing synecdoche) or a broader term (generalizing synecdoche). Examples include Washington or America for USA, or we for I. References Burke, K. 1945. A grammar of motives. Berkeley, CA. Ruwet, N. 1975. Synecdoque et métonymie. Poé-tique 6.371–88. Todorov, T. 1970. Synecdoques. Communications 16. 26–35. figure of speech, trope synesis [Grk ‘uniting, union’] Interpretation of a syntactic structure according to semantic content instead of grammatical structure, which often results in variation in agreement: A pile (sg.) of books were (pl.) lying on the table. synesthesia [Grk synaísthēsis ‘joint perception’] The association of stimuli or the senses (smell, sight, hearing, taste, and touch). The stimulation of one of these senses simultaneously triggers the stimulation of one of the other senses, resulting in phenomena such as hearing colors or seeing sounds. In language, synesthesia is reflected in expressions in which one element is used in a metaphorical sense. Thus, a voice can be ‘soft’ (sense of touch), ‘warm’ (sensation of heat), or ‘dark’ (sense of sight). References metaphor Dictionary of language and linguistics 1164 synonym [Grk ónyma ‘name’] In the strictest sense, a word or expression that has the same meaning as another word or expression. In the case of referential words, synonyms have the same referent. For example, morning star and evening star are synonyms because they both refer to the planet Venus. In the broadest sense, any words that have overlapping meanings are said to be synonyms, e.g. acquire, get, obtain, receive, etc. ( also extension, intension, lexical field theory, synonymy, thesaurus) References synonymy synonym dictionary In the broader sense, any dictionary that provides explanations of the lexemes through semantic paraphrases (mare ‘female horse’). In the narrower sense, a compilation aiming at the inclusion of all synonymous expressions, based on a very broad concept of synonymy. References Longman synonym dictionary. 1986. London. Webster’s new dictionary of synonyms. 1968. Spring-field, MA. lexicography, semantics synonymy Semantic relation of sameness or (strong) similarity in meaning of two or more linguistic expressions. In lexicology, grammar, or stylistics it is a term whose interpretations are as varied as the semantic theories in which it is found. The following distinctions are generally made. (a) Complete (absolute, strict, or pure) synonymy: by definition, complete synonymy presupposes the unconditional substitutability of the given expressions in all contexts and refers both to denotative ( denotatum) and to connotative ( connotation) semantic elements. In the narrow interpretation of this A-Z 1165 operational definition and in its restriction to a specific linguistic system, it appears that the concept of linguistic economy eliminates, in almost all cases, the possibility of complete synonymy at least in lexemes. (b) Partial synonymy, which refers either to lexemes which can be substituted in some but not all contexts depending on their denotative and connotative meaning (get/receive a letter, but not *receive a cold) or to lexemes with the same denotative meaning that have different connotations depending on regional (peanuts vs goobers), socio-dialectal (money, dough, bread, moolah), political sublanguage) (salt, NaCl) (team, committee), stylistic (room, suite), or sublinguistic ( distinctions. The causes of synonymic variation may be traced especially to the fact that the vocabulary of a language is an open system which can rapidly adapt to dialectal, social, and scientific developments. Synonymy comes about through the concurrent development of dialectal and standard, colloquial, and technical variants, through euphemistic tendencies towards circumlocution (e.g. die vs pass away), through language manipulation (e.g. free world vs the West) and through the adoption of foreign words (e.g. following vs entourage). The following constitute operational processes for determining the degree of lexical synonymy: the substitution test, which determines the substitutability of synonymous lexemes in sentences of identical syntactic structure; distribution analysis. which establishes the distributional limits in particular contexts; and componential analysis, which provides descriptions via identical bundles of semantic features. Even greater exactness in describing the denotative aspect of synonymy is achieved through the definition in formal logic according to which synonymy corresponds to an equivalence relation: Two expressions E1 and E2 in the same syntactic position are synonymous if E1 implies E2 and E2 implies E1. In addition, the distinction between extension and intension makes it possible to differentiate more precisely referential synonymy from sameness of sense. For example, the expressions morning star and evening star are, to be sure, extensionally equivalent (i.e. both refer to the planet Venus), but are intensionally different ( intensional logic). ( also equivalence, implication, paraphrase, semantics, thesaurus) References Carnap, R. 1955. Meaning and synonymy in natural languages. PhS 7. 33–47. Jones, K.S. 1987. Synonymy and semantic classification. New York. Mates, B. 1950. Synonymity. UCPPh 25.201–26. Quine, W.V.O. 1951. The two dogmas of empiricism. PhR 60. 20–43. ——1960. Word and object. Cambridge, MA. semantics Dictionary of language and linguistics 1166 synsemantic field of language [Grk ‘sign’] Term coined by K.Bühler, inspired by Gestalt psychology, to designate the determination of the meaning of individual signs of speech through the verbal context as well as also through the associated non-verbal signs (illustrations, mimicry, gesture, music). ( axiomatics of linguistics, symbol field of language) References axiomatics of linguistics synsemantic word (also closed-class word, function word, structure word, syncategorematic word) Words which, in isolation, have allegedly no independent lexical meaning (cf. the literal translation of synsemantic, i.e. ‘co-signing’). Candidates for these so-called empty or function words are prepositions, conjunctions, derivational elements, and other words or word classes that form more or less closed classes. Synsemantic words, in the wider sense, are polysemic linguistic expressions like the adjective good, whose meaning varies with the context, e.g. His character/the answer/the weather/the food is good. ( also autosemantic word) syntactic affixation Several recent studies on word formation presuppose that certain affixes demonstrate selectional characteristics that go beyond the usual word configurations. For example, in the gerund construction Philip’s spraying paint on the wall the verb assigns its complements their thematic relation. For this reason, Toman (1986) and Abney (1987) postulate that affixes such as -ing are more closely associated with a syntactic category (VP or S) than with a lexical stem (such as V). A-Z 1167 References Abney, S. 1987. The English noun phrase in its sentential aspect. Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, MA. Fabb, N. 1984. Syntactic affixation. Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, MA. Toman, J. 1986. A (word-)syntax for participles. LB 105. 367–408. syntactic category grammatical category, syntactic function syntactic function (also grammatical function, grammatical relation, part of speech, syntactic relation) General term for such notions as ‘subject,’ ‘predicate,’ ‘object,’ ‘adverbial,’ ‘attribute,’ whose use is dependent on the specific theory or language type in question. (a) For languages like Latin and German, which have a welldeveloped morphological system, syntactic functions are usually indicated by cases. Thus, the subject is identified with the nominative complement of the predicate (see school grammars of the above-mentioned languages). (b) For languages like English and French, in which morphological case occurs only marginally, syntactic functions are defined by their structural and topological relations, e.g. the subject is the noun phrase immediately dominated by the sentence-node (see Chomsky 1965), or as the noun phrase whose basic position is sentence-initial (see Halliday 1967). (c) Syntactic functions have also been associated with semantic roles with other semantic or pragmatic notions: subject is associated with the agent of an action ( case grammar), the logical subject ( school grammar) or the topic or theme of a sentence ( topic vs comment, theme vs rheme) (see Lyons 1977). (d) Multi-factor definitions have also been proposed (see Keenan 1976) as well as attempts at differentiating several kinds of syntactic functions ( subject), because the defining criteria mentioned above often contradict each other, as in the passive (for a critique of syntactic functions along these lines, see Vennemann 1982; Primus 1993). (e) For this reason, syntactic functions are not defined but taken as primitive notions in the framework of Relational Grammar and Lexical Functional Grammar. The syntactic functions listed above refer to nominative languages such as English and cannot be directly applied to ergative languages or topic-prominent languages (see Foley and Van Valin 1977). ( also object) Dictionary of language and linguistics 1168 References Abraham, W. (ed.) 1978. Valence, semantic case and grammatical relations. Amsterdam. Anderson, J.M. 1972. A study of grammatical functions in English and other languages. Edinburgh. Andrews, A. 1985. The major functions of the noun phrase. In T.Shopen (ed.), Language and typology and syntactic description, vol. 1: Clause structure. Cambridge. 64–154. Bresnan, J. (ed.) 1982. The mental representation of grammatical relations. Cambridge, MA. Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. Cole, P. and J.M.Sadock (eds) 1977. Grammatical relations. New York. Croft, W. 1991. Syntactic categories and grammatical relations. Chicago, IL. Foley, W. and R.van Valin. 1977. On the viability of the notion of ‘subject’ in universal grammar. BLS 3. 293–320. Halliday, M.A.K. 1967. Notes on transitivity and theme in English. JL 3:1.37–81, 3:199–244. Keenan, E.L. 1976. Towards a universal definition of ‘subject.’ In C.N.Li (ed.), Subject and topic. New York. 303–34. Lyons, J. 1977. Semantics, vol. 2. Cambridge. Marantz, A. 1984. On the nature of grammatical relations. Cambridge, MA. Primus, B. 1993. Syntactic relations. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. Vol. 1, 686–705. Seiler, H.J. 1970. Semantic information in grammar: the problem of syntactic relations. Semiotica 2. 321–34. Vennemann, T. 1982. Remarks on grammatical relations. In S.Yang (ed.), Proceedings of the 1981 Seoul International Congress of Linguistics. Seoul. syntactic hypothesis lexicalist vs transformationalist hypothesis syntactic relation syntactic function syntagm [Grk sýntagma ‘that which is put together in order’] 1 Structured syntactic sequence of linguistic elements formed by segmentation which can consist of sounds, words, phrases, clauses, or entire sentences. ( also paradigm) 2 In a more restricted use by Lyons, linguistic unit lying between word and sentence which has no subject or predicate and thus is similar in character to words. A-Z 1169 Reference Lyons, J. 1968. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Cambridge. syntagmatic substitution A term from discourse grammar (R.Harweg) for the contextual (syntagmatic) replacement of one expression by another, which is semantically related by coreference ( co-referentiality) or contiguity. The various forms of syntagmatic substitution are an important means of cohesion in a text and serve as a criterion for text typology. ( substitution theory, textual reference, textphoric) syntagmeme Term used by K.Pike ( tagmemics) for a syntactic construction. A syntagmeme consists of a chain of formal grammatical elements ( tagmeme). syntax [Grk sýntaxis ‘putting together in order, arrangement’] 1 Subcategory of semiotics which deals with the ordering of and relationships between signs and is abstracted from the relationship of the speaker to the sign, the sign to its meaning, and the sign to its extralinguistic reality. ( also semantics) 2 Subcategory of the grammar of natural languages: a system of rules which describe how all well-formed sentences of a language can be derived from basic elements ( morphemes, words, part of speech). Syntactic descriptions are based on specific methods of sentence analysis ( operational procedures) and category formation ( sentence type, sentential elements). The boundaries with other levels of description, especially with morphology and semantics, are fluid, and thus more precise descriptions of them depend on the syntactic theory in question. References Borsley, R.D. 1991. Syntactic theory. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1170 Givón, T. 1984/90. Syntax: a functional—typological introduction, 2 vols. Amsterdam. Jacobs, J. et al. (eds) 1993. Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. Moravcsik, E.A. and J.R.Wirth (eds) 1980. Syntax and semantics, vol. 13: Current approaches to syntax. New York. Historical syntax Fisiak, J. (ed.) 1984. Historical syntax. The Hague. Gerritsen, M. and D.Stein. 1992. Internal and external factors in syntactic change. Berlin and New York. synthetic compound In Marchand’s (1960) terminology, a border case in historical word formation between derivation and composition, in which the first constituent forms not a word, but rather a word group, e.g. watchmaker, heartbreaking. ( also verbal vs root compound) References Fanselow, G. 1988. Word syntax and semantic principles. In G.Booij and J.van Marle (eds), Yearbook of morphology. Dordrecht. 95–122. Marchand, H. 1960. The categories and types of present-day English word-formation. Munich. (2nd edn 1969.) synthetic language A type of classification postulated by A.W. Schlegel (1818) under morphological aspects for languages that have the tendency to mark the syntactic relations in the sentence through morphological marking at the word stem; it comprises the subclasses inflectional languages and agglutinating languages. For the opposite, analytic language. A-Z 1171 References Schlegel, A.W. 1818. Observations sur la langue et la littérature provençales. Paris. language typology synthetic speech ‘Natural’ language that has been imitated in an electro-acoustic process. systemic linguistics (also scale and category linguistics, scale and category model) Descriptive model for linguistic analysis based on the ideas of J.R.Firth and formulated by M.A.K.Halliday. It proceeds from the notion that linguistic descriptions are abstractions of linguistic forms from linguistic utterances. Between language and the extralinguistic world there exists a close relationship which is produced by the situational context. Therefore, a system of mutually defining and deriving formal units guarantees an adequate and complete linguistic analysis. Halliday (1961) makes the following distinctions. (a) Three levels: form (grammar, lexicon), substance (phonology, orthography), and situational context (semantics, which is a function of the relationship between form and context). (b) Four basic categories: unit (the structured element of a given level, e.g. sentence, word, morpheme), structure (which reflects the syntagmatic order among units), class (the classification of units according to their function), and system (the paradigmatic order among units of closed classes, e.g. number for nouns or verbs). (c) Three abstraction scales, which produce the relationship between the categories and the observable linguistic data: rank (re ferring to the hierarchical ordering of units, e.g. morpheme-word-phraseclausesentence), exponence (the relationship between the categories and the linguistic data), and delicacy (more exact distinctions on all levels, e.g. the division of clauses into concessive, causal, and others). References Eggins, S. 1994. An introduction to systemic linguistics. London. Halliday, M.A.K. 1961. Categories of the theory of grammar. Word 17. 241–92. ——1967. Notes on transitivity and theme in English. JL 3.37–81, 3.199–244, 4.179–215. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1172 ——1973. Explorations in the function of language. London. ——1985. An introduction to functional grammar. London. Hartmann, R.R.K. 1973. The language of linguistics: reflections on linguistic terminology with particular reference to ‘level’ and ‘rank. Tübingen. Langendoen, T.D. 1968. The London School of linguistics: a study of the linguistic theories of B. Malinowski and J.R.Firth. Cambridge, MA. A-Z 1173 T taboo word [Polynesian tabu ‘inviolable, consecrated’] A term that is avoided for religious, political, or sexual reasons and is usually replaced by a euphemism, e.g. rest room or bathroom for toilet. References Eckler, A.R. 1986/7. A taxonomy for taboo-word studies. Maledicta 9.201–3. Steiner, F. 1967. Taboo. Harmondsworth. Tournier, P. 1975. The naming of persons. New York. Ullmann, S. 1962. Semantics: an introduction to the science of meaning. Oxford. euphemism, tabooization tabooization Phenomenon in numerous language communities (e.g. in Africa, Australia, Oceania, and the Americas) where the use of certain word s is avoided. One typical example is the name of a deceased person (and all similar-sounding words); rather than using the word, paraphrases or borrowings from other languages are used. This leads to rapid changes in the vocabulary and makes it difficult to study genetic affiliations. References Dixon, R.M.W. 1980. The languages of Australia. Cambridge. Elmendorf, W.W. 1951. Word taboo and lexical change in Coast Salish. IJAL 17:205–8. Liedtke, S. 1994. Pointing with lips and name taboo in Native American cultures. LDDS 13. Suarez, J.A. 1971. A case of absolute synonyms. IJAL 37:3.192–5. Dictionary of language and linguistics tachysphemia 1174 cluttering tactile agnosia agnosia tag question (also question tag) Short question added to a statement which requests assurance or affirmation regarding also interrogative) what is expressed in the main clause: isn’t it? Fr. n’est-ce pas? ( Tagalog Malayo-Polynesian language spoken in the Philippines with approx. 13 million speakers and the basis for simplified Philipino, official language of the Philippines. Characteristics: typical traits of the Philipino languages: verb-initial word order; topical NPs positioned sentence-finally; marking of semantic roles by prepositions; extensive and flexible voice system for topicalization of nominal phrases. Morphologically interesting due to the occurrence of infixes. References Ramos, T. 1971. Tagalog structures. Honolulu, HI. Schachter, P. and F.T.Otanes. 1972. Tagalog reference grammar. Berkeley, CA. tagma [Grk tágma ‘division; arrangement’] In tagmemics, the smallest concretely realized grammatical units of linguistic analysis; e.g. phone, morph. A-Z 1175 tagmatics The investigation of the special ordering of specific linguistic elements. tagmeme 1 The smallest functional grammatical element of langue ( langue vs parole), which bears meaning, as opposed to the taxeme, which does not bear meaning. 2 According to K.Pike’s definition, the smallest structural element which can be understood as a correlate of grammatical function (=functional slot) and paradigmatic class (=filler class). The original term for these elements was ‘grammeme.’ References tagmemics tagmemics Important branch of American structuralism that attempts to describe linguistic regularities in connection with sociocultural behavior. The methodological orientation is, on the one hand, characterized by the practical necessities of Bible translation into unresearched ‘exotic’ languages (compiled by the Summer Institute of Linguistics), and, on the other hand, strongly influenced by L.Bloomfield and the concepts of descriptive linguistics. Chief representative of tagmemics is K.L.Pike, whose three-part book, Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior, was first published in 1954–60. In keeping with his goal of drafting a type of universal taxonomy of human behavior, Pike begins with a tight systematic interweaving of various levels of description. The smallest functional formal element he calls the ‘tagmeme’ (following Bloomfield) and defines it as the correlation of syntagmatic functions (e.g. subject, object) and paradigmatic fillers (e.g. nouns, pronouns, or proper nouns as possible inserts into subject position) ( also paradigmatic vs syntagmatic relationship). Tagmemes combine to form syntagmemes. The interweaving of hierarchical levels (e.g. for syntax: word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, discourse) results from the fact that the elements of a tagmeme on a higher level (e.g. ‘sentence’) are analyzed as syntagmemes on the next lower level (e.g. ‘phrase’). This occurs in the form of multipartite strings by Dictionary of language and linguistics 1176 means of string analysis, as developed by Z.S. Harris and R.E.Longacre. Principally, all linguistic units are researched under three different theoretical perspectives: (a) under the etic vs emic analysis), aspect ‘Feature’ each unit governs a specific emic structure ( e.g. the distinctive features in phonology; (b) unde r the aspect ‘Manifestation,’ each unit appears as an element of a paradigmatic class of etic forms; (c) under the aspect ‘Distribution,’ each unit is assigned to a particular class according to its occurrence. Modern research in tagmemics focuses primarily on semantic and ethnolinguistic semantics, ethnolinguistics), problems, e.g. kinship terms in different languages ( especially the inclusion of non-verbal, paralinguistic perspectives in linguistic description. ( paralinguistics) References Brend, R.M. (ed.) 1974. Advances in tagmemics. Amsterdam. Cook, W.A. 1967. The generative power of a tagmemic grammar. Washington, DC. ——1969. Introduction to tagmemic analysis. New York. Frank, D.B. 1990. A tagmemic model for the study of language in context. PICL 14.2070–2. Harris, Z.S. 1962. String analysis of sentence structure. The Hague. Longacre, R.E. 1960. String constituent analysis. Lg 36.63–88. ——1964. Grammar discovery procedures: a field manual. The Hague. ——1965. Some fundamental insights of tagmemics. Lg 41.65–76. Pike, K.L. 1943. Taxemes and immediate constituents. Lg 19.65–82. ——1966. A guide to publications related to tagmemic theory. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 3, 365–94. ——1967. Language in relation to a unified theory of the structure of human behavior. The Hague. (Repr. 1971.) ——1982. Linguistic concepts: an introduction to tagmemics. Lincoln, NE. ——1983. Text and tagmeme. London. Waterhouse, V.G. 1974. The history and development of tagmemics. The Hague. Bibliography Brend, R.M. 1970–2. Tagmemic theory: an annotated bibliography. JEngL 4.7–45, 6.1–16. A-Z 1177 Takelma-Kalapuyan Tamashek Penutian Berber Tamil Dravidian language (about 45 million speakers) with the most extensive geographical distribution and oldest literary tradition, spoken in India and Sri Lanka. Independent syllabary developed from the southern Brahmi script of the Aśoka period. The language has a remarkable number of registers for indicating the social status and formality of the speakers. References Asher, R. 1983. Tamil. Amsterdam. James, G. 1991. Tamil lexicography. Tübingen. Pope, G.U. 1979. A handbook of the Tamil language. New Delhi. Grammars Agesthialingom, S. 1977. A grammar of Old Tamil with special reference to Patirruppattu. Annamalainagar. Arden, A.H. 1976. Progressive grammar of the Tamil language, rev. A.C.Clayton (5th repr.). Madras. Lehmann, T. 1989. A grammar of modern Tamil. Pondicherry. Dictionaries A dictionary of Tamil and English. 1972. Based on Fabricius’ ‘Malabar-English dictionary,’ 4th edn, rev. and enl. Tranquebar. Pillai, V.V. 1984. A Tamil-English dictionary, 9th rev. edn. Madras. Tamil lexicon. 1982. Publ. under the authority of the University of Madras. 6 vols. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1178 Etymological dictionary Pavanar, G.D. 1985. A comprehensive etymological dictionary of the Tamil language, vol. I, 1. Madras. Bibliography Dhamotharan, A. 1978. Tamil dictionaries: a bibliography. Wiesbaden. tap Speech sound classified according to the way in which it bypasses its obstruction, namely by way of a tapping motion. In contrast to a flap, in the formation of a tap, the tip of the tongue strikes against the place of articulation directly from its resting position. For example, in in Span. (tap) pero ‘but’ vs (flap) perro ‘dog.’ Often there is no strict distinction between taps and flaps. There are also labial and uvular taps. also articulatory phonetics) ( References phonetics Tarahumara Uto-Aztecan target language 1 The language into which one translates from a source language. 2 In second language acquisition, the language being learned as opposed to the native language or first language. ( also L1 vs L2) A-Z 1179 Tarskian semantics model-theoretic semantics tautology [Grk tautologeĩn ‘to repeat what has been said’] 1 In formal logic, a complex linguistic expression which, regardless of which possible world it refers to, is always true based on its logical form; for example, p or not p (It’s raining or it is not raining). Tautologies are analytically and logically true propositions; in contrast cf. contradiction. 2 pleonasm tautosyllabic [Grk tautós ‘identical’] Belonging to one and the same single syllable. tax [Grk táxis ‘arrangement’] Term for the smallest concretely realized grammatical units at all levels of description, such as phone, graph, morph. taxeme Term coined by L.Bloomfield for the smallest grammatical form unit which bears no meaning, as opposed to the tagmeme, which does carry meaning. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1180 References tagmemics taxonomic analysis distributionalism taxonomic structuralism distributionalism teacher-talk Artificial or stylized language spoken by the second (or foreign) language instructor with the purpose of conveying meaningful information to the language learners. Teacher-talk, which is similar to other forms of caretaker language, is often characterized by shorter sentences, reduced grammar and vocabulary, slower speech tempo, careful articulation, and continual comprehension checks. Reference Wing, B.H. The linguistic and communicative functions of foreign language teacher talk. In B.Van Patten, T.R.Dvorak, and J.F.Lee (eds), Foreign language learning: a research perspective. Cambridge, MA. 158–73. A-Z 1181 telescoped word blend telic vs atelic [Grk télos ‘completion, end’] (also aterminative/non-terminative vs terminative, bounded vs non-bounded) Verbal aspect distinction which refers to events with a temporal boundary or limit, e.g. fly to New York, drink a glass of wine, as telic, and to events without such limits, e.g. travel by train, drink wine as atelic. ( also resultative vs non-resultative) References Dahl, Ö. 1981. On the definition of the telic-atelic (bounded-nonbounded) distinction. In P.J.Tedeschi and A.Zaenen (eds). Syntax and semantics, vol. 14: Tense and aspect. New York. 79–90. Garey, H. 1957. Verbal aspects in French. Lg 33. Telugu Dravidian. Marathi template A feature macro in unification grammar which can be called upon within other feature structures. Templates were introduced into PATR and are used extensively in HeadDriven Phrase Structure Grammar. References unification grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics 1182 temporal clause [Lat. tempus ‘time’] Semantically defined dependent clause functioning as an adverbial modifier which refers to the main clause in relation to anteriority, posteriority, or simultaneity; they are introduced by such conjunctions as while, as long as, until, since: I watched television while he made dinner. temporal logic A special form of philosophical logic which, in addition to logical expressions such as logical connectives (and, or, and others) and operators in formal logic, also uses temporal expressions such as it was the case that and it will be the case that by introducing corresponding operators into the semantic a nalysis. The extent to which natural-language tense can be accommodated by this is under debate. References Benthem, J.V. 1983. The logic of time. Dordrecht. Burgess, J.P. 1984. Basic tense logic. In D.Gabbay and F.Guenthner (eds), Handbook of philosophical logic. Dordrecht. Vol. 2, 89–133. Kuhn, T.S. 1989. Tense and time. In D.Gabbay and F.Guenthner (eds), Handbook of philosophical logic. Dordrecht. Vol. 4, 513–52. Prior, A.N. 1967. Past, present and future. Oxford. Rescher, N. and A.Urquhart. 1971. Temporal logic. Vienna. Rohrer, C. (ed.) 1980. Time, tense, and quantifiers. Tübingen. Bibliography Bäuerle, R. 1977. Tempus, Zeitreferenz und temporale Logik: Eine Bibliographie, 1940–1976. LingB 49.85–105. tense Fundamental grammatical (morphological) category of the verb which expresses the temporal relation between a speech act (S) and the state of affairs or event (E) described in the utterance, i.e. which places the event spoken of in relation to the temporal A-Z 1183 perspective of the speaker. In English the past tense ( imperfect, preterite) expresses the temporal relationship of E before S, while the present tense expresses simultaneity of E and S. In addition to these absolute tenses there are relative tenses which relate both S and E together to another temporal reference point (R): past perfect (E before R before S), future perfect (E before R after S), present perfect (E before R simultaneous with S). In some languages the temporal distance between E and S or R can also be expressed, e.g. that E is before S but belongs to the same type (Ger. heute ‘today’+past tense). There are various language-dependent rules for the choice of tense in embedded clauses in matrix sentence, also sequence of tenses) relation to the tense in the main clause. ( Tense systems are language-specific and often encode other sorts of information, such as aspect and mood. Because of this, the analysis of tense can be fairly complicated, especially when stylistic and pragmatic factors are taken into consideration. References Basbøll, H., C.Bache, and C.E.Lindberg (eds) 1994. Tense, aspect, actionality. Berlin and New York. Binnick, R.I. 1991. Time and the verb: guide to tense and aspect. Oxford. Bybee, J. 1985. Morphology: study of the relation between meaning and form. Amsterdam. Bybee, J., R.Perkins, and W.Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar: tense, aspect and modality in the languages of the world. Chicago, IL. Chung, S. and A.Timberlake. 1985. Tense, aspect, mood. In T.Shopen (ed.), Language typology and syntactic description. Cambridge. Vol. 3, 202–58. Comrie, B. 1985. Tense. Cambridge. Dahl, Ö. 1985. Tense and aspect systems. Oxford. Declerck, R. 1991. Tense in English: its structure and use in discourse. London. Engel, D. 1990. Tense and text: study of French past tenses. London. Erhart, A. 1985. Zur Entwicklung der Kategorien Tempus und Modus im Indogermanischen. Innsbruck. Fleischman, S. 1990. Tense and narrativity. London. Klein, W. 1994. Time in language. London. Reichenbach, H. 1947. Elements of symbolic logic. New York. Rohrer, C. (ed.) 1980. Time, tense and quantifiers: proceedings of the Stuttgart conference on the logic of tense and quantification. Tübingen. Schopf, A. (ed.) 1987. Essays on tensing in English, vol. 1: Reference time, tense and adverbs. Tübin-gen. Strunk, K. 1968. Zeit und Tempus in altindogermanischen Sprachen. IF 73.279–311. ——1969. ‘Besprochene und erzählte Welt’ im Lateinischen? Eine Auseinandersetzung mit H. Weinrich. Gymnasium 76.289–310. Tedeschi, T. and A.Zaenen (eds) 1981. Syntax and semantics, vol. 14: Tense and aspect. New York. Thieroff, R. and J.Ballweg (eds) 1994. Tense systems in European languages. Tübingen. Vet, C. (ed.) 1985. Le pragmatique de temps verbaux. Paris. Vet, C. and C.Vetters (eds) 1994. Tense and aspects in discourse. Berlin and New York. Weinrich, H. 1964. Tempus: besprochene und erzählte Welt. Stuttgart. (4th edn 1985.) Dictionary of language and linguistics 1184 Bibliographies Bäuerle, R. 1977. Tempus, Zeitreferenz und temporale Logik: eine Bibliographie, 1940–1976. LingB 49.85–105. Brons-Albert, R. 1978. Kommentierte Bibliographie zur Tempusproblematik. Trier. universal grammar tense vs lax Binary phonological opposition in distinctive feature analysis, based on acoustically acoustic phonetics, spectral analysis). analyzed and spectrally defined criteria ( Acoustic characteristics: clear delineation of the resonance chambers on the spectrum with greater vs lesser energy expenditure in frequency and time. Articulatory characteristic: greater vs lesser muscle tension and correspondingly different degree of distortion of the vocal tract from its resting position. In many European languages, this distinction corresponds to the opposition voiced vs voiceless in consonants or decentralized vs centralized ( centralization) and closed vs open in vowels. In West African languages, this opposition correlates with the position of the root of the tongue; [ATR] (‘advanced tongue root’) is used to denote this feature. References Wood, S. and T.Petersson. 1988. Vowel reduction in Bulgarian. FoLi 22.239–62. phonetics A-Z tensed form 1185 finite verb form tensed-S-condition propositional island constraint tenuis vs media [Lat. tenuis ‘thin,’ medius ‘middle’] Terms that, in the tradition of Greek and Latin grammarians, denote the difference between ‘thin’ p, t, k and ‘middle’ b, d, g. In Greek tenuis vs media are in opposition to the aspirates ph, th, kh. In Indo-European a distinction is drawn between the nonaspirated tenues p, t, k and the mediae b, d, g, on the one hand, and the aspirated mediae bh, dh, gh, on the other. In older literature, the tenues/mediae sounds are lumped together as mutes. References Indo-European, phonetics Tepehua Totonac Tequistlatec Hokan term [Lat. terminus ‘boundary’] Taken from formal logic, ‘term’ is an umbrella term for proper nouns that denote individuals (like individual humans, animals, places) and predicates (that ascribe particular properties to the denoted individuals with proper names). One speaks of Dictionary of language and linguistics 1186 individual terms and predicate terms. Terms are the well-formed components of a proposition (sentence, formula) and cannot have truth values. terminal symbol Symbol used in rule construction for deriving linguistic structures which can only appear to the right of an arrow, and thus cannot be broken down into other (non-terminal) symbols. At the syntactic level, terminal symbols are individual words; in phonology, terminal symbols are phonemes or their phonetic features. terminative vs aterminative durative vs non-durative, resultative, telic vs atelic terminology The collection of defined technical terms within a scientific system, which differs from everyday usage in that the terms are defined exactly within a specific system. Methods used in establishing a terminology include narrower definition of terms already present in everyday language (e.g. the linguistic terms root, tree diagram), neologisms (e.g. phoneme, morpheme, lexeme), or terms borrowed from foreign languages (e.g. langue vs parole as opposed to langage). On the formation of technical terms in linguistics, see the introductions to linguistic dictionaries. References Hartmann, R.R.K. 1973. The language of linguistics: reflections on linguistic terminology with particular reference to ‘level’ and ‘rank.’ Tübingen. Mackey, W.F. 1990. Terminology for sociolinguistics. Sociolinguistics 19.99–124. Mugdan, J. 1990. On the history of linguistic terminology. PICHoLS 4:149–61. Sonneveld, H.B. and K.L.Loening (eds) 1993. Terminology: applications in interdisciplinary communication. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. sublanguage A-Z 1187 text [Lat. textus ‘piece of plaited work; fabric’] 1 Theoretical term of formally limited, mainly written expressions that include more than one sentence. 2 Term from text linguistics and text theory. Linguistic form of expression of a communicative act which is individually determined (a) according to pragmatic, textinternal criteria of a communicative intention which is situation-specific and meets a corresponding listener expectation (text function), and (b) according to internal textual features, such as boundary signals, grammatical cohesion, dominant text theme, and content coherence (macrostructure, thematic development). In addition, there are properties of non-verbal signals, such as gesticulation, that constitute ‘text’ (Koch 1969; Kallmeyer et al. 1974). The internal and text-external characteristics of text form its textuality. References Bellert, I. 1970. On a condition of the coherence of texts. Semiotica 2.335–63. Kallmeyer, W. et al. (eds) 1974. Lektürekolleg zur Textlinguistik, 2 vols. Frankfurt. Koch, W. 1969. Vom Morphem zum Textem. Hildesheim. Van Dijk, T.A. 1972. Foundations for typologies of texts. Semiotica 6.297–323. Vitacolonna, L. 1988. ‘Text’/‘Discourse’ definitions. In J.S.Petöfi (ed.), Text and discourse constitution. Berlin. 412–39. 3 According to Hjelmslev ( sense of a corpus. glossematics), the total of all linguistic expressions in the References Hjelmslev, L. 1943. Omkring sprogteoriens grundlaeggelse. Copenhagen. (Prolegomena to a theory of language, trans. F.J.Whitfield. Baltimore, MD, 1953.) Journal Text pragmatics Dictionary of language and linguistics 1188 text analysis 1 In general, any form of grammatical, stylistic, rhetorical, literary-critical description or interpretation of texts. 2 In Harris’ article ‘Discourse analysis,’ which is the first attempt of text linguistics to describe the structure of texts using distribution, varying word order which appears in the text in the same environment is combined to classes without regard to meaning. The distribution of these equivalence classes in the text represents the structure of the text. ( also discourse analysis) Reference Harris, Z.S. 1952. Discourse analysis. Lg 28.1–30. text basis The semantic representation of a text in the form of sequence of propositions or of a semantic network made up of concepts. The explicit text basis (Van Dijk) includes not only the propositions expressed in the text, but also their presuppositions and the content that is derived by inference from reworking the text. Reference Van Dijk, T.A. 1980. Macro-structures: an interdisciplinary study of global structures in discourse, cognitions and interaction. Hillsdale, NJ. text constituents Parts of texts whose function is established in the coherence of the text and which have the function of forming the text, e.g. pro-forms, articles, repetition of words (recurrence), ambiguous words which are disambiguated through context. A-Z 1189 References discourse grammar text criticism The process and result of investigating older written or printed works, especially poetic ones, with the purpose of reconstructing the original version. When too many original authentic manuscripts are missing, as is especially the case with texts from antiquity and to a certain extent with medieval texts, or when there is a large temporal gap between the earliest preserved version of a text and the date of its original composition, reconstruction of the original text must depend primarily on an exact understanding of the linguistic features of the work as well as the time of its origin and transmission. Important tools for linguistic analysis include dialectology, graphemics, phonetics, phonology, as well as any linguistic investigations and descriptions of previous stages of the language, especially historical grammars and glossaries, among others. text function The dominant communicative function of text. In contrast to possible text effect, text function is conventionally determined and is signaled by linguistic or situational features of text type, such as performative verbs, headlines, and communication media, among others. In addition to speech act classification, Brinker distinguishes five basic communicative functions as the basis for a typology of usage texts: information, appeal, obligation, contact, declaration. ( also macrostructure, text theme) References Brinker, K. 1983. Textfunktionen. Ansätze zu ihrer Beschreibung. ZG 11.127–148. Van Dijk, T.A. 1977. Text and context: explorations in the semantics and pragmatics of discourse. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1190 text generation The mechanical generation of natural-language sentences or texts from internal representations (semantic representations) encompasses the phase of planning the content (‘what to say’) as well as the form (‘how to say’) of assertions. This division of labor is reflected in the system architecture in strategic and in tactical components, respectively. However, language can only be adequately generated if both components interact. The informational resources required for generation and production clearly overlap, but it is an open question as to what degree. In particular, it is unclear to what extent comprehension and production can be seen as inverse processes. References Dale, R. 1992. Generating referring expressions: constructing descriptions in a domain of objects and processes. Cambridge, MA. Kempen, G. 1989. Language generation systems. In I.S.Bátori, W.Lenders, and W.Putschke (eds), Computerlinguistik/Computational linguistics. Berlin. 471–80. Levelt, W. 1989. Production. Cambridge, MA. McKeown, K. 1985. Text generation. Cambridge. text linguistics Linguistic discipline which analyses the linguistic regularities and constitutive features of texts. Text linguistics has developed since the 1960s from its structuralist foundations (tagmemics, text analysis, the Prague School) and has been integrated into the research foundations of stylistics and rhetoric. The historical significance of text linguistics lies in the fact that it overcame the narrow sentence-specific perspective of linguistics and thereby created a basis for the interdisciplinary study of texts. The development of the discipline is reflected in the various definitions of text. If one defines ‘text’ as a sequence of sentences and thereby a unit of the linguistic system, text linguistics is an expanded sentence grammar and therefore constitutes discourse grammar. The methods of sentence analysis are transferred to transphrastic analysis and lead to the composition of text grammatical rules of cohesion. If one understands ‘text’ as a communicative unit, further features like text function or text theme result from text-grammatical regularities. In this broader framework, which includes text grammar, text linguistics includes the following problems: (a) general aspects of structural and functional text constituents, i.e. textuality; (b) classification of texts in the framework of a text typology; (c) problems concerning the integration of stylistics and rhetoric; (d) interdisciplinary-oriented research in the direction of text reworking and comprehensibility. A-Z 1191 References Beaugrande, R.A. de. 1980. Text, discourse and process: toward a multidisciplinary science of texts. London. ——1992. A new introduction to the study of text and discourse. London. Beaugrande, R. de and W.-U.Dressler. 1981. Introduction to text linguistics. London. Conte, M.E. et al. (eds) 1989. Text and discourse connectedness: proceedings of the conference on connexity and coherence Urbino, July 16–21, 1984. Amsterdam. Dressler, W.U. (ed.) 1978. Current trends in text linguistics. Berlin. Petöfi, J.S. 1979–82. Text vs sentence. Hamburg. Van Dijk, T.A. 1990. The future of the field: discourse analysis in 1990. Text 10.133–56. coherence text processing Term denoting the cognitive activities involved in understanding, retaining, and remembering texts. Text processing is not a unilateral process of recording textual content, but rather an active, constructive activity that is directed (a) by the text (‘text directed’ or ‘ascending’ processing), (b) by the reader’s background knowledge that is stored in schemata (‘schemadirected’ or ‘descending’ processing ( schema)), and (c) by the intention and interests of the reader as well as his/her assumptions about the writer and the situation. In the model of Kintsch and Van Dijk (1978), the cognitive (re)construction of the text takes place in cyclical processing phases on several levels, beginning with the construction of propositions on the basis of sentences, beyond logically cohesive, coherent sequences of different hierarchical steps ( coherence), to the semantic macrostructure, where the text material is, on the one hand, reduced and abbreviated on every level (e.g. through generalization) and, on the other hand, expanded by inferences2. References Burghardt, W. and K.Hölker (eds) 1979. Text processing/Textverarbeitung. Berlin. Halliday, M.A.K. 1977. Text as semantic choice in social contexts. In T.A.Van Dijk and J.S.Petöfi (eds), Grammars and descriptions. New York. 176–225. Just, M.A. and P.A.Carpenter (eds) 1977. Cognitive processes in comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ. Kintsch, W. and T.A.Van Dijk. 1978. Toward a model of text comprehension and production. PsychologR 85.363–94. Nilsson, L.G. (ed.) 1979. Memory processes. Hillsdale, NJ. Rickheit, G. and M.Bock (eds) 1983. Psycholinguistic studies in language processing. Berlin. Van Dijk, T.A. 1977. Text and context: explorations in the semantics and pragmatics of discourse. London. Van Dijk, T.A. and W.Kintsch. 1983. Strategies of discourse comprehension. Orlando, FL. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1192 text theme The content core of a text which carries its communicative function (text function). The text theme develops according to a special text structure which determines the structure of the text (thematic development, macrostructure). Some text sorts signal the text theme by using a headline. text theory (also textology) A subdiscipline of linguistic theory. Text theory supplies an explanation for the constitutive properties of texts in text linguistics. Common to all newer suggestions for a schema is the assumption that texts can only be explained and adequately described if all factors of the communication process are included. References Jakobson, R. 1968. Closing statement: linguistics and poetics. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.). Style in language. Cambridge. MA. Petöfi, J.S. 1978. A formal semiotic text theory as an integrated theory of natural languages. In W. Dressler (ed.). Current trends in text linguistics. Berlin. 35–46. Van Dijk, T.A. 1985. Handbook of discourse analysis, 4 vols. London. text types A term from text linguistics for different classes of texts. Within the framework of a hierarchical text typology, text types are usual-ly the most strongly specified class of texts (e.g. recipes, sermons, interviews), characterized by different internal and external features. Distinctive text-internal features are the use of particular classes of words (e.g. deictic expressions, proper nouns), forms of textphoric, themerheme alternation, type of style as well as the content and thematic structure (macrostructure, superstructure, thematic development). Text-external elements can be interpreted as complex speech acts that are defined by the factors of the communicative situation like the intention of the speaker, the expectation of the listener, as well as locational, temporal, and institutional conditions (communicative distance, text function). Because of the special pragmatic features of text sorts, they determine situations, e.g. writ of execution, joke, conversation. A-Z 1193 References Suter, H.-J. 1993. The wedding report: a prototypical approach to the study of traditional text types. Amsterdam. Van Dijk, T.A. 1972. Foundations for typologies of texts. Semiotica 6.297–323. text typology The classification of texts in text linguistics. Within a hierarchical typology, classes of texts can be formed according to text-external and text-internal criteria. This can be done (a) according to the pragmatic criteria of the text function, directions, literary text, rhetorical text, informational text; (b) according to pragmatic criteria of communicative distance: written and spoken text, radio broadcasts, letters, conversations; (c) according to the thematic development: descriptive text, argumentative text, dissertations, narratives, description. A consistent, terminologically unified text typology does not yet exist. It presupposes a text theory with a differentiated concept of text, in which the text classes of different everyday language and the criteria for classification are systematically grounded. References text linguistics, text types texteme An analogue to the phoneme and morpheme, an artificial word for the abstract, theoretical unit ‘text,’ which represents the basis of the concretely realized text of the parole ( langue vs parole) and its constitutive properties. ( also type-token relation, etic vs emic analysis) References text Dictionary of language and linguistics textology 1194 text theory textphoric [Grk phóras from phérein ‘to carry’] A semantic-syntactic system of reference within a text. The phenomenon of textphoric is based semantically on co-referentiality and appears syntactically as pronominalization ( personal pronoun), i.e. as syntagmatic substitution by a pro-form. In a broader sense, textphoric also includes other non-pronominal forms of resumption of elements in also contiguity, isotopy, recurrence). a text ( References discourse grammar, reference, text linguistics textual reference Text-internal reference of a referring, ‘phoric’ element (e.g. pronouns) to a referentially identical expression that either precedes it in the text (=anaphorical reference, anaphora) or follows it (=cataphorical reference, cataphora); cf. the changing pronominalization in When he entered the room, Philip saw that it was empty. Textual reference is an important text-constitutive means for creating cohesion, and therefore it is a central theme in discourse grammar. ( also textphoric) TG transformational grammar Thai (also Siamese) Official language of Thailand, with approx. 30 million speakers, the largest language of the Thai family, which is a part of the Austro-Thai language group. A-Z 1195 Characteristics: tonal language (five tones, sometimes with glottalization). Morphologically isolating; word order SVO, complex pronominal system with politeness distinctions; classifiers. Numerous lexical borrowings from Sanskrit and Pali, also from Chinese. Writing system developed from Sanskrit. References Danvivathana, N. 1987. The Thai writing system. Hamburg. Gainey, J.W. and T.Thongkham. 1977. Language map of Thailand and Handbook. Bangkok. Noss, R.B. 1964. Thai reference grammar. Washington, DC. Pankhuenkhat, R. 1988. Thai language family. Bangkok. Pattamdilok, K. 1977. The history of the Thai language. Bangkok. thematic development A term from text linguistics: the specific structure in which the text theme is arranged into the content of the text. The thematic development is carried out by the connection of part of the content according to semantic relations like specification, ordering, or reasoning. The basic forms of thematic development are the descriptive, the narrative, the explicative and the argumentative. The kind of thematic development is an important structural criterion of text typology. ( also argumentation, narrative structures) thematic relation (also lexical relation, semantic role) Case-like semantic relations postulated by Gruber (1967), used by C.J.Fillmore as ‘deep cases’ in case grammar, and later reworked by Jackendoff (1972). In the sentence Caroline is checking a book out from the library the NPs are assigned the following thematic relations: Caroline=agent, from the library=location and source, a book=theme. Since in many syntactic models each NP can have only one thematic relation assigned to it, thematic relations can clarify ambiguous constructions; they can also describe relations, e.g. between verb pairs such as sell/buy, give/get: in the sentences Philip will give Caroline the dictionary and Caroline will get the dictionary from Philip both the subject NPs Caroline and Philip are the agent, but in the sentence with give the subject is also the source whereas in the example with get it is also the goal. By forming a hierarchy of the thematic relations in the order (a) agent, (b) location/ source/goal, (c) theme, exceptions to syntactic processes can be simplified, for example, the distribution of the reflexive pronouns and the behavior of certain verbs when Dictionary of language and linguistics 1196 undergoing passive transformation. Jackendoff (1983) tries to show that the thematic structure is inherent in lexical relations; it is with their aid that we structure our experiences. The spatial field is given a predominant position, because it is more directly accessible through our sensory perceptions. (cf. also case grammar) References Carlson. G. 1984. Thematic roles and their role in semantic interpretation. Linguistics 22.259–79. Clark, R. 1989. Thematic theory in syntax and interpretation. London. Gruber, J.S. 1967. Studies in lexical relations. Bloomington, IN. Jackendoff, R.S. 1972. Semantic interpretation 111 generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. ——1983. Semantics and cognition. Cambridge, MA. Palmer, F.R. 1994. Grammatical roles and relations. Cambridge. Rauh, G. 1988. Tiefenkasus, thematische Relationen and Thetarollen. Tübingen. Wilkins, W. (ed.). 1988. Syntax and semantics, vol. 21: Thematic relations. New York. case grammar thematic verb stem vowel thematic vowel stem vowel theme vs rheme (also focus vs background/ presupposition) 1 Structure of utterances according to communicative criteria which can be tested by comparing question-answer pairs: Who sang the song? Caroline (sang the song). The information formulated in the question (sang the song) is the theme of the answer and is usually omitted in the answer; the information sought in the question is the rheme of the answer (Caroline). Previous mention is only one of many ways of thematizing linguistic material. The theme can also be understood from the context without previous mention. There are als o utterances, especially beginning at the of a discourse, which contain only rhematic material. In contrast, an utterance without a rheme is uninformative and violates maxims of conversation. The terms theme and rheme have been defined according to various criteria: The theme is often understood as ‘known,’ ‘given,’ ‘previously mentioned,’ or ‘presupposed’ information present in the context, while the rheme is defined as the negation of these A-Z 1197 characteristics. Although each of these criteria is relevant to a certain extent, they nevertheless do not suffice for a proper definition. For one thing, the terms used in the definition are themselves imprecise and need clarification. Another problem is that there are numerous counter examples: in the question-answer pair Who did you see? Your mother, the mother is known to both of the speakers, but is nevertheless the rheme of the answer. Reis (1977) has demonstrated that theme-rheme cannot be equated with presupposition-assertion. Furthermore, the unclear concept given/new information cannot be clarified with the feature [+previously mentioned], e.g. Numerous journalists managed to get into the courtroom. The judge pointed out to the journalists that… In spite of the previous mention in the first utterance, journalists is a part of the rheme in the second utterance, because this NP is embedded in another predication in the second utterance, and a themerheme analysis can only be made when consideration is given to the syntactic and semantic relations of an utterance. The problem posed by relational expressions (especially verbs) has led to the controversial assumption that theme-rheme structure should not be seen as binary but rather as scalar with degrees of commu-nicative dynamism (see Firbas 1964): the theme has the smallest and the rheme the highest degree of communicative dynamism, because the rheme promotes the communicative process the most. The verb is usually in the transitional zone between these two poles. Formally, word order and stress (Hammond 1988) indicate which elements are functioning as the theme or the rheme of an utterance. In many languages either the left or the right periphery of a sentence is the preferred place for the rheme, such as in topicalization, left vs right dislocation, and cleft sentences, in English. The nuclear (i.e. main) sentence stress is placed within the rheme (as a universal law, see Gundel 1988; Harlig and Bardovi-Harlig 1988). More recently, research on theme vs rheme has focused on universal laws for marking theme vs rheme (see the contributions in Hammond 1988), on how theme-rheme can be applied to other sentence types such as interrogatives and imperatives (see von Stechow, 1980), as well as on the relationship between theme-rheme and focusing particles. 2 Structure of utterance with regard to sentence topic (what is being talked about) and comment (what is being said about it) ( topic vs comment). The usages in 1 and 2 are often not sufficiently distinguished from each other in the research, resulting in numerous cases of terminological confusion which are further enhanced by the various definitional criteria. Thus for ‘theme’ we find the terms ‘topic,’ ‘background,’ ‘presupposition,’ and for ‘rheme,’ ‘comment,’ ‘focus,’ ‘pre dication’ (in various combinations). References Abraham, W., and S.de Meij (eds) 1986. Topic, focus, and configurationality. Amsterdam. Chafe, W. 1976. Givenness, contrastiveness, definite-ness, subjects. topics and point of view. In C.N.Li (ed.), Subject and topic. New York. 25–56. Dahl, Ö. (ed.) 1974. Topic and comment, contextual boundness and focus. Hamburg. Daneš, F. 1974. Functional sentence perspective and the organization of the text. In F.Daneš and J. Firbas (eds). Papers on functional sentence perspective. The Hague. 106–28. Daneš, F. and J.Firbas (eds) 1974. Papers on functional sentence perspective. The Hague. Firbas, J. 1964. On defining the theme in functional sentence analysis. TLP 1.267–80. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1198 Foley, W.A. and R.D.van Valin. 1985. Information packaging in the clause. In T.Shopen (ed.). Language typology and syntactic description. Cambridge. Vol. 1.282–364. Givón, T. 1988. The pragmatics of word order: predictability, importance and attention. In M. Hammond et al. (eds), Studies in syntactic typology. Amsterdam. 243–84. Gundel, J.K. 1977. The role of topic and comment in linguistic theory. Bloomington, IN. ——1988. Universals of topic-comment structure. In M.Hammond et al. (eds), Studies in syntactic typology. Amsterdam. 209–42. Hammond, M. et al. 1988. Studies in syntactic typology. Amsterdam. Harlig, J. and K.Bardovi-Harlig. 1988. Accentuation typology, word order and theme-rheme structure. In M.Hammond et al. (eds), Studies in syntactic typology. Amsterdam. 125–46. Kuno, S. 1972. Functional sentence perspective. LingI 3.269–320. Primus, B. 1993. Word order and information structure. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. 880–96. Reis, M. 1977. Präsuppositionen und Syntax. Tübin-gen. Rochemont, M.S. 1986. Focus in generative grammar. Amsterdam. Sgall, P. et al. 1973. Topic, focus and generative semantics. Kronberg. Von Stechow, A. 1980. Notes on topic and focus of interrogatives and indicatives. Constance. Ward, G. 1988. The semantics and pragmatics of preposing. New York. Weigand, E. 1979. Zum Zusammenhang von Thema/ Rhema und Subjekt/Prädikat. ZGL 7.167–89. Bibliography Tyl, Z. 1970. A tentative bibliography of studies in functional sentence perspective (1900–1970). Prague. thesaurus 1 Scholarly dictionary with the purpose of codifying the whole vocabulary of a language, e.g. Thesaurus linguae Latinae. 2 A thesaurus is, generally speaking, any dictionary that defines lexemes through a semantic paraphrase (cock=‘adult male fowl,’ ‘rooster’). More commonly, it is a special type of dictionary that provides lists of synonymous expressions for most words in a given language. Such dictionaries apply the concept of synonymy in its broadest sense. Modern thesauruses also frequently provide antonyms ( antonymy) for the entries. also lexicography, semantics) ( References Hayakawa, S.I. 1968. Modern guide to synonyms and related words. New York. Laird, C.G. 1971. Webster’s New World thesaurus. New York. (New rev. edn updated by W.D.Lutz, 1985.) Roget, P.M. 1852. Roget’s the saurus of synonyms and antonyms. (New edn rev. by S.R.Roget. New York, 1972.) A-Z 1199 Urdang, L. 1991. Oxford the saurus. Oxford. theta criterion [abbrev. θ-criterion] A term from Chomsky’s Government and Binding theory which refers to the components of universal grammar that mediate between thematic role and their syntactic realization as specific arguments of a predicate. The theta criterion says that one argument must correspond to each thematic role and vice versa, where arguments are particular referential NPs. According to the theta criterion, in a sentence like three robbers are in the woods, the three robbers must be part of the sentence: *Are in the woods is ungrammatical because it does not contain enough arguments. Likewise, *Three robbers are in the woods the stolen beer has one argument too many and is also ungrammatical. The precise formulation of the theta criterion is only possible by referring to the term chain. Various theories make reference to the distinction between the different thematic roles, cf. control, binding, case theory. References Chomsky, N. 1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. Ch. 6. Grimshaw, J. and A.Mester. 1988. Light verbs and θ-marking. LingI 19. 205–32. Jackendoff, R. 1972. Semantic interpretation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. 1987. The status of thematic relations in linguistic theory. LingI 18. 369–412. Lasnik, H. 1988. Subjects and the theta-criterion. NL&LT 6. 1–17. Ostler, N. 1980. A theory of case linking and agreement. Bloomington, IN. valence theta role thematic relation, theta criterion Thurneysen’s Law A regularity of dissimilation in Gothic according to which the voicing of fricatives after an unaccented vowel is the opposite of the voicing of the preceding stem-final consonants; cf. waldufni ‘force’—fraistubni ‘temptation’; gabaúrjoþus ‘lust’—wratodus ‘journey’; agis : agisis ‘fear, terror’ (nom. : gen.)—hatis : hatizis ‘hate’ (nom. : gen.). Dictionary of language and linguistics 1200 References Collinge, N.E. 1985. The laws of Indo-European. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. 183–91. Thuneysen, R. 1898. Spirantenwechsel im Gotischen. IF 8. 204–14. Tibetan Tibeto-Burman Tibeto-Burman Branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages, largest languages are Burmese (about 22 million speakers) and Tibetan (about 4 million speakers). Characteristics: case system and verb agreement; partially ergative but topicprominent languages also exist. In some languages transitive verbs are marked for the relationship between subject and object according to the hierarchy first—second—third person, singular—plural. Number (sometimes with dual forms), distinction between inclusive and exclusive forms of the first person plural. References Beyer, S.V. 1992. The Classical Tibetan language. Albany, NY. Hale, A. 1982. Research on Tibeto-Burman languages. The Hague. Losang, T. 1986–91. Modern Tibetan language, 2 vols. Dharmasala. Matisoff, J. 1973. The grammar of Lahu. Berkeley, CA. Van Driem, G. 1987. A grammar of Limbu. Berlin. Dictionaries Buck, S.H. 1969. Tibetan-English dictionary. Washington, DC. Chandra Das, S. 1902. Tibetan-English dictionary, rev. edn. Calcutta. Jäschke, H.A. 1881. Tibetan-English dictionary. London. (Repr. 1990.) A-Z Tigre Tigrinya 1201 Semitic Ge’ez, Semitic tilde [Lat. titulus ‘title’] Diacritic mark in the shape of a small horizontal snake-like line above a Latin or Greek letter. In Portuguese, the tilde is used to designate nasal vowels: São Paolo, naciões (‘nations’); in ancient Greek, and in Lithuanian dictionaries, the tilde marks a distinctive syllabic tone; in Spanish it denotes a palatal n ‹ñ›, in older printings it marked a double consonant or served as an n. In Green-landic it marks vowel length as well as following-consonant length. It is used in non-Latin scripts, e.g. the Persian-Arabic script. References writing timbre [Grk týmpanon ‘drum’] Acoustic-physical characteristic of sounds that is represented on a spectrograph by varying forms and distributions of the sound intensity at particular frequencies. Every sound consists of several parts whose number, sequencing, and intensity determine the timbre. Comprising frequencies with a particular intensity are the formants. Corresponding to acoustic features are articulatory differences in the sizes and shape of the resonance chamber. ( also phonetics, quality) Dictionary of language and linguistics Tlingit 1202 Na-Dené tmesis Rearrangement of compound words through separating the parts, usually with another word inserted between them: that man—how dearly ever parted (Shakespeare) for hyperbaton) however. ( Reference Nespor, M. and I.Vogel. 1986. Prosodic phonology. Dordrecht. Tocharian Now extinct branch of Indo-European consisting of the languages Tocharian A and Tocharian B, handed down in a large number of written documents in the North Indian Brahmi script between the fifth and the tenth centuries; the first documents were found in Central Asia (Tarim valley, 1890). Although Tocharian is the easternmost Indo-European language branch, it has characteristics that are otherwise only found in the western branches ( centum vs satem languages). References Adams, D.Q. 1988. Tocharian historical phonology and morphology. New Haven, CT. Krause, W. 1952. Westtocharische Grammatik, vol. 1: Das Verbum. Heidelberg. ——1955. Tocharisch. (Handbuch der Orientalistik I. vol. 4, 3.) Leiden. (Repr. 1971.) Krause, W. and W.Thomas. 1960–4. Tocharisches Elementarbuch, 2 vols. Heidelberg. Pinault, G. 1989. Introduction au tokharien. LALIES 7. 1–224. Schlerath, B. (ed.) 1994. Tocharisch: Akten der Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft, Berlin 1990. Reykjavík. Schulze, W., E.Sieg, and W.Siegling. 1931. Tocharische Grammatik. Göttingen. Van Windekens, A.J. 1976–82. Le Tokharien confronté avec les autres langues indo-europeénnes, 2 vols. Louvain. A-Z 1203 Bibliographies Schwentner, E. 1959. Tocharische Bibliographie, 1890–1958. Berlin. Thomas, W. 1985. Die Erforschung des Tocharischen. Stuttgart. Zimmer, S. 1976. Tocharische Bibliographie, 1959–1975 . Heidelberg. Journal Tocharian and Indo-European Studies. Tok Pisin Widely spoken pidgin and creole language in Papua New Guinea with English superstratum. Characteristics: relatively simple phonology (no fricatives, prenasalization); small basic vocabulary and thus extremely productive compounding (e.g. papamama ‘parents,’ bikbus (< big bush) ‘jungle,’ haus kuk ‘kitchen’). No nominal inflection; complex number system with pronouns (singular, dual, trio, plural, also inclusive/exclusive distinction). Tense, mood, and aspect are expressed periphrastically. Verb agreement in the third person marked with i- (< he); the suffix -im (<him) shows transitivity. The few prepositions have relatively broad meaning. Word order: SOV. References Romaine, S. 1992. Language, education and development: urban and rural Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea. Oxford. Wurm, S.A. and P.Mühlhäusler (eds) 1985. Handbook of Tok Pisin. Canberra. Dictionary of language and linguistics token reflexive word tonal accent 1204 deictic expression pitch accent tonal language Language in which tone contours have phonological relevance, that is, make a difference also tone) in meaning, cf. Chinese and Vietnamese. ( References tonology tonal pattern Phonologically distinctive change in pitch. In tonal languages this distinctiveness is found on the lexical level, in intonational languages on the syntactic and pragmatic levels. ( also intonation, intonational phrase. pitch accent, stress2) tone 1 (also sound) In acoustic phonetics, term for occurrence of sounds with simple, period waves. 2 (also intonation2) Phenomena of pitch that refer to morphologically defined segments (morphs, words) to the extent that different pitches in a language are distinctive. Such languages are known as tonal languages. In phonology, the term ‘toneme’ (in analogy to ‘phoneme’) is used to denote phonetically distinctive tones. A five-level notational system is used to indicate tones, with 1 for the lowest and 5 for the highest tones. These are written as subscripts following the syllable they affect. Punu, a Miao-Yao language, has eight distinctive tones: cu33 ‘together,’ cu22 ‘the last of all,’ cu12 ‘bridge,’ cu43 ‘wine, alcohol,’ cu42 ‘order,’ cu31 ‘hook,’ cu21 ‘just,’ cu231 ‘drought.’ A-Z 1205 References phonetics, tonology toneme Tongan tone Malayo-Polynesian tonology Study of the tonal structure of linguistic expressions which in some languages (e.g. Vietnamese, Chinese) has the same affect on meaning as phonological, syllabic, and accent features. References Fromkin, V.A. (ed.) 1978. Tone: a linguistic survey. New York. Pike, K.L. 1988. Tone languages. Ann Arbor, MI. Snider, K. and H.Van der Hulst (eds) 1993. The phonology of tone: the representation of tonal register. Berlin and New York. top down bottom up vs top down topic [Grk tópos ‘place’] 1 A subdiscipline of rhetoric: the study of topoi. Also a general term for the topic structure of a text. ( topos) 2 topic vs comment Dictionary of language and linguistics topic-prominent language comment 1206 topic vs topic vs comment (also topic vs predication) 1 Analysis of sentences according to communicative criteria into the topic (what is being talked about) and the comment (what is being said about the topic). Although there is no commonly accepted definition of topic and comment, a number of heuristic criteria have been established for identifying the topic of an utterance. For instance, a sentence in which an element X is the topic, answers the question What about X? (see Gundel, 1977). For example, the sentence Caroline met Philip yesterday is a better answer to the question What about Caroline? than to the question What about Philip? This shows Caroline to be the topic and met Philip the comment. However, the interpretation of Philip as the topic is also possible, if somewhat unnatural. Sgall (1974) proposes that the topic constituent X as opposed to the predication Y can be tested by embedding it in the performative formula I tell you Y about X. The topic and comment isolated by such tests is independent of theme vs rheme analysis, which is based on other criteria. Thus the topic cannot be defined as the old or known information. As an answer to the question Who met Philip?, Caroline is the topic although it is new. previously unknown information. Although topic and comment can be considered to be semantic or pragmatic relations, they are affected by various syntactic properties of sentences. There is a strong tendency to express t he topicactic as thesubject, synt especially in the Indo-European languages, which are considered to be ‘subject-prominent.’ But even in these languages there are construction s in which a non-subject ise th topic, cf. the left-dislocation sentence construction. ( left vs right dislocation) As for this guy, I’m not giving him a penny. In ‘topic-prominent’ languages such as Korean, Japanese, and Tagalog, any sentence element can be made the topic by using particles or affixes. On subject vs topic prominent languages, see Li and Thompson (1976) and Gundel (1988). In addition, initial position in the sentence is another criterion for the topic, according to Halliday (1967) and Li & Thompson (1976). Passivization can change the topic-comment structure of a sentence: I helped the child vs The child was helped by me. The most important semantic property of the topic is its referential (specific) interpretation. In this regard, the topic and comment correspond to the basic semantic functions of reference and predication. In the expression There’s a fly in my soup, there is no specific referential constituent which can function as the topic; such sentences are termed ‘thetic’ or ‘presentational.’ Expressions which have a topic-comment structure are termed ‘categorial’ (see Kuroda 1972; Sasse 1987). The topic relation is relevant for the description of many linguistic phenomena, not only in topicprominent languages, but also in subjectprominent languages; see Givón (1983) on verb agreement and Kuno (1987) on pronouns. A-Z 1207 2 Analysis of utterances according to the communicative criteria of given/known theme vs rheme). information vs new information ( Both of these definitions of ‘topic’ and ‘comment’ are frequently used in the literature without being adequately distinguished from each other, often resulting in terminological confusion and inaccuracy. Thus the term ‘theme’ is often used for topic in both definitions 1 and 2, and instead of ‘comment’ the terms ‘predication’ or ‘focus’ also occur, all in various combinations. References Abraham, W. and S.de Meij (eds) 1986. Topic, focus and configurationality. Amsterdam. Bossong, G. 1989. Morphemic marking of topic and focus. In M.Kefer and J.van der Auwera (eds). Universals of language. Brussels. Chafe, W. 1976. Givenness, contractiveness, definiteness, subjects, topics and point of view. In C.N.Li (ed.), Subject and topic. New York. 25–56. Davidson, A. 1984. Syntactic markedness and the definition of sentence topic. Lg 60.707–846. Dittmar, N. (ed.) 1992. Topic: from grammar to discourse. Berlin and New York. Givón, T. 1983. Topic continuity in discourse: quantitative cross-language studies. Amsterdam. ——1988. The pragmatics of word order: predictability, importance and attention. In M.Hammond et al. (eds), Studies in syntactic typology. Amsterdam. 243–84. Gundel, J. 1977. The role of topic and comment in linguistic theory. Bloomington, IN. ——1988. Universals of topic—comment structure. In M. Hammond et al. (eds), Studies in syntactic typology. Amsterdam. 209–42. Halliday, M.A.K. 1967. Notes on transitivity and theme in English. JL 3:1. 37–81, 3:2:199–244. Hinds, J., S.Maynard, and S.Iwasaki (eds) 1987. Perspectives on topicalization. Amsterdam. Kuno, S. 1972. Functional sentence perspective. LingI 3. 269–320. ——1987. Functional syntax: anaphora, discourse and empathy. Chicago, IL. Kuroda, S. 1972. The categorical and thetic judgement: evidence from Japanese syntax. FoLi 9. 153–8. Lambrecht, K. 1987. Sentence focus, information structure, and the thetic-categorial distinction. BLS 13. 366–82 Li, C.N. (ed.) 1976. Subject and topic. New York. Li, C.N. and S.A.Thompson. 1976. Subject and topic: a new typology of language. In C.N.Li (ed.), Subject and topic. New York. 457–90. Primus, B. 1993. Word order and information structure. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook on contemporary research. Berlin. 880–96. Reinhart, T. 1981. Pragmatics and linguistics: an analysis of sentence topics. Philosophica 27. 53– 94. Sasse, H.-J. 1987. The thetic/categorical distinction revisited. Linguistics 25. 511–80. Sgall, P. 1974. Zur Stellung des Thema vs Rhema in der Sprachbeschreibung. In F.Daneš and J.Firbas (eds). Papers on functional sentence perspective. Prague. 54–74. Ulrich, M. 1985. Thetisch und kategorisch. Tübingen. Dictionary of language and linguistics topic vs predication 1208 topic vs comment topicalization Placement of a non-subject constituent at the beginning of the sentence: He declared his candidacy yesterday vs Yesterday he declared his candidacy. Topicalization is used for specific communicative purposes. A distinction is generally made between ‘true’ topicalization, where the topicalized element functions as the theme or topic ( theme vs rheme, topic vs comment), and ‘false’ topicalization, which serves to emphasize or contrast the element in question. In general, all major sentence constituents except the subject and the finite verb can be topicalized. References Gruber, J. 1967. Topicalization in child language. FL 3. 37–88. ——1975. ‘Topicalization’ revisited. FL 13. 57–72. Gundel, J.K. 1977. The role of topic and comment in linguistic theory. Bloomington, IN. Lipka. L. 1976. Topicalization. case grammar, and lexical decomposition in English. ArchL 7. 118– 41. topological fields toponomastics positional fields toponymy topology 1 word order 2 Spatial relations between objects whose specification is necessary for descriptions of space (especially for the use of prepositions). Such topological concepts (which are probably universal) include inner (in, inside of) vs outer (outside of), vertical (over, above, on) vs horizontal (next to, to the side of, right/left), proximity vs distance, directions, and others. ( also deixis) A-Z 1209 References Cresswell, M.J. 1978. Prepositions and points of view. Ling&P 2.1–41. Jarvella, R.J. and W.Klein (eds) 1982. Speech, place and action. Chichester. Li, C.N. 1976. Subject and topic. New York. Lutzeier, P. 1981. Words and worlds. In H.J.Eikmeyer and H.Rieser (eds), Words, worlds and contexts. Berlin. 75–106. Miller, G.A. and P.N.Johnson-Laird. 1976. Language and perception. Cambridge, MA. Svorou, S. 1994. The grammar of space. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Wunderlich, D. 1982. Sprache und Raum. StL 12. 1–19, 13. 37–59. deixis toponymic [Grk ónyma ‘name’] Term for geographic areas such as cities, villages, states, and countries. ( onomastics, toponymy) also toponymy (also toponomastics) Subdiscipline of onomastics concerned with the development, origin, and distribution of geographical names. topos A term that originates in the study of argumentation in classical rhetoric for (a) a place for possible arguments for general argumentative points of view, like quantity or time (locus communis), and later expanded to a differ-entiated system of comprehension; (b) individual arguments originating from a specific place (e.g. topos of quantity: the more, the better; topos of quality: the rarer, the better). References Bagnall, N. 1985. A defence of clichés. London. Hunter, L. 1991. Towards a definition of topos: approaches to analogical reasoning. Basingstoke. Quasthoff, U. 1978. The uses of stereotype in everyday argument. JPrag 2. 1–48. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1210 Redfern, W.D. 1989. Clichés and coinages. Oxford. Zijderveld. A. 1979. On clichés. London. Tosk Albanian Totonac Language family of Mexico with the two languages, Totonac (about 240,000 speakers) and Tepehua (about 18,000 speakers). Characteristics: complex consonant system similar to the neighboring Mayan languages; richly developed morphology with a tendency towards polysynthesis; simple nominal morphology, numeral classification, and classifying verbs. References Bishop, R. et al. 1968. Totonac from clause to discourse. Norman.OK. McQuown, N. 1940. A grammar of the Totonac language. New Haven, CT. North and Central American languages trace theory A concept developed by Chomsky (1975) in the Revised Extended Standard Theory (REST; transformational grammar) whereby every movement of an NP-constituent from a particular position in the sentence leaves a trace at surface structure. Traces are abstract empty nodes which have the same referential index as the moved NP. Certain traces are understood as analogous to visible, bound anaphors. On the one hand, traces are based on interesting parallels between transformations and certain anaphoric processes like pronominalization and reflexivization; on the other hand, they are based on the theoretical goals of the REST, to unify their semantic interpretation at deep structure to surface structure. The range of possible transformations is reduced to one general transformation called move-α. The resulting structures are constrained by equating the traces left by the movement transformation with existing types of bound anaphoras whose distribution is restricted by existing constraints. A-Z 1211 References Chomsky, N. 1973. Conditions on transformations. In S.R.Anderson and P.Kiparsky (eds). Festschrift for Morris Halle. New York. 232–86. ——1975. Reflections on language. New York. ——1976. Conditions on rules of grammar. LingA 2. 303–51. Chomsky, N. and H.Lasnik. 1977. Filters and control. LingI 8. 425–504. ——and——1978. A remark on contraction. LingI 9. 268–74. Fiengo, R.W. 1974. Semantic conditions on surface structure. Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge, MA. Lightfoot, D. 1977. On traces and conditions on rules. In P.W.Culicover, T.Wasow, and A.Akmajian (eds), Formal syntax. New York. 207–47. Postal, P.M. and G.K.Pullum. 1978. Traces and the description of English complementizer contraction. LingI 9. 1–29. Pullum, G.K. and R.D.Borsley. 1980. Comments on the two central claims of ‘trace theory.’ Linguistics 18. 73–104. transformational grammar tractable An algorithm is tractable if it provides a solution to a problem in time and space complexity). proportional to some polynomial function of the length of the problem ( For example, context-free languages may be parsed in time proportional to n3 where n is the length of the input string ( parsing). Derivatively, a problem is tractable if there exists a tractable algorithm solving it. Intractable problems (those for which no polynomial time/space algorithm exists) are felt to be too costly—in general—for computation. For example, checking the satisfiability of a propositional formula requires checking an exponential number of combinations of the atoms which occur in it. Reference Garey, M. and D.Johnson. 1979. Computers and intractability: a guide to the theory of NP completeness. New York. trade language 1 Spoken colloquial language of the late Middle Ages, in contrast to the written language of the bureaucracies. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1212 2 Generally speaking, a language in which laws, public announcements, trade agreements, and political documents of international significance are composed, e.g. also interlingua, koiné) English, French, German, Spanish, Russian, and others. ( 3 Term sometimes used synonymously with pidgin. traditional grammar school grammar transcortical aphasia aphasia transcription 1 Process and result of rendering a text in one script (e.g. a logographic one such as Chinese) Philip washes himself from Philip1 washes Philip1 into the form of an (alphabetic) text. In transcription, a one-to-one correspondence rarely exists. More than any other system, the IPA (see the chart on p. xix) can be used most successfully as a transcription language. Chinese is transcribed according to the Pīnyīn system, Japanese according either to the Hepburn or Kunrei-siki systems. 2 phonetic transcription transfer Term from psychology for the intensifying or retardive influence of earlier behavioral patterns in learning new behavioral patterns. In linguistics, the transfer of linguistic A-Z 1213 features of the mother tongue onto the foreign language; a distinction is made between positive transfer (based on similiarities between the two languages) and negative transfer interference). ( transformation 1 A term coined by Z.S.Harris for the relationship between linguistic expressions at surface structure that paraphrase each other and have the same linguistic environment ( transformational analysis). Reference Harris, Z.S. 1952. Discourse analysis. Lg 28. 1–30. 2 In Chomsky’s model of transformational grammar, formal operations which mediate between the deep structure and the surface structure of sentences. Transformations transfer the tree diagrams generated by phrase structure rules from deep structure to derived tree diagrams at surface structure. Stated in technical terms: transformations are operations of phrase markers on phrase markers. Transformational rules are different from phrase structure rules in that their operational domain is not restricted to individual nodes, but extends to the whole phrase structure tree, which they modify according to precise conditions. Formally, transformations consist of two components: the structural analysis (SA), which indicates which relevant structural properties phrase structure markers must have for the transformations to apply, and the structural change (SC), which describes the effect of the transformation: see diagram above. (Note: X and Y are symbols for optional constituents; the corresponding indexing of the NPs denotes their referential identity; the double arrow indicates a transformation). All transformations are based on the deletion and insertion of constituents. Operations derived from these are substitution (the deletion and insertion of different elements in the same place) and permutation (the deletion of an element from one place and its insertion in another). In his 1957 model, Chomsky distinguished between the following two types of transformation. (a) Singular vs generalized transformations: singular transformations operate on individual constituents, whereas generalized transformations generate complex sentences by combining different tree diagrams into one complex tree diagram which guarantees the infinite capacity of the generative model ( recursiveness). (b) Obligatory vs optional transformations: obligatory transformations regulate formal (morphological) processes like agreement, whereas all transformations that change meaning belong to the group of optional transformations. Transformations which change the meaning of a sentence must introduce new semantic information on the way from deep structure to surface structure. In his 1965 model, Chomsky makes all transformations obligatory and meaningneutral. This hypothesis was subsequently maintained, but led (in generative semantics) to very abstract elements in deep structure, for example, the feature Q for questions directs the interpretation of the question and Dictionary of language and linguistics 1214 induces the corresponding syntactic transformations. The order in which transformations extrinsic vs intrinsic ordering of rules). For individual apply is not optional ( examples of transformations, equi-NP deletion, extraposition, gapping, imperative personal pronoun), transformation, nominalization, pronominalization ( reflexivation, ( reflexive pronoun), topicalization. In further revisions of transformational grammar, the number of transformations is reduced more and more and becomes restricted to movement transformations and deletion. In Chomsky (1981), the movement transformations in core grammar are reduced to move-α, where α is a variable for all constituents, which can be moved to designated positions in the sentence. The collapse of all transformational processes to a single movement transformation corresponds to an increase in the use of constraints on the applications of these functions. ( also filter, trace theory) References Chomsky, N. 1957. Syntactic structures. The Hague ——1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. ——1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. transformational grammar transformational analysis A technique for syntactic analysis developed by Harris (1952), which is based on the surface structure equivalence between linguistic expressions. In order to compare complex expressions, they are transformed to simple expressions. Nominalization and pronominalization are replaced by explicit forms. For example, a rarely heard expression: an expression which is rarely heard. Certain restrictions apply to such rewritings: no lexical morphemes may be used which would change the meaning, and the transformed expression must be a good substitute for the original expression. References Bense, E. 1957. Co-occurrence and transformation in linguistic structure. Lg 33. 283–340. ——1965. Transformational theory. Lg 41. 363–401. ——1970. Papers in structural and transformational linguistics. Dordrecht. Harris, Z.S. 1952. Discourse analysis. Lg 28. 1–30. A-Z 1215 transformational cycle A principle for the use of transformational rules in transformational grammar. Rules are first applied to the sentence at the lowest part of the tree diagram and then continue cyclically to the next highest level. ( also principle of cyclic rule application) transformational grammar 1 A generic term for any generative grammar which uses transformations. 2 In a narrower sense, the theory developed by N.Chomsky. The goal of this theory is to illustrate the implicit knowledge of language. based on current language use, by a system of explicit rules. Differing from the taxonomic structuralism of Harris, Bloomfield, and others, which is based on the segmentation and classification of concrete language data, Chomsky’s model refers to the ability of competent speakers and to the linguistic intuitions which a competent speaker can make explicit about his/her language. Historically, Chomsky belongs to the tradition of rationalism of Leibnitz and Descartes. By elaborating the concept of ‘innate ideas,’ Chomsky turns against the behaviorist approaches of the American structuralists and expands his theory to a theory of language acquisition. The development of competence is explained by the innate language acquisition device on the basis of grammar universals. Therefore the formulation of the theory takes precedence over the analysis of data, and transformational grammar proceeds deductively by laying down hypotheses about the linguistic generation mechanism, taking the creative aspects of linguistic ability into account. This is true of Chomsky’s first theory, which appeared in his 1957 book Syntactic structures: an infinite set of kernel sentences, produced by context-free phrase structure rules, forms the basis for the application of transformational rules, which ensure an infinite set of sentences by finite means. In the second phase of transformational grammar, documented in Chomsky’s Aspects of the theory of syntax in 1965, the original syntactic theory is expanded to a general theory of grammar which includes phonology and semantics. The following revisions are characteristic of the so-called ‘aspects model’ (also known as the standard theory, ST): the grammar, in the sense of a comprehensive linguistic theory, consists of a generative, syntactic component as well as interpretive, semantic, and phonological components. The basis of the syntax is the deep structure which is formed by context-free phrase structure rules and lexical rules. The context-free phrase structure rules guarantee recursiveness by self-embedded constructions; recursiveness was achieved by generalizing transformations in the earlier model. The deep structure contains all semantically relevant information at an abstract basic level of structure and is the point of departure for the semantic interpretation of sentences. The works of Katz in the area of interpretive semantics are relevant here. The corresponding surface structure is derived from meaning-neutral transformations such as deletion. The surface structure forms the basis for the phonological-phonetic representation. Criticism of this Dictionary of language and linguistics 1216 conception was, above all, based on the role of semantics, since the semantic interpretation of a sentence is dependent on surface structure phenomena such as intonation, word order, and the theme-rheme division. This led to the development of two competing approaches in the 1960s and 1970s: generative semantics and the extended standard theory. Revisions of the standard theory were instigated by Jackendoff (1972) and Chomsky (1972) and lie in a restriction on the range of transformations through universal constraints and in semantic interpretation, which refers to the deep structure and surface structure. Changes occurring since 1973 have led to the introduction of the term Revised Extended Standard theory (=REST), which differs from the extended standard theory in the following ways: (a) the exact delimiting and definition of the individual grammatical components, especially the strict division between syntax and semantics (as well as phonology, stylistics, and pragmatics); (b) the application of markedness theory, which was developed in phonology; (c) the reduction of transformations to structure-preserving transformations, especially move-α; (d) the universal formulation of constraints, which correspond to psychologically interpretable universals and which are specified by language-specific parameters; (e) the introduction of traces as abstract empty category nodes in the surface structure, which mark and make accessible the former position of transposed NP-constituents; (f) the semantic interpretation can only operate on a single level of the surface structure which encodes semantic information from deep structure. In Chomsky’s GB theory ( Government and Binding Theory), the term government takes on a central meaning; within core grammar, a strong modularization of the syntax is attempted; phenomena of individual languages are captured by suitable parameterization. ( also binding theory, empty category principle, logical form, governing category) References Abraham, W. (ed.) 1983. On the formal syntax of the Westgermania. Amsterdam. Akmajian, A. and F.Heny. 1965. An introduction to the principles of transformational syntax. Cambridge, MA. Anderson, J. and G.Bower. 1974. Human associative memory. New York. Aoun, J. 1986. Generalized binding: the syntax and logical form of wh-interrogatives. Dordrecht. Bach, E. 1974. Syntactic theory. New York. Bach, E. and R.T.Harms (eds) 1968. Universals in linguistic theory. New York. Baker. C.L. 1978. Introduction to generative transformational syntax. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Belletti, A., L.Brandi, and L.Rizzi (eds) 1981. Theory of markedness in generative grammar: proceedings of the 1979 GLOW conference. Pisa. Bennis, H. and A.Groos. 1980. The government-binding theory: an overview. Lingua e Stile 15:4. 565–92. Bierwisch, M. 1963. Grammatik des deutschen Verbs. Berlin. Bierwisch, M. and K.E.Heidolph (eds) 1970. Progress in linguistics. The Hague. Bouchard, D. 1984. On the content of empty categories. Dordrecht. Burt, M.K. 1971. From deep to surface structure. New York. Chomsky, N. 1955. The logical structure of linguistic theory. (Mimeo, MIT.) Cambridge, MA. (Repr. as The logical structure of linguistic theory. New York, 1975.) ——1957. Syntactic structures. The Hague. ——1964a. Current issues in linguistic theory. The Hague. A-Z 1217 ——1964b. The logical basis of linguistic theory. In H.C.Lunt (ed.), Proceedings of the ninth international congress of linguistics. The Hague. 914–78. ——1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. ——1971. Deep structure, surface structure, and semantic interpretation. In D.D.Steinberg and L.A.Jakobovits (eds), Semantics. London. 183–216. ——1972. Studies on semantics in generative grammar. The Hague. ——1973. Conditions on transformations. In S.R. Anderson and P.Kiparsky (eds), A Festschrift for Morris Halle. New York. 232–86. ——1975. Reflections on language. New York. ——1976. The logical structure of linguistic theory. New York. ——1977a. Essays on form and interpretation. New York. ——1977b. On wh-movement. In P.W.Culicover. T.Wasow. and A.Akmajian (eds). Formal syntax. New York. 71–132. ——1980a. On binding. LingI. 11. 1–46. ——1980b. Rules and representations. New York. ——1981. Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht. ——1982. Some concepts and consequences of the theory of government and binding. Cambridge. MA. ——1986a. Barriers. Cambridge. MA. ——1986b. Knowledge of language: its nature. origin and use. New York. ——1987. Language and problems of knowledge. Cambridge, MA. Chomsky, N. and H.Lasnik. 1977. Filters and control. LingI 8. 425–504. ——and——1978. A remark on contraction. LingI 9. 268–74. Culicover. P., T.Wasow, and A.Akmajian (eds) 1977. Formal syntax. New York. Derwing. B.L. 1973. Transformational grammar as a theory of language acquisition. Cambridge. Dillmann, J. 1981. Rezeption und Kritik der Sprach-theorie Noam Chomskys in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. DSp 9. 61–96. 147–80. Edmonds, J.E. 1976. A transformational approach to English syntax. New York. ——1985. A unified theory of syntactic categories. Dordrecht. Edmondson, J.A. 1981. Einführung in die Transformationssyntax des Deutschen. Tübingen. Fillmore, C.J. and T.D.Langendoen (eds) 1971. Studies in linguistic semantics. New York. Fodor, J.A. and J.J.Katz(eds) 1964. The structure of language: readings in the philosophy of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Freidin, R. 1992. Foundations of generative syntax. Cambridge, MA. Gazdar, G. 1981. Unbounded dependencies and coordinate structure. LingI 12. 155–84. Gazdar, G., E.Klein, and G.K.Pullum (eds) 1983. Order, concord and constituency. Dordrecht. Geest, W.de and Y.Putseys (eds) 1984. Proceedings of the international conference on sentential complementation. Dordrecht. Gross, M. 1968. Grammaire transformationnelle du français: syntaxe du verbe. Paris. Guéron, J., H.G.Obenauer, and J.-Y.Pollock (eds) 1985. Grammatical representation. Dordrecht. Haider, H. and K.Netter. 1991. Representation and derivation in the theory of grammar. Dordrecht. Haider, H. and M.Prinzhorn (eds) 1986. Verb second phenomena in Germanic languages. Dordrecht. Harman, G. (ed.) 1974. On Noam Chomsky: critical essays. Garden City, NY. Heny, F. (ed.) 1981. Binding and filtering. London. Horrocks, G. 1987. Generative grammar. London. Huber, W. and W.Kummer. 1974. Transformationelle Syntax des Deutschen, vol. I. Munich. Huddleston, R. 1976. An introduction to English transformational syntax. London. Jackendoff, R.S. 1972. Semantic interpretation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. Jacobs, R.A. and P.S.Rosenbaum. 1968. English transformational grammar. Waltham, MA. ——(eds) 1970. Readings in English transformational grammar. Waltham, MA. Kayne, R. 1975. French syntax: the transformational cycle. Cambridge, MA. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1218 ——1984. Connectedness and binary branching. Dordrecht. Keyser, S.J. (ed.) 1978. Recent transformational studies in European languages. Cambridge. MA. Kiefer, F. (ed.) 1969. Studies in syntax and semantics. Dordrecht. Kiefer, F. and N.Ruwet (eds) 1973. Generative grammar in Europe. Dordrecht. Kimball, J.P. (ed.) 1972. Syntax and semantics, vol. l. New York. Koster, J. 1978. Locality principles in syntax. Dordrecht. ——1987. Domains and dynasties: the radical autonomy of syntax. Dordrecht. Koutsoudas, A. 1966. Writing transformational grammars. New York. Lang, E. 1967. Terminologie der generativen Grammatik. Berlin. Langendoen, T.D. 1969. A study of syntax. the generative—transformational approach to the structure of American English. New York. ——1970. Essentials of English grammar. New York. Lasnik, H. 1990. Essays on restrictiveness and learnability. Dordrecht. Lasnik, H. and M.Saito. 1992. Move α—conditions on its application and output. Cambridge, MA. Manzini, R. 1992. Locality: a theory and some of its empirical consequences. Cambridge, MA. Marantz, A. 1984. On the nature of grammatical relations. Cambridge, MA. May, R. and J.Koster (eds) 1981. Levels of syntactic representation. Dordrecht. Muysken, P. and H.van Riemskijk (eds) 1986. Features and projections. Dordrecht. Newmeyer, F.J. 1980. Linguistic theory in America: the first quarter-century of transformational generative grammar. New York. ——1983. Grammatical theory: its limits and its possibilities. Chicago, IL. ——1995. Generative linguistics. A historical perspective. London. Ouhalla, J. 1991. Functional categories and parametric variation. London. ——1994. Introducing transformational grammar: from rules to principles and parameters. London. Palmatier, R.A. 1972. A glossary for English transformational grammar. New York. Pesetsky, D.M. 1982. Paths and categories. Dissertation. MIT, Cambridge. MA. Piattelli-Palmarini, M. (ed.) 1980. Language and learning: the debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky. London. Putnam, H. 1975. The ‘innateness hypothesis’ and explanatory models in linguistics. In his Mind, language and reality. Cambridge. 107–16. Radford, A. 1981. Transformational syntax: a student’s guide to Chomsky’s Extended Standard Theory. Cambridge. ——1988. Transformational grammar: a first course. Cambridge. Reibel, D.A. and S.A.Schane (eds) 1969. Modern studies in English: readings in transformational grammar. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Reinhart, T. 1983. Anaphora and semantic interpretation. London. Safir, K. 1985. Syntactic chains. Cambridge. Soames, S. and D.M.Perlmutter. 1979. Syntactic argumentation and the structure of English. Berkeley, CA. Stockwell, R.P., R.Schachter, and B.Hall Partee. 1968. Integration of transformational theories on English syntax. 2 vols. Los Angeles, CA. ——1973. The major syntactic structures of English. New York. Stowell, T. 1981. Origins of phrase structure. Dissertation, MIT, Cambridge. MA. Thiersch, C. 1978. Topics in German syntax. Dıssertation, MIT, Cambridge, MA. ——1980. New developments in generative syntax. In H.H.Lieb (ed.). Oberflächensyntax und Semantik. Tübingen. 9–31. Thomas, O. 1965. Transformational grammar and the teacher of English. New York. Toman, J. (ed.) 1985. Studies in German grammar. Dordrecht. Van Riemsdijk, H. (ed.) 1976. Green ideas blown up. Amsterdam. Van Riemskijk, H. and E.Williams. 1986. Introduction to the theory of grammar. Cambridge, MA. Wilks, Y. 1972. Grammar, meaning and the machine analysis of language. London. A-Z 1219 Bibliographies Dingwall, W.O. 1965. Transformational generative grammar: a bibliography. Washington, DC. Koerner, K., M.Tajima, and C.P.Otero. 1986. Noam Chomsky: a personal bibliography, 1951– 1986. Amsterdam. Welte, W. 1974. Moderne Linguistik: Terminologie/ Bibliographie. Ein Handbuch und Nachschlagewerk auf der Basis der generativ-transformationellen Sprachtheorie, 2 vols. Munich. Journal The Linguistic Review. constraints, filter, Government and Binding theory, interpretive semantics, logical form, morphology, phrase structure, trace theory, universal grammar transformational history The sequence of transformations which takes a sentence from deep structure to surface structure. transformationalist hypothesis lexicalist vs transformationalist hypothesis transformational marker In the early versions of transformational grammar, the formal representation of the derivational history of the surface structure of a sentence from its deep structure. Dictionary of language and linguistics transformational rule 1220 transformation transformative (also verb of change) Verbal aspect subsumed under the category of non-duratives. Transformative verbs indicate a transition from one state to another (e.g. age, cool off, go blind), where the new also durative vs state is often a negation of the old state: cool off=no longer be hot. ( non-durative) References aspect transition network grammar augmented transition network grammar transitional area [Lat. transitio ‘going across, passage’] (also convergence area) Term used in dialectology to denote the prevalence of varied linguistic traits in geographically neighboring areas; a convergence area arises when linguistic changes (in the sense of a wave theory of language change from the originating center of a difference to the periphery) appear to take place less and less generally or when the process of the wave-shaped dispersion gradually comes to an end. References dialectology A-Z 1221 transitional competence interlanguage transitional sound steady-state sound vs transitional sound transitive relation Two-place relation R for which, regarding any three objects x, y, z, it is the case that This is the case, for example, for some kinship terms: if it is the case that Philip is the brother of Jacob and Jacob is the brother of Caroline, then it is also true that Philip is the brother of Caroline. On the other hand, the relation ‘is a friend of is not transitive: x is a friend of z may be false, if x is a friend of y and y is a friend of z is true. A relation is intransitive if there are no three objects x, y, z, for which it is true that for example, it cannot be the case that x is the father of y, y is the father of z and x is the father of z. References formal logic, set theory transitivity 1 Valence property of verbs which require a direct object, e.g. read, see, hear. Used more broadly, verbs which govern other objects (e.g. dative, genitive) can also be termed ‘transitive’; while only verbs which have no object at all (e.g. sleep, rain) would be intransitive. Hopper and Thompson (1980) introduce other factors of transitivity in the framework of universal grammar, which result in a graduated concept of transitivity. In addition to the selection of a direct object, other semantic roles as well as the properties of adverbials, mood, affirmation vs negation, and aspect play a role. A maximally transitive sentence contains a non-negated resultive verb in the indicative which requires at least a subject and direct object; the verb complements function as agent and affected object, are definite and animate ( animate vs inanimate). Using data from various languages, Hopper and Thompson demonstrate that each of the factors listed above as Dictionary of language and linguistics 1222 affecting transitivity is important for marking transitivity through case, adpositions, or verbal inflection. Thus in many languages (e.g. Lithuanian, Polish, Middle High German) affirmation vs negation correlates with the selection of case for objects in such a way that in affirmative sentences the object is usually in the accusative, while in negated sentences the object of the same verb occurs in the genitive or in another oblique case. References Hoekstra, T. 1984. Transitivity: grammatical relations in government-binding theory. Dordrecht. Hopper, P.J. and S.A.Thompson. 1980. Transitivity in grammar and discourse. Lg 56.251–300. ——(eds) 1982. Syntax and semantics, vol. 15: Studies in transitivity. New York. Moravcsik, E.A. 1978. Case marking of objects. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. Vol. 4. 250–89. 2 On transitivity in logic, transitive relation. translation 1 In the broad sense, ‘translation’ refers to the process and result of transferring a text from the source language into the target language. 2 In the narrow sense, it refers to rendering a written text into another language as opposed to simultaneously interpreting spoken language. 3 In foreign-language instruction, translation is considered, by some, to be a ‘fifth skill’ (next to the traditional ‘four skills’ of speaking, listening, reading, and writing). Translation is a method used to practice and test competence and performance in a second language. Translators are generally trained at private, government, or military institutes as well as at some colleges and universities. Studies in translation focus on linguistic, psychological, aesthetic, pedagogical, and professional aspects. Most such studies have been of greater use to the area of computer and machine-aided translation than to t he practical concerns of human interpreters. Some important issues in translation include: (a) the typology of translation, which differentiates between the translation of literary vs scientific or professional texts, and between human vs machine-aided translation; philological translation, which is concerned with the process of communication in the source language and culture; and pragmatically based simultaneous translation; (b) the format of equivalent units (sounds, words, phrases, etc.). An equivalent communicative effect is all the more difficult to attain, the greater the cultural distance between the receivers of the source and target text (problem of translatability) ( linguistic determinism, Sapir-Whorf hypothesis). In this area, recent discussions center on the intercultural implications of translation and have all but dispensed with the concept of ‘equivalence.’ A-Z 1223 References Bell, R.T. 1991. Translation and translating: theory and practice. London. Brislin, R.W. (ed.) 1976. Translation: applications and research. New York. Catford, J.C. 1965. A linguistic theory of translation. London. Cummings, R. and S.Gillespie (eds) 1991. Translation and literature. Edinburgh. Gentzler, E. 1993. Contemporary translation theories. London. Grähs, L., G.Korlén, and B.Malmberg (eds) 1978. Theory and practice of translation. Bern. Guenthner-Reutter, M. and F.Guenthner (eds) 1975. Anthology on the theory of translation. Cambridge. Gutt, E.A. 1991. Translation and relevance. Oxford. Hatim, B. and I.Mason. 1990. Discourse and the translator. London. Hewson, L. and J.Martin. 1991. Redefining translation: the variational approach. London. Holmes, J.S. 1988. Translated! Essays and papers on translation and translation studies. Amsterdam. Holmes, J.S., J.Lambert, and R.van den Broeck (eds) 1976. Literature and translation. Louvain. Kelly, L.G. 1979. The true interpreter: a history of translation theory and practice in the west. Oxford. Larson, M. (ed.) 1991. Translation: theory and practice, tension and interdependence. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Lörscher, W. 1990. Translation performance, translation process, and translation strategies: a psycholinguistic investigation. Tübingen. Newmark, P. 1991. About translation. Clevedon. Snell-Hornby, M. 1988. Translation studies: an integrated approach. Amsterdam. Titford, C. and A.E.Hieke (eds) 1985. Translation in foreign language teaching and testing. Tübingen. Venuti, L. 1992. Rethinking translation. London. Zlateva, P. 1993. Translation as social action: Russian and Bulgarian perspectives. London. Journals International Journal of Translation Studies. Target. 4 Term used in L.Tesnière’s dependency grammar in addition to connection and junction which expresses the third process for constructing sentences or complex expressions. With translation, a function word (translative), such as a preposition or conjunction, changes the syntactic category of an expression and makes its connection in the sentence possible. For example, the noun time can be made into an ‘adjective’ with the preposition of, which can be combined with end: the end of time. References dependency grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics 1224 translative 1 Morphological locative case in some lan- guages (e.g. Finnish). It expresses the fact that an object moves along a specific location. 2 translation4 transliteration [Lat. littera ‘letter (of the alphabet)’] The process and result of transcribing a text written in an alphabetic or syllabic writing system into an alphabetic text. In transliteration, characters are generally converted oneto-one, though the process often involves imparting characteristics (such as word breaks and capitalization) of the target script onto the source script. Reference Barry, R.K. (ed.) 1991. ALA-LC romanization tables: transliteration schemes for non-Roman scripts. Washington, DC. A-Z 1225 transparent context opaque vs transparent context transphrastic analysis Analysis of the grammatical relationships between sentences of a text ( discourse grammar), such as the reference of an expression through pronominalization. ( personal pronoun) transposition [Lat. transponere ‘to move across’] 1 In word formation, a change in word class as new expressions are formed through also suffixation: read (=verb), readable (=adjective), reader (=noun). ( modification) 2 metathesis tree-adjoining grammar (abbrev. TAG) A mildly context-sensitive extension ( mildly context-sensitive language, contextsensitive grammar) of context-free (CF) grammar, including operations which adjoin trees in a recursive way ( recursiveness) (see diagram above). TAG is distinguished among grammar models in being essentially tree-based, and has been explored both as a formalization of transformational grammar (Kroch and Joshi) and as an alternative grammar model (Abeille). There exist lexicalized unification-based ( unification grammar) and stochastic ( stochastic grammar) variants. TAG is especially popular in computational linguistics. References Abeille, A. 1991. Une grammaire lexicalisée d’arbres adjoints pour le français. Dissertation. Paris. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1226 Joshi, A. 1987. An introduction to tree-adjoining grammars. In A.Manaster-Ramer (ed.), Mathematics of language. Amsterdam. Kroch, A. and A.Joshi. 1987. Linguistic relevance of tree-adjoining grammars. University of Pennsylvania Computer and Information Science MS-CIS 85–18. Shabes, Y. 1992. Stochastic lexicalized tree-adjoining grammars. COLING 1992. anaphora, discourse grammar, textphoric tree diagram (also branching diagram, graph, phrase structure diagram) A special type of graphic representation used to depict linguistic structures ( graph2). Borrowing from the concept of a tree, a tree diagram consists of a root and several branching nodes and branches. In such representations of the hierarchical relations and inner structures, nodes represent grammatical categories (e.g. S, NP, VP) and the branches represent the relationships of domination. Each pair of nodes has a twofold relationship, one of dominance and one of precedence. In a tree diagram, S immediately dominates NP and VP, and indirectly all other nodes in the tree, while each node which is to the left of another node precedes the one to the right, provided that none of the nodes dominates the other. Thus VP precedes VP, Det precedes N, and so on. Tree diagrams of natural languages are also subject to certain rules of wellformedness; thus, for example, crossing branches are not allowed, because the tree diagram (a) is equivalent to the phrase structure rules in (b), the labeled bracketing in (c), and the box diagram in (d), and the crossing of constituents cannot be represented. See the example The professor gives a lecture. A-Z 1227 tree-pruning convention In transformational grammar, a metatheoretical arrangement introduced by J.R.Ross which deletes an embedded sentence node which does not branch. These nodes can result from deletion or movement transformations. This happens in generative semantics when attributive adjectives are derived from relative clauses, where, according to the tree-pruning convention, the sentence constituent which formed the relative clause in the tree diagram is eliminated. Reference Ross, J.R. 1969. A proposed rule of tree-pruning. In D.A.Reibel and S.A.Schane (eds), Modern studies in English: readings in transformational grammar. Englewood Cliffs. NJ. 288–99. trema trill diaeresis2 vibrant trope [Grk trópos ‘turn; manner’] A term in rhetoric for expressions with a transferable meaning (e.g. metaphor), which can be understood as a substitute for a denotatively suitable word. That is to say, trope is a semantic substitution. Tropes are classified according to their semantic relationships Dictionary of language and linguistics 1228 with the substituted word, e.g. as antonomasia, synecdoche, emphasis, metonymy, litotes, and irony, among others. Classical rhetorical theory distinguishes the figure of speech from the trope as a paradigmatic variation, based on syntagmatic variation. References Campbell, B. 1969. Metaphor, metonymy, and literalness. Genera l Linguistics 9.149–66. Ortony, A. (ed.) 1979. Metaphor and thought. Cambridge. Ricoeur, P. 1978. The rule of metaphor: multidisciplinary studies in the creation of meaning in language. London. Schoefer, P. and D.Rice. 1977. Metaphor. metonymy and synecdoche revis(it)ed. Semiotica 21.121–49. Shapiro, M. and M.A.Shapiro. 1976. Hierarchy and the structure of tropes. Bloomington, IN. White, H. 1978. The tropics of discourse. Baltimore. MD. figure of speech truncation rule In Arnoff’s (1976) word formation, proposed type of rule that deletes an affix occurring between a root and a second suffix. According to the model of employee, presentee, the suffixation of -ee would generate *nominat+ee, *evacuat+ee instead of nomin+ee, evacu+ee. According to the rule-governed formation of nominate+ee a deletion is applied that eliminates the morpheme -ate and places -ee immediately at the connection point of the verb root. Reference Aronoff, M. 1976. Word formation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. truth condition An assumption about situation(s) that must be given in order that certain sentences about the situation(s) can apply or be considered true. In the semantic description of natural languages, problems arise in regard to truth conditions in the following cases: (a) sentence types such as interrogatives or imperatives which, contrary to declaratives, are neither true nor false, (b) use of deictic expressions such as I, now, and here, whose A-Z 1229 contribution to determining truth values can only be analyzed depending on the given speech situation; (c) reference to different ‘possible words’ as they are created through intension, vagueness). The explication of truth verbs of believing or knowing ( conditions of sentences is seen in more recent grammatical theories (such as categorial grammar, Montague grammar) as the basic principle of an adequate description of language. Thus, the synonymy between two propositions can be defined as similarity or concordance of their truth conditions or of the situations in which these sentences are true. See Dummet (1975) for a criticism of the formulatio n of truth conditions as part of linguistic description. References Dummett, M.A.E. 1975. What is a theory of meaning? In S.Guttenplan(ed.),Mind and language. Oxford. 97–138. ——1976. What is a theory of meaning (II)? In G. Evans and J.Mcdowell (eds), Truth and meaning. Oxford. 67–137. formal logic, possible world, truth value truth-functional Property of logical connectives, whose in variant meaning guarantees that the whole meaning of complex sentences can be represented as a function of the truth values of the component clauses. (=also extension, propositional logic) truth table Method developed independently by Post (1921) and Wittgenstein (1922) of defining logical connectives on the basis of truth values. Since the truth value of complex propositions connected by constants (such as and, or) is dependent on the truth values of the component propositions and on the meaning of their constants, these relations can be represented in a matrix. In the first vertical column the different possible combinations for the individual component propositions are entered: t=‘true,’ f=‘false’; the number of the horizontal lines is 2n, whereby n is the number of actual component propositions (=atomic sentences) in the propositional connection: two component propositions yield four, five component propositions yield thirty-two lines. The far-right line indicates the truth value applied to the distribution of the truth values by the constants (cf. the examples shown in conjunction, disjunction, implication, and others). The following Dictionary of language and linguistics 1230 table provides an overview of the most important two-place sentence operators and the distribution of their truth values. References Post, E. 1921. Introduction to a general theory of elementary propositions. AJM 43.163–85. Wittgenstein, L. 1922. Tractatus logicophilosophicus. London. truth value In two-value formal logic the semantic evaluation of propositions with ‘true’ or ‘false.’ A proposition is ‘true,’ if the state of affairs designated by it is true, otherwise it is ‘false.’ The assertion It’s raining is true only if it is raining. Some forms of logic use a threevalue system which specifies not only true and false propositions, but also ‘indefinite’ propositions (see Blau 1978) ( truth table for more information on the study of the truth values of complex propositions based on the truth values of their component propositions and their logical connectives). The concept of assigning Negat Adjunc Conju Implica Equiva Contrav p q t ion tion nction tion lence alence ¬p p pΛq p→q p↔q p q q Taut Contra ology diction e. g. p→ e.g. (q→p) pΛ(qΛ¬q) t f t t t t f t f t f f t f f f t t f f t t t f t f t t f f f t f f t t f t f extensional truth values in propositional logic is fundamental to the semantic description of natural languages ( Montague grammar). References Bäuerle, R. et al (eds) 1979. Semantics from different points of view. Berlin. Black, M. 1948. The semantic definition of truth. Analysis 8.49–62. Blau, U. 1978. Die dreiwertige Logik der Sprache. Berlin. Davidson, D. 1967. Truth and meaning. Synthese 17.304–33. Evans, G. and J.McDowell (eds) 1976. Meaning and truth. Oxford. A-Z 1231 Kripke, S. 1975. Outline of a theory of truth. JP 72.690–716. Linsky, L. (ed.) 1952. Semantics and the philosophy of language. Chicago, IL. Quine, W.V.O. 1970. Philosophy of logic. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. (2nd rev. edn 1973.) Tarski, A. 1944. The semantic approach of truth and foundation of semantics. PPR 4.341–75. Tsimshian Tuareg Penutian Berber Tungusic Branch of the Altaic languages with approx. twelve languages and 80,000 speakers in north-east Asia. The best known language is Manchu, the language of the Manchu dynasty in China (1644–1911), today with about 20,000 speakers. References Benzing, J. 1956. Die tungusischen Sprachen. Wies- baden. Fuchs, W. et al. 1968. Tungusologie. (Handbuch der Orientalistik I, vol. 5,3). Leiden. Hänisch, E. 1961. Mandschu-Grammatik. Leipzig. Malchukov, A.L. 1994. Ewen. Munich. Bibliography Stary, G. 1990. Manchu studies: an international bibliography, 3 vols. Wiesbaden. Tupi Language family in the southern part of South America with approx. fifty languages; the most important is Guaraní (about 3 million speakers), which Greenberg (1987) assigns to the Equatorial languages. These languages have spread out southward from the Amazon basin in historical times. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1232 Characteristics: relatively simple sound system; some languages have a gender system. References Greenberg, J.H. 1987. Language in the Americas. Stanford, CA. Kakumasu, J. 1986. Urubu-Kaapor. In D.C.Derbyshire and G.Pullum (eds). Handbook of Amazonean languages. Berlin. 326–403. South American languages Turing machine Designed by and named for A.M.Turing, a conceptual model of a universal computer with infinitely large storage capacity. Owing to the fact that they would be prohibitively inefficient, Turing machines cannot be directly realized (even allowing for memory limitations); however, they serve an important function in the exact definition of important basic concepts such as algorithm and recursive functions ( recursiveness). Concerning the equivalence of automata and formal grammars, the Turing machine corresponds to a type of unrestricted rewriting system, since it can produce any recursively enumerable set of strings (sentences). References Chomsky, N. and G.Miller. 1958. Finite state languages. Information and Control 1.91–112. Turing, A.M. 1936. On computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society 27:2.230–65. Turkana Chari-Nile languages Turkic Branch of the Altaic languages with about thirty closely related languages and 80 million speakers in Central Asia and Asia Minor; a written tradition has existed for over 1,000 A-Z 1233 years. The largest languages are Turkish (about 45 million speakers), Uzbeki (about 10 million speakers), and Azerbaijani (about 8 million speakers). References Boeschoeten, H.E. and L.Verhoeven. 1991. Turkish linguistics today. Leiden. Menges, K.H. 1968. The Turkic languages and peoples. Wiesbaden. (2nd corr. edn 1993.) Rona-Tas, A. 1991. An introduction to Turkology. Szeged. Spuler, B. (ed.) 1963. Turkologie. (Handbuch der Orientaliskik I, vol. 5,1.) Leiden. (Repr. with additions 1982.) Bibliography Hazai, G. and B.Kellner-Heinkele. 1986 Bibliographisches . Handbuch der Turkologie: eine Bibliographie der Bibliographien vom 18. Jahrhundert bis 1979, vol. I.Wiesbaden. (Vol. 2. 3 in prep.) Dictionary Waterson, N. 1980. Uzbek-English dictionary. Oxford. Turkish Largest Turkic language with approx. 45 mil-lion speakers, the official language of Turkey. Characteristics (many of which are typical of Altaic languages): vowel harmony, rich agglutinating morphology, rich case system, agreement, SOV word order which can be changed fairly freely, subordination of relative clauses by special participial verb forms (converbs); simple number system (where the plural is not expressed if a number is connected with the noun). Possessive constructions of the type the man his donkey. Turkish has a long literary tradition (until 1928 in Arabic script, now Latin alphabet). Numerous lexical borrowings from Persian and Arabic, which have been partially suppressed in language reforms. References Ergunvanli, E.E. 1984. The function of word order in Turkish grammar. Berkeley, CA. Lees, R.B. 1961. The phonology of Modern Standard Turkish. Bloomington, IN. Lewis, G.L. 1967. Turkish grammar. Oxford. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1234 Slobin, D. and K.Zimmer (eds) 1986. Studies in Turkish linguistics. Amsterdam. Underhill, R. 1976. Turkish grammar. Cambridge. MA. Dictionary Iz. F., H.C.Hony, and A.D.Alderson (eds) 1978/84. The Oxford Turkish dictionary, TurkishEnglish. 3rd edn, English-Turkish, 2nd edn, 2 vols. Oxford. (Reissued in 1 vol. 1991.) turn Engaging in talk implies that participants take turns. Various turn definitions exist. (a) A turn is determined by formal criteria, e.g. emphasizing the boundaries, i.e. a turn is delimited by pauses/silences, or it is identified as a syntactic unit, which allows for subsequent turn-taking. (b) A turn is determined by functional criteria, e.g. it coincides with at least one move (interchange); thus, back channel does not constitute a turn. (c) A turn is considered to be a turn-in-a-series, whose length and structure is determined interactively (recipient design, sequential organization, turn-taking); ideally, such a turn has a tripartite structure, as B’s answer to A: its first part establishes some relationship to the prior turn, its third part some relation to the following turn (cf. well and the tag question couldn’t I, respectively, in B’s utterance): A: How can he get to the station? B: Well, I could drive him, couldn’t I? A: Oh, yes, please do. References Atkinson, J. and J.Heritage (eds) 1984. Structures of social action: studies in conversational analysis. Cambridge. Boden, D. and D.Zimmermann (eds) 1991. Talk and social structure. Cambridge. Edelsky, C. 1981. Who’s got the floor? LSoc 10.383–421. Goodwin, C. 1981. Conversational organization: interaction between speakers and hearers. New York. Goodwin, C. and J.Heritage. 1990. Conversation analysis. Annual Review of Anthropology 19.283– 307. Goodwin, M.H. 1990. He-said-she-said: talk as social organization among black children. Bloomington, IN. Grimshaw, A. 1990. Conflict talk. New York. Jaffe, J. & S.Feldstein. 1970. Rhythms of dialogue. New York. Maynard, D. (ed.) 1987. Language and social interaction. Special issue of Social Psychology Quarterly 50.101–226. A-Z 1235 Maynard, D. and S.Clayman. 1991. The diversity of ethnomethodology. Annual Review of Sociology 17.385–418. Owen, M. 1981. Conversational units and the use of ‘well’. In P.Werth (ed.), Conversation and discourse. London. 99–116. Sacks, H., E.A.Schegloff. and G.Jefferson. 1974. A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation. Lg 50.696–735. Schegloff, E. 1979. The relevance of repair to syntax-for-conversation. In T.Givón (ed.), Syntax and semantics, vol. 12. Discourse and syntax. New York. 261–86. turn-taking Turn-taking is a basic characteristic in interactions, but its realizations are culturally bound, change with age (e.g. Philips 1976; Garvey and Berninger 1981) and vary from discourse type to discourse type. Turn-taking is discussed in various models (for an overview see Wiemann and Knapp 1975; Wilson et al 1984): (a) a turn-taking system as a stochastic model, a simulation of statistically frequent patterns; physical properties of acoustic signals are analyzed in sequence and during simultaneous speaking and patterns of silence. Turn transition is treated as a probabilistic process (e.g. Jaffe and Feldstein 1979); (b) turn-taking based on a set of discrete, conventional verbal and non-verbal signals to be defined independently (e.g. Duncan and Fiske 1977); (c) turn-taking as an interactive mechan ism that guarantees a no-gap procedure since it is managed locally by the participants, i.e. who is talking to whom about what for how long is determined by the speaker and the listener at each place where transfer is possible (‘transition relevance place’) potentially, after a syntagm. In such a place, either the speaker designated by the prior speaker (via verbal or non-verbal means, e.g. adjacency pair) or the speaker who is first to start takes a turn, or the current speaker continues. Thus, this system of turn-taking is considered to provide an intrinsic motivation for the participants to listen (sequential organization, turn). References Duncan, S. and D.W.Fiske. 1977. Face-to-face interaction: research, methods and theory. Hillsdale, NJ. Garvey, C. and G.Berninger. 1981. Timing and turn-taking in children’s conversations. DPr 4.27– 57. Goodwin, C. 1981. Conversational organization: interaction between speakers and hearers. New York. Jaffe, J. and S.Feldstein. 1970. Rhythms of dialogue. New York. Philips, S.U. 1976. Some sources of cultural variability in the regulation of talk. LSoc 5.81–95. Sacks, H., E.Schegloff, and G.Jefferson. 1974. A simplest systematics for the organization of turntaking for conversation. Lg 50.696–735. Wiemann, J.M. and M.L.Knapp. 1975. Turn-taking in conversations. JC 25.75–92. Wilson, T., J.M.Wiemann, and D.H.Zimmerman. 1984. Models of turn-taking. JLSP 3.159–83. conversation analysis Dictionary of language and linguistics Twi-Fante 1236 Kwa twin formula A term from phraseology ( idiomatics) to indicate an unchanging word pair that is joined by a conjunction or a preposition, often with alliterati on or assonance (e.g. tried and true). The elements of a twin formula can be identical, synonymous, antonymous or complementary. ( formula) References idiomatics two-field theory In K.Bühler’s theory of language, principal designation for the theory of the index field of language (i.e. the situational context) and the symbol field of language (i.e. the linguistic context). ( also axiomatics of linguistics, deixis. I-now-here origo) References axiomatics of linguistics type theory Logical theory developed by B.Russell and A.N.Whitehead based on a hierarchic gradation of logical objects (like set, function, relation, and predicate). A set or a predicate must always be on a higher level (or represent a higher ‘type’) than the elements or objects that are contained in the set or to which the predicate can be applied. The purpose of this conception is to avoid set-theoretical antinomies of Russell’s type (the set of all sets that themselves are not contained as an element would simultaneously contain and not contain themselves). Russell himself first proposed a ‘bifurcated theory A-Z 1237 of types’ which was modified in the second edition of the Principia to the so-called ‘simple theory of types.’ In Church’s (1940) formulation, this became the basis of R. Montague’s ‘intensional type logic,’ which entered theoretical linguistics as the logical language of description called Montague grammar. References Church, A. 1940. A formulation of the simple theory of types. Symbolic Logic 5. Copi, I.M. 1971. The theory of logical types. London. Gallin, D. 1975. Intensional and higher order modal logic. Amsterdam. Montague, R. 1974. Universal grammar. In R.H. Thomason (ed.), Formal philosophy: selected papers of R.Montague. New Haven, CT. 222–46. (Orig. 1970.) Whitehead, A.N. and B.Russell. 1910/13. Principia mathematica. Cambridge. (2nd edn 1925/27. Repr. 1950.) type-token relation Term from statistics used to distinguish tween be individual linguistic expressions (= tokens) and the abstract class of which these tokens are members (=types). This typetoken relationship corresponds to the relationship between langue vs parole, as well as the distinction between etic vs emic analysis. Tzeltal Mayan languages Dictionary of language and linguistics 1238 U Ubangi Ubykh Adamawa-Ubangi North-West Caucasian Udmurt Finno-Ugric Ugaritic Ugric Semitic Finno-Ugric Ukrainian East Slavic language with approx. 35 million speakers, primarily in the Ukraine, but also in other former Soviet republics, the eastern Balkans, and Canada. Ukrainian began to develop as a literary language at the end of the eighteenth century, before which the East Slavic recension of Old Church Slavic was used. The modern literary language has developed since 1918. Ukrainian is written in the Cyrillic alphabet with the additional characters ‹„’› (only in emigrant publications), ‹ï›. Ukrainian, Russian, and Belorussian have a high degree of mutual intelligibility. A-Z 1239 References Grammars Bilodid, I. (ed.) 1969–1973. Sučasna ukraïns'ka literaturna mova, 5 vols. Kiev. Danylenko, A. and S.Vakulenko. 1994. Ukrainian. Munich. Humesky, A. 1980. Modern Ukrainian. Edmonton. Medushevskyi, A.P. 1963. Ukrainian grammar. Kiev. Shevelov, G.Y. 1963. The syntax of modern literary Ukrainian: the simple sentence. The Hague. Stechischin, J.W. 1977. Ukrainian grammar, 6th edn. Winnipeg. History and dialectology: Atlas ukraïns'koï movy. 1984/8. 2 vols. Kiev. Ilarion, Metropolitan of Winnipeg and All Canada. 1980. Istorija ukranïs'koï literaturnoï movy, 3rd edn. Winnipeg. Istorija ukrains'koï movy. 1978–83. 5 vols. Kiev. Shevelov, G.Y. 1979. A historical phonology of the Ukrainian language. Heidelberg. Dictionary Slovnyk ukraïns'koï movy. 1970–80. 11 vols. Kiev. Etymological dictionary Mel’nyčuk, O. 1982–. Etymolohičnyj slovnyk ukrains'koï movy v semy tomax. (Vols 1–3 by 1993.) Kiev. Bibliography Červinska, L.F. 1985. Pokažčvk: ukraïns ‘koï movy. Charkiv 1929–1930: Materialien zu einer ukrainistischen sprachwissenschaftlichen Bibliographie. Kiev. Slavic ultimate [Lat. ultimus ‘end; last’] The last syllable of a word. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1240 umlaut (also vowel mutation) 1 German term for an (anticipated, partial) assimilation of the vowel of the syllable with main stress to the vowel of the following (secondary stressed or unstressed) syllable ( vowel harmony). A distinction can be drawn between palatalization (or ‘fronting’), secondary articulation), raising, and lowering ( raising velarization (or ‘backing,’ vs lowering). The most significant example is i-umlaut, found in all Germanic dialects (with the exception of Gothic), which brought about a palatalization of back vowels and a palatalization and raising of low vowels. English reflexes of i-umlaut can be found in various plural forms (e.g. mouse>mice) and in other cases (e.g. drench<West Gmc. *drankjan). When the conditioners for umlaut disappeared, umlaut became grammaticalized ( grammaticalization, morphologization). This is especially clear in languages such as German, where umlaut plays a role in plural formation (Haus : Häuser ‘house : houses’) and in derivation (Häuschen ‘little house’). A-umlaut, which occurred in various Germanic dialects, is also known as breaking. References Bach, E.R. and D.King. 1970. Umlaut in modern German. Glossa 4.3–21. Hamans, C. 1985. Umlaut in a Dutch dialect. In H. van der Hulst and N.Smith (eds), Advances in nonlinear phonology, Dordrecht. 267–303. King, R. 1969. Historical linguistics and generative grammar. Frankfurt. Lieber, R. 1981. On the organization of the lexicon. Bloomington, IN. Penzl, H. 1949. Umlaut and secondary umlaut in Old High German. Language 25.233–45. Robinson, O.W. 1975. Abstract phonology and the history of Umlaut. Lingua 37.1–29. Twaddell, W.F. 1938. A note on Old High German umlaut. Monatshefte 30.177–81. Wurzel, W.U. 1984. Was bezeichnet der Umlaut im Deutschen? ZPSK 37.647–63. 2 Diacritic used in German (ä, ö, ü), Swedish (ä, ö), and Icelandic (ö) to mark vowel mutation (umlaut1). ( also diaeresis) unaccusative (also unaccusative or ergative hypothesis) A certain class of intransitive verbs in nominative languages such as German, Dutch, Italian, or French that are often analyzed as syntactically unaccusative or ergative. The terms unaccusative or ergative have been justified by a very broad definition of ergativity ( ergative language): the subjects of the ergative intransitive verbs share some properties with the objects of transitive verbs. Cf. Das Kind (Subj.) zerbrach den Stock (Acc. Obj.) ‘The child broke the stick’ vs Der Stock (Subj.) zerbrach The stick broke.’ This is quite obvious in this pair of sentences, where a lexical derivation rule connects a A-Z 1241 transitive verb with its intransitive variant (described as ergativity by Lyons 1968 and Anderson 1971). Within Relational Grammar (Perlmutter 1978; Davies 1984) and generative grammar (van den Besten 1985; Burzio 1986; Grewendorf 1989) these facts were treated syntactically by analyzing the surface subjects of unaccusative (or ergative) verbs as underlying objects. Certain syntactic constructions are supposed to be sensitive to this distinction in that they either apply only to unaccusatives (e.g. ne-cliticization in Italian, perfect auxiliary selection in Italian, German, and Dutch, attributive use of past participles, topicalization of subject+past participle in German), or only to standard unergative verbs (e.g. impersonal passives, creation of -er agent nouns). Cf. Das Kind hat gelacht The child has laughed’ vs Das Kind ist weggegangen ‘The child has gone away,” Hier wurde gelacht ‘Somebody laughed here’ vs *Hier wurde weggegangen ‘Somebody went away.’ Linguists working with ergative languages have criticized the use of the term ergative for the phenomena mentioned above, since they are different from the morphological and syntactic ergativity found in ergative languages (cf. Comrie 1978; Dixon 1987; Primus 1994). Every genuine ergative language is morphologically ergative, i.e. uses the zeromarked case, the absolutive, for den Stock/der Stock in the examples above. Furthermore, in a genuine ergative lang uage den Stock/der Stock are expected to behave syntactically like subjects in anominative language. Contrary to what is expected. these noun phrases behave like surface or underlying objects in nominative languages. There are also semantic analyses of the two types of intransitive verb s mentioned above and these are neutral with respect to the ergative hypothesis. The overviews in van Valin (1990), Dowty (1991), and Primus (1994) clarify the matters typologically: the two types of intransitive verbs characterize what is commonly called split intransitivity within more recent research. Split intransitivity is the defining property of the active language type. References Anderson, J.M. 1971. The grammar of case. Cambridge. Burzio, L. 1981. Intransitive verbs and Italian aux- iliaries. Cambridge, MA. ——1986. Italian Syntax: a Government—Binding approach. Dordrecht. Comrie, B. 1978. Ergativity. In W.P.Lehmann (ed.). Syntactic typology: studies in the phenomenology of language. Austin, TX. 329–94. Davies, W.D. 1984. Antipassives: Choctaw evidence for universal characterization. In D.M.Perlmutter and C.G.Rosen (eds), Studies in relational grammar. Chicago, IL. 331–76. Dixon, R.M.W. (ed.) 1987. Studies in ergativity. Lingua 71 (special issue). Dowty, D. 1991. Thematic proto-roles, proto-roles, and argument selections. Lg 67.547–691. Grewendorf, G. 1989. Ergativity in German. Dordrecht. Keyser, J. and T.Roeper. 1984. On the middle and ergative constructions in English. LIn 15.381– 416. Levin, B. and M.Rappaport Hovav. 1992. The lexical semantics of verbs of motion: the perspective from unaccusativity. In I.Roca (ed.), Thematic structure: its role in grammar. Berlin and New York. 247–69. Lyons, J. 1968. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Cambridge. Perlmutter, D.M. 1978. Impersonal passives and the unaccusative hypothesis. PBLS 4.157–89. Berkeley, CA. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1242 Primus, B. 1994. Relational typology. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds). Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. Vol. 2, 1076–109. Shannon, T. 1990. The unaccusative hypothesis and the history of the perfect auxiliary in Germanic and Romance. In H.Andernes and K.Koerner (eds), Historical linguistics, 1987. Amsterdam. 461–88. Valin, R.D. van. 1990. Semantic parameters of split intransitivity. Lg 66.221–60. van den Besten, H. 1985. Some remarks on the Ergative Hypothesis. In W.Abraham (eds), Erklärende Syntax des Deutschen. Tübingen. 53–74. unaccusative hypothesis unchecked unaccusative checked vs unchecked uncial A wide-spread Roman book script whose capital letters are rounded off and have no broken lines. References writing underlying form (also underlying representation) In generative phonology, the hypothetical abstract base form described with binary distinctive features and transformed by phonological rules (such as assimilation, palatalization, and others) into their respective concrete (i.e. phonetic) forms. Fo example, in representing devoicing of voiced consonants, one proc eeds from underlying for fished, as opposed to ) ( voiced vs voiced consonants (hence: voiceless). The voiceless variants of the surface structure are given through a corresponding phonological rule. ‘Room for play’ between the underlying form and the r A-Z 1243 realized form becomes more and more restricted with regard to requirements such as abstractness controversy). learnability ( References phonology underlying representation form underlying structure unification underlying deep structure unification grammar unification grammar 1 In its broadest sense, an umbrella term for all generative grammar models, especially those generative grammars that use a unification operation in their rule systems. 2 In a narrower sense, a member of a family of newer grammatical models in which feature unification is used (usually in conjunction with other feature operations) to capture the information flow in derivation. Various particular approaches belong to this group: grammatical models like Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (GPSG) and Lexical-Functional Grammar (LFG), grammatical formalisms capable of producing expressions for implementation on the computer, like Functional Unification Grammar (FUG) and PATR-II; as well as a series of newer models that present forms mixed from existing approaches and theories like Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG) and Categorial Unification Grammar (CUG). Since all these models were developed at Stanford University and at neighboring institutions in the San Francisco Bay Area, they are known as Bay Area Grammars. Other terminology includes Unificationbased Grammars, Constraint-based Grammars, and Information-based Grammars. Unification grammar is based on the further development of linguistic features. Every linguistic unit (word or phrase) is characterized by a feature structure, that is, by a number of attribute-value pairs, whose values can be either atomic symbols or feature Dictionary of language and linguistics 1244 structures. Attributive values within a feature structure can be coreferential (also coindexed), that is, they can describe the same linguistic unit. Feature structures for syntactic units are often termed ‘complex categories.’ They are usually represented as feature matrices (Figure 1) or feature graphics (Figure 2). In the following simplified feature structure of a verb, the coreference of the [AGR] features induces the agreement between the verb and the subject. Figure 1 Feature matrix Figure 2 Equivalent feature graph In a unification grammar, phrase structure rules indicate which parts of the feature structure of a syntactic unit are coreferent with which parts of the feature structure of their immediate constituents and which are co-referent ( coreferentiality) with the feature structure of the immediately dominating constituent. These coreferences between the descriptions of the constituents in a syntactic tree take care of the information flow in syntactic derivation and are used to represent dependencies between constituents (agreement, government, control, and non-local dependencies). Coreference of two feature structures means that their contents are ‘unified.” If the contents do not contradict each other (i.e. assign incompatible values to at least one feature), the result is unification by the addition of the information in the two unified structures. In the case of a contradiction, the unification does not succeed, and a special categorysi generated which A-Z 1245 signals the inconsistency. The unification is usually expressed by brackets, which include the feature structures to be unified. Equivalent notations for Figures 1 and 2 are: A unification grammar was first suggested by Kay (1979). Independent representational formalisms with unification structures were developed in related work in the area of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence (AitKaci 1984; Smolka and AitKaci 1987). The semantics of unification formalisms was veloped de by Kaspar and Rounds (1986), Johnson (1988), and Smolka (1988). The result of this work is a feature logic with a bundle theory semantics. A special property of unification grammar is its declarativity. This results from the monotonicity of the unification operation. The order of the steps applied is unimportant for the result of a derivation. In this respect, unification grammar is particularly suited to computational linguistics, since the grammar allows for multiple strategies. It is also not bound to a particular direction of processing; so the same grammar can be used or f parsing and generation. Models of unification grammar are differentiated by the role which the phrase structure plays in the syntactic description. In most models, a context-free phrase structure tree is constructed by syntactic rules. The feature structures are associated with the phrase structure nodes and bound together by co-references. In other models (like FUG or HPSG), the phrase structure itself is represented inside the feature structure, so the feat ure structure is adequate for description. The models also differ in the extensions they use. Frequently used extensions of the grammatical formalisms are generalization or disjunction, templates (feature macros, type-names), functional uncertainty and value bundle features. Significant differences are also found in the expansion of the types of description on the grammatical level: while, for example, GPSG describes only syntactic conformities with the help of feature structures, the feature-based descriptions of HPSG also extend to semantics and phonology. While there are only a few investigations in phonology and phonetics, in semantics there are several attempts to integrate situation semantics and discourse representation theory into models of unification grammar (e.g. Johnson and Klein 1986; Fenstad et al. 1987; Pollard and Sag 1988). In addition to the models of Bay Area Grammar, in their broadest sense later developments like Tree Unification Grammar (TUG) are also unification grammars (Popowich 1989). It is also necessary to include the logical grammars from the tradition of logic programming, in which the feature structures are represented by logic terms and term unification plays the role of feature unification. Theoretically, every formal generative grammar model could probably be encoded as a unification grammar. Thus there are already suggestions that existing grammatical models like dependency grammar and Tree-Adjoining Grammar be supplemented by using the tools of unification grammar (Hellwig 1986; VijayShanker and Joshi 1988). Dictionary of language and linguistics 1246 References Ait-Kaci, H. 1984. A new model of computation based on a calculus of type subsumption. Philadelphia, PA. Bresnan, J. (ed.) 1982. The mental representation of grammatical relations. Cambridge, MA. Calder, J., E.Klein, and H.Zeevat. 1988. Unification Categorial Grammar: a concise, extendible grammar for natural language processing. In COLING 88. Budap est. Vol. 1.83–6. Fenstad, J.E., P.K.Halvorsen. T.Langholm. and J. van Benthem. 1987. Situations, language and logic. Dordrecht. Gazdar, G. et al. 1985. Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar. Cambridge, MA. Hellwig, P. 1986. Dependency Unification Grammar. In COLING 86. Bonn. 195–8. Johnson, M. 1988. Attribute—value logic and the theory of grammar. Stanford, CA. Johnson, M. and E.Klein. 1986. Discourse, anaphora and parsing. In COLING 86. Bonn. 669–75. Kasper, R. and W.Rounds. 1986. A logical semantics for feature structures. In ACL proceedings 24. New York. 257–66. Kay, M. 1979. Functional Grammar. PBLS 5.142–58. ——1984. Functional Unification Grammar. In COLING 84. Stanford. CA. 75–8. ——1985. Parsing in Functional Unification Grammar. In D.Dowty, L.Karttunen. and A. Zwicky (eds), Natural language parsing. Cambridge. 251–78. Pollard, C. and I.A.Sag. 1988. An information-based syntax and semantics, vol. 1: Fundamentals. (CSLI Lecture Notes 13.) Stanford, CA. Popowich, F. 1989. Tree Unification Grammar. In ACL proceedings 27. Vancouver. 228–36. Shieber, S.M. et al. 1983. The formalism and imple-mentation of PATR-II. In Research on interactive acquisition and use of knowledge. (SRI international.) Menlo Park, CA. 39–79. ——1986. An introduction to un ificationbased approaches to grammar. (CSLI Lecture Notes 4.) Stanford, CA. Shieber, S.M., L.Karttunen, and F.Pereira (eds) 1984. Notes from the unification underground. (SRI Technical Note 327.) Menlo Park, CA. Smolka, G. 1988. A f eature logic with subsorts.LILOG In Report 33. Stuttgart. Smolka, G. and H.Ait-Kaci. 1987. Inheritance hierarchies: semantics and unification. Journal of Symbolic Computation 7.343–70 . Uszkoreit, H. 1986. Categorial Unification Grammars. In COLING 86. Bonn. 187–94. ——1988. From feature bundles to abstract data types: new directions in the representation and processing of linguistic knowledge. In A.Blaser (ed.), Natural language at the computer. Berlin. 31–64. Vijay-Shanker, K. and A.K.Joshi. 1988. Feature structure based tree adjoining grammars. In COLING 88. Budapest. Vol. 2, 714–19. A-Z 1247 unilateral implication union set implication set unique morpheme pseudomorpheme, semi-morpheme unitary base hypothesis In Aronoff s (1976) theory of word formation, a presupposed condition that the syntacticsemantic specification of the base of every word formation rule is always unambiguous. According to the unitary base hypothesis, one and the same affix cannot be combined with two or more categories. Apparent counterexamples like N-able (fashionable) and V-able (acceptable) can be traced to homonymic affixes. Reference Aronoff, M. 1976. Word formation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. universal [Lat. universalis ‘having general application’] (also language universal) Grammatical universals are properties (or hypotheses about such properties) which are common to all human languages. According to Greenberg (1966), the following formal and logical typology of universals can be postulated: (a) unrestricted universals (e.g. every language has vowels); (b) unidirectional implications between two properties (e.g. if a language has a dual in its number system, then it also has a plural, but not vice versa); (c) limited equivalence, which refers to bidirectional implications between nonuniversal properties (e.g. if a language has a lateral click, then it also has a dental click and vice versa); (d) statistical universals, which have the character of quasiuniversals (e.g. with very few exceptions, nasals occur in all the world’s languages); (e) statistical Dictionary of language and linguistics 1248 correlations, which refer to the relations between properties (such as, if a certain property is present, e.g. a specification of the second person singular, then the probability of the third person being specified is greater than if the second person is not specified). Studies attempting to explain language universals generally assume one of the following three basic theoretical points of departure. (a) All languages have developed from one common language. Because all languages seem to be subject to constant change, this explanation is usually unsatisfactory. (b) Language fulfills the same functions in all language communities, and this has conditioned similar gram matical structures in all languages. (c) All languages have the same biological basis in humans with regard to their i nnate speech ability. Points (b) and (c) are not always mutually exclusive, but may actually complement each other. In the model going back to Noam Chomsky, universals are the basis of the innate language acquisition device, which enables children to learn the complex grammar of a natural language in a very short time ( universal grammar). On universals of language change, see Kiparsky in Bach and Harms 1968, King 1969. References Bach, E. and R.T.Harms. 1968. Universals in linguistic theory. New York. Butterworth, B., B.Comrie, and Ö.Dahl (eds) 1984. Explanations for language universals. Berlin. Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA. ——1975. Reflections on language. New York. Comrie, B. 1981. Language universals and linguistic typology. Oxford. (2nd edn 1989.) Croft, W. 1990. Typology and universals. Cambridge. Décsy, G. (ed.) 1988. A select catalog of language universals. Bloomington, IN. Goddard, C. and A.Wierzbicka (eds) 1994. Semantics and lexical universals. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Greenberg, J.H. (ed.) 1963. Universals of language. Cambridge, MA. ——1966. Language universals, with special reference to feature hierarchies. The Hague. ——1986. The role of universals in linguistic explanation. Stanford, CA. Greenberg J.H. et al (eds) 1978. Universals of human language. 4 vols. Stanford, CA. Hawkins, J.A. (ed.) 1988. Explaining language universals. Oxford. Hawkins, J.A. and M.Grell-Mann (eds) 1992. The evolution of human languages. Reading. MA. King, R. 1969. Historical linguistics and generative grammar. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Lehmann, W.P. 1978. Syntactic typology: studies in the phenomenology of language. Austin, TX. Rutherford, W.E. 1987. Language universals and second language acquisition, 2nd edn. Amsterdam. Seiler, H. et al. (eds) 1982–6. Apprehension, 3 vols. Tübingen. Seiler, H. and W.Premper. 1989. Partizipation. Tübingen. language typology, semantics A-Z 1249 universal grammar 1 general grammar 2 In N.Chomsky’s Revised Extended Standard Theory (=REST) of transformational grammar, universal grammar corresponds to the genetically determined biological foundations of language acquisition. The goal of linguistic description is to postulate general traits and tendencies in all languages on the basis of studies on grammars of individual languages. These universal structures are seen in correlation with psychological phenomena of linguistic development. The concept of universal grammar is based on the assumption of an unmarked core grammar describing the ‘natural case,’ which is seen as part of competence ( competence vs performance). Through maturation, i.e. actualization of the rules and constraints in individual languages, the specific individual grammar is developed on the basis of universal grammar. ( also markedness) References Arnold, D. et al. (eds) 1989. Essays on grammatical theory and universal grammar. Oxford. Chomsky, N. 1975. Reflections on language. New York. Cook, V. 1988. Chomsky’s universal grammar. Oxford. Eubank, L. 1990. Point counterpoint: universal grammar in the second language. Amsterdam. Halle, M, J.Bresnan, and G.A.Miller (eds) 1978. Linguistic theory and psychological reality. Cambridge, MA. Hornstein, N. 1990. As time goes by: tense and universal grammar. Cambridge, MA. Lightfoot, D. 1991. How to set parameters: arguments from language change. Cambridge, A. M Saleemi, A.P. 1992. Universal grammar and language learnability. Cambridge. Smith, C.S. 1991. The parameter of aspect. Dordrecht. Speas, M.J. 1990. Phrase structure in natural language. Dordrecht. White, L. 1989. Universal grammar and second language acquisition. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. language acquisition, language acquisition device, logical form, sign language, transformational grammar universal language 1 Artificial language usually modeled after a mathematical system of signs and used as a formal language and a means of representing information in philosophy and science. G.W. Leibniz’s idea of a ‘characteristica universalis,’ in which the logical relationship of simple ideas to complex thoughts was to be illustrated through corresponding combinations of signs, is particularly well known. In the modern notational system of Dictionary of language and linguistics 1250 mathematics, formal logic, physics, and chemistry, the ideal of a universal language has become partly realized. interlingua 2 universal operator operator universal proposition Proposition about all elements (individuals, states of affairs, and the like) of a particular domain, in contrast to existential propositions which refer to at least one element of a certain domain. In formal logic, universal propositions are symbolized by means of the so-called unive rsal quantifier: x [H(x)→M(x)], read as: ‘for every x it is the case that if x has the property H (e.g. “being human”), then it also has the property M (e.g. “being mortal”).’ As a rule, propositions about scientific laws take the form of universal propositions. universal quantifier unmarked word order unmotivated unrounded operator word order arbitrariness rounded vs unrounded unrounding (also delabialization) A-Z 1251 Articulatory change (usually caused, in turn, by other processes of change) of rounded front vowels to less marked, ‘simpler’ unrounded vowels, e.g. the unrounding of the front vowels [y, ø] brought about by umlaut to [i, e] in English and in some German dialects. ( also labialization) References language change, sound change upper case vs lower case capital vs small Uralic Language family of northwestern Asia and eastern Europe consisting of two branches: the Finno-Ugric languages (about twenty languages, 22 million speakers, Finnish and Hungarian are the best known) and the Samoyedic languages in the Urals (about five languages, 30 ,000 speakers, largest language Nenets). Yukagiric in northern Siberia (a few hundred speakers) is probably related to the Uralic languages; both are generally combined into a Uralic-Yukagiric language group. A possible relationship to the Altaic languages has been suggested, as well as to Chukchi ( PaleoSiberian) and IndoEuropean. The relatedness of the Uralic languages was already established before that of the Indo-European languages (the Finno-Ugric languages in the seventeenth century, the Uralic languages altogether at the end of the eighteenth century by the Hungarian S.Gyarmathi). Characteristics: typologically quite diverse; most have rich morphology (agglutinating). Well-developed case systems, often with numerous adverbials, e.g. locative case. The verb often agrees with the subject and the object, which can sometimes show focusing. Word order: SOV, sometimes SVO or free word order. Negation expressed by an auxiliary. No true sentence conjunction; instead, numerous infinitive forms for subordinating clauses (converbs). In the smaller languages dual pronominal forms sometimes occur; number marking with nouns is not well developed. A large inventory of vowels; vowel harmony is widespread. References Abondolo, D. (ed.) 1996. The Uralic languages. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1252 Bouda, K. 1952 Die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der tschuktschischen Sprachgruppe (Tschuktschisch, Korjakisch, Kamtschatkisch). Salamanca. Collinder, B. 1960. Comparative grammar of the Uralic languages, handbook 3. Stockholm. ——1965a. Hat das Uralische Verwandte? Eine sprachvergleichende Untersuchung. Uppsala. ——1965b. An introduction to the Uralic languages. Berkeley, CA. ——1969. Survey of the Uralic languages , hand-book 2, 2nd edn. Hamburg. Comrie, B. 1981. The languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridge. Hajdú, P. and D.Hajdú. 1987. Die uralischen Sprachen und Literaturen. Hamburg. Sinor, D. (ed.) 1988. The Uralic languages. Description. history and foreign influences. (Handbuch der Orientalistik 8. vol. I.) Leiden. Etymological dictionaries Collinder, B. 1977. An etymological dictionary of the Uralic languages. handbook 1, 2nd edn. Hamburg. Reidei, K. 1988–91. Uralisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. 3 vols. Wiesbaden. Journal Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougriénne. Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher. Urdu use Hindi-Urdu usage vs use user modeling In dialogue systems, a component which attempts to be sensitive to the various sorts of users a system may encounter. Such user modeling takes into account user aspects, such as the degree of domain expertise, the degree of system familiarity (knowing how to use the specific system), the various purposes a system may serve for users, and perhaps even past system use. The linguistic basis of user modeling is found in speech act theory and conversation analysis. A-Z 1253 References Computational Linguistics. 1988. Special issue in user modeling. Wahlster, W. and A.Kobsa (eds) 1988. User modeling in dialog systems. Berlin. Journal User Modeling and User-Adapted Interaction. Uto-Aztecan Language family of North and Central America with approx. twenty-five languages divided into 8 different branches. Among the Uto-Aztecan languages are Nahuatl, the language of the Aztec empire (today approx. 1.2 million speakers in Mexico), Tarahumara in northern Mexico (about 35,000 speakers), Pima-Papago (about 25,000 speakers) and Hopi (about 7,000 speakers) in Arizona. The reconstruction of UtoAztecan is surprisingly advanced; it was proposed as a group in 1859 by J.K.Buschmann. Typologically the Uto-Aztecan languages are very diverse. References Bright, W. (ed.) 1992. The collected works of Edward Sapir, vol. X: Southern Paiute and Ute linguistics and ethnography. Berlin and New York. Campbell, L. 1985. The Pipil language of El Salvador. Berlin. Givón, T. 1981. A grammar of Ute. Ignaciao. Hill, J.H. 1983. Language death in Uto-Aztecan. IJAL 49. 258–76. Langacker. R. 1977–. Studies in Uto-Aztekan grammar. Arlington, V A. Miller, W.R. 1967. Uto-Aztecan cognate sets. Berkeley and Los Angeles. CA. ——1984. The classification of Uto-Aztekan languages based on lexical evidence. IJAL 50. 1–24. Steele, S. 1979. Uto-Aztecan: an assessment for historical and comparative linguistics. In L.Campbell and M.Mithun (eds). The languages of native America: historical and comparative assessment. Austin, TX. 444–544. Voegelin, C.F., F.M.Voegelin, and K.L.Hale. 1962. Typological and comparative grammar of UtoAztecan. Baltimore, MD. North and Central American languages Dictionary of language and linguistics 1254 utterance 1 The string of sounds or written symbols produced by a speaker between two pauses. An utterance can consist of a single word or several sentences. As opposed to the abstract term sentence which relates to the level of langue ( langue vs parole), the utterance works on the level of the parole and refers to actual speech sequences in specific situations. (also competence vs performance 2 speech act theory utterance act In J.R.Searle’s speech act theory, a part of the performance of a speech act: the utterance of morphemes, words, sentences. An utterance act for Searle corresponds to Austin’s phonetic act and phatic act. ( also locution) References Austin, J.L. 1962. How to do things with words. Oxford. Searle, J.R. 1969. Speech acts: an essay in the philosophy of language. Cambridge. uvula Protuberance at the back end of the velum used as a place of articulation in the formation of uvular sounds. References phonetics A-Z 1255 uvular Speech sound classified according to its place of articulation (uvula), e.g. the voiced fricative or in Fr. ‘rouge,’ the voiceless plosive [q] in Greenlandic [qa'jaq] ‘kayak’ ‘anorak.’ References phonetics Uzbeki Turkic Dictionary of language and linguistics 1256 V vagueness Term that is complementary to ambiguity: whereas ambiguity refers to ambiguousness which in the framework of grammatical models is represented th rough multiple descriptions, vagueness in the sense of ‘pragmatic indeterminacy’ is predictable, but not the object of internal linguistic representation. An expression is pragmatically vague with respect to certain semantic features which it leaves unspecified; e.g. person is not specified with reference to the features [male] vs [female], [old] vs [young]. References Channell, J. 1994. Vague language. Oxford. ambiguity valence [Lat. valere ‘to be worth’] (also valency) The term ‘valence’ comes from chemistry, where it is used to indicate the property of atoms to bind or replace a certain number of hydrogen atoms in a molecule. Its use in linguistics can be traced back to Tesnière (1959), although the concept of valence under different names can be found earlier in linguistics. Valence is the ability of a lexeme (e.g. verb, adjective, noun) to predetermine its syntactic environment in that it places certain requirements on the surrounding constituents in reference to their grammatical characteristics. Thus the verbs greet and help require a direct object (which cannot be omitted in the case of greet), inhabit requires a locative complement. Closely related to valence is the concept of valence dependency (also valence bind ing). In a sentence, a constituent X is valencedependent on a lexeme Y if at least one of the valence requirements of Y is present in X. In this case, X is a complement (Tesnière: actant) of the constituent containing Y. A-Z 1257 In the older literature based on Tesnière’s work, verbs are organized according to the number of complements they require: (a) zerovalence (also avalent) verbs, including impersonal verbs (although the it that is required can be considered to be a complement); (b) monovalent verbs: intransitive verbs such as exist, sleep; (c) bivalent verbs: transitive verbs with an object: love, leave, hear; (d) trivalent verbs such as give, inform, characterize. In newer works on valence, different classifications have been introduced which indicate not only the number, but also the type of complements that are required, especially in reference to semantic characteristics. In order to distinguish between obligatory complements and free complements (=optional, free adjunct) which are not required by the verb, many different criteria and tests have been suggested: elimination test, replacement test, derivation of embedded sentences, ability to be added freely, association test. None of these tests (and no combination of them) is 100 percent reliable, however. The concept of valence overlaps with traditional concepts such as government and transitivity, as well as with more recent concepts such as the relationship between argument and predicate, complementation and modification and thematic relations ( theta criterion). These, as well as the number of suggested tests, point to the lack of a single unifying concept of valence. Such a theory of valence would need to handle the following problems. (a) What are reliable tests for valence-dependency? (b) At what level of the grammar (syntax, semantics, pragmatics, lexicon) must valence be handled, and what are the relationships between the manifestations of valence at these different levels? (c) What is the status of valence theory in individual languages, universal theory, and the study of language change? (d) What significance does valence have for the production of didactically oriented dictionaries or grammars? ( also dependency grammar) References Abraham, W. (ed.) 1978. Valence, semantic case and grammatical relations. Amsterdam. Allerton, D.J. 1982. Valency and the English verb. London. Heringer, H.J. 1986. The verb and its semantic power: association as a basis for valence theory. JoS 4. 79–99. Lehmann, C. 1985. On grammatical relationality. FoLi 19. 67–109. Tesnière, L. 1959. Eléments de syntaxe structurale. Paris. Bibliographies Hays, D.G. 1965. An annotated bibliography of publications on dependency theory. Santa Monica, CA. Schumacher, H. and N.Trautz. 1976. Bibliographie zur Valenz und Dependenz. In H.Schumacher (ed.), Untersuchungen zur Verbvalenz. Tübingen. 317–43. dependency grammar Dictionary of language and linguistics Valencian valency 1258 Catalan valence value bundle feature An extension of the descriptive apparatus of unification grammar by features that can have more than one value. Value bundle features are used in Functional Unification Grammar, Lexical-Functional Grammar and Head-driven Phrase Structure Grammar. References unification grammar variability Phonetic variability of a vowel during articulation. The difference between the features ‘variable’ vs ‘constant’ represents the difference between diphthongs and monophthongs. References phonetics A-Z variable 1259 variability variable rule Concept developed by Labov (1969) and Cedergren and Sankoff (1974) to describe linguistic variation using statistical methods. A speaker’s choice between (at least) two linguistic (phonological, morphological, syntactic) alternatives and their dependency on linguistic and extralinguistic environmental conditions (phonological or syntactic context, discourse function of an utterance, situative context of a conversation, identity of the speaker with a particular social group, and so on) can be calculated using individual statistical models as an indication of the prob ability of use of a particular variable rule. References Cedergren, H. and D.Sankoff. 1974. Variable rules: performance as a statistical reflection of competence. Lg 50. 333–55. Labov, W. 1969. Contraction, deletion and inherent variability of the English copula. Lg 45. 715– 62. Rousseau, P. and D.Sankoff. 1978. Advances in variable rule methodology. In D.Sankoff (ed.), Linguistic variation: models and methods. New York. 97–117. Sankoff, D. 1988. Variable rules. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Soziolinguistik/Socolinguistics: an international handbook on the science of language and society. Berlin. Vol. 3, 984–97. variant Distinctive realizations of abstract linguistic units on all levels of linguistic description, e.g. the allophones [d] and [t], according to their distribution, form combinatory phonetic in said vs fished. There are also ‘free variants of the phoneme /d/, cf. [sεd] vs variants,’ whose distribution is not environmentally conditioned, cf. the different realizations of r in English. References phonology Dictionary of language and linguistics 1260 variational linguistics In sociolinguistics, descriptive approaches that presume the systematically ordered heterogeneity of natural languages. Such linguistic variants result from (a) spatial differences ( dialect), (b) class-specific linguistic behavior, (c) situative factors (e.g. formal vs informal conversational contexts), (d) stages of language acquisition, (e) language contact, and (f) the origin and development of pidgin and creole languages. In all cases phonological, morphological, syntactic, lexical, and pragmatic traits of linguistic behavior vary with regard to extralinguistic factors. Concerning the empirical investigation and the theoretical description of linguistic variations, two recent methodological positions can be differentiated: first, the concept of quantitatively determinable variable rules (see Labov, Cedergren and Sankoff); and second, the approach of implicational analysis (see DeCamp, Bailey, Bickerton). Besides the description of linguistic variety, variational linguistics is concerned with the problems of the origin and quantification of linguistic varieties in relation to extralinguistic factors, above all with certain aspects of applied linguistics such as linguistic norms, language acquisition, and language contact. References Bailey, C.-J.N. 1973. Variation and linguistic theory. Arlington, VA. Biber, D. 1991. Variation across speech and writing. Cambridge. Bickerton, D. 1971. Inherent variability and variable rules. FL 7. 457–92. Cedergren, N.J. and D.Sankoff. 1974. Variable rules: performance as a statistical reflection of competence. Lg 50. 333–55. Decamp, D. 1971. Implicational scales and sociolinguistic linearity. Linguistics 73. 30–43. Fasold, R.W. (ed.) 1983. Variation in the form and use of language. Washington, DC. ——1985. Perspectives on sociolinguistic variation. LSoc 14. 515–25. ——1990. The sociolinguistics of change. Oxford. Fasold, R.W. and D.Schiffrin (eds) 1989. Language change and variation. Amsterdam. Fasold, R.W. and R.W.Shuy (eds) 1975. Analyzing variation in language: papers from the second colloquium on New Ways of Analyzing Variation, 1973. Washington, DC. ——1977. Studies in language variation: semantics, syntax, phonology, pragmatics, social situations, ethnographic approaches. Washington, DC. Labov, W. 1969. Contraction, deletion and inherent variability of the English copula. Language 45. 715–62. ——1972. Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia, PA. Lieb, H.-H. 1993. Linguistic variables: towards a unified theory of linguistic variation. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. O’Donnell, W.R. and L.Todd. 1980. Variety in contemporary English. London. Quirke, R. 1995. Grammatical and lexical variance in English. London. Romaine, S. 1982. Socio-historical linguistics: its status and methodology. Cambridge. Sankoff, D. (ed.) 1978. Linguistic variation: models and methods. New York. ——(ed.) 1986. Diversity and diachrony. Amsterdam. ——1988a. Variable rules. In U.Ammon et al. (eds), Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Berlin and New York. Vol. 2, 984–97. A-Z 1261 ——1988b. Sociolinguistics and syntactic variation. In F.Newmeyer (ed.), Linguistics: The Cambridge survey. Cambridge. 140–61. Sankoff, D. and H.Cedergren (eds) 1981. Variation omnibus. Edmonton. Journals Language Variation and Change. implicational analysis, variable rule variety Generic term for a particular coherent form of language in which specific extralinguistic criteria can be used to define it as a variety. For example, a geographically defined variety is known as a dialect, a variety with a social basis as a sociolect, a functional variety as jargon or a sublanguage, a situative variety as a register. Vedic Indo-Aryan, Sanskrit velar [Lat. velum ‘sail’] Speech sound classified according to its place of articulation (velum), e.g. [kh] and [ŋ] in English [khiŋ] king. ( also articulatory phonetics, phonetics) References phonetics velaric 1 Of or referring to the velum. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1262 2 Sounds formed with the velaric airstream mechanism. velaric airstream mechanism mechanism velarization airstream secondary articulation velum Soft, sail-shaped membrane attached to the hard palate that is used as a place of articulation in the formation of velar sounds. References phonetics venetic Indo-European Venn diagram Representational model for set-theoretical relations introduced in mathematical logic by the English logician J.Venn (1834–1923). With the aid of overlapping circles (or ellipses), relations between sets are illustrated. See the diagrams under set. A-Z Veps 1263 Finno-Ugric verb [Lat. verbum ‘word’; translation of Grk ‘that which is said; predicate’] Type of word with a complex system of forms and functions. Verbs indicate phenomena which take place during time: activities, processes, and states. Morphologically, they are marked by conjugation, as well as the grammatical categories of voice, mood, tense, person, and number (the latter two in agreement with the subject), and in some languages, aspect. Because of its valence, the verb is the syntactic center of a sentence; it is related to the subject by agreement. Grammatically, finite forms ( finite verb form) non-finite verb form). Main verbs have are distinguished from non-finite forms ( different functions from modal auxiliaries in the formation of the predicate. The valence of the verb determines the number and kind of complements. The relationship between the subject and the verb is reflected in the distinction between impersonal and personal verbs; the object-verb relation is reflected in reciprocal ( reciprocity) and reflexive use of verbs. The pattern of conjugation determines whether a verb is regular or irregular ( irregular verb). Semantically, there exists a number of controversial classifications based both on semantics and syntax, such as the following: (a) action verbs (read, buy); (b) process verbs (run, swim, climb); (c) stative verbs (sleep, live, stay); (d) verbs of occurrence (succeed, happen); (e) weather verbs (rain, snow). References Aarts, B. and C.F.Meyer (eds). 1995. The verb in contemporary English. A theory and description. Cambridge. Bolinger, D. 1971. The phrasal verb in English. Cambridge, MA. Kilby, D. 1984. Descriptive syntax and the English verb. London. Lightfoot, D. and N.Hornstein (eds). 1994. Verb movement. Cambridge. Palmer, F.R. 1987. The English verb. New York. complementation, conjugation, valence verb of action (also action-denoting verb) Semantically defined class of verbs denoting activities: learn, sing, write, swim. ( static vs dynamic, stative verb) also Dictionary of language and linguistics verb of change 1264 transformative verb phrase (abbrev. VP) Syntactic category of generative transformational grammar which functions as the immediate constituent of the sentence and which must contain a verb. According to the valence of the verb, the number and kind of the obligatory complements may vary; in addition, any number of free complements are possible. The border between obligatory and free complements is often difficult to draw. References transformational grammar verba sentiendi Semantically defined class of verbs that denote processes of sensual perception, belief, opinion, thought, feeling, etc. (e.g. feel, believe, see, know, etc.). In Latin. verba sentiendi are constructed with the accusative and an infinitive (audio te ridere ‘I heard you laughing’). This type of construction is not possible in English, but is paralleled by constructions using the present participle or by that- or how-clauses: e.g. I saw him working, I saw that he was working, I saw how he was working. ( accusative plus infinitive construction) A-Z 1265 verbal adjective gerundive verbal agnosia agnosia verbal apraxia apraxia verbum substentium Term in Latin grammar for the verb esse ‘to be’ when it is not used as a auxiliary verb, but rather as a main verb with the meaning ‘presence,’ ‘existence,’ ‘behavior,’ and the like. verbal paraphasia paraphasia verbal repertoire 1 Seen individually, every set of linguistic varieties that a speaker commands and employs in specific contexts. 2 Seen collectively, the total set of all linguistic varieties that are at the disposal of the speakers of a speech community. verbal vs root compound In the word formation of Roeper and Siegel (1978), terms coined to denote two types of composition. Verbal compounds show, as their second element, a deverbal derivate; their first elements are understood as an argument of the base verb (oven-cleaner, strange- Dictionary of language and linguistics 1266 sounding, expert-tested). The relation that connects the first element with the second element of root compounds, on the other hand, is not grammatically given, but is also determinative compound, inheritance) basically open (apron string). ( References Roeper, T. and M.Siegel, 1978. A lexical transformation for verbal compounds. LingI 9. 199–259. Selkirk, E. 1982. The syntax of words. Cambridge. Verner’s law Discovered by the Dane Karl Verner in 1875 (published in 1877), an exception to the Grimm’s law) that was later designated as a ‘law’ by Germanic sound shift ( linguists. Based on comparative studies of Sanskrit and Greek with the Germanic dialects, Verner recognized that the placement of free word stress in Indo-European was the cause for apparent irregularities in the consonantism of etymologically related words which Grimm had dubbed ‘grammatical alternation.’ According to Verner’s observation, the Germanic voiceless fricatives [f, θ, χ, s] resulting from the Germanic sound shift became, in the proto-Germanic period, the corresponding voiced fricatives in medial and final position when in a voiced environment, if the immediately preceding vowel did not carry the main stress; cf. IE Goth. fadar (‘father’) in contrast to OInd. Goth. broþar (‘brother’). In the derivation of father the IE/Grk t developed into a voiced fricative (Goth. ), since the stress lay behind the dental, while in brother the IE/OInd. t, according to the Germanic sound shift, was shifted to a voiceless fricative. Phonetically, this sound change can be plausibly explained by differences in air pressure according to the position of the stress; phonologically it is a matter of phoneme splitting (sound change), that takes place when the free stress in Germanic is fixed on the root syllable since, at that point in time, the original (allophonic) complementary distribution was suspended. For synchronic reflexes of Verner’s law, grammatical alternation. References Collinge, N.E. 1985. The laws of Indo-European. Amsterdam and Philadelphia. 203–16. Prokosch, E. 1938. A comparative Germanic grammar. Baltimore, MD. Rooth, E. 1974. Das Vernersche Gesetz in Forschung und Lehre. Lund. Verner, K. 1877. Eine Ausnahme der ersten Lautverschiebung. ZVS 23, new series 3. 97–130. Germanic language change, sound change A-Z 1267 vibrant (also trill) Speech sound classified according to its manner of articulation, namely intermittent articulation through the vibration of the lower lip, the tip of the tongue, or uvula against the upper lip (or upper teeth), alveolar ridge, hard palate (or back of the tongue), cf. [r] in Italian ['ro:ma] Roma ‘Rome’; the fricative vibrant [r] in Czech ['dvora:k] Dvořák. The trilled r-sounds in Spanish, French, and German are vibrants. References phonetics Vietnamese Largest Mon-Khmer language (approx. 50 million speakers), official language of Vietnam. Characteristics: tonal language (six tones); twelve vowels, also diphthongs and triphthongs. Morphologically isolating. Word order: SVO. Numerous lexical borrowings from Chinese; Chinese characters were previously used, but now a Latin alphabet with diacritic marks for marking tone is employed. References Emeneau, M.B. 1951. Studies in Vietnamese (Annamese) grammar. Berkeley, CA. Khác Viên, N. et al. 1976. Linguistic essays. Hanoi. Tompson, L.C. 1965. A Vietnamese grammar. Seattle, WA. Van Chình, T. 1970. Structure de la langue vietnamienne. Paris. visible speech Process developed and so called by A.B.Bell as a way to make acoustic phenomena visible through corresponding graphic recording. Acoustic signals are measured with regard to quantity (=time co-ordinate), frequency (= pitch), and intensity (=amplitude) and made visible in spectrograms. Through such graphic representations of sound structures as they occur through time, speech sounds can be classified according to their Dictionary of language and linguistics 1268 acoustic characteristics. The binary phonological oppositions of Halle and Jakobson are based on the results of visible speech, which was developed originally as an aid for the instruction of deaf persons. References Bell, M. 1867. Visible speech: universal alphabetics of self interpreting physiological letters for writing of all languages in one alphabet. London. Jakobson, R. and M.Halle. 1956. Fundamentals of language. The Hague. (2nd rev. edn 1975.) visual agnosia agnosia vocabulary (also lexicon) 1 Total set of all the words in a language at a particular point in time. Quantitative data about the range of the vocabulary (e.g. over 1 million words for English) are problematic and depend on the particular estimate of the number of words (as ‘word’ is construed in each case) and whether vocabulary from sublanguages is counted as well. The average speaker has a vocabulary of approx. 6,000–10,000 words and exhibits great differences between his/her active and passive vocabularies. The vocabulary of a language can be categorized according to various criteria: (a) based on the semantic relations existing between words or groups of words, like synonymy, antonymy, etc.; (b) based on the formation of words (morphology); (c) based on the historical aspects of loan words, foreign words, or word families; (d) based on regional or social classes ( dialects, jargons, sublanguages); (e) based on the statistical frequency and usage ( frequency dictionary); and (g) based on pedagogic considerations ( basic vocabulary) for a graded vocabulary. References Aitchison, J. 1987. Words in the mind: an introduction to the mental lexicon. Oxford. Carter, R. 1987. Vocabulary: applied linguistic perspectives. London. Jackson, H. 1988. Words and their meaning. London and New York. 2 alphabet2 A-Z 1269 vocal cords [Lat. vocalis ‘producing a sound’] Cord-like folds of mucus membrane in the interior larynx composed of connective tissue and muscles that are used for phonation. ( also articulatory phonetics, phonetics) vocal tract The air passages above the larynx, in which speech sounds are produced: the laryngeal cavity, the pharynx, the nasal cavity, and the oral cavity. These four resonance chambers are connected on the inside to the vocal cords and on the outside to the openings in the nose and mouth. ( also articulatory phonetics) vocalic vs non-vocalic Basic phonologic opposition in distinctive feature analysis, based on acoustically acoustic phonetics, spectral analysis). analyzed and spectrally defined criteria ( Acoustic characteristic: in vocalic sounds, sharply defined formants appear on the spectrogram. Articulatory characteristic: unconstricted vs constricted airflow through the vocal tract. The distinctions between vowels and consonants are universal. Liquids have both consonantal and vocalic features. References Jakobson, R. et al. 1951. Preliminaries to speech analysis, vol. 18. Cambridge, MA. (6th edn 1965.) distinctive feature, phonetics vocative [Lat. vocare ‘to call’] Morphological case in Indo-European languages which serves to mark the person addressed by the speaker, e.g. Rum. Maria (nom.) vs Mario (voc.). In most modern Dictionary of language and linguistics 1270 IndoEuropean languages, the nominative case has replaced the vocative case for this function. References case vocative function of language appellative function of language vocoid contoid vs vocoid voice (also diathesis) Grammatical category of verbs which in nominative languages includes active, passive middle voice) forms. The choice of voice depends on and in a few languages middle ( the relationship between semantic roles ( agent, patient) and syntactic functions ( subject, object). In the active voice the performer of an action (agent) is designated by the subject, while in passive constructions the subject function is connected to other semantic roles (patient, benefactive, etc.) The middle expresses a process that originates from the subject and affects the subject ( reflexivity). There is also a middle construction without an agent subject: The vase broke. The three voices are realized differently in various languages: the middle is expressed by verb inflection in Sanskrit and Classical Greek, and by reflexive constructions in modern Indo-European languages. The use of active and passive depends primarily on stylistic and communicative functional considerations: because the active subject becomes an optional prepositional phrase in passive constructions and is usually no longer the first element in the sentence, passive constructions involve a change in the topic vs comment structure in that the original topic of the active sentence becomes part of the comment in the corresponding passive sentence ( topic vs comment). Cf. The thief was apprehended vs The police apprehended the thief. Older variants of transformational grammar as well as relational grammar treat active and passive sentences as synonymous paraphrases which can be derived from a common underlying structure. There are problems with this analysis in sentences with quantifiers, such as all, somebody and every, because the relative scope of the quantifiers A-Z 1271 changes, e.g. Everybody loves somebody (somebody in the scope of everybody vs Somebody (definite)) is loved by everybody (somebody outside the scope of everybody). References Andersen, P.K. 1991. A new look at the passive. Frankfurt. Bach, E. 1979. In defense of passive. LPh 3. 297–341. Barber, E.J.W. 1975. Voice: beyond the passive. BLS 1. 16–24. Beedham, C. 1981. The passive in English, German and Russian. JL 17. 319–27. ——1982. The passive aspect in English, German and Russian. Tübingen. Bresnan, J. 1978. A realistic transformational grammar. In M.Halle et al. (eds), Linguistic theory and psychological reality. Cambridge, MA. 1–59. ——1982. The passive in lexical theory. In J. Bresnan (ed.), The mental representation of grammatical relations. Cambridge, MA. 3–86. Davidson, A. 1980. Peculiar passives. Lg 56.42–66. Fox, B. and P.J.Hopper (eds), 1994. Voice: form and function. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Gazdar, G. and Sag, J. 1981. Passive and reflexive in phrase structure grammar. In J.Groenendijk et al. (eds), Formal methods in the study of language. Amsterdam. Givón, T. 1982. Transitivity, topicality and the Ute impersonal passive. In J.P.Hopper and S.A. Thompson (eds), Studies in transitivity. New York. 143–60. ——(ed.) 1994. Voice and inversion. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Haspelmath, M. 1990. The grammaticalization of passive morphology. Studies of language 14. 25– 72. Klaiman, M.H. 1991. Grammatical voice. Cambridge. Keenan, E.I. 1975. Some universals of passive in Relational Grammar. CLS 11. 340–52. ——1985. Passive in the world’s languages. In T. Shopen (ed.), Language typology and syntactic description. Cambridge. Vol. 1, 243–81. Parker, P. 1976. Language change and the passive voice. Lg 52.449–60. Siewierska, A. 1984. The passive: a comparative linguistics analysis. London. Shibatani, M. 1985. Passives and related constructions: a prototype analysis. Lg 61.821–48. ——(ed.) 1988. Passive and voice. Amsterdam. Stein, G. 1979. Studies in the function of the passive. Tübingen. voice disorder A distinction is drawn between organic and functional disorders. Organically based voice disorders derive from primary impairments of an organ used in phonation, for example, the larynx ( dysphonia) or the velum ( rhinophonia). A functionally based disorder constitutes an interference in the ability of the vocal organs to adequately perform their speaking or singing functions due to social-emotional factors (e.g. hysteria or depression) or environmental factors (e.g. hoarseness due to vocal abuse in a noisy workplace). Functional disorders may entail physical symptoms (e.g. edema), but these are considered to be secondary causal agents. Dictionary of language and linguistics voice mutation voice onset time 1272 breaking glottalization voiced vs voiceless Binary phonological opposition in distinctive feature analysis, based on acoustically acoustic phonetics, spectral analysis). analyzed and spectrally defined criteria ( Acoustic characteristics: presence or absence of a periodic component on the lower range of the spectrogram. Articulatory characteristics: periodic vibration or non-vibration of the vocal cords. In English, all vowels, the liquids [l, r], and the nasals [m, n, ŋ] are n to the voiceless voiced. The voiced consonants [b, d, g, v, z, ð, ] stand in oppositio consonants [p, t, k, f, s, θ, ∫]. Voiced and voiceless laterals are found in Greenlandic, cf ‹igdlo› ‘igloo’ vs [i’lυ] ‹ilo› ‘innards.’ Voiceless vowels are found in the NiloSaharan language Ik, in the SinoTibetan language Dafla, in the Altaic language ‘Hokusai.’ In the Pama-Nyungan language Baonang, and in Japanese, cf. Bandjalnag as well as in all other indigenous languages of Australia all vowels and all consonants are said to be voiced. In some languages (among others English), the distinction of voiced vs voiceless coincides with the opposition of tense vs lax. For diacritics, see the IPA chart on p. xix. References Jakobson, R. et al. 1951. Preliminaries to speech analysis, vol. 26, Cambridge, MA. (6th edn 1965.) distinctive feature, phonetics A-Z 1273 voicing assimilation assimilation Volapük Artificial language created by J.M.Schleyer in 1879 as an international language ( planned language). Volapük has a simple phoneticphonological sound system; its morphological structure is based on the agglutinating structure of Turkish; the vocabulary is primarily based on English roots, cf. the construction: vol- (from Eng. world)+-a- ‘genitive’+pük (from Eng. speak), hence ‘language of the world.’ Because the grammar of Volapük was generally too complicated and the word formation too arbitrary, it soon disappeared in favor of Esperanto. References interlinguistics Volgaic Finno-Ugric volitional [MLat. volition-, from Lat. volo ‘I wish’] Characteristic of a verbal action that is carried out intentionally. This feature plays a role as a syntactic category in Hindi ( Hindi-Urdu). Dictionary of language and linguistics Voltaic Vot 1274 Gur Finno-Ugric vowel [Lat. vocalis (sc. littera)] Phonetically, an approximant formed with pulmonic air (as a rule egressively, i.e. through exhaling), whereby the airstream encounters no obstruction (neither stopping or friction) in the resonance chamber. Ingressive vowels, in which the air flows into the initiating chamber, are only known as a paralinguistic phenomenon. In general, vowels are voiced ( voiced vs voiceless), or uttered in a murmuring or creaky voice. In English, all vowels are voiced. Murmured vowels are found in Gujarati Indo-Aryan): ‘twelve’ vs ‘outside,’ while vowels pronounced in a ( ‘ax.’ Voiceless vowels creaky voice are found in Lango (of Nigeria): [le:] ‘animal’ vs are found in some languages as free or combinatory variants, e.g. in Japanese ‘Hokusai’ and French rue ‘street’ (with [y] as an optional vowel in final position). Oral and nasal vowels are distinguished, e.g. in French [∫a] chat ‘cat’ vs [∫ã] champ ‘field,’ motte ‘clump’ vs monte ‘climbs,’ [mε] mais ‘but’ vs main ‘hand.’ (a) Regarding the place of articulation, a (rough) distinction is drawn between front (pre-dorso-palatal), middle (medio-dorso-velar), and back (post-dorso-velar) vowels. Occasionally, for simplification, front vowels are called palatals; all others are called velars. Front vowels of English are [i, ı, e, ε, æ], back vowels [u, υ, o, ], middle a]. (b) With regard to the degree of openness of the oral part of the vowels [ə, resonance chamber, a (rough) distinction is drawn between closed, mid, and open vowels. This distinction corresponds to the relative position of the tongue as being placed high, middle, or low. In a broad transcription of English vowels, [i, i, υ, v] are vowels with a high tongue position, [e, ε, ə, o, ] are vowels with a middle tongue position , and [æ, a, ] are vowels with a low tongue position. In a narrow transcription of English vowels, vowel a greater number of degrees of openness must be taken into consideration; ( chart). (c) With regard to the secondary articulation of labialization, a distinction is drawn between rounded and unrounded vowels ( rounded vs unrounded). In English, the rounded vowels are [u, υ, o, ], the unrounded vowels [i, e, ə, ε, æ, a, ]. If one gives the vowels in each of the groups (a)–(c) a single dimension, the vowels can be represented in a three-dimensional vowel block. A-Z 1275 *Occurs as first element in a diphthong Dictionary of language and linguistics 1276 Reference Rosner, B.S. and J.B. Pickering. The perception of vowels. Oxford. vowel block Schematic representation of the vowels according to the three dimensions (a) high (closed) vs low (open), (b) front vs back, (c) rounded (non-spread) vs unrounded (spread). In the graphic representation of the IPA chart, these three dimensions are shrunk to a pseudo-two-dimensional trapezium ( vowel chart). References phonetics vowel chart Schematized representation of the vowels in a geometric form. The classification rests on the physiological and articulatory actions of the tongue and lips in the production of the vowels. From the vowel chart originally developed by C.F.Hellwag (1754–1835), in which [i], [u], and [a] formed the corners of the geometric figure, the vowel ‘square’ (or trapezoid) was developed as the a-sound was differentiated into a front æ and a back a. The vowel chart has a three-dimensional basis: (a) vertical tongue or jaw height (high, middle, deep); (b) horizontal tongue placement (front, neutral/central, back); and (c) shape of lips (rounded, unrounded) ( vowel block). The vowel chart is recommended by the International Phonetic Association (IPA) for use as a classificatory schema for all vowel systems. ( also phonetic transcription) References Hellwag, C.F. 1781. Dissertatio de formatione loquelae. Tübingen. (Repr. Heilbronn, 1886.) Jones, D. 1950. The phoneme, its nature and use. Cambridge. phonetics A-Z 1277 vowel gradation ablaut vowel harmony 1 In the broad sense, every form of qualitative assimilation between vowels with regard to their place of articulation: e.g. all forms of umlaut. Vowel harmony is an assimilatory process that can be explained phonetically as a way to facilitate articulation. 2 In the narrow sense, qualitative dependence of the suffix vowel on the root vowel, cf. the distribution of the plural allomorph in Turkish {-ler, -lar} in evler ‘the houses’ and atlar ‘the horses’ and the Finnish case endings {-ssä, -ssa} in Helsingissä ‘in Helsinki’ and Saksassa ‘in Germany.’ References Hulst, H.van der and N.Smith (eds). 1988. Features, segmental structure and harmony processes. Part 2. Dordrecht. Vago, R.M. (ed.). 1980. Issues in vowel harmony. Amsterdam. historical linguistics, phonology vowel mutation VP umlaut verb phrase Vulgar Latin Latin Dictionary of language and linguistics 1278 W Wakashan Language family spoken primarily in Canada, one member, Makah, in Washington, USA. The most important languages are Nootka (about 1,800 speakers) and Kwakiutl (about 1,000 speakers). Wakashan is typologically similar to the neighboring Salishan languages. References Grubb, D.M. 1977. A practical writing system and short dictionary of Kwakw’ ala (Kwakiutl). Ottawa. Jacobsen, W.H. 1979. Wakashan comparative studies. In L.Campbell and M.Mithun (eds), The languages of Native America: historical and comparative assessment. Austin, TX. 766–91. Liedtke, S. 1994. Wakashan, Salishan and Penutian: Cognate sets. LDDS 9. Lincoln, N.J. and J.C.Rath. 1980. North Wakashan comparative root list. Ottawa. Sapir, E. and M.Swadesh. 1939. Nootka texts, tales and ethnological narratives, with grammatical notes and lexical materials. Philadelphia, PA. A-Z Wappo Warlpiri 1279 Gulf languages Australian languages Washo Hokan wave theory Originally developed by Schuchardt (1868) and perhaps independently, though later, by Schmidt (1872), image used to explain the origin and development of individual languages through gradual linguistic differentiation and not—as in Schleicher’s genetic tree theory—through abrupt branching. A nucleus of innovation is postulated which radiates outwards in the form of waves and spreads linguistic changes and developments, much like waves that are emitted and partly overlap when stones are dropped in water. Language varieties that are spatially and/ or temporally neighboring accordingly usually display a language inventory with correspondences common in many areas. A fundamentally new conception of this model has been developed in the recent approaches in the language change theories of variational linguistics and sociolinguistics. These are based on the assumption that a sound change first starts in restricted phonological contexts with minimal quantitative frequency and qualitative intensity within a certain social group in certain (usually informal) situations and then spreads successively, qualitatively intensified, to further phonological contexts, social groups, and situations, each with a larger probability of use, until finally it is categorically realized in all contexts with all speakers; the process of change is then completed. References Bailey, C.-J. 1973. Variation and linguistic theory. Arlington, VA. Goebl, H. 1983. Stammbaum und Welle. ZS 2.3–44. Pulgram, E. 1953. Family tree, wave theory, and dialectology. Orbis 2.67–72. Schmidt, J. 1872. Die Verwandtschaftsverhältnisse der indogermanischen Sprachen. Weimar. Schuchardt, H. 1868. Der Vokalismus des Vulgärlateins, vol. 3. Leipzig. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1280 weakening Phonetically motivated process of sound change that leads to the reduction of sounds and, in extreme cases, to loss of segments; typically this occurs in positions where assimilation is favored or in syllabically ‘weak’ positions (e.g. in final position, in unstressed syllables). Two types of weakening are distinguished. (a) Consonant weakening (also lenisization): this denotes a weakening of consonant strength (through a reduction in air pressure and muscle tension or an increase in sonority) to the complete loss of a segment; cf. the development of [p]>[b]>[β] in the comparison of Lat. lupus>OSpan. lobo [lobo] >Span. lobo [loβo] ‘wolf’ or the loss of [d] in comparison to Lat. vidēre with Span. ver ‘see.’ This process is also to be found in Celtic languages. (b) Vowel weakening: this is a term for all processes that lead to a weakening of the articulatory movement in the sense of an increasing centralization of vowels and finally a total loss of the vowel; cf. the loss of final vowels in English: OE nama [nama]>ME name [nεmə], Mod. Eng. name [neim]. Reduction processes of these types occur more often in less ‘carefully enunciated’ speech styles in informal situations. ( rapid vs slow speech) References sound change weather verb Verb belonging to the semantically and syntactically motivated subgroup of verbs which denote weather phenomena with no discernible agent (rain, snow). ( also impersonal verb, valence) weight principle (also principle of increasing constituents) Principle of word order formulated by O. Behaghel (‘Gesetz der wachsenden Glieder’) for German, which states that shorter constituents precede longer ones. The weight principle is assumed to be a universal word order rule within Functional Grammar (see Siewierska 1988; Dik 1989). Hawkins (1990, 1994) has shown that the short-before-long A-Z 1281 principle holds only for certain types of languages, such as English and German. In other language types (e.g. Japanese, Korean) longer constituents preferably precede shorter ones. Hawkins assumes that the weight principle belongs to language performance (i.e. language parsing or processing). References Behaghel, O. 1932. Deutsche Syntax. Vol. 4. Heidelberg. Dik, S. 1989. The theory of Functional Grammar. Dordrecht. Hawkins, J.A. 1990. A parsing theory of word order universals. LingI 21.223–61. ——1994. A performance theory of order and constituency. Cambridge. Primus, B. 1993. Word order and information structure: a performance-based account of topic positions and focus positions. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin. 880–96. ——1994. Grammatik und Performanz: Faktoren der Wortstellungsvariation im Mittelfeld. S&P 32.39–86. Siewierska, A. 1988. Word order rules. London. wellformedness constraints Welsh Celtic language spoken in Wales by approx. 400,000 speakers, belongs to the Brythonic group and is thus p-Celtic. Attested since the eighth century with a fairly rich literary tradition. The language was heavily influenced first by Latin, then later by Norman French and English. References Morris Jones, J. 1913. A Welsh grammar. Oxford. King, G. 1993. Modern Welsh: a comprehensive grammar. London. Stephens, M. (ed.) 1973. The Welsh language today. Llandysul. Thorne, D.A. 1993. A comprehensive Welsh grammar. Oxford. Dictionary Geiriadur Prifsgol Cymru. A dictionary of the Welsh language. 1950–. (Vol. 41 1990.) Cardiff. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1282 Wernicke’s aphasia Language disorder (also known as ‘fluent’ or ‘sensory aphasia’) named after the German psychiatrist Carl Wernicke (1858–1905). Unlike other acquired language disorders, Wernicke’s aphasia is associated with a great degree of fluency and unimpaired prosody. Other typical characteristics are: (a) frequent omissions, permutations, or additions sounds of (so-called ‘phonemic paraphasia’) ( jargon); (b) choice of semantically related words of the same syntagmatic category as the target word (so-called ‘semantic paraphasia’) ( neologism); (c) morphological errors; (d) problems with selection restrictions; and (e) in some languages, contamination of syntactic constructions ( paragrammatism). Comprehension of words and sentences is often severely impaired, though reading and writing may be less so. References Caplan, D. 1987. Neurolinguistics and linguistic aphasiology. Cambridge. Daffner, K.R. et al. 1991. Broca’s aphasia following damage to Wernicke’s area: for or against traditional aphasiology. Archives of Neurology 48.766–8. Ellis, A.W., D.Miller, and G.Sin. 1983. Wernicke’s aphasia and normal language processing: a case study in cognitive neuropsychology. Cognition 15.111–14. Kolk, H. and C.Heeschen. 1992. Agrammatism, paragrammatism and the management of language. Language and Cognitive Processes 7.89–129. Zurif, E. et al. 1993. An on-line analysis of syntactic processing in Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia. B&L 45 (special issue), 448–64. Wernicke’s area A region in the brain named after its discoverer, the psychiatrist Carl Wernicke (1858– 1905). It is located in the back part of the first temporal gyrus in the language dominant hemisphere, and is part of the supply area of the aorta temporalis posterior. Wernicke believed that this region was the center for sound images of words. A lesion in this area is said to lead to Wernicke’s aphasia. ( also language and brain, language area) References Caplan, D. 1987. Neurolinguistics and linguistic aphasiology. Cambridge. Wernicke’s aphasia A-Z 1283 West Atlantic Branch of the Niger-Congo languages with forty-three languages spoken in areas of West Africa extending, in the case of Fula, to Lake Chad. Other large languages are Wolof and Serer (Senegal). Characteristics: complex noun class systems are typical, with up to twenty-five classes; classes are marked by prefixes or suffixes, often connected to a change of the initial consonants of roots, agreement and a rich voice system (in Fula including middle voice). Reference Sapir, J.D. 1971. West Atlantic: an inventory of the languages, their noun class systems and consonant alternations. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 7, 45–112. West Germanic Germanic West Germanic consonant gemination gemination wh-island constraint A hypothesis of transformational grammar by which indirect questions introduced by question pronouns are islands for movement transformations. ( also propositional island constraint) References Reinhart, T. 1981. A second COMP position. In A. Belletti, L.Brandi, and L.Rizzi (eds), Theory of markedness in generative grammar. Pisa. 517–57. Rudin, C. 1981. ‘Who what to whom said’: an argument from Bulgarian against cyclic whmovement. PCLS 17.353–60. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1284 wh-movement In transformational grammar, the movement of a wh-node to initial position in a sentence ( COMP position). In Government and Binding theory, movements to a non-argument position include wh-movement and are differentiated from NP movement. also movement transformation, move-α) ( References transformational grammar wh-node The position in a sentence occupied by a question word or relative pronoun (e.g. who, why, what, when, where, which, and how). In transformational grammar it is assumed that question words and relative pronouns are positioned within the sentence at deep structure and are moved to the beginning of questions by wh -movement before surface structure. This sentence-initial position is the COMP position. Reference Rudin, Catherine. 1988. On multiple questions and multiple WH fronting. NL & LT 6(4).445–502. wh-question Interrogative sentence formed with an interrogative pronoun (who?, whom?, what?) or an interrogative adverb (when?, where?) which serves to make more precise a state of affairs which is already assumed to be known, for example, Whom did you meet at the concert? A-Z wh-word 1285 interrogative pronoun, whquestion Belorussian White Russian Winutian Wiyot Wolof Penutian Algonquian West Atlantic word Term used intuitively in everyday language for a basic element of language; numerous linguistic attempts at defining the concept are not uniform and remain controversial. A word is characterized by different, often contradictory traits depending on the theoretical background and descriptive context. Compare the following suggestions for defining words, listed according to their level of description: (a) phonetic-phonological level: words are the smallest segments of sound that can be theoretically isolated by word accent and boundary markers like pauses, clicks, and the like, and which are further isolated on a (b) orthographic-graphemic level by blank spaces in writing or print; (c) on the morphological level, words are characterized as the basic elements of grammatical paradigms like inflection and are distinguished from the morphologically characterized word forms, cf. write vs writes, wrote, written; they are structurally stable and cannot be divided, and can be described as well by specific rules of word formation; (d) on the lexical-semantic level, words are the smallest, relatively independent carriers of meaning that are codified in the lexicon, and (e) can be described syntactically as the smallest permutable and substitutable units of a sentence. Although the essence of all these definitions can be boiled down to the three components of acoustic and semantic identity, morphological stability, and syntactic mobility as the main criteria, the term ‘word’ has been subject to multifaceted terminological differentiation or given up in favor of Dictionary of language and linguistics 1286 concepts like morpheme, lexeme, and formative. In X-bar theory, the lexical category (notation: X0) is equal to the concept of ‘word.’ References Di Sciullo, A.M. and E.Williams. 1987. On the definition of word. Cambridge, MA. Hyman, L.M. 1978. Word demarcation. In J.H. Greenberg et al. (eds), Universals of human language. Stanford, CA. 443–70. Juilland, A. and A.Roceric. 1975. The decline of the word. Saratoga, CA. Kramsky, J. 1969. The word as a linguistic unit. The Hague. Lyons, J. 1968. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Cambridge. Zirmunsky, V.M. 1966. The word and its boundaries. Linguistics 27.65–91. Bibliography Juilland, A. and A.Roceric. 1972. The linguistic concept of word: analytic bibliography. The Hague. word atlas The dialect-geographical ( dialect geography) codification of lexical characteristics, whose recording is based on neutral questions such as ‘What do you call the paper receptacle used to carry groceries?’ On the basis of the answers a word map for bag/sack arises that shows the distribution of the two expressions in the given speech area. The word atlas was originally designed in Germany as a compendium to the German linguistic atlas and the techniques used to develop it have been of lasting influence on other atlas projects. References dialect geography, fieldwork, linguistic atlas word comparison Compilation of etymologically related words or word roots from different languages undertaken in order to document the genetic relationships on the lexical, phonological, A-Z 1287 and morphological levels, e.g.: Eng. mother, Ger. Mutter, OInd. mātár, Grk māter. , Lat. word expert Parsing with word experts is based on the assumption that the individual word is the linguistic unit relevant for the process of interpretation. In this way, parsing th wi word experts amounts to ‘lexical syntax’ in artificial intelligence. ‘Word experts’ are a basis for analytic processes; syntactic regularities are not explicitly represented, but are coded implicitly by the interaction of word experts. ( also artificial intelligence) Reference Small, S.C. and J.J.Rieger. 1982. Parsing and comprehending with word experts. In W.G.Lehnert (ed.), Strategies in natural language processing. Hillsdale, NJ. 89–147. word family Set of words within a language whose similar stem morphemes can be traced to the same etymological root, e.g. eat, edible, eatery, among others. One of the principal sources of such word families are the strong verbs ( strong vs weak verb) whose different vowel gradations ( ablaut) form the basis for new words. The number of elements of a word family depends on the meaning of the stem morpheme and on the frequency of its use. Often the etymological connection between words is not synchronically transparent, cf. borrow, bargain. Reference Keller, H.H. 1987. A German word family dictionary, together with English equivalents. Berkeley, CA. etymology, se mantic change Dictionary of language and linguistics 1288 word form The concretely realized grammatical form of a word in the context of a sentence. The word in the surface structure that corresponds to the lexeme as the (unalterable) abstract base unit of the lexicon is realized according to grammatical categories (such as tense, number, case, person, and so on) in altered ‘word forms,’ cf. picture, paint in Interesting pictures were painted. Reference Matthews, P.H. 1974. Morphology. London. (2nd edn 1991.) word formation Investigation and description of processes and rule-governed formation of new complex words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources. Depending on the areas of interest, word formation looks at the structure of the vocabulary from a historical-genetic or synchronic-functional aspect. The following are the main tasks of word formation: (a) classification of the elements of word formation, such as simple or complex words, base morphemes, derivational elements ( affix, prefix, suffix); (b) description of the types and models according to which the formations can be ordered structurally; (c) description of the semantic aspects of the processes involved in word formation. Word formation deals with the description of the structure of both nonce words and neologisms ( occasional vs usual word formation) as well as of set words (usual form, lexicalization). These must be viewed as two sides of the same phenomenon, for new words can arise only according to the already existing prototypes in the lexicalized vocabulary of the language. The greatest part of all word formations can be subsumed under derivation (the creation of new words through suffixes of a specific word class: read+er, read+ing, read +able), prefixation (attachment of a bound prefix to a free morpheme (un+readable, mis +interpret), composition (compounds of several free morphemes: fire+man, bath+room), and conversion2 (the change of word class of a stem: camp (noun)>camp (verb). Clippings, abbreviations, and blends are seen as peripheral processes of word formation. The decision about the role of word formation in the framework of a comprehensive grammar is dependent on the given presupposed language theory: since complex words on the one hand have typical lexical word characteristics (e.g. they are subject to lexicalization and demotivation), but on the other hand in part show similarities with regularities of sentence formation (relations of paraphrase, recursiveness), the issues of word formation touch upon morphology and syntax, on the formal side, and semantics, lexicology, and pragmatics. on the content side. Such different interpretations of word A-Z 1289 formation find their expression in the lexicalist vs transformationalist hypothesis particularly clearly, but also in more recent studies on word syntax. References Adams, V. 1973. An introduction to modern English word formation. London. Anderson, S. 1992. A-morphous morphology. Cambridge: Bauer, L. 1983. English word-formation. London. Bybee, J. 1985. Morphology. Amsterdam. Clark, E.V. and H.H.Clark. 1979. When nouns surface as verbs. Language 55.767–811. Di Sciullo, A.M. and E.Williams. 1987. On the definition of word. Cambridge, MA. Downing, P. 1977. On the creation and use of English compound nouns. Language 53.810–42. Dowty, D. 1979. Word meaning and Montague grammar. Dordrecht. Hammond, M. and M.Noonan (eds) Theoretical morphology. New York. Jackendoff, R. 1975. Morphological and semantic regularities in the lexicon. Lg 51.639–71. Kastovsky, D. 1978. Wortbildung und Semantik. Düsseldorf, Bern and Munich. Krahe, H. and W.Meid. 1967. Germanische Sprachwissenschaft, vol. 3: Wortbildungslehre. Berlin. Lieber, R. 1981. On the organization of the lexicon. Bloomington, IN. ——1983. Argument linking and compounds in English. LingI 14.251–85. ——1992. Deconstructing morphology. Chicago, IL. Lipka, L. 1972. Semantic structure and word formation: verb-particle constructions in contemporary English. Munich. Marchand, H. 1960. The categories and types of present-day English word-formation. Munich. (2nd edn 1966.) Matthews, P. 1974. Morphology. Cambridge. (2nd edn 1991.) Selkirk, E. 1982. The syntax of words. Cambridge, MA Spencer, A. 1991. Morphological theory. Cambridge. Stein, G. 1973. English word-formation over two centuries. Tübingen. Generative views Aronoff, M. 1976. Word formation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. Scalise, S. 1984. Generative morphology. Dordrecht. (2nd edn 1986.) Bibliography Seymour, R.K. 1968. A bibliography of word formation in the Germanic languages. Durham, NC. word formation rule Within the lexicalist approach ( lexicalist vs transformationalist hypothesis) of word formation, Aronoff (1976) was the first to work out the characteristics of the rules Dictionary of language and linguistics 1290 that generate new complex words in the lexicon on the basis of the words already present therein. The results of the word formation rules transfer directly into the lexicon as fully specified lexical units of the language. Later theo ries of word syntax are based on the assumption that the formation and interpretation of complex words represent the results of the modular interaction of different components of the grammar. Reference Aronoff, M. 1976. Word formation in generative grammar. Cambridge, MA. word grammar dependency grammar word meaning lexical meaning vs grammatical meaning word order (also linear precedence, serialization, topology) Word order refers to the linear relation of words and phrases within larger units. An important distinction in word order studies is that between rigid and variable, or free, word order. Rigid word order means that a change in the order of elements within a phrase changes the syntactic function and the semantic interpretation of these elements, e.g. That man sleeps vs man that sleeps; Philip sees Caroline vs Caroline sees Philip. Variable (or free) word order means that linear rearrangements do not trigger such grammatical changes, e.g. Philip I saw vs I saw Philip. Although many languages exhibit considerable word order variation, it is commonly acknowledged that no genuine free word order language exists. Therefore, word order studies are carried out in terms of linearization patterns that are commonly referred to as ‘basic (or dominant, unmarked, natural) word order.’ This term captures the fact that there are word order preferences, rather than strict word order rules in terms of the grammatical status of the elements involved. With regard to the major constituents of the clause ( syntactic function) the term ‘basic order’ is typically identified with the order that occurs in stylistically neutral, independent, indicative clauses with full noun phrase (NP) participants, where the subject is a definite human agent, the object is a definite non-human patient and the verb represents an action, not a state or a process ( process vs action). Since basic order A-Z 1291 refers to preferences pertaining to markedness, another criterion for basic order is its statistical dominance in texts (for problems with this criterion, see Siewierska 1988). The fact that basic order is stylistically (e.g. pragmatically) neutral can be tested by trying to use the relevant expression as an answer to different questions. By this heuristic criterion Philip I saw is established as a marked (or non-basic) order for English, because it cannot be an answer to a question such as What’s new?, Who saw Philip?, or What did you do? Word order studies have produced different rules for basic or rigid order, among which universals of basic order are of special interest. The characteristic of word order which is most often discussed is the relative order of S(ubject), O(bject), and V(erb). In most of the world’s languages, S almost always precedes O, so that of the six possible orderings of S, O, and V, the most common patterns are SOV (e.g. Turkish, Japanese), SVO (e.g. English, French), and VSO (e.g. Irish, Maori) (see Greenberg 1963; Mallinson and Blake 1981; Hawkins 1983; Tomlin 1986). The basic order of the major constitue ofnts the clause correlates with the basic order of minor elements, such as that of noun and attribute, adposition and its complement, complementizer and the rest of the embedded sentence. The universal principle underlying these correlations is that the head of a phrase tends to be placed at the same side of the phrase, preferably at its periphery (see Greenberg 1963; Vennemann 1974, 1976; Hawkins 1983, 1990). This principle explains the fact that in head-final languages the basic order is SOV, complementpostposition, sentence-complementizer, attribute-noun (e.g. Japanese, Turkish). In head-initial languages the order of these elements is reversed (e.g. Irish, Maori). The fact that rather few languages adhere to this principle consistently for all phrases is explained by language change, language contact, or other intervening factors (see Vennemann 1974). As to pragmatic word order rules, two competing universal preferences have been postulated: the theme of an utterance tends to precede the rheme ( functional sentence perspective, theme vs rheme); the reverse principle that most important and thus rhematic information precedes thematic information was put forward by Givón (1983, 1988); (for a critique of both assumptions, see Primus 1993: Hawkins 1994). It is generally agreed, that a sentence topic tends to precede the comment ( topic vs comment; Gundel 1988; Primus 1993). A ‘stylistic’ universal ordering preference which is based on language performance (see Hawkins 1990, 1994) is the weight principle. References Abraham, W. and S.de Meij (eds) 1986. Topic, focus, and configurationality. Amsterdam. Andersen, P.K. 1983. Word order typology and comparative constructions. Amsterdam. Behaghel, O. 1932. Deutsche Syntax. Vol. 4. Heidelberg. Bossong, G. 1989. Morphemic marking of topic and focus. In M.Kefer and J.van der Auwera (eds), Universals of language. Brussels. Campbell, L., V.Bubenik, and L.Saxon. 1988. Word order universals. CJL 33.209–30. Davidson, A. 1984. Syntactic markedness and the definition of sentence topic. Language 60.707– 846. Dik, S. 1989. The theory of Functional Grammar. Dordrecht. Downing, P. and M.Noonan. 1995. Word order in discourse. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Ebert, R.P. 1980. Variation study and word order change. CLS 16.52–61. Givón, T. 1983. Topic continuity in discourse: quantitative cross-language studies. Amsterdam. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1292 ——1988. The pragmatics of word order: predictability, importance and attention. In M.Hammond et al. (eds), Studies in syntactic typology. Amsterdam. 243–84. Greenberg, J.H. 1963. Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements. In J.H.Greenberg (ed.), Universals of language. Cambridge, MA. 73–113. ——1966. Language universals, with special reference to feature hierarchies. The Hague. ——1974. Language typology: a historical and analytic overview. The Hague. Gundel, J.K. 1988. Universals of topic-comment structure. In M.Hammond et al. (eds), Studies in syntactic typology. Amsterdam. 209–42. Hammond, M.T., E.A.Moravcsik, and J.R.Wirth (eds) 1988. Studies in syntactic typology, Part 2: Word order. Amsterdam. Hawkins, J.A. 1983. Word order universals. New York. ——1990. A parsing theory of word order universals. LJ 21.223–61. ——1994. A performance theory of order and constituency. Cambridge. Keenan, E.L. 1978. On surface form and logical form. In B.B.Kachru (ed.), Linguistics in the seventies: directions and prospects. Urbana, IL. Krifka, M. 1985. Harmony or consistency. TL 12.73–96. Lambrecht, K. 1987. Sentence focus, information structure, and the thetic-categorial distinction. BLS 13.366–82. Lehmann, W.P. 1978. Syntactic typology: studies in the phenomenology of language. Austin, TX. Li, Ch.N. (ed.) 1976. Subject and topic. New York. Mallinson, G. and B.J.Blake. 1981. Languagė typology. Amsterdam. Meisel, J.M. and M.D.Dal. 1979. Linear order and generative theory. Amsterdam. Nuyts, J. and G.de Schutter (eds) 1987. Getting one’s words into line: on the word order and functional grammar. Dordrecht. Pafel, J. 1993. Scope and word order. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 867–80. Payne, D.L. 1990. The pragmatics of word order: typological dimensions of verb initial languages. Berlin and New York. ——(ed.) 1992. Pragmatics of word order flexibility. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Primus, B. 1993. Word order and information structure: a performance-based account of topic positions and focus positions. In J.Jacobs et al. (eds), Syntax: an international handbook of contemporary research. Berlin and New York. 880–96. Pullum, G.K. 1977. Word order universals and grammatical relations. In P.Cole and J.M.Saddock (eds) Grammatical relations. New York. 249–78. Siewierska, A. 1988. Word order rules. London. Tomlin, R.S. 1986. Basic word order: functional principles. London. Uszkoreit, H. 1987. Word order and constituent structure in German. Stanford, CA. Vennemann, T. 1974a. Theoretical word order studies: results and problems. Papiere zur Linguistik 7.5–25. ——1974b. Analogy in generative grammar: the origin of word order. PICL 11.2. 79–83. ——1975. Word order and word order change. Austin, TX. ——1976. Categorial grammar and the order of meaningful elements. In A.Juilland (ed.) Linguistic studies offered to J.Greenberg, 3 vols. Saratoga, CA. 615–34. Vennemann, T. and R.Harlow. 1977. Categorial grammar and consistent basic VX serialization. TL 4.227–54. A-Z 1293 word stress stress2 word structure Following a suggestion by Williams (1981), analogy of the structure of complex words word formation) with the structural principles of phrases, especially with that of X( X-bar theory). As in phrasal syntax, the head constituent determines the bar syntax ( features of the whole word over the percolation mechanism, which is known from the syntax. In particular, the concept of ‘head’ is taken over in word structure in a variant that defines it according to its position, which constitutes a parameter determined by the individual languages. In English and German the head is on the right, in Hebrew and perh aps French on the left. In a relativized variant of the head concept, Di Scuillo and Williams (1987), unlike Selkirk (1982), assume that the inflectional affixes can function like the derivational suffixes as (relativized) heads with regard to the inflectional structure of the word. The set of categories in word structure is smaller than in the phrase syntax: the lexical categories N, A, V, and P (abbreviated: Xº) alone appear to participate in word formation processes, together with the bound affixes. Still, it is debated whether syntactic categories like NP, VP, and S can occur as non-head constituents. ( also syntactic affixation) References Selkirk, E. 1982. The syntax of words. Cambridge. Di Sciullo, A.M. and E.Williams 1987. On the definition of word. Cambridge, MA. Williams, E. 1981. On the notions ‘lexically related’ and ‘head of word.’ LingI 12.245–74. word syntax word syntax Application of more recent theories and knowledge of syntax to the structure of the word. also inheritance, theta criterion, word structure, X-bar theory) ( References Boase, J. and J.Toman. 1986. On θ-role assignment in German compounds. FoLi 20.319–39. Di Sciullo, A.M. and E.Williams. 1987. On the definition of word. Cambridge, MA. Selkirk, E. 1982. The syntax of words. Cambridge, MA. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1294 Toman, J. 1983. Wortsyntax. Tübingen. ——1986. Zu neueren Entwicklungen in der Theorie der Wortstruktur. StL 19.1–21. Williams, E. 1981. Argument structure and morphology. TLR 1.81–114. ——1981. On the notions ‘lexically related’ and ‘head of word.’ LingI 12.245–74. writing (also script) Means of recording spoken language through a conventionalized system of graphic signs. The millennia-old history of writing is strongly characterized by magic, religion, and mysticism, but also by the culturally and historically conditioned change in materials (stone, leather, bone, parchment), writing utensils, and writing techniques over the centuries. The numerous (and various) attempts at developing a typology of writing systems are based on different princi-ples of classification, though they all attempt to reflect the development of writing from the earliest signs that stood for objects, to the signs used in writing for words or meaningful units ( morpheme), to the phonetically also alphabetic writing system, cuneiform, graphemics, based alphabetic systems. ( hieroglyphics, ideography, logography, pictography, rune) References Cohen, M. 1958. La grande invention de l’écriture et son volution, 3 vols. Paris. Coulmas, F. 1971. Über Schrift. Frankfurt. ——1989. The writing systems of the world. Oxford. Coulmas, F. and K.Ehlich (eds) 1983. Writing in focus. Berlin, New York, and Amsterdam. Daniels, P.T. and W.Bright (ed.). 1995. The world’s writing systems. Oxford. Diringer, D. 1948/9. The alphabet: a key to the history of mankind. London. ——1962. Writing. London. Driver, G.R. 1976. Semitic writing: from photograph to alphabet. London. Gelb, I.J. 1952. A study of writing: the foundation of grammatology. London. Günther, H. and O.Ludwig (eds) 1994. Writing and its use: an interdisciplinary handbook of international research. Berlin and New York. Haarmann, H. 1990. Universalgeschichte der Schrift. Frankfurt. Hall, R.A., Jr. 1957. A theory of graphemics. Ithaca, NY. Harris, R. 1995. Signs in writing. London. Miller, D.G. 1994. Ancient scripts and phonological knowledge. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Nakanishi, A. 1980. Writing systems of the world: alphabets, syllabaries, pictograms. Rutland, VT. Olson, D.R. 1994. The world on paper. Cambridge. Pöldes-Papp, K. 1966. Vom Felsenbild zum Alphabet: die Geschichte der Schrift von ihren frühesten Vorstufen bis zur lateinischen Schreibschrift. Stuttgart. Sampson, G. 1985. Writing systems. London etc. Trager, G.L. 1974. Writing and writing systems. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 12, 373–496. alphabetical writing system A-Z 1295 written language 1 Generally speaking, the written counterpart of any variety of language. 2 More specifically, a particular type of a language that seeks to emulate a particular standard and is characterized by rules of usage. ( also standard language) References Akinnaso, F.N. 1982. On the differences between spoken and written language. L&S 25. 97–125. ——1986. On the similarities between spoken and written language. L&S 28. 323–59. Biber, D. 1988. Variation across speech and writing. Cambridge. Chafe, W.L. and D.Tannen. 1987. The relation between written and spoken language. Annual Review of Anthropology 16. 383–407. Danes, F. et al. (eds) 1992. Writing vs speaking. Tübingen. Redeker, G. 1984. On the differences between spoken and written language. DPr 7. 43–55. Stein, D. (ed.) 1992. Co-operating with written texts: the pragmatics and comprehension of written texts. Berlin and New York. Vachek, J. 1989. Written language revisited. Amsterdam. Wallace, C. 1988. Punctuation and the prosody of written language. Written Communication 5. 395–426. Wu Chinese Dictionary of language and linguistics 1296 X X-bar theory (also X-bar syntax) A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of contextfree phrase structure rules. This theory was developed by Chomsky (1970) and Jackendoff (1977) on the following premises: (a) all syntactically complex categories of all natural languages (NP, VP, PP, etc.) are formed according to universal structural principles; (b) all lexical categories can be defined according to a limited inventory of syntactic features like [±N] and [±V], e.g. verb=[+V, −N], noun=[−V, +N], adjective=[+V, +N], preposition=[−V, −N]; (c) a distinction can be made between the levels of complexity within phrases, such that phrases themselves (NPs, VPs, PPs) are maximally complex categories of the type N, V, P. Lexical categories of the type N, V, P are minimally complex. There is another level of complexity which falls between these two. The phrase the House of Commons [det N PP] is maximally complex because it cannot be expanded further as an NP. House [N] is minimally complex, while House of Commons [N PP] belongs to an intermediate category. The whole phrase can be denoted using the notation N2, N″, or House ; this level of projection is also referred to as NP. Nº House of Commons The House of Commons N N N1 N′ 2 N″ N Every possible phrase structure rule is derived from X in the general form Xi […Xj…], where (i) the dots stand for any number of categories of maximal complexi ty, and (ii) the indices i andj stand for the level of complexity of the category X and (iii) Xj cannot be more complex than Xi. Phrase structure rules like VP→A NP are ruled out by these constraints. The term ‘X-bar’ arises from the notation where one or more bars are placed above the constituent X to represent the levels of complexity. For that reason, the following notation may be used: X, X′, X″, X0, X1, X2, or X, projection can also be referred to as XP. , where the maximal A-Z 1297 References Bresnan, J. 1977. Transformations and categories in syntax. In R.Butts and J.Hintikka (eds), Basic problems in methodology and linguistics. Dordrecht. 261–82. Chomsky, N. 1970. Remarks on nominalization. In R.A.Jacobs and P.S.Rosenbaum (eds), Readings in English transformational grammar. Waltham, MA. 170–221. Edmonds, J.E. 1985. A unified theory of syntactic categories. Dordrecht. Hornstein, N. and D.Lightfoot. 1981. Explanation in linguistics. London. Jackendoff, R. 1977. Constraints on phrase structure rules. In P.W.Culicover, T.Wasow, and A.Akmajian (eds), Formal syntax. New York. 249–83. ——1977. X-bar syntax: a study of phrase structure. Cambridge, MA. Kornai, A. and G.Pullum. 1990. The X-bar theory of phrase structure. Language 66. 24–50. Speas, M. 1990. Phrase structure in natural language. Dordrecht. Stowell, T. 1981. Origins of phrase structure. Dissertation. Cambridge, MA. Stuurman, F. 1985. Phrase structure theory in generative grammar. Dordrecht. transformational grammar Xhosa Bantu Dictionary of language and linguistics 1298 Y Yao Miao-Yao yes-no question Interrogative sentence marked grammatically in English by inverted word order or interrogative intonation and which requires yes or no as an answer: Is Jacob coming? References interrogative Yiddish Variant of German which arose during the Middle Ages as a trade language of Jews in important centers of commerce (countries along the Rhine and Danube). Today the East European branch of Yiddish (language of the Ashkenazic Jews) has approx. 5 million speakers as either a native or a second language in Israel, Poland, Lithuania, the United States, Latin America, Argentina, Russia, and other countries. Yiddish, based on German from the late Middle Ages, is mixed with influences from Hebrew, Aramaic, Slavic, and the Romance languages. Due to migrations in the late Middle Ages, two branches of Yiddish developed: West Yiddish (extinct) and East Yiddish, differing primarily in their lexicons and sound systems. The unity of Yiddish was preserved until the nineteenth century by the use of the Hebrew alphabet, which is written from right to left. Because it did not undergo the changes of standard German, Yiddish represents a conservative phonological stage, which in many ways is identical to the German of the Middle Ages. Yiddish influence on English can be seen primarily in loan-words: meshuggene, shlock, etc. A-Z 1299 References Fishman, J.A. 1965. Yiddish in America: sociolinguistic description and analysis. Bloomington, IN. (=IJAL 31:2, pub. 36). ——1991. Yiddish: turning to life. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. Herzog, M. 1965. The Yiddish language in northern Poland: its geography and history. Bloomington, IN. (=IJAL 31:2, pub. 37.) Katz, D. 1987. Grammar of the Yiddish language. London. ——(ed) 1988. Dialects of the Yiddish language: papers from the second annual Oxford Winter symposium in Yiddish language and literature. Oxford. Weber, M.H. 1987. Yiddish. Cahiers de linguistique sociale 10. 6–129. Weinreich, U. 1960. College Yiddish: an introduction to the Yiddish language and to Jewish life and culture, 3rd rev. edn. New York. ——1980. History of the Yiddish language. Chicago, IL. Dictionaries Harduf, D.M. 1985. English-Yiddish, YiddishEnglish dictionary. Willowdale. Weinreich, U. 1968. Modern English-Yiddish, Yiddish-English dictionary. New York. Yokuts Penutian Yoruba Largest Kwa language (about 19 million speakers, southwest Nigeria). Characteristics: tonal language (three tones), nasal vowels, vowel harmony. Morphology: only derivation, no inflection. Word order: SVO. Logophoric pronouns ( logophoricity), serial verb construction. References Bamgbose, A. 1966. A grammar of Yoruba. Cambridge. Fagborun, J.G. 1994. The Yoruba koiné: its history and linguistic innovations. Munich. Rowlands, E.C. 1969. Teach yourself Yoruba. London. Dictionary of language and linguistics 1300 Bibliography Adewole, L.O. 1987. The Yoruba language: published works and doctoral dissertations 1843–1986. Hamburg. Yucatec Mayan languages Yue Yuit Yukagir Yuki Chinese Eskimo-Aleut Paleo-Siberian, Uralic Gulf languages Yukic-Gulf Gulf languages A-Z Yuman Yuorok Yupik 1301 Hokan Algonquian Eskimo-Aleut Dictionary of language and linguistics 1302 Z Zapotec Oto-Mangue Zenaga Berber zero morpheme 1 Morphologically non-overt grammatical determiner that is posited in the form of zero (Ø) for the purpose of maintaining regularity in inflectional paradigms for forms otherwise marked by affixes, for example for the unmarked plural forms in sheep, fish vs cats, fences or as a marker of the tense distinction in the verbs cut, hit vs sang/(has) sung, jumped /(has)jumped. ( also morphology) 2 In the word formation theory of Marchand (1960), postulated derivational suffix to account for the opposition of formations like legal+ize ‘to make legal’: clean+Ø ‘to make clean’ and atom+ize ‘to turn into atoms’: cash+Ø ‘to turn into cash.’ Since the semantic difference between clean (adjective), cash (noun) on the one hand and (to) clean and (to) cash (verbs) on the other hand is otherwise marked in the language systematically by a word formative like -ize, -ify, Marchand feels justified in assuming a non-overt correlate with the same content. The relevance of the zero morpheme for word formation is disputed by Lieber (1981). References Lieber, R. 1981. Morphological conversion within a restrictive theory of the lexicon. In M.Moortgat, H.van der Hulst, and T.Hoekstra (eds), The scope of lexical rules. Dordrecht. 161– 200. Marchand, H. 1960. The categories and types of present-day English word-formation. Munich. (2nd edn 1969.) morphology, word formation A-Z 1303 zeugma [Grk zeũgma ‘bond’] A figure of speech and type of abbreviation. Originally, it was a general term of grammatical ellipsis (e.g. He drank beer, she wine), but is now used more specifically for certain co-ordinated structures whose common predicate connects two semantically or syntactically unequal parts of the sentence: (a) syntactically incongruous zeugma: He’s drinking beer, we wine; (b) semantically incongruous zeugma: He travelled with his wife and his umbrella. Apokoinou is a special type of zeugma. References figure of speech Zipf’s law (also law of least effort) Regular correlation established through empirical observation and statistical procedures by G.K.Zipf between the number of occurrences of words in specific texts and specific speakers or authors and their ranking in a list of their overall frequency. The logarithms of both of these variables are in a constant relation to each other, i.e. the product of the rank and frequency is constant. This formula is independent of text type, age of the text and language, and is thus universal in nature, which Zipf attributes, among other things, to the economical principle of least effort, which underlies all human behavior. In addition, a correlation exists between the length of a word and its frequency. Just as in morse code, the most frequently occurring letter, ‘e,’ is given the shortest symbol, a single dot, so one-syllable words occur most often in a language. References Billmeier, G. 1969. Worthäufigkeitsverteilungen vom Zipfschen Typ, überprüft an deutschem Textmaterial. Bonn. Birkhan, H. 1979. Das Zipf’sche Gesetz, das schwache Präteritum und die germanische Lautverschiebung. Vienna. Collinge, N.E. 1985. The laws of Indo-European. Amsterdam and Philadelphia, PA. 256–8. Mandelbrot, B. 1954. Structure formelle des textes et communication. Word 10. 1–27. Zipf, G.K. 1935. The psycho-biology of language, 2nd edn. Boston, MA. Dictionary of language and linguistics zoosemiotics [Grk 1304 ‘living being, animal’] Term introduced by Sebeok (1963) that delineates a direction of study treating the investigation of specific kinds of animal communication systems (ants, bees, chimpanzees) ( animal communication) as well as the characteristics of communication in biological systems as a whole. Zoosemiotics, as the ‘study of signs in animal language,’ can yield important information about the origin and development of human language ( anthroposemiotics). References Evans, W.F. 1968. Communication in the animal world. New York. Frings, H. and M.Frings. 1964. Animal communication. New York. Krampen, M. 1981. Phytosemiotics. Semiotica 36. 187–209. Thorpe, W.H. 1961. Bird-song. Cambridge. Sebeok, T.A. (ed.) 1968. Animal communication: techniques of study and results of research. Bloomington, IN. ——1972. Perspectives in zoosemiotics. The Hague. ——1977. Zoosemiotic components of human communication. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), How animals communicate. Bloomington, IN. 1055–77. Smith, W.J. 1974. Zoosemiotics: ethology and the theory of signs. In T.A.Sebeok (ed.), Current trends in linguistics. The Hague. Vol. 12, 561–628. animal communication Zoque Zulu Zuni Mixe-Zoque Bantu Penutian