Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering

Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering i Dr. Austin Mardon, Sheher-Bano Ahmed, Joonsoo Sean Lyeo, Anittha Mappanasingam, Ashna Hudani, Anusha Mappanasingam, Rishi Thangarajah, Samira Sunderji, Pareesa Ali, Sameen Ali, Shana Quesnel, Shea McMartin, Amir Ala’a, Sam Zhang 2021 ii iii Copyright © 2021 by Austin Mardon All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher except for the use of brief quotations in a book review or scholarly journal. First Printing: 2021 Typeset and Cover Design by Anna Kraemer ISBN 978-1-77369-416-0 Golden Meteorite Press 103 11919 82 St NW Edmonton, AB T5B 2W3 www.goldenmeteoritepress.com iv Contents Introduction .......................................................................................1 Chapter 1 ...........................................................................................3 What is Forensic Anthropology? Chapter 2......................................................................................... 13 What is the History of Forensic Anthropology? Chapter 3......................................................................................... 25 Who are some Prominent Forensic Anthropologists? Chapter 4......................................................................................... 35 What Impact has the study of Forensic Anthropology had on the Field of Criminology? Chapter 5......................................................................................... 45 Why is Forensic Anthropology Important? Chapter 6 ........................................................................................ 55 How is Forensic Anthropology used Today? Chapter 7 ......................................................................................... 65 What Science is Involved in Forensic Anthropology? Chapter 8 ........................................................................................ 75 What Process do Forensic Anthropologists Employ? Chapter 9 ........................................................................................ 85 How does the Environment Affect Forensic Anthropology? Chapter 10 ....................................................................................... 93 What Controversy is there Surrounding Forensic Anthropology? Chapter 11 .......................................................................................103 How Is Forensic Anthropology Portrayed in Popular Culture? Chapter 12....................................................................................... 113 What Future Direction will the Study of Forensic Anthropology take? References .......................................................................................123 vii Introduction This book was created through the Antarctic Institute of Canada as a project sponsored by the Government of Canada’s innovative Work-Integrated Learning program, Level Up. The Antarctic Institute of Canada is a non-profit Canadian charity organization founded in 1985 by former Antarctic researcher Austin Mardon. Its original aim was to lobby for the federal government of Canada to increase the extent of Canadian research in the Antarctic. Today, its objectives also include supporting scholarly research and academic writing. A group of twelve postsecondary students worked on this book over a period of seven days. Each chapter was written by a different student, with some chapters being created through the collaborative efforts of multiple authors. All editing, graphic design, and audiobook production was also carried out by postsecondary students. Thank you for picking this book up to learn more about forensic anthropology. 1 Chapter 1 What is Forensic Anthropology? Written By Joonsoo Sean Lyeo Introduction Forensic anthropologists have had a hand in investigating some of the most significant tragedies in living memory (Ubelaker, 2018). Looking at the past half-century alone, forensic anthropologists have worked alongside investigators to identify victims of the September 11 attacks, determine the scale of the Rwandan Genocide, and bring justice to the victims of Pol Pot’s brutal regime in Cambodia (Go, 2018; Toom, 2018). In this regard, the field of forensic anthropology has been closely intertwined with our understanding of recent history. While later chapters will be dedicated to further highlighting the importance of this field of study, the question remains: what exactly is forensic anthropology? This chapter will be dedicated to defining the term ‘forensic anthropology’, shedding light on what it entails, and providing an overview of its major subfields. Defining ‘Forensic Anthropology’ As suggested by its name, the term ‘forensic anthropology’ refers to the convergence of two separate fields of study: forensics and anthropology (Nawrocki, 1996). 3 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering • • Forensics refers to the use of scientific techniques in the resolution of legal issues (Houck & Siegel, 2009). The field is often associated with the analysis of the evidence collected from criminal investigations (Houck & Siegel, 2009). Anthropology refers to the multidisciplinary study of humans and human behaviour (Biehl, 2004). Due to the breadth of its subject matter, and the variation in the types of techniques employed, the field of anthropology is often divided into a number of subfields including archaeology, biological anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and sociocultural anthropology (Houck & Siegel, 2009). Based on this understanding, forensic anthropology can be understood as a discipline that uses anthropological techniques to resolve legal issues, typically by using these techniques to assist criminal investigations (Burns, 2015). To this end, forensic anthropologists are typically involved with the recovery, description, and identification of human remains (Burns, 2015). It should be noted that different forensic anthropologists may take on wildly different approaches to this process (Burns, 2015). As a result, forensic anthropology is typically divided into several subfields (Burns, 2015). In this chapter, forensic anthropology will be discussed in the context of these subfields, so as to provide a complete and holistic overview of the discipline. Forensic Osteology Forensic osteology is the oldest and most widely-practiced subfield of forensic anthropology (Dettmeyer, Verhoff, Schütz & 2014). This subfield is primarily concerned with the analysis of human bones and skeletal remains during criminal investigations (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz & 2014). When human bones are found at a crime scene, forensic osteologists are generally assigned the following tasks: (1) determining the post-mortem interval, (2) assessing for signs of injuries, and (3) highlighting features that may be used to identify the victim (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). Regarding the first of these tasks, the ‘post-mortem interval’ refers to the amount of time that has passed since an individual’s death (Donaldson & 4 Joonsoo Sean Lyeo Lamont, 2014). If an exact post-mortem interval can not be ascertained, forensic osteologists can estimate the post-mortem interval by assessing the extent of decomposition present on any bone samples they uncover (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). To this end, forensic osteologists may examine the surface of bone samples, looking for specific types of degradation which would indicate how long the samples have been interred in a particular environment (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). For example, bone samples that have been buried in an acidic soil environment, for a period longer than 50 years, would likely show signs of brittleness, torsion, and blackish-brown microbial growth (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). This technique, while fairly effective at determining the age of interred bone samples, is less effective when it comes to assessing skeletal remains that have been left to decompose in the open air (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). Skeletal remains left to decompose in the open air are more directly exposed to the effects of weather, temperature, and animal scavengers; all of which may unpredictably alter the rate of decomposition (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). Moving on to the second of these tasks, assessing bone samples for signs of injuries, it should be noted that forensic osteologists must draw a distinction between postmortem, antemortem, and perimortem damages (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). • Postmortem damages occur after the victim’s death and can be distinguished by their colour, as they tend to be lighter in shade (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). These damages are often the result of scavenging animals, shovel marks from the excavation process, or environmental conditions; as a result, they typically aren’t of much interest to forensic osteologists (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). • Antemortem damages are the result of injuries sustained by the victim during their early life, unrelated to their cause of death (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). These tend to be irrelevant to forensic osteologists, at least for the purposes of determining the cause of death. Fortunately, antemortem damages typically show signs of healing and inf lammation, allowing them to be distinguished from other types of damage (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). 5 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering • Perimortem damages are caused by injuries sustained by the victim sometime near their time of death, whether it be shortly before or shortly after (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). In principle, this classification of damages consists of all injuries which can not be classified as either postmortem or antemortem (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). These damages are of most interest to forensic osteologists and, depending on their location and severity, may even provide insight into the most likely explanations for the victim’s death (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). Finally, regarding the third task, identification of the victim, forensic osteologists must be aware of how certain features of an individual’s skeleton may serve as an indicator of some facet of their identity (Brues, 1958). To this end, depending on the availability of bone samples, forensic osteologists may be able to determine the victim’s sex, height, and age at death (Brues, 1958). Sex To determine the victim’s sex, forensic osteologists often refer to the bones of the skull and pelvis (Lundy, 1998). With regards to the skull, forensic osteologists note that male skulls tend to be larger with more pronounced features, whereas female skulls tend to be smaller with an overall smoother appearance (Lundy, 1998). This is perhaps best seen in the brow ridge, a bony crest located above the eye sockets, which tends to be more strongly developed in male skulls and almost non-existent in female skulls (Lundy, 1998). That being said, there any many exceptions to this broad rule of thumb, and most forensic osteologists prefer to base their analyses on the bones of the pelvis, which are generally regarded as a more accurate indicator of sex (Lundy, 1998). With regards to the pelvis, the male pelvis tends to be longer and narrower with a tailbone that angles slightly forward, whereas the female pelvis tends to be shorter and wider (Lundy, 1998). Height To determine the victim’s body height, forensic osteologists note that the lengths of the ‘long bones’ of the extremities (e.g. the femur of the leg, the 6 Joonsoo Sean Lyeo humerus of the arm) tend to be proportional to an individual’s overall body height (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). That being said, the ratio between extremity length and body height is not necessarily consistent across different populations (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). For instance, while there may be a 1.05 ratio between extremity length and body height for male individuals in a certain population, there may be a 1.03 ratio between extremity length and body height for female individuals in that same population. Aside from sex, this ratio may differ based on factors such as ethnicity, race, and diet. (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). As a result, any attempt to estimate a victim’s body height from their skeletal remains needs to be as population-specific as possible, based on whatever information is already known about the victim (Dettmeyer, Verhoff & Schütz, 2014). Age at Death To determine the victim’s age at their time of death, forensic osteologists recognize that certain skeletal features are closely correlated with the phenomenon of ageing (Lundy, 1998). For instance, the epiphyseal plate is a key feature distinguishing the skeletons of adults from those of children and adolescents (Lundy, 1998). In younger individuals, particularly those who are still growing, the epiphyseal plate is the site where new bone growth occurs (Crowder & Austin, 2005). Generally speaking, people continue to experience new bone growth until their early 20s, at which point the epiphyseal plate fuses to become the epiphyseal line (Crowder & Austin, 2005). When analyzing skeletal remains, forensic osteologists will check for the presence of an epiphyseal plate, which will, in turn, allow for an approximation of the victim’s age (Crowder & Austin, 2005). Forensic Archaeology Forensic archaeology is another well-established subfield within the broader study of forensic anthropology (Cox & Hunter, 2005). As the name would suggest, forensic archaeology refers to the incorporation of archaeological techniques into criminal investigations (Cox & Hunter, 2005). This ultimately means that while most forensic anthropologists are primarily concerned with the analysis of evidence, forensic archaeologists are primarily 7 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Joonsoo Sean Lyeo concerned with the collection and preservation of evidence (Cox & Hunter, 2005). and educating crime scene technicians, investigators, and detectives (Schultz & Dupras, 2008). The subfield of forensic archaeology emerged from the understanding that archaeologists are equipped with many of the skills and expertise desired by crime scene investigators (Schultz & Dupras, 2008). For instance, through their formal training, most archaeologists have practical experience in at least one of the following skills (Schultz & Dupras, 2008): While forensic archaeology has certainly proven itself to be useful in the context of small-scale crime scene investigations, forensic archaeologists have become increasingly important in the investigation of government-sanctioned human rights violations, human-instigated disasters, and even cases of domestic terrorism (Schultz & Dupras, 2008). In all cases, the technical skills of forensic archaeologists have proven to be instrumental in the search and recovery of human remains, allowing investigators to defy attempts by both state and non-state actors to cover up the extent of such atrocities (Schultz & Dupras, 2008). For instance, less than a decade prior to the time of writing, a team of forensic archaeologists excavated a previously undiscovered mass grave in Northern Spain (Fernández-Álvarez et al., 2016). The team dated this site to the time of the Spanish Civil War, shedding light on the true extent of the atrocities that had been covered up by Francoist Spain (Fernández-Álvarez et al., 2016). In some cases, the evidence uncovered by forensic archaeologists has even resulted in the successful conviction of the perpetrators of these human rights violations, as seen in the investigations of the Dirty War in Argentina and the Srebrenica massacre in Bosnia (Schultz & Dupras, 2008). • • • • • • • • • Artifact documentation techniques Artifact recovery techniques Geophysical search methods Ground surveying techniques Sample collection and preservation Site recording (e.g. photography) Recognition of environmental features associated with burials Recognition of human and animal skeletal anatomy Use of heavy digging equipment Suffice to say, archaeologists are well-poised to fill a wide range of specialized niches in the scope of criminal investigations. For instance, in the latter portion of the 20th century, when the field of forensic archaeology began to take shape, a significant number of archaeologists began to work alongside law enforcement in the field (Schultz & Dupras, 2008). In these settings, early forensic archaeologists applied their training to assist in the search, recovery, and excavation of human remains (Schultz & Dupras, 2008). Nowadays, forensic archaeologists are also called in to assist with the documentation of crime scenes, ensuring that any relevant information can be readily distributed to investigating parties (Schultz & Dupras, 2008). Although many forensic archaeologists continue to directly engage in fieldwork, a fair number have taken on more of an advisory role, one in which they partner with law enforcement to provide consultations (Schultz & Dupras, 2008). Aside from just providing consultations, some forensic archaeologists have taken their partnership with law enforcement a step further, and are tasked with training 8 Forensic Taphonomy While this subfield may not be as widely practiced as its aforementioned counterparts, forensic taphonomy is nonetheless of great importance in the wider discipline of forensic anthropology (Haglund, 2002). In essence, forensic taphonomy is the study of the processes that may affect a human body after death. It seeks to understand how various environmental factors may alter the decomposition of human remains (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Forensic taphonomists examine the impact of non-human agents of change, including plants, animals, soil, weather, gravity, and temperature (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). By understanding the complex interplay between these factors, forensic taphonomists can learn to recognize the processes that may be responsible for the present state of a sample of human remains; for instance 9 Joonsoo Sean Lyeo Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering how unusual discolouring may be explained by changes in temperature, or how missing fingers may be explained by animal scavengers (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Forensic taphonomists can also learn to recognize when these environmental factors can not plausibly explain the present state of a sample of human remains (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). In such cases, the unusual dispersal of human remains may indicate some sort of human intervention, whether it be the intentional tampering of evidence or the unintentional disturbance of a crime scene (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). 4. 5. In order to ensure the rigour and validity of their observations, forensic taphonomists tend to adhere to the following sequence of steps (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016): 1. 2. 3. 10 Documenting the crime scene at the time of discovery. In this step, forensic taphonomists aim to provide as much contextual detail about the scene as possible, without interfering with it (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Through their documentation, they note any potentially relevant details about the crime scene: the location, the slope, the presence of vegetation, the presence of water, the proximity of the location to trails, etc. (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Clearing the evidence of debris. In this step, forensic taphonomists begin clearing any loose vegetation or debris which may be obscuring the victim, all while taking care to not disturb the location or position of the victim itself (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). The intent of this step is to reveal any evidence which may not have been visible from preliminary observations (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). At this stage, forensic taphonomists also carefully document what debris has been moved, and why (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Mapping the evidence. In this step, forensic taphonomists use some sort of mapping technique to document the spatial extent of any evidence uncovered at the crime scene (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Forensic taphonomists are responsible for making detailed notes of the precise location, position, and orientation of any objects of interest they uncover (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). The mapping techniques employed 6. at this stage may be hand-drawn or computer-assisted (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Collecting and transporting the evidence. In this step, forensic taphonomists carefully prepare the evidence for transport to a secondary location (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Depending on the dif ficulty or technical skill required for this task, forensic archaeologists may be called in to assist or provide consultation (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Laboratory analysis. In this step, forensic taphonomists carefully analyze any biological tissues which may be present (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Observations of the biological tissue are cross-referenced with observations on the amount of decomposition, the position in which it was found, the state of the clothing, etc. (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). The biological tissue is assessed alongside the bones for unusual stains, signs of weathering, and external damage; information which may shed light on the post-mortem interval or the victim’s cause of death (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Formulating a hypothesis. In this step, forensic taphonomists synthesize their findings to establish a coherent, scientifically defensible hypothesis of the past events that may have occurred prior to the crime scene’s discovery (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Any such hypothesis would need to account for the inf luence of environmental factors, as well as plausible explanations for features that can not be explained by said environmental factors (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Conclusion This chapter sought to provide a brief overview of the study of forensic anthropology, starting with a brief overview of what it entails, followed by an introductory discussion of the discipline’s major subfields: forensic osteology, forensic archaeology, and forensic taphonomy. For those curious about how this discipline came to be, and how it has continued to evolve since its inception, please refer to ‘Chapter 2: What is the history of forensic anthropology?’. 11 Chapter 2 What is the History of Forensic Anthropology? Written By Anittha Mappanasingam Introduction Science and law are two very unique disciplines. Although they complement each other fairly nicely, many individuals within the legal system struggle to accept the implementation of science within law (Diamond & Lempert, 2018). Forensic anthropology was used to analyze evidence for a long time, however, its application was very rarely publicly acknowledged (Snow, 1982). Hence, the development of forensic anthropology throughout history was an extremely slow process (Snow, 1982). Many individuals made significant contributions, only to be dismissed at the time due to the inability of individuals to accept the coming together of two unique disciplines—science and law (Diamond & Lempert, 2018). However, what’s inevitable cannot be ignored, hence, the establishment of forensic anthropology as a scientific discipline, and the incorporation of it into the legal system occurred after years of persistent work. This chapter will discuss the attempt to derive forensic anthropology from physical anthropology, and how it actually developed in the legal system. When examining forensic anthropology before its acceptance, the contribution of various anthropologists will be discussed. In the discussion of the rise of forensic anthropology in the criminal justice system, two important concepts will be discussed—the two trials that served as the catalysts of the establishment of forensic anthropology, and its ultimate professionalization. 13 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Forensic Anthropology Before its Acceptance Forensic anthropology is believed to have been formally recognized in the 1970’s (Snow, 1982). However, the role of forensic anthropology, although not recognized as such, existed years before that, even as early as the late 1800’s. However, during these early years, rather than being labelled as forensic anthropology, it was known to be part of the discipline of physical anthropology. Physical anthropology is the study of the biological and behavioural aspects of human ancestry from an evolutionary perspective (Physical/Biological Anthropology, n.d.). It encompasses the exploration of skeletal characterization, and the determination of age, sex, race, and stature (Yaşar Işcan, 1988). One of the most significant events that led to the growth of physical anthropology was the production of the American Journal of Physical Anthropology by Aleš Hrdlička, an individual who will be discussed in the next section of this chapter (Golda, 2010). Despite the now well-understood role of forensics in physical anthropology, at the time, it still wasn’t readily accepted. The next segment of this chapter will explore the various attempts made by scientific experts to bring the forensic aspect of physical anthropology to light, as well as its role in the legal system. Scratching the Surface with Physical Anthropology Eventually, forensic anthropology arose from the need to use what was known regarding human skeletal biology, for the identification of individuals (Yaşar Işcan, 1988). However, until then, the various contributions that were made in an attempt to overcome this hurdle should not be forgotten. Although in the early years, traces of what is now recognized as forensic anthropology, can be found in quite a few cases, it wasn’t formally given the recognition it deserves. That is why the work of specific individuals such as Aleš Hrdlička, T. Dale Stewart, J. Lawrence Angel, and Douglas H. Ubelaker did not receive the recognition it deserved (Snow, 1982). These individuals opened the gateway for the involvement of forensic anthropology into the justice system by using their knowledge as physical anthropologists to assist the FBI with specific cases. 14 Anittha Mappanasingam One of the key individuals that are going to be discussed in this section is Aleš Hrdlička. Hrdlička’s involvement in the forensics aspect of the legal investigations was not extensively mentioned in the legal profession, however, years later many of his contributions have come to light (Ubelaker, 1999). Hrdlička immigrated to the United States where he obtained a medical degree and expressed interest in legal medicine, which included topics such as criminal behaviour (Ubelaker, 2016). It wasn’t until 1902, when Hrdlička started his career at the Smithsonian Institute in Washington D.C., that his interest in using forensic anthropology in the legal system emerged (Ubelaker, 2016). During this part of his career, he began the biological assessment of human remains, autopsies, and investigating issues related to ancestry with the purpose of applying this knowledge within the criminal justice system (Ubelaker, 1999). He is believed to have completed the first cranial photograph comparison in the legal system (Ubelaker, 2018). Records indicate that Hrdlička only worked on a minimum of nine cases for the FBI, however, some of his colleagues believe that he was involved in many more cases due to the frequent amount of contacts (Ubelaker, 1999). Although Hrdlička’s work may not have contributed to as many cases as other individuals, he is still remembered today as one of the central contributors to the early development of forensic anthropology as a discipline of American physical anthropology (Ubelaker, 1999). It is believed that the reason for his initially limited recognition within the development of forensic anthropology, is the lack of awareness surrounding his forensic work (Ubelaker, 2016). Not only were individuals unaware of his efforts, but he also made very minimal effort to display his work. Despite having established the American Journal of Physical Anthropology, he failed to mention his efforts towards the incorporation of biology within the legal system in this journal (Ubelaker, 1999). Other anthropologists also did not mention the physical anthropology aspect in their publications, including those that explicitly discussed the role of physical science in crime detection (Ubelaker, 2018). Therefore, a lot of his work related to the law remained unknown, causing the useful implications of forensics within the legal system to remain hidden, until recently, when extensive research was done regarding the development of forensics (Ubelaker, 1999). 15 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Anittha Mappanasingam Hrdlička’s work with the FBI was continued by his assistant, T. Dale Stewart. Despite his years of working with Hrdlička, he was unaware of his superior’s forensic contributions (Ubelaker, 2016). Unknowingly following in his superior’s footsteps, he worked with the FBI and was considered to have made some of the most significant contributions regarding methodology in forensic applications (Ubelaker, 2016). Unlike Hrdlička, Stewart completed more cases and as a result gained more visibility in the public eye (Ubelaker, 2018). After Stewart, J. Lawrence Angel continued working with the FBI. Angel completed even more cases than Stewart, hence receiving even more recognition for his contribution to forensic anthropology to the legal system (Ubelaker, 2016). Angel’s successor, Douglas H. Ubelaker, worked on about 970 cases, from the start of his career at Smithsonian in the 1970’s to his death in 2013 (Ubelaker, 2016). forensic anthropology was believed to be inexistent. This segment of the chapter is going to discuss key events that played a significant role in the ultimate acceptance of forensic anthropology into the justice system. Specifically, the unquestionable role of two high-profile cases on the legal system will be discussed, as well as the use of forensic anthropology in the FBI. The work of Hrdlička, Stewart, Angel and Ubelaker was extremely significant for the growth of physical anthropology within the FBI. Together they revealed to the FBI the undeniable necessity of skeletal biology, and physical anthropology to the success of the criminal justice system. However, to the public, it remained a mystery. Ultimately, physical anthropology has been an important part of the justice system for a long time. While these scientists were incorporating significant amounts of forensic knowledge into the justice system, their work was not recognized as forensic anthropology (Golda, 2010). Rather, when in the rare instance that it was recognized, it was believed to be a small aspect of physical anthropology that assisted the larger methodological analysis processes of the legal system (Golda, 2010). Part of the reason for this is due to skepticism in incorporating scientific information into legal proceedings. Nonetheless, as the years went by, not only did forensic anthropology receive its well-earned recognition in the court of law, but forensic anthropology also became formally acknowledged as a separate segment of physical anthropology. Rise of Forensic Anthropology in Criminology The importance of forensic anthropology in the legal system was undeniable. Its critical role has been revealed repeatedly, beginning with the time that 16 The Catalysts The acceptance of the critical role that forensic anthropology played in solving crime was not done easily, in fact, it took years to formally be implemented. Despite the unwavering benefits, individuals found it difficult to officially bring the two disciplines together. Despite Dwight's tremendous contributions to the development of forensic anthropology, there are other events that can be credited for providing similar, if not more significance to the development of this discipline. There are two high-profile cases that are considered the catalysts of forensic anthropology that will be discussed in this chapter—the Parkman trial, and the Luetgert trial (Ubelaker, 2018). In 1849, a local physician, Dr. George Parkman fell victim to a brutal murder at the hands of John W. Webster, a professor in the Department of Chemistry at Harvard (Ubelaker, 2018). Dr. Parkman was well-known and respected for his financial donations to Harvard University (Ubelaker, 2016). In addition to his contributions to the university, he had also lent money to many professors, one of them being Webster (Ubelaker, 2016). Webster was in extreme debt and was trying to make ends meet, and so Dr. Parkman, who at the time was a colleague, and a friend, had provided the loan to Webster with the intention of receiving payment when he was doing better (Snow, 1982). For a long time, Dr. Parkman did not receive any sort of payment from Webster. However, he remained content until it was brought to his attention that Webster was trying to sell a valuable mineral collection that was marked as collateral on the loan (Snow, 1982). This angered him and so he began to pressure Webster for his money (Ubelaker, 2016). At the time, public knowledge of being unable to pay back the debt would have resulted in slander, and defamation for Webster (Snow, 1982). This meant that Webster could lose his job if Parkman revealed the circumstances of the loan (Snow, 1982). Since he couldn’t make 17 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Anittha Mappanasingam the payment, Webster invited Parkman to his house under false pretenses, proposing that he had his payment ready for collection (Ubelaker, 2016). When he came to pick up the money, Webster murdered Parkman (Ubelaker, 2016). In an attempt to conceal his crime, Webster dismembered the body, burned the remaining parts in the furnace of one of the buildings at Harvard, and dumped the rest of the remains into the sewage system of his laboratory (Ubelaker, 2016). Eventually, the remains were discovered by a janitor, which led to the start of the case against Webster (Ubelaker, 2016). individuals are remembered today as some of the prominent early pioneers of forensic anthropology testimony in court cases (Ubelaker, 2018). Upon discovering the burned remains in a toilet, authorities called upon Harvard anatomists, Jeffries Wyman, and Oliver Wendell, to testify in the murder of Parkman (Ubelaker, 2016). The testimony provided by Holmes and Wyman examined the role of anatomical studies on skeletal remains (Ubelaker, 2016). Holmes and Wyman revealed five main findings: • • • • • The remains belonged to a human, All the remains found belonged to the same individual, The body had been dismembered by someone with very limited knowledge on the human body, The state of decomposition matched the length of time that Parkman was missing, and The chemicals used were not typically used in the anatomy department (Snow, 1982). These findings gave way for the current protocol that is used today in the presentation of forensic evidence during testimonies (Snow, 1982). This trial informed the public on the effectiveness of incorporating forensic anthropology within testimonies. Many individuals slowly began to open up to the use of forensic evidence in the legal system. During a time when the incorporation of science into law was frowned upon, this case served as an important milestone for combining the two fields (Snow, 1982). Because of this lasting impact, many individuals refer to Holmes, and Wyman, as grandfathers of the development of forensic anthropology (Snow, 1982). These 18 The second high-profile case allowed for the widespread acknowledgement of the critical role that forensic anthropology plays in the criminal justice system. In the late 1890s, Adolph Louis Luetgert, a sausage producer, was arrested and charged for the murder of his wife, Louisa (Snow, 1982). Luetgert was a native German who ran a successful sausage producing and packaging company in Chicago (Wigmore, 1898). He was considered to be extremely wealthy, not only financially but also in his career aspects, as he was always able to progress (Wigmore, 1898). However, over time, Luetgert lost a lot of money and was now approaching financial instability (Wigmore, 1898). Things got worse in March 1897, when the sausage factory had to shut down—he had reached an extreme financial low (Wigmore, 1898). Luetgert came up with a plan to save himself from the financial debt, and his upcoming public disgrace. He had courted a rich widow whom he planned to marry (Snow, 1982). In order for his plan to become successful, Luetgert had to get rid of Louisa. As a result, he verbally and physically abused her in hopes that she would leave, but Lousia stayed (Snow, 1982). With a desperate desire to save himself, he killed her (Snow, 1982). A couple of weeks later, Louisa was reported missing. When arrested on the suspicion of involvement in the disappearance of his wife, Luetgert insisted that his wife had run off with another man, but authorities continued to search the sausage factory regardless of Luetgert’s claims (Snow, 1982). Unsurprisingly, they located a large amount of a foul-smelling substance containing some of Louisa’s rings, a corset, and several fragments of bones, in one of the factory vat used to dip sausages (Snow, 1982). Authorities called upon George Dorsey, an anthropologist, to testify in the Luetgert trial (Ubelaker, 2018). After hours of examining the collected remains in the lab, Dorsey arrived at a conclusion. He testified that the fragments recovered from the vat belonged to a human female (Ubelaker, 2018). It appeared that Luetgert had boiled her body and dumped it in the vat containing a solution of caustic potash, a compound used in the agriculture and industrial sector that mainly consists of potassium 19 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Anittha Mappanasingam (Snow, 1982). Specifically, the fragments that Dorsey believed belonged to a human female consisted of a couple of fragments that belonged to the foot: metatarsal bone, toe phalanx, sesamoid, and one bone from the thoracic area; the rib head (Snow, 1982). His testimony was met with backlash from many experts who claimed that it was unrealistic to draw such a confident conclusion with, what they believed, was limited evidence (Ubelaker, 2018). Other experts fought for a solution that was more believable—the fragments found belonged to an animal (Ubelaker, 2018). However, Dorsey stood by his findings, which served as critical evidence to put Luetgert behind bars. His testimony and findings, coupled with other pieces of evidence were enough to sentence Luetgert to life in prison (Snow, 1982). to be a struggle because of how different the scientific and legal disciplines are (Snow, 1982). Anthropologists found it difficult to condense the findings of a medical procedure, such as performing an autopsy, into an opinion on the stand (Snow, 1982). At court, scientific experts, if brought to testify, are expected to ultimately provide an opinion rather than just the scientific explanation alone (Snow, 1982). Experts found it difficult to simply provide an opinion when their results showed ambiguity and were afraid of omitting important details. This made it extremely challenging for scientific experts to wrap their heads around the implementation of forensic anthropology into the legal proceedings, hence the slow development of forensic anthropology. Despite Dorsey’s life-changing contribution to the field of forensic anthropology and the publicity he received from this case, Dorsey abandoned this career path. He began to explore his interest in government service, where he remained for the rest of his career (Ubelaker, 2018). Regardless of his abrupt disappearance from the field of anthropology, Dorsey is still remembered today as the first anthropologist to get involved in forensics in the United States (Snow, 1982). Wilton Marion Krogman is another individual that is remembered today for his impactful role in the development of forensic anthropology in law. The transition from physical anthropology to forensic anthropology was credited to Krogman’s work, which will be discussed in greater detail in chapter three (Golda, 2010). However, in this segment, we will discuss the two main events that are believed to have led to the professionalization of forensic anthropology (Golda, 2010). The contributions of Holmes, Wyman and Dorsey in these two noteworthy cases helped with the development of forensic anthropology in the legal system. The public began to realize how impactful forensic science could be in the search for justice. However, regardless of how close these trials may have brought forensic anthropology to the legal system, anthropologists continued to struggle with completely intertwining the two disciplines (Ubelaker, 2018). One of these events was the replacement of coroners with medical examiners in the United States (Golda, 2010). This transition occurred between the 1950’s and 1960’s and is believed to have had a significant inf luence on the acceptance of forensic anthropology (Snow, 1982). Coroners are individuals without medical qualifications who are elected to investigate suspicious deaths, while medical examiners are typically qualified forensic pathologists (Snow, 1982). Due to the academic background of the medical examiners, they often receive more funding, hence allowing them to freely explore the forensics aspects of physical anthropology such as skeletal classification (Golda, 2010). Despite the significant benefits that forensic anthropology had in these two trials, and despite the valuable efforts of Hrdlička, Stewart, Angel, and Ubelaker in using physical anthropology in the legal system, anthropologists struggled to accept their critical place in criminology. In the earlier days, this may have been because the science behind forensic anthropology, such as the scientific methods used when performing autopsies, was not well understood at the time (Ubelaker, 2018). However, in later years, this appeared 20 Professionalization of Forensic Anthropology The other event that played a significant role in the professionalization of forensic anthropology in the legal system occurred post-World War II (Golda, 2010). Specifically, it was the sudden increase in student enrollment in post-secondary schools in the United States (Golda, 2010). This is believed to have occurred as 21 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering a result of the 1944 G.I. Bill that was put in place after the post-World War II baby boom (Golda, 2010). This bill allowed returning World War II veterans to enroll in college (Golda, 2010). During the war, forensic applications in post-mortem analysis were practiced frequently, exposing veterans to the field of forensic anthropology (Snow, 1982). This, in combination with the new bill, resulted in a surge of individuals eager to explore the study of forensic anthropology, hence playing an important role in the development of forensic anthropology as a discipline. Despite the significance of all the findings and accomplishments of various individuals in the past, it was Krogman’s work that stood out as the final push required to formalize the melding of these two disciplines. These two events led to the formal acceptance of the major contribution that forensic anthropology has made, and will make in the legal system. Conclusion Regardless of the slow advancement of forensic anthropology, the impact that the development of this subject left on individuals of both the scientific and legal community was incredible. This chapter explored the various recognized and unrecognized developments of forensic anthropology throughout history. The contributions of specific physical anthropologists were discussed, as they attempted to open the world to the concept of forensics. In addition, the events that led to public awareness of the role of forensic anthropology in the legal system, and the events that led to the official acceptance of forensic anthropology as its own discipline in physical anthropology and law, was discussed. These various events were left unappreciated due to the hesitancy of many individuals to acknowledge the inevitable role that forensic anthropology played in criminology. The following chapter will discuss important historical figures in the development of forensic anthropology. 22 Chapter 3 Who are some Prominent Forensic Anthropologists? Written By Ashna Hudani F orensic anthropology involves applying skeletal analysis and archae- ological methods to solve criminal cases, bridging the academy with applications in the court of law. Before this discipline was grounded in standardized scientific methodologies in North America, there were two specific murder trials which catalyzed the development of forensic anthropology as an academic field (Ubelaker, 2018). The first case involved the murder of Dr. George Parkman, a benefactor of Harvard University, who was killed when he visited the lab of John W. Webster, a chemistry professor to whom he lent money that Webster did not repay (Ubelaker, 2018). In an effort to conceal his crime, Webster had removed parts of the body he thought could be used for identification and burned them (Ubelaker, 2018). They were later discovered in Webster’s toilet by a janitor and recovered by authorities (Ubelaker, 2018). Through his testimony, Jeffries Wyman (1814-1874) became a key pioneer of forensic anthropology (Ubelaker, 2018). His analysis showed that the burnt remains were consistent with the parts removed from the body (Ubelaker, 2006). The second inf luential murder case in the development of forensic anthropology as an academic discipline concerned Adolph Luetgert, a sausage producer in Chicago who was accused of killing his wife and disposing of 25 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering her corpse in one of the factory vats of potash (Ubelaker, 2018). Like Wyman in the previous case, a scholar named George Dorsey (1839-1931) was instrumental in this case, testifying that the small fragments recovered from the sausage vat originated from a human female (Ubelaker, 2018). Although he was harshly criticized by defense experts and anatomists for his claim, Dorsey’s role exemplified the importance of forensic anthropology testimony and, a century later, his assertions about the skeletal remains found in the vat are thought to be correct (Ubelaker, 2018). The respective roles of Wyman and Dorsey in these criminal cases served as a catalyst to the development of forensic anthropology. Following their contributions, many prominent scholars advanced the field in significant ways. These two inf luential cases are covered in more detail in Chapter 2. This chapter delves into the work of some other inf luential forensic anthropologists, and the ways in which they have shaped the field as it exists today. Thomas Dwight (1843-1911) Thomas Dwight, known as the father of American forensic anthropology, received his medical degree in 1867 and later worked as an anatomy professor at Harvard University (Ubelaker, 2018). As an anatomist, Dwight was particularly interested in skeletal biology, with many of his studies involving an exploration of forensic aspects of human osteology (Snow, 1982). In particular, he studied the variation in skeletal remains, with some of his publications discussing the age and sex differences in the sternum, and sex differences in the articular surfaces of the long bones—which are still useful in skeletal identification today (Snow, 1982). His essay, The Identification of the Human Skeleton: A Medico-legal Study, published in 1878, was awarded the Prize of the Massachusetts Medical Society (Ubelaker, 2006). Although formally an anatomist, his publications built a preliminary foundation for the science of forensic anthropology, and inspired other scientists to follow in his footsteps (Ubelaker, 2018). 26 Ashna Hudani Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914) Alphonse Bertillon, a French criminologist, is known for developing a system of criminal identification based on anthropometric measurements in 1882 (Krishan, 2006). This system, known as the anthropometric or Bertillon system, is based on three fundamental ideas: the fixed condition of bones from age twenty till death, the diverse range of physical dimensions seen in human bodies, and the ease and relative precision with which certain dimensions of human bone structure can be measured (Krishan, 2006). Although his system was adopted by countries around the world, there were some limitations to his method that Bertillon made an effort to address. Firstly, in spite of the fact that the anthropometric system made it possible to distinguish people based on their physical dimensions, it did not prove an individual's identity conclusively (Piazza, 2016). In response to this, Bertillon designed a physical description system based on four categories (Piazza, 2016). The first category was his anthropometry, which he enhanced by adding typological descriptions of the nose, ear and iris (Piazza, 2016). Second in his system was an incremental physical description method of the body and the face, which required rigorous verbal description of the subject’s physical characteristics (Piazza, 2016). Third, he included photographic descriptions, creating a protocol for face and profile views, effectively creating the first example of the mugshots that we know today (Piazza, 2016). Lastly, he included precise markings of any marks found on the body, including scars, tattoos and moles (Piazza, 2016). In addition, the system was not easily applicable to women and children, as children’s proportions were constantly changing, and female physical dimensions were susceptible to inaccuracies in measurement (Fosdick, 1915). In response to this, Bertillon added fingerprints into anthropometric record cards, based on research by other prominent figures that fingerprints could be used for identification purposes (Piazza, 2016). In time, dactyloscopy, the study of the inner ridges of the hand and foot, became more popular than anthropometry, as it was more efficient, cheaper, and less restrictive (Piazza, 2016). Anthropometry, which was the first scientific system used to identify criminals, set the stage 27 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Ashna Hudani for future advances such as this, demonstrating the value of Bertillon’s contributions to forensic anthropology. the St. Louis Globe-Democrat (Bernard Becker Medical Library, 2009). She has inspired other scholars and students with her contributions to research, teaching, and organizational development. Her name continues to be honoured with the Mildred Trotter Prize, awarded to students by the AAPA, for research achievements in physical anthropology (Bernard Becker Medical Library, 2009). Mildred Trotter (1899-1991) Trotter was an anatomist and physical anthropologist who is renowned for her significant advances in bone studies and for her remarkable leadership in the largely male-dominated field. After completing her Bachelor’s degree in zoology and her Master’s degree in anatomy, Trotter studied human hair growth, using that research as the basis for her doctoral thesis in 1924 (Your Dictionary, n.d). In 1926, she accepted a National Research Council Fellowship to study physical anthropology at Oxford University, specifically looking at bones from museum specimens from ancient Egypt and Roman-era Britain (Your Dictionary, n.d). This position sparked her interest in bones, and she published numerous studies on the human skeleton, specifically focusing on growth cycles, race and sex differences, and changes in mineral mass and density occurring with age (Your Dictionary, n.d). In 1948, Trotter took leave from the Washington University, where she was a professor, to serve as the director of the Central Identification Laboratory at Schofield Barracks, where she oversaw the identification of unknown remains from World War II (Pilloud, 2018). During this period of her life, she also conducted extensive osteological studies on these remains, leading to inf luential publications (Pilloud, 2018). For example, in 1952, she formulated a method for using bone length to estimate the height of the body, which continues to be a useful tool for forensic anthropologists today (Your Dictionary, n.d). In addition to her achievements as an anthropologist, Trotter overcame barriers in male-dominated institutions to serve as a leader in the field throughout her life (Pilloud, 2018). Not only was she a founding member of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists (AAPA), but in 1955, she also served as the first female president (Pilloud, 2018). She was also the first woman to become a full professor at the Washington University School of Medicine in 1946, and the first woman to receive the esteemed Viking Fund Medal by the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research in 1956 (Pilloud, 2018). She was also named as a Woman of Achievement in science in 1955, by 28 Wilton Marion Krogman (1903-1987) While the human skeleton had been studied previously, Krogman, also known as the founder of forensic anthropology, was the first to connect anatomy, physical anthropology and forensics (, 1990). After completing his Bachelor’s, Master’s and doctoral degrees from the University of Chicago, Krogman taught anatomy and physical anthropology at the Western Reserve University, and later at the University of Chicago (Sauer & Hefner, 2018). In 1948, Krogman moved to the University of Pennsylvania, where he had joint appointments in graduate medicine, anthropology, and orthodontics (Sauer & Hefner, 2018). Throughout his career, Krogman published many papers and books about a range of topics including child growth and development, primatology, genetics, dental anthropology, paleoanthropology, and medical anthropology (Sauer & Hefner, 2018). His major areas of interest included juvenile head and facial development and forensic anthropology, the latter an area in which he has been very inf luential (Sauer & Hefner, 2018). In 1939, Krogman published his Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material, which was widely used for identification and analysis in forensics (Ubelaker, 2018). By this point, Krogman had served as a forensic consultant for almost a decade and had gained experience and expertise in skeletal identification techniques (Snow, 1982). Around this time, he also published two articles in the FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, to inform federal, state and local law enforcement agencies that specialists were available to assist with skeletal identification. They were later also recruited by the U.S Army Quartermaster Corps to help identify the U.S war dead after the Second World War (Snow, 1982). Although this opportunity provided physical anthropologists a chance to develop formula and analysis methods to determine growth changes in the human skeleton, it wasn’t until the 1950s and 60s that the discipline underwent 29 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Ashna Hudani professionalization (Golda, 2010). In 1962, Krogman produced the first textbook in forensic anthropology, titled The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine (Langley & Tersigni-Tarrant, 2017). This text became the primary reference for scholars and practitioners, as it provided guidelines for assessing remains, taking into account the range of morphological variability seen in humans (Langley & Tersigni-Tarrant, 2017). Clearly, Krogman’s contributions were integral to the development of the formal foundations of forensic anthropology. experts in 2017 (Ubelaker, 2018). Through the establishment of the new section in AAFS and ABFA, Kerley contributed to organizational advances in the field of forensic anthropology. Ellis Kerley (1924-1998) As forensic anthropology underwent professionalization, Kerley was one of the scholars to drive organizational advances of the field in the 1970s (Ubelaker, 2018). Prior to this, Kerley contributed to the field by publishing a technique to estimate the age at death through microscopic examination of features in the femur, tibia and fibula bones (Ubelaker, 2018). This approach gained recognition because of its reported accuracy and the fundamental process of bone formation and remodelling that it articulated (Ubelaker, 2018). In 1972, along with a forensic anthropologist named Clyde Snow, Kerley pioneered the effort to form a new section for physical anthropology within the American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS), recruiting 14 anthropologists to contribute to the section (Ubelaker, 2018). At the annual institutional meeting, forensic anthropologists convene to present case studies and share knowledge, further developing the field (Ubelaker, 2018). As of 2017, there are 536 members in this section, ref lecting the growth in this field and the interest of scholars in sharing their knowledge and learning from each other in such spaces (Ubelaker, 2018). In the late 1970s, Kerley led the formation of the American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA) (Ubelaker, 2018). This organization offered certification for experts in forensic anthropology, through rigorous educational and experiential requirements as well as the successful completion of an examination (Ubelaker, 2018). Certification allowed practitioners to seek a credential that was used to identify experts for legal processes (Ubelaker, 2018). The founding ABFA group, which consisted of only 22 forensic anthropologists, grew to 119 30 After Kerley passed away, in 2000, the Ellis R. Kerley Forensic Sciences Foundation was founded, to honour his advancements in the field (Ubelaker, 2018). In the spirit of supporting growth and knowledge sharing within the field, the foundation offers competitive scholarships to students, support to attend the AAFS annual meeting, a best abstract award to a presenting author, and a reception for forensic anthropologists to meet and exchange information (Ubelaker, 2018). In this way, Kerley’s legacy continues to spark developments in forensic anthropology. Clea Koff Clea Koff, also known as the bone woman, is a forensic anthropologist and author who holds a BA from Stanford University, an MA from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, and trained in the graduate forensic anthropology program at the University of Arizona while she was a Master’s student (Koff, 2013). In 1996, when she was 23 years old, Koff was asked to join the first scientific forensic team put together by the United Nations, to analyze and identify the cause(s) of death of bodies found in mass graves following the genocide in Rwanda (Schauer, 2012; Crime Museum, 2021). For four years following this, she served on seven missions to unearth and investigate the remains of humans who had died violently and illegally in countries including Bosnia, Croatia and Kosovo (Schauer, 2012; Crime Museum, 2021). Her role clearly demonstrates the importance of forensic anthropology in human rights investigations. She stated, “in addition to helping authorities determine the identity of deceased people, forensic anthropology has a role in human rights investigations, because a dead body can incriminate perpetrators who believe they have silenced their victims forever” (Schauer, 2012). Her motivation to do this work is in part intellectual, but also based on a deep moral conviction, and a desire to bring closure to the bereaved, and justice to the perpetrators (Nichol, 2004). 31 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering In 2006, Koff served as the Co-coordinator of the Anthropology Laboratory of the UN Committee on Missing Persons in Cyprus, supporting the mission to recover, identify, and return to their families the remains of 2002 persons who went missing during intercommunal fighting in the 1960s and the Turkish invasion in the 1970s (Crime Museum, 2021; CMP, 2021). In 2005, she founded the Missing Persons Identification Resource Center (MPID), where she worked until it closed in 2012 (MPID, n.d). This organization aimed to help families of more than 100,000 missing persons in the United States find their missing loved ones by linking them with coroners’ offices that hold unidentified bodies (MPID, n.d). Her work in forensic anthropology has been instrumental in supporting human rights work around the world. Conclusion The substantial contributions of countless scholars and practitioners have resulted in the growth of forensic anthropology in both research and practice. Although this chapter discussed the achievements of a handful of inf luential individuals, it is important to note that this is not a comprehensive list. However, through this account of contributions, the growth of the field—from initial court cases, to early research developments, later to professionalization and organizational advancements, to modern day applications in human rights—is unmistakable. As forensic anthropologists continue to build upon this foundational work, it is exciting to see how the field will continue to progress. These anticipated advancements will be discussed more in Chapter 12. 32 Chapter 4 What Impact has the study of Forensic Anthropology had on the field of Criminology? Written By Anusha Mappanasingam Introduction Forensic anthropology is extremely important in today’s world. In chapters 1 and 2, we looked at forensic anthropology in the context of its different subdivisions and its growth throughout history, respectively. From the information obtained thus far, we can familiarize ourselves with how this area of forensics has maintained its significance: our need for forensic anthropology is most prominent in the field of criminology (Stanojevich, 2012). The role that forensic anthropology has in criminology can appear almost insurmountable for another to pass. When we hear of perpetrators being caught and sentenced, most of us do not see past the investigators who caught them and the justice system that put them away. By forgetting to look past those on the frontlines, the work of many behind the scenes, who are working to help prosecutors connect the dots to solve the case, goes unnoticed. Many of these individuals work in the field of forensic anthropology. From determining the cause of death, to providing key testimonies in court, forensic anthropologists work behind the scenes to provide verdicts on cases that we usually attribute to the police or judiciary system. In this chapter, we will discuss the impact of the study of forensic anthropology on criminology. Specifically, we will discuss the general impact of forensic anthropology on criminology in terms of its impact 35 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Anusha Mappanasingam on the accused, victims, and the public. This chapter will also ref lect on some questions that the use of forensic anthropology in criminology could uncover. most due to the specificity of forensic anthropology and the apparent lack of connections to crime, forensic anthropologists can determine aspects of crimes, like the cause of death and victim identification, that allow crimes to be solved and brought to court at a quicker pace. Foundations of Criminology Despite the regulations that are integrated into society, unlawful acts are committed frequently. While these acts can be minor ones, most of them are behind the most horrific crimes committed today. The prevalence of crime in our past and present has made its regulation necessary; many hope to do this through research and education. The term ‘criminology’ refers to the scientific study of crimes, criminals, and legal disciplinary action taken against those convicted of a crime (Definition of CRIMINOLOGY, n.d.). While the public is not normally concerned with the study of crimes—generally this is the job of police—the repercussions for the crimes that are committed are of the utmost importance. Moreover, while caught up in the pursuit of justice for the victims, many often forget the uncertainty that comes with criminology; it is important to brief ly address this here. Wrongful convictions can occur due to eyewitness identification error, false confessions, coerced confessions, false guilty pleas, fixation of officials on specific leads, systemic discrimination, and professional misconduct (Causes of Wrongful Convictions, n.d.). While the specifics of how these occur are beyond the scope of this chapter, it is important to understand and remember that things do go wrong during the pursuit of justice. Impact of Forensic Anthropology on Criminology The tremendous advances in the field of criminology over the years are just as profound as the impacts they have caused; these impacts are primarily due to forensic anthropology. As discussed in chapter 1, forensic anthropology allows experts to solve crimes using their knowledge of skeletal properties and archaeological techniques (Petherick et al., 2009). Due to the many television shows and books that portray criminology as the job of law enforcement agencies, it might appear to most that crimes can be solved without forensic anthropology. This could not be farther from the truth, forensic anthropology is essential to solving many crimes. While this might be hard to digest for 36 We can see the impact that forensic anthropology has on criminal investigations by considering its crucial role in death investigations. Law enforcement agencies can gain answers to their questions regarding the crime by working with forensic anthropologists to analyze the evidence found at crime scenes (Stanojevich, 2012). Specifically, there are a series of steps in a death investigation that forensic anthropologists can assist in: scene processing, remains examination, developing a biological profile, determining the cause of death, documentation and eyewitness testimony (Stanojevich, 2012). To have a thorough appreciation of the role of forensic anthropologists in death investigations, we will discuss these steps in further detail. Before proceeding further, it is important to highlight that the information that follows is only a brief description of the specific proceedings—more details can be found in chapter 8. To begin, in scene processing, forensic anthropologists work to recover and identify human remains; this includes testing the surrounding environment (Stanojevich, 2012). The role they play here is significant: while law enforcement can attempt to provide basic classifications to components of the crime scene, such as identifying bones for what they are, minimal gain can come from this when trying to determine the cause of death—this will be discussed shortly—making forensic anthropologists essential in scene processing. During remains examination, forensic anthropologists must determine the specific status of the remains regarding its composition and characteristics (Stanojevich, 2012). Here, we require the expertise of forensic anthropologists so that the relevance of the remains to the investigation can be successfully deduced (Stanojevich, 2012). Next, the development of a biological profile involves uncovering the biological aspects of the remains; forensic anthropologists work to determine features like age and sex (Stanojevich, 2012). Using the field of forensic anthropology, investigators will be provided with a form of identity—individuals can understand the importance of forensic anthropology when this is done. The next aspect discussed is one that many 37 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Anusha Mappanasingam might believe to be a task completed by law enforcement. This is the cause of death determination. While their contribution is essential, the cause of death is unarguably the most important contribution of forensic anthropology to crime investigations. This is something that investigators would struggle to do on their own—expertise on skeletal attributes is required. Lastly, since forensic anthropologists are considered to be experts in their study, they are expected to document all their findings and be ready to testify in court (Stanojevich, 2012). This is important in convicting the guilty or freeing the wrongfully accused, as forensic anthropologists provide a scientific basis to the evidence collected (Stanojevich, 2012). the injustice all around them. From just contemplating such a world, one can recognize the importance of forensic anthropology in serving the accused, the victims, and the public. While the effect that this field has on each group can vary, due to the intertwined nature of these groups in criminology cases, it will be far more effective to discuss their impact as a whole and consider specific implications as they arise. Impact on the Accused, the Victims, and the Public As mentioned, the most obvious impact of forensic anthropology in criminology is its utility in criminal investigations. This is shown through the knowledge gained regarding the cause of death, basic biological facts, and crime scene analysis that forensic anthropologists provide (Stanojoveich, 2012). The relevance of forensic anthropology to solving crimes was analyzed in a study by the Smithsonian Institute; they deduced characteristics of forensic anthropology cases submitted to their institution by the Federal Bureau Investigation (FBI) (Grisbaum & Ubelaker, 2001). Between 1962 to 1994, the skeletal remains of 341 FBI cases were sent to the Smithsonian Institute for forensic anthropological analysis (Grisbaum & Ubelaker, 2001). While this number might not seem significant, we must remember the fact that this analysis was conducted on one institution alone. . In the United States alone, there are around 400 crime labs where skeletal analysis takes place. Now consider the possible reproduction of the Smithsonian Institute’s results in these labs—that could mean a substantial amount of criminal investigations being aided (Franco, 2019). This idea does not serve the accused: with many crimes gaining more evidence to prosecute the perpetrators, their chances of being free are reduced significantly. Consider a world in which forensic anthropology does not exist. While most would assume that we would be unaffected, from the discussions that have occurred in this chapter thus far, we know this is not the case. In this hypothetical situation, crime rates could go up as offenders remain at large without enough evidence to convict them, and thus have the opportunity to re-offend; there would be limited chance of reform. Victims and their families would still be searching for justice, and in some instances, they would remain unidentified as we would not have the proper tools to discern basic biological characteristics. The public would be living in chaos as they live in fear watching Additionally, forensic anthropology allows for greater charges to be pursued against the accused by allowing for the crime’s classification on the Depravity Standard (DS) (Reinhard et al., 2013). To appreciate the role of forensic anthropology in this situation, we must first understand the classification system being discussed. The DS refers to a forensic science inventory that allows prosecutors to determine the severity of a felony case based on the intent, actions, and attitudes of the accused; the DS allows for a fairer or harsher sentencing that ref lects societal standards and ethics (Reinhard et While forensic anthropology allows for more crimes to be solved, its scientific nature ensures that individuals complicit in crimes are punished and their victims receive justice. The scientific basis of the evidence that forensic anthropology provides helps to ensure that evidence is not dismissed—while it is easy to question the credibility of eyewitness testimonies, it can be difficult to doubt scientific evidence. Regardless of the concrete nature of the science behind forensic anthropology, cases may be dismissed due to the improper collection of evidence (Causes of Wrongful Convictions, n.d.). However, this is a possibility with many aspects of court cases and so we will refrain from considering the full scope of this possibility. If done correctly, forensic anthropology has the potential to change lives. Specifically, this field of forensics has a significant impact on the accused, the victims, and the public. 38 39 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Anusha Mappanasingam al., 2013). Incorporating the knowledge from forensic anthropology allows investigators to place perpetrators onto the DS: They can do this by studying the skeletal material to determine the extent of trauma endured by the victim (Reinhard et al., 2013). This can cause a significant change in sentencing as the horrific nature of the crime is presented in court (Reinhard et al., 2013). Forensic anthropology is able to do this since it tackles victimology in a way that provides the most useful scientific evidence of the corrupt intentions and actions of the accused (Reinhard et al., 2013). Therefore, not only does forensic anthropology allow prosecutors to consider physical evidence from skeletal remains to persecute the accused, but it also allows them to scale the intent and attitude behind the crime in a scientific manner. This has great implications for the victims and their families, as justice can be served to the full extent that the crime demands. the pursuit of justice for victims, its improper conduct and use by officials can reverse these effects. This is typically seen in the justice system. Even though forensic techniques tend to be more reliable than eyewitness testimonies and other forms of evidence, the reliance on human interpretation means that there could be errors in the evidence making it inadmissible- it is on this basis that most cases are dismissed (Causes of Wrongful Convictions, n.d.). Thus, forensic anthropologists must conduct and present their analysis with care to minimize the chance of the court deeming the analysis invalid: this is done by ensuring that they focus on helping the judge and jury understand the evidence and methods used to analyze it (Martin & Fulginiti, 2019). To fully comprehend the impact of what could occur if evidence obtained by forensic anthropologists is misrepresented and misconstrued, let us discuss a hypothetical example. The visualization of evidence is a necessary aspect to consider in presenting evidence in court (Errickson et al., 2020). Presenting disturbing images of skeletal remains and crime scenes can be problematic (Errickson et al., 2020). Although the intention might be genuine—to present the gruesomeness of the crime in its full form—this elicits a biased response: the presentation of evidence in this way can elicit emotional responses from the jury, causing them to rule in the favour of the victim (Errickson et al., 2020). While this might be the ultimate goal, judicial proceedings are meant to occur in an unbiased manner—this would defeat the purpose of using a jury (Errickson et al., 2020). In addition, the involvement of juries means that forensic evidence must go to court with meticulous attention to detail before its delivery: juries tend to be regular citizens, and thus are more prone to bias due to their lack of experience in court cases (Errickson et al., 2020). In an attempt to prevent this, a study presented in the International Journal of Legal Medicine tested the effect of different imaging techniques for evidence in court on jury comprehension, and ultimately found that 3D imaging can not only improve the jury’s comprehension of the evidence, but also removes the possibility of eliciting emotional responses (Errickson et al., 2020). Due to the promising nature of forensic anthropology in criminology, it can inf luence investigators to reopen cold cases. The term ‘cold cases’ is used to refer to unsolved crimes that have stopped being pursued due to a lack of evidence (Definition of COLD CASE, n.d.). Investigators can work with forensic anthropologists to use their learned knowledge about skeletal analysis and archaeological techniques to review these cases in the hopes of resurfacing evidence that can be analyzed using forensic anthropology. This idea was replicated in a study where an investigation into the deaths at the Florida Industrial School for Boys was reopened with the intent of using forensic anthropological techniques to uncover unknowns about the incident (Kimmerle, 2014). Specifically, in 2011, the Forensic Anthropology Laboratory at the University of South Florida worked to determine and document the location of burials as well as the circumstances surrounding the death of the boys (Kimmerle, 2014). This effort allowed the families of the victims to receive their loved ones’ bodies (Kimmerle, 2014). It is cases like these where forensic anthropology has a significant impact—receiving answers to questions can release the despair and anxiety the families of victims feel as they finally get closure. While forensic anthropology has proven to provide outstanding outcomes in 40 To understand the implications of this, let us consider the possible outcomes. If a bias was found in the delivery of the verdict, the evidence could be deemed inadmissible; this would be unfortunate for the victims and their families. In 41 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Anusha Mappanasingam contrast, it would be completely unfathomable if the biased presentation of evidence impacted the verdict and the defendant was wrongfully convicted. When considering the impact that forensic anthropology has on criminology, it is important to highlight that it is essentially human beings whose lives are changed irrevocably. This consideration can inspire forensic anthropologists and investigators to proceed through their investigations with care—it would be terrible to make victims relive these painful experiences in a court case, only to deny them closure in the end due to technicalities on the basis of evidence collection. Many of these questions lack answers. Regardless, they must be considered as they can arise from using forensic anthropology to solve crimes. While one might deem this problematic due to the thoughts it provokes, the impact that this type of forensics has had on criminology can make one feel as if the controversy and questions that arise are worth answering. Important Questions Exploring the impact of forensic anthropology on criminology can force one to consider the questions that its use brings up. As stated previously, the idea that forensic anthropology allows for more crimes to be solved encourages the reopening of cold cases and previously closed cases. Let us deliberate on the implications of reopening these cases. If the cases are reopened but are not solved, how would this impact the public’s faith in the ability of forensic anthropology to solve crimes? One might suggest that it would have limited impact due to the initial impossible nature of the case—no one would expect officials to find the answers now if they could not find them before. But does this justify reopening the wounds of victims only to quench their hope once again? Now, let us consider the alternative, where forensic anthropology can solve these crimes. While families will finally receive closure and the perpetrator will be punished, what does this mean for the justice system and law enforcement? At one point in time, these were cases that could not be solved. Solving these cases in the present day might impact the public’s belief in the reliable nature of the systems in place. They might begin doubting the verdict of all crimes that were solved without the help of forensic anthropology. And then comes the unavoidable question of whether or not one is right in questioning the credibility of the previous systems when new ones have taken their place—should one leave the past in the past? 42 Conclusion In conclusion, this chapter discussed the impact of forensic anthropology on the field of criminology. After providing a brief introduction to criminology, we discussed the idea that using forensic anthropology in criminology allows for an increase in the number of crimes solved: this was brief ly considered by discussing their impact on death investigations and the advantage of having science-based evidence in investigations. Then, we discussed the impact that the use of forensic anthropology had on the accused, the victims, and the public. This was done by scrutinizing the implications of solving crimes on these groups, along with discussing forensic anthropology’s role in facilitating persecution based on the DS. Then, the reopening of cold cases and their impact on victims and their families were presented. This was followed by a discussion on what could happen if forensic anthropologists and officials did not present and analyse evidence properly: its implications in the justice system were discussed. Lastly, we ref lected on some questions that could arise by using forensic anthropology in criminology. The necessity of forensic anthropology to criminology is obvious. In the next chapter, we will discuss the importance of the former in today’s world. 43 Chapter 5 Why is Forensic Anthropology Important? Written By Rishi Mohan Introduction As you know by now, forensic anthropology is a subdiscipline of physical anthropology and it involves the detailed analysis of skeletal remains. Previous chapters addressed how the field came into existence and gave examples of prominent forensic anthropologists. The goal of this chapter is to highlight the importance of forensic anthropology. The upcoming discussion will provide you with real life examples of the application of forensic anthropology in different scenarios to illustrate its importance within society. This will be done specifically by examining how life would hypothetically be without forensic anthropology. Then, the importance of forensic anthropology in activities such as crime scene investigations and breaches of humanitarian law will be ascertained. Finally, the way in which forensic anthropology can be used to provide anthropologists with an accurate account of human health of the ancient past will be discussed. Please keep in mind that this chapter utilizes real life examples that contain sensitive subject matter. Although before you get to those case studies, let's take a look at life before forensic anthropology. Surprisingly, you do not have to look very far into the past to envision this scenario. 45 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Life Before Forensic Anthropology The previous chapter did a great job of framing what life would be like without the addition of forensic anthropology. In the upcoming discussion, the Latin American country, Uruguay, will be used as an example to convey how important forensic anthropology really is to society. The reason Uruguay is used as an example is because the subdiscipline of forensic anthropology was not given serious consideration in the country until 1991 (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). Prior to the implementation of forensic anthropology, whenever human remains were discovered, the responsibility of analyzing these remains fell onto Uruguayan coroners. (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). These coroners, who had little to no knowledge of biological anthropology, could not assess much from the remains (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). Due to this, most of their evaluations of the remains would be limited to the biological sex of the individual and maybe the cause of death (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). This information by itself was insufficient to match the skeletal remains to the profile of a missing individual (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). Unfortunately, this meant that the discovered remains would often be buried as either a Jane or John Doe (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). In the previous chapter the aspect of closure and how important it is for the family of a deceased individual was discussed. Paired with the information here, it becomes increasingly evident how disheartening the inconclusive nature of human remains identification can be without the aid of forensic anthropology. Thankfully, Uruguayan government officials felt the same way. In 1991, Laboratorio de Antrología Forense was created to solve the aforementioned problem. The Laboratorio de Antrología Forense was a specialized branch of the Morgue Judicial located in Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). Between the conception of the Laboratorio in 1991, to 1997, the remains of 267 deceased individuals were analyzed (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). The reports conducted by Uruguayan forensic anthropologists included the estimated age of the deceased individual, their biological sex, the geographic location of the recovery site, the stage of decomposition and whether or not a positive identification was made (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). During this six year time period, the number of cases that received the attention of a forensic anthropologist increased as time progressed (İşcan & Olivera, 46 Rishi Mohan 2000). The increased recognition of forensic anthropology is believed to be attributed to the efficient and detailed nature of the resulting identification (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). By comparing the information contained within the forensic anthropologist’s report to that of a coroner’s report prior to 1991, the impact of forensic anthropology can clearly be seen. One area that found the addition of forensic anthropology particularly beneficial was the Uruguayan law enforcement agencies (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). This was due in large part to how the subdiscipline of forensic anthropology impacts crime scene investigation (İşcan & Olivera, 2000). The Importance of Forensic Anthropology in Crime Scene Investigations As mentioned in Chapter 4, in cases where skeletal or decomposed remains are present, forensic anthropologists can assist crime scene investigators (Alfsdotter, 2021). Later in this section, a case study will be examined to better understand how important forensic anthropology is to the field of criminology. A crime scene is an area where, as is in the name, a crime has been committed. It is also usually an area where forensic evidence can be gathered. The individuals that gather information at a crime scene are referred to as crime scene investigators. Standard crime scene investigation education does not adequately prepare crime scene investigators with the requisite knowledge on how to go about collecting data from burned or fragmented skeletal remains (Alfsdotter, 2021). This is problematic, because burning the body of the victim is a common strategy employed by criminals (Porta et al., 2013). The reason this is so common is because the shape and structure of human tissues become significantly altered when they are exposed to high levels of heat (Porta et al., 2013). Thus making the identification of the victim through soft tissue analysis impossible for forensic pathologists (Porta et al., 2013). When crime scene investigators are faced with this scenario, forensic anthropologists are often consulted (Alfsdotter, 2021). The role of forensic anthropology in crime scene investigations can be summarized as the application of anthropological theories and methods to interpret biological remains (Alfsdotter, 2021). The subsequent interpretations can 47 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Rishi Mohan be used to reveal criminal activity, identification of the individual or group responsible and the identity of the victim (Alfsdotter, 2021). You might be asking yourself “how can a forensic anthropologist assist crime scene investigators when the body of the victim has been burned?”. Although some parts of the human body may be altered, such as facial features, the dense bones underlying the soft tissue are likely to remain more or less intact throughout the incineration process (Porta et al., 2013). Crime scene investigators may rely on the expertise of a forensic anthropologist to assist them with determining the species that the remains belong to, generating a biological profile, identifying the victim, assessing how much time has passed since the death of the victim and determining whether or not the skeletal remains reveal any administration of trauma (Alfsdotter, 2021). The specifics as to how a forensic anthropologist navigates a crime scene is examined in greater detail within Chapter 8. is just one example of how forensic anthropology can assist law enforcement with a crime investigation. Thanks to scenarios like this one, the importance of using these anthropological skills in investigative field work is becoming increasingly recognized worldwide (Alfsdotter, 2021). In this paragraph, crime scenes involving the cremation of victims and the role of forensic anthropology will be examined. In 2007, during a summer in Milan, a burnt vehicle with the skeletal remains of a person was discovered (Porta et al., 2013). During the initial crime scene investigation, approximately 70% of the bones belonging to the deceased individual were recovered (Porta et al., 2013). Only once an autopsy was conducted did it become apparent that important portions of the skeletal remains were still missing (Porta et al., 2013). For the second crime scene investigation, a forensic anthropologist was brought in to lead the team (Porta et al., 2013). The forensic anthropologist, who understood human anatomy and the importance of finding the missing bones, sectioned off portions of the vehicle and conducted a thorough search (Porta et al., 2013). Following this second crime scene investigation, an additional 25% of the victim’s skeletal remains were recovered (Porta et al., 2013). The remaining 5% were believed to have fused with the material of the car (Porta et al, 2013). Luckily, the new additions were enough to put together the skull of the deceased victim (Porta et al., 2013). After reconstructing the skull of the victim, two lesions were found on the glabella, a region of the frontal bone located slightly above and between an individual’s eyebrow ridge (Porta et al., 2013). This allowed the investigators to deduce that two gunshot entry wounds were made prior to incineration of the body (Porta et al., 2013). This 48 The Importance of Forensic Anthropology from a Humanitarian Perspective Even during skirmishes between countries, there are rules of engagement. International humanitarian law is a subset of law which focuses on the rules put in place during times of war, with the aim of limiting the effects of armed conf licts. One example of a codification of humanitarian laws is the Geneva Convention (Protocol, 2004). The origins of humanitarian law stem from Swiss humanitarian Henry Dunant, whose personal experience of witnessing the lack of medical attention given to wounded soldiers on the battlefield of Solferino spurred him to action (Gasser, 1998). After the conclusion of the Second World War, Dunant suggested that an organization be established to attend to wounded soldiers (Gasser, 1998). This organization would come to be known as the Red Cross (Gasser, 1998). In addition to the establishment of the Red Cross, Dunant also suggested that rules be put in place during times of war to ensure the safety of wounded or captured soldiers and innocent civilians (Gasser, 1998). Unfortunately, humanitarian law is not always followed during militaristic endeavours. This has dire implications when you take into account the fact that the lives of defenceless civilians can be lost due to the willful ignorance of these laws. In the aftermath of such inhumane acts, the perpetrators will often cover up the vile actions that took place. This means that regrettably, the innocent lives that were massacred will remain voiceless. After all, history is written by the victors. Thankfully, forensic anthropology can be used to rewrite any false narratives that attempt to cover up atrocities that occur during war. An example of this is when the Croatian government formed a multidisciplinary team to recover, analyze and identify the human remains of a large number of victims that lost their lives during the Croatian Independence War (Šlaus, Strinović, Petrovečki, & Vyroubal, 2007). The Croatian Independence War took place 49 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Rishi Mohan between 1991 – 1995 and saw many casualties (Šlaus et al., 2007). The bodies of many of the deceased victims were inhumanely disposed of in wells (Šlaus et al., 2007). This made the recovery process quite difficult for the forensic team sent to investigate whether war crimes had taken place over the course of the war (Šlaus et al., 2007). In addition to the threat of land mines and other hidden explosive devices, the lack of structural integrity of the wells was also something the recovery team had to grapple with in their mission (Šlaus et al., 2007). The remains were often also mixed with one another, and the environment of the well had accelerated the decomposition process, which further made recovery and identification difficult (Šlaus et al., 2007). gunshot wound (Šlaus et al., 2007). Forensic anthropologists were also able to establish positive identification for three war victims based on the anatomical features of their remains (Šlaus et al., 2007). Without forensic anthropology, the heinous acts that took place during the war would have slipped into a metaphorical abyss. Although nothing can be done to right the wrongs done to these victims of war, forensic anthropology allows their story to be told and for their remains to be given a proper burial. The forensic anthropologists that were a part of this multidisciplinary team were responsible for assisting with locating and recovering the human remains (Šlaus et al., 2007). Due to the fact that some of the remains were mixed together, the forensic anthropologists were tasked with separating the remains belonging to each deceased individual (Šlaus et al., 2007). The forensic anthropologists on this team also interpreted the skeletal remains to determine if there was any evidence of trauma (Šlaus et al., 2007). In this situation, the forensic anthropologists also had to determine whether this trauma took place before death, near the time of death or after the victim had already passed (Šlaus et al., 2007). Finally, if enough of the remains were gathered, the forensic anthropologist was asked to identify the individual using their knowledge of human anatomy (Šlaus et al., 2007). The team of forensic anthropologists proved that the opposing Serbian forces violated the Geneva Convention (Šlaus et al., 2007). At one location, the remains belonging to a family of four were recovered (Šlaus et al., 2007). A 43-year old husband, his 40-year old wife and their two sons—aged 12 and 16—were found at the bottom of a well (Šlaus et al., 2007). In total, the multidisciplinary team were able to recover the skeletal remains of 61 individuals (Šlaus et al., 2007). They separated 26 individuals from remains that were mixed together (Šlaus et al., 2007). 38 out of the 61 remains belonging to the deceased victims revealed a cause of death (Šlaus et al., 2007). It was found that the most common method of death could be attributed to a singular 50 The Importance of Forensic Anthropology from a Historical Perspective From the examples above, forensic anthropology may appear to be a depressing occupation. However, not all aspects of forensic anthropology are as emotionally heavy as the previous examples. For instance, forensic anthropology can be used to investigate the diseases and illnesses that affected previous generations (Metcalfe, 2007). By analyzing the bone structure of our ancient ancestors, forensic anthropology provides us with a look into the distant past (Metcalfe, 2007). The science involved in the forensic anthropological process is covered extensively within Chapter 7. By applying the theories and techniques of forensic anthropology, illnesses, and how they affected a population can be ascertained (Metcalfe, 2007). For instance, the forensic anthropological analysis of mummies reveals that parasitic infections have plagued mankind for centuries (Metcalfe, 2007). Prior to the application of forensic anthropology, our knowledge of human diseases was limited to the interpretations of social and cultural inscriptions by modern day anthropologists (Metcalfe, 2007). For example, diseases like rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis and the difference in health between urban and rural individuals of the past can be determined (Metcalfe, 2007). This in turn gives us a window into the past and also can potentially provide answers in regards to modern-day anatomy (Metcalfe, 2007). Conclusion To summarize, this chapter examined the numerous applications of forensic anthropology in different settings, thereby highlighting its importance to society. Uruguay, a country that has a distinct pre and post forensic 51 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering anthropology time marker, illustrated how beneficial this subfield can be. Forensic anthropology can specifically lead to the positive identification of deceased individuals, which can provide a sense of closure for those related to the deceased individual. Forensic anthropology has also changed the field of criminology. Crime scene investigators and forensic pathologists are often left at a dead end whenever the remains of a victim are burned. This is a common occurrence in the criminal world, but luckily, by consulting a forensic anthropologist, evidence from the victim can still be gathered. In this sense, forensic anthropologists provide a unique point of view for crime scene investigations. Forensic anthropology can also be used to ascertain the cause of death. This type of information is extremely useful, especially in cases where violation of the Geneva Convention is suspected. Finally, forensic anthropology can be used to provide a glimpse into the past. Unlike cultural anthropology that utilizes interpretations that are subject to bias, forensic anthropology provides empirical evidence of health related events that have taken place. The upcoming chapter will examine how anthropology is used today and the necessary steps one must take in order to become a forensic anthropologist. 52 Chapter 6 How is Forensic Anthropology Used Today? Written By Samira Sunderji Introduction Forensic anthropology has become a well-established discipline within the field of forensic science and has clear scientific, legal, and political inf luences (Christensen et al., 2019). The discipline of forensic anthropology is an evolving science, with key developments from the 20th and 21st century advancing forensic technologies and methodological approaches to better assess skeletal remains and crime scenes. Forensic anthropologists attract widespread attention from the media, especially when their findings are used as evidence during high-profile and international cases. This sheds light on the discipline's growth, acceptance, and overall importance during legal proceedings. Today, forensic anthropologists work alongside several law enforcement agencies as well as civilians on a case-by-case basis. Their dedication to investigative properties generally begins at the undergraduate level, and their knowledge can be utilized in a variety of applications ranging from medicolegal investigations to mass disaster recoveries. While the preceding chapter provided reasons as to why forensic anthropology as a discipline is important, this chapter will delve into the applications of forensic anthropology from a Canadian perspective, while also discussing the steps required to become a forensic anthropologist. This chapter aims to define key terminologies used during investigations, and will detail how a forensic 55 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Samira Sunderji anthropologist plays a significant role in legal proceedings that could make or break a case. This chapter will also walk you through the steps to becoming a forensic anthropologist in Canada. continuous practice of skills that become increasingly refined as one pursues more cases. Therefore, the career of a forensic anthropologist is not a regular 9-5 desk job; it is a combination of collaborative work environments, detail-oriented investigations, and continuous practice of skills to gain expertise. It is important to consider all of these responsibilities, including the steps that are required to become a forensic anthropologist, when making career choices. How to become a Forensic Anthropologist *Disclaimer: this information is as of June 2021. The requirements and criteria may change in the future and can differ between countries. In recent years, just as the investigation of a crime scene has become more complex and sophisticated, so has the task of the forensic anthropologist (Mann & Ubelaker, 1990). The overarching goals of a forensic anthropologist is to investigate and identify. In the simplest of terms, forensic anthropologists: 1. Determine identity of remains 2. Reconstruct circumstances of death 3. Identify cause(s) of death While these objectives may seem straightforward, the depth and scope of this profession is more than what meets the eye—it requires years of training and experience, in addition to obtaining certain credentials and certifications (Doyle, 2021). Prior to applying to undergraduate university or college programs to pursue a career in forensic anthropology, it is important to consider why a future in this field is important to you. Why do you want to become a forensic anthropologist? This question, while simple, can have multiple interpretations and answers with no “correct” response. Similar to other professional fields (such as education and healthcare), this discipline is highly variable and f luid. New developments and technological advancements push the boundaries of previous, well-established practices, which may appeal to those who are looking to pursue a career in a dynamic work environment. Additionally, a forensic anthropologist works with multiple different law enforcement agencies as well as civilians on both high and low profile cases. (Doyle, 2021) This may be of interest to those who wish to collaborate with other professionals and use their unique set of skills and knowledge to come to a consensus on the best course of action or to answer previously asked questions. Forensic anthropology also includes independent lab work and investigation and allows for the 56 The criteria to become a forensic anthropologist dif fer across countries however, this chapter will specifically focus on the Canadian requirements and certifications. From an educational point of view, one must obtain an undergraduate degree or diploma from a recognized institution (college or university). While the following list is not exhaustive, it does provide some insight into the acceptable programs that will be required for graduate studies. Please note that not all programs listed below are offered at every university or college and only include the most common programs completed for a career as a forensic anthropologist. Personal research is recommended in order to find a suitable program that matches specific interests. • Forensic Sciences • Bachelor of Science with a specialization in Forensic Sciences or Forensic Anthropology • Bachelor of Arts with a specialization in Forensic Sciences or Forensic Anthropology • Anthropology After obtaining an undergraduate degree or diploma in the general field of forensic anthropology, graduate level studies are required from a recognized institution (college or university). A Masters degree in the field of physical, forensic, or general anthropology are the most commonly obtained degrees at the graduate level. A Masters degree can range between 1-3 years in length however, this is largely dependent on the program and the institution. The institution can label the degree as a Masters of Science or a Masters of Arts and can follow a thesis-based or course-based format. A thesis-based Masters emphasizes original research and research methodology in a particular field. It satisfies various aspects of knowledge development via scientific publications 57 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Samira Sunderji and allows students to explore an area of interest in greater detail. Professional, course-based Masters programs are more structured as they focus on the direct application of knowledge in teaching and educational contexts. While they both lead to the same credentials and satisfy the academic requirements to obtain a Masters degree, these different approaches to learning appeal to different populations of students based on personal preferences and future career pathways. A graduate degree can also be pursued through a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Anthropology or Physical Anthropology, which has the potential to open more doors for employment opportunities as it provides an additional distinction and more expertise in this overall discipline. Compared to a Masters degree, a PhD focuses on independent research and culminates with a comprehensive exam and/or completion of a dissertation. Time to completion of a PhD ranges between 3-7 years, and heavily relies on the type of independent research project. A PhD is primarily a research degree and applicants generally enter this program via one of two routes: 1) following the completion of an appropriate Masters degree or 2) direct entry after completing an appropriate Bachelor’s degree. Both types of graduate degrees offer a great amount of f lexibility and allow for students to become independent leaders in the discipline of forensic anthropology (M.A., M.Sc., and Ph.D. Programs, n.d.) . Forensic Anthropology (ABFA). To receive the ABFA certification, applicants must have a PhD in the field of Anthropology and must demonstrate practical experience in the discipline. This includes an evaluation of case reports and an up-to-date curriculum vitae (CV) that highlights experiences, education, and skills (American Board of Forensic Anthropology, 2018). Pending approval by the board, the applicant must also take an exam that includes both written and hands-on components to assess their knowledge and skills (American Board of Forensic Anthropology, 2018). Once all these components have been completed and the applicant has successfully passed, they will become a board certified forensic anthropologist. However, there is more to the job—forensic anthropologists are expected to remain up-to-date on the latest advancements in the field by participating in continuing education activities (American Board of Forensic Anthropology, 2018). This could include reviewing new methods in peer-reviewed journals or attending conferences and workshops. These educational activities could aid in building a larger professional network that can open doors for increased funding through a university or college. For example, most forensic anthropologists in Canada work as instructors or assistant professors at these institutions and simultaneously teach students while conducting research in a physical lab space or working externally as a forensic anthropologist. Some forensic anthropologists may even choose to work as a coroner or medicolegal examiner if the opportunity arises due to the lack of forensic anthropology jobs in Canada. The versatility of a forensic anthropologist's day-to-day work allows for them to take on different responsibilities and pave a career pathway that best suits their interests. Following the completion of a Masters and/or a PhD graduate degree, applicants can begin to search for jobs working as a forensic anthropologist. However, many students improve their credentials by becoming a board certified forensic anthropologist. While this is not mandatory, the certification is highly recommended and may be required in accredited medical examiner of fices. It is important to note that the scope of forensic anthropology in Canada has not progressed as quickly when compared to other countries (such as the United States and the United Kingdom). As of 2007, there were only 20 on-call forensic anthropologists in Canada and job openings continue to be limited across the nation. This could also be linked to the insufficient federal and provincial funding, as well as the lack of standardization in training and education across different institutions. Therefore, most North American forensic anthropologists become board certified via the American Board of 58 What is the Difference between a Forensic Anthropologist and a Forensic Archaeologist? The terms ‘anthropology’ and ‘archaeology’ are often misinterpreted to have the same meaning. While there are minute differences between the two terms, there is definitely some overlap between the roles of a forensic anthropologist and a forensic archaeologist. Forensic anthropologists are involved as early on as possible to guide the documentation and recovery processes in a given case (Doyle, 2021). As stated previously, they are trained in applying skeletal analysis techniques to assess skeletal remains in a variety of environments, 59 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Samira Sunderji with the goal of identifying the remains, reconstructing the circumstances of death, and identifying the cause(s) of death (Doyle, 2021). On the other hand, archaeologists play a slightly different role however, their training and expertise allows for adaptability in field excavations and crime scene investigations (Owsley, 2001). Forensic archaeology is the application of archaeological methods and principles (such as excavations and recovery methods) during forensic investigations (Doyle, 2021). Archaeological methods yield ‘good data’ in regard to documenting and interpreting subsurface remains. Archaeological methods enables the following objectives to be met: • Locating and documenting spatial contexts of all evidence • Maximizing information recovery • Minimizing information loss and contamination • Maintaining security and continuity of evidence As listed above, systematic scene strategies, documentation, and recovery plans are some of the many objectives a forensic archaeologist is responsible for. These objectives are also employed by forensic anthropologists which allows for some overlap between both of these roles. However, the main difference between forensic anthropologists and forensic archeologists is that a forensic anthropologist is trained specifically in human osteology and the recovery and identification of human remains (Doyle, 2021). A forensic archaeologist’s role is specifically for search and discovery processes (Doyle, 2021). The forensic archaeologist follows the same process of a forensic anthropologist in terms of education and schooling—both require an undergraduate degree and a Masters degree (a PhD is recommended but not always required) in anthropology or forensics from a recognized institution. Both of these roles can work alongside each other during crime scene investigations and excavation projects, while also having a unique set of skills that are specific to their trade. as this is a field heavily based on specialized qualifications and shadowing experience, while medical examiners are more likely to be pathologists, a physician in the medical field who studies the cause, nature, and effect of disease (Doyle, 2021). Medicolegal death investigators cannot lay down criminal charges. Law enforcement agencies become involved only when there is a need to investigate and/or rule out deaths of criminal concern. In general, law enforcement officers are the first to be notified of a death and will attend to the scene to determine whether or not it is a suspicious death with criminal concern (Doyle, 2021). If there is no concern, the case will be handed off to the local medicolegal office and a medicolegal death investigator will be the primary person of contact. If the death is suspicious and of criminal concern, the police will conduct their investigation parallel to that of the medicolegal office. In Canada, coroners and medical examiners often investigate parallel to police, police oversight (such as the Special Investigations Unit in Ontario), Transport Canada (federal rail and aviation agency when a death occurs on federal properties concerning transport), and workplace safety agencies (provincial, non-federal workplaces) (Doyle, 2021). How do Death Investigations work in Canada? Medicolegal (medical and legal) death investigators (such as coroners and medical examiners) are responsible for all sudden, unexpected, unexplained, or unattended deaths (Doyle, 2021). This will also include other deaths deemed reportable by provincial legislation. Coroners are most likely to be civilians, 60 The death investigator’s aim is to determine the following: • The mechanism(s) of death • The cause(s) of death • The classification of death The mechanism (or means) of death is most commonly the ‘trigger’ of the physiological process that led to an individual’s death (Doyle, 2021). Examples can include cardiac arrest, asphyxiation or a subdural hemorrhage. The cause of death is exactly what happened—examples can include (but are not limited to) a heart attack, a fall, a gunshot wound, or an overdose. The classification of death is a general, broad category in which the death can be ranked. There are 5 main classification categories; natural, accidental, homicide, suicide and undetermined deaths (Doyle, 2021). The term ‘undetermined’ is commonly used when there is not sufficient evidence to point to a particular cause or when there is competing evidence for a cause (Doyle, 2021). In cases such as these, specialists may be consulted. Some examples include: 61 Samira Sunderji Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering • • • Forensic pathologists (provide data from f leshed remains) Forensic toxicologists (provide data via chemical testing) Forensic anthropologists (provide data from the skeleton or decomposed remains) How are Forensic Anthropologists useful in Court? In a given case, expert testimony is a type of expert opinion evidence. If given by a civilian, without qualifications or credentials, this type of opinion-based evidence would not be admissible in court. General opinion evidence would follow the phrasing “I think” and would be given by a civilian; expert opinion evidence can be admissible in court however, it is determined by the judge as they have the final call for determining whether or not an expert is sufficiently knowledgeable in a particular field for their testimony to be included (Doyle, 2021). R v. Mohan (1994) and R v. Abbey (2009) were two court cases that set the standards for admissibility when it was determined that facts presented in court required an expert's interpretation and knowledge beyond that of a layperson (Doyle, 2021). So what exactly is expert testimony? There are three types of expert testimony: • Scientific expertise • Technical expertise • Other expertise Scientific expertise is evidence derived from an application of the scientific method to empirical data that is collected via surveys (Doyle, 2021). Technical expertise is applying established scientific knowledge to technical problems (Doyle, 2021). Other expertise encompasses research, clinical work, and familiarity with literature reviews—it is essentially based on a body of specialized knowledge (Doyle, 2021). What does this mean for forensic anthropology? Anthropology from a general standpoint falls under the scientific and other expertise categories. For expert testimony to be admissible in court, forensic anthropologists use the Daubert criteria to guide their testimonies (Doyle, 2021). The Daubert criteria are a series of guidelines that are used to determine whether expert witness 62 testimony should be admissible in court. The criteria consists of 5 factors including: • Whether the theory or technique can be and has been tested via the scientific method • Whether the theory or technique has been subjected to peer review and publication in literature • Whether the theory or technique has known or potential error rates • Whether the theory or technique includes any applicable professional standards • Whether the theory or technique has attracted widespread acceptance within a particularly relevant scientific community If the expert testimony of a forensic anthropologist follows all aspects of the Daubert criteria, it is highly probable that it will be admissible in court; however, this is still at the judge’s discretion (Doyle, 2021). Conclusion Over the last few decades, forensic anthropology has progressed to be formally recognized as a subdiscipline of anthropology (Snow, 1982). The versatility behind a forensic anthropologist’s day-to-day responsibilities is what makes a career in this field interesting and fulfilling. While it may take several years to become a forensic anthropologist, it allows for a plethora of opportunities and experiences that will only serve to improve skills and gain more knowledge in this field. From collaborating with law enforcement agencies to adopting new skill sets that overlap with the responsibilities of a forensic archaeologist, this discipline allows for an immense amount of personal and professional growth. Forensic anthropology is a highly variable field with developments, such as the Daubert criteria, standardizing the way a forensic anthropologist must operate. It is the hope of many forensic anthropologists that the discipline will continue to grow and will finally receive the praise and credit that it deserves. The following chapter will detail the science that is involved in forensic anthropology and will include descriptions of its subfields and the specific techniques that are used during investigations. 63 Chapter 7 What Science is involved in Forensic Anthropology? Written By Pareesa Ali Introduction to Forensic Sciences Forensic anthropology is one of the most important branches in the overall field of criminology. This is due to the vital role a forensic anthropologist plays in investigating and analyzing previously unexplained human deaths (Byers, 2016). Anthropology involves the study of the biology and culture of humanity, (Byers, 2016). Forensics, on the other hand, is a branch of criminology involved in studying crime scenes. (Byers, 2016). While forensic anthropology primarily utilizes the principles of anthropology to analyze human skeletal material, it also involves the study of applied science and works to combine the anthropological field with the forensic field (Byers, 2016). However, there are various other scientific branches that are involved in this field. The previous chapters have discussed the history of forensic anthropology, as well as its impact and importance in the field of criminology. Moving forward, this chapter will discuss the specific methods and science involved in forensic anthropology. As a recap, the basics of forensic anthropology revolve around analyzing human skeletal remains that may be associated with unexplained deaths (Byers, 2016). A forensic anthropologist aims to learn more about an individual from their skeletal remains, in order to draw a conclusion about the circumstances surrounding their death (Byers, 2016). In this chapter, I will first discuss the various branches of science involved in the study of forensic 65 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Pareesa Ali anthropology. Next, I will cover the main objectIves a forensic anthropologist aims to accomplish. Following this, I will examine the specific methods and techniques utilized by a forensic anthropologist in order to achieve these aims. Finally, I will discuss how these methods in forensic anthropology are interpreted for better understanding the fields of anthropology and criminology. The branch of forensic anthropology is not only incredibly interesting, but it is also a remarkable sub-field in the overarching field of criminology. There have been a great deal of scientific advancements made in identifying the cause of death for an individual who has passed away, and understanding these methods is a remarkable discovery. lead you to believe that today must be New Year’s Day. On the other hand, if you see a black cat one day, and then see another black cat another day, inductive reasoning would lead you to believe that all cats are black. Moreover, the primary methods used by a forensic anthropologist are data collection, which is then followed by data analysis (Boyd & Boyd, 2018). The aim of a forensic anthropologist is to reach a conclusion based on the data they have collected and analyzed, a process which can be done using either deductive or inductive reasoning (Boyd & Boyd, 2018). Furthermore, the methods used by forensic anthropologists require advanced scientific techniques and training. For example, a forensic anthropologist may need to investigate the skeletal remains of a body that has been burned, or dismembered (Klepinger, 2006). Thus, the remains of the body may not be easily identified simply through visual observation (Klepinger, 2006). This is one of the instances where the scientific background of a forensic anthropologist would come into play. They would use their training to employ advanced chemical and physical analysis techniques to identify these bones. (Klepinger, 2006). Thus, the duties of a forensic anthropologist are expansive and the work they complete offers major benefits across multiple fields. If you are interested in a career as a forensic anthropologist, please refer to Chapter 6: How is forensic anthropology used today? The rest of this chapter will discuss the objectives of a forensic anthropologist in their field, as well as the specifics behind the methods they use to identify skeletal remains. The Science Behind Forensic Anthropology Forensic anthropology is rooted in many different fields. Beyond criminology and anthropology, forensic anthropology also incorporates aspects from medicine and anatomy, archaeology, and even law (Christensen et al., 2019). For instance, forensic anthropology utilizes laboratory analysis techniques that are used in postmortem autopsy processes to determine the cause of death (Christensen et al., 2019). A forensic anthropologist also employs many of the same techniques used by archaeologists for digging up crime scenes and removing skeletal remains from a site (Christensen et al., 2019). In terms of the role of forensic anthropology in the courtroom, oftentimes a criminal investigation cannot proceed until forensic evidence from the scene has been analyzed (Galloway, 1990). In this case, the forensic anthropologist will have the additional duty of acting as an expert witness to provide details on the investigation they conducted in the field and the conclusion they have reached on the cause of the death (Galloway, 1990). Additionally, the very foundation of forensic anthropology is rooted in the scientific process (Boyd & Boyd, 2018). The basics of the scientific process rely on deductive and inductive reasoning processes (Boyd & Boyd, 2018). Deductive reasoning involves reaching a conclusion based on previously observed theories, while inductive reasoning involves developing a theory based on currently observed facts. For example, New Year’s Day is always on January 1st. Thus, if today is January 1st, then deductive reasoning would 66 The Objectives of Forensic Anthropology Generally, a forensic anthropologist studies the skeletons of deceased individuals whose deaths require a deeper investigation, specifically those that are a result of criminal activity(Byers, 2016). The main objective that falls to a forensic anthropologist is to identify human skeletal remains and determine their manner of death (Byers, 2016). Primarily, the initial goal of a forensic anthropologist is to determine the ancestry, sex, age, and height from the skeletal remains of a person (Byers, 2016). Usually, a pathologist or coroner would determine these characteristics; however, if the body has decomposed to the point where this is not possible, a forensic anthropologist is needed to study the skeletal remains (Byers, 2016). Thus, this process is generally completed on 67 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Pareesa Ali bodies that have deteriorated to the point where these characteristics cannot be determined visually (Byers, 2016). Forensic anthropologists are also consulted in the event of traumatic injury to human bone, such as through bullet holes or stab wounds (Byers, 2016). The goal of this consultation is to investigate details regarding the nature of the traumatic injury and to determine cause and manner of death for the individual (Byers, 2016). data from human skeletal remains requires the use of techniques that can collect information from skeletal bones and soft tissue from the decomposing bodies (Byers, 2016). These methods involve an initial visual examination of the body and the surrounding area to gather all information that can be determined visually (Byers, 2016). Following this, a microscopic examination of the body is performed (Byers, 2016). This can involve analyzing teeth to determine age or to identify the body using dental records (Byers, 2016). A forensic anthropologist would then use laboratory methods, such as microscopy, to further examine the skeletal remains and any other items that were found at the site (Byers, 2016). Next, a forensic anthropologist employs a set of data analysis techniques (Byers, 2016). The purpose of data analysis is to attempt to answer all remaining questions about the individual and their cause of death (Byers, 2016). This would involve building a biological profile from the skeletal remains and any information that they have found about the person, such as their age, ancestry, and sex (Byers, 2016). This biological profile can then be used to identify the deceased person, and it can even be compared to a database of missing persons (Byers, 2016). Moreover, forensic anthropology is incredibly useful for determining time of death (Byers, 2016). As any avid watcher of shows such as CSI or Law & Order: SVU would know, ascertaining the time of death is an important and necessary part of forensics, and it provides invaluable context into identifying how long ago a crime took place. This process has been made possible in forensic anthropology by studying how a human skeleton disintegrates over time (Byers, 2016). Furthermore, forensic anthropologists are also trained in using the same methods that are used in the field of archaeology (Byers, 2016). This is beneficial because it can help them to recover skeletal remains that have been buried beneath the surface without damaging them (Byers, 2016). These remains can then be studied and used as evidence in forensic investigations (Byers, 2016). Most importantly, forensic anthropologists can utilize these measures for positively identifying the bodies of deceased individuals (Byers, 2016). The work of a forensic anthropologist can also be applied to major crime scenes, such as the aftermath of an airplane crash to uncover human remains and identify all victims (Byers, 2016). Moreover, the work of a forensic anthropologist relies on the use of specific techniques. These methods and scientific techniques used by forensic anthropologists will be discussed in the upcoming section. Methods Involved in Forensic Anthropology Now that we have covered the different branches of science involved in forensic anthropology, let’s take a look at the specific methods used by forensic anthropologists. These methods and scientifically-advanced techniques have contributed to the accurate and efficient identification of skeletal remains. The methods used by forensic anthropologists can be categorized as either data gathering methods or data analysis methods (Byers, 2016). Gathering 68 The types of techniques used by forensic anthropologists fall into the following categories: anthroposcopy, osteometry, chemical analysis, and histologic analysis (Byers, 2016). Anthroposcopy involves the visual study of the human body, such as through the use of x-rays, to make visual conclusions about the body (Byers, 2016). This process is the most common method employed by a forensic anthropologist due to its accessibility (Byers, 2016). Osteometry involves the measurement of human bone (Byers, 2016). The purpose of this technique is to use these measurements to identify specific characteristics about an individual, such as their height, sex, and even their ancestry (Byers, 2016). For instance, a forensic anthropologist can measure the bone from an individual’s arm and calculate their approximate height (Byers, 2016). Furthermore, the field of osteometry uses the advanced technique of 3-D digitizers, which are used in the field to develop a 3-D representation of an object, such as pieces of a skeleton (Byers, 2016). This technique allows for the creation of a digital version of the entire skeleton which can then be visualized and can even be used to calculate skeletal measurements with a higher degree 69 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Pareesa Ali of accuracy (Byers, 2016). Additionally, chemical methods used in forensic anthropology rely on analyzing the chemistry of the skeleton and the area in which it was found (Byers, 2016). Using chemistry can help a forensic anthropologist investigate aspects such as how long a body has been decomposing for (Byers, 2016). Finally, methods utilizing histology, which is the study of biological tissues, to study bones and teeth under a microscope are also used in the forensic anthropology field (Byers, 2016). This requires instruments such as a microscope and laboratory equipment for preparing and staining samples under microscope slides (Byers, 2016). The field of forensic anthropology has changed a lot over time due to the scientific advancements that have been made in terms of the methods and techniques that are used to investigate and identify skeletal remains. As science continues to advance, it is likely that more advancements will be made within this field which will further contribute to its success and efficiency. Following this, I will discuss how the results from these various techniques are interpreted to make conclusions about an individual’s identity from their skeletal remains. regression are statistical methods that are used for understanding the value of the data that has been collected (Byers, 2016). Interpretation of Methods in Forensic Anthropology As mentioned earlier, the techniques used by forensic anthropologists allow them to develop a biological profile of an individual based on their skeletal remains (Byers, 2016). Forensic anthropologists then rely on a variety of protocols to analyze the data and measurements they obtain from a deceased body (Byers, 2016). These protocols include a decision matrix, range charts, indexes, discriminant functions, and regression equations. To begin, a decision matrix is used when a forensic anthropologist runs into a conf lict while interpreting the data they have collected, such as a discrepancy in biological sex characteristics for a body (Byers, 2016). The decision matrix will outline the importance of these characteristics so the forensic anthropologist can reach a conclusion (Byers, 2016). A range chart is referenced when a forensic anthropologist needs to look at a visual representation of features that fall within a range, such as age (Byers, 2016). In addition, an index is used to compare body structures between different groups in order to decide which group the data falls into (Byers, 2016). Moreover, discriminant function analysis and 70 Now, let’s discuss some examples of how data that is collected by a forensic anthropologist may be analyzed to develop a biological profile. When determining the time of death based on skeletal bones, forensic anthropologists inspect the surface and texture of the bones (Byers, 2016). Newer, younger bones are smoother while older bones are rough in texture (Byers, 2016). When it comes to determining the sex of a skeleton, forensic anthropologists measure the width of the pelvis, as females generally have a wider pelvis compared to men (Byers, 2016). For determining the race and ancestry using skeletal remains, forensic anthropologists look at aspects such as nasal width and height (Byers, 2016). Black individuals generally have larger nasal widths, while White individuals have more narrow nasal widths (Byers, 2016). Investigating and measuring characteristics such as these, and then comparing the measurements to an index or decision matrix can allow the forensic anthropologist to develop a detailed and accurate biological profile using the skeletal remains of a body. Thus, the most important role of a forensic anthropologist is their interpretation of the data they gather and collect from a deceased individual’s remains. The results from the interpretation of this data can then be used in a court of law, in criminal investigations, and even in understanding characteristics of humans in the past. This was discussed earlier in Chapter 5: Why is forensic anthropology important? Conclusion Overall, the field of forensic anthropology relies heavily on the use of the science, and the scientific advancements that have been made in this field have contributed majorly to its success. The scientific methods and techniques used by forensic anthropologists have allowed them to identify the skeletal remains of bodies, both at individual crime sites or at the site of mass accidents such as the remains from an airplane crash. The various fields involved in forensic anthropology range from biology to archaeology and even criminology; thus, the discoveries made by this field will continue to serve a 71 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering greater purpose in forensic research. Additionally, the future use and success of forensic anthropology will continue to grow with the development of new scientific advancements. This will be discussed further in Chapter 12: What future directions will the study of forensic anthropology take? Now that we have discussed the scientific methods involved in forensic anthropology, the upcoming chapter will discuss the specifics of the process used by a forensic anthropologist at a crime scene. Furthermore, the rest of the book will discuss the role of the environment affecting forensic anthropology, the controversies surrounding this field, as well as its portrayal in popular culture. 72 Chapter 8 What Process do Forensic Anthropologists Employ? Written By Sameen Ali Introduction Critical-thinking, problem-solving, communication and detail orientation are just some skills a forensic anthropologist requires in order to study and analyze crime scenes (TRUITY, 2020). Forensic anthropologists work in laboratories and on crime scenes where they have a number of roles and processes to follow. This chapter will delve into these processes and go through the experiences a forensic anthropologist faces in their day-to-day responsibilities. Typically, some of the tasks on-site in a crime scene include: analyzing the scene to determine what evidence should be collected and how, taking photographs of the crime scene and evidence, making sketches of the crime scene, recording observations and findings, such as the location and position of evidence, collecting evidence including weapons, fingerprints and bodily f luids, cataloging and preserving evidence for transfer to crime labs and lastly, reconstructing crime scenes (TRUITY, 2020). Tasks done in laboratory differ from those done at crime scenes, these include: performing chemical, biological, and microscopic analysis on evidence taken from crime scenes, exploring possible links between suspects and criminal activity, using the results of DNA comparisons and other scientific analyses, and finally, consulting with experts in specialized fields, such as toxicology and odontology (TRUITY, 75 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Sameen Ali 2020). Let's now take a closer look at the details of these general tasks, and analyze what exactly a forensic anthropologist does in a death investigation. . excavation; this includes the screening of plants, earth materials, metals and sediments (Stanojevich, 2012). These scenes are not processed solely by forensics scientists; nonetheless, they contribute immensely to discovery and safe retrieval of human remains. Now, the next step for the forensic anthropologist is examining the remains. What Forensic Anthropologists do in a Death Investigation Forensic anthropologists understand the various skeletal properties and apply this knowledge to their work in order to obtain conclusions about the crime (Stanojevich, 2012). Their work in such investigations is essential for the field of forensic science as a whole. They process the crime scene and examine remains, which they use to develop a biological profile of the victim. They then compile this information in the appropriate documentations and present them to provincial and federal courts (Stanojevich, 2012). Their job is incredibly important as their analysis contributes to a death investigation by providing law enforcement agencies with important answers about the victim, which aids in the outcome of a case (Stanojevich, 2012). Scene Processing One of the first ways a forensic anthropologist contributes to crime scene analysis is scene processing and the locating buried remains (Stanojevich, 2012). When the forensic anthropologists first arrive at the scene, they must conduct an “on-site identification of scattered remains as they are found to determine whether they are human,” (Sharma, 2019). This allows the anthropologist to review their search strategy in response to the scatter patterns of the remains. This information is relayed to the search team when the remains are complete (Stanojevich, 2012). Any crime scene – especially a death investigation – is delicate and the likelihood of contamination is a major issue (Stanojevich, 2012). This issue arises due to the fact that the destruction of the remains by the perpetrator of the crime, combined with the duration of time since the remains were scattered makes identification of the subject difficult and sometimes impossible. To preserve the scene, grids are placed around the crime area and an anthropologist will mark off a screening area where materials from the surrounding area will be systematically sifted through a screen to reveal human remains, artifacts, fibres, and any associated insects (Stanojevich, 2012). The forensic anthropologist will also set up an area for 76 Examining the Remains One of the most important preliminary tasks is identifying if the remains belong to a human or another animal, this is determined by the forensic anthropologist (Stanojevich, 2012). They may also have to perform a taphonomic assessment and a soft tissue examination in order to process and inspect remains effectively. The former assessment (taphonomic) is the scientific estimate of postmortem and whether the remains have been moved, removed or altered in any way (Dirkmaat & Cabo, 2016). Whereas the latter is an examination of soft tissue changes including decomposition rates and patterns, disarticulation, dispersion of body parts, and any modification of tissue or bone (Stanojevich, 2012). When an anthropologist is required to examine the remains, they must be able to differentiate the bone from the non-bone material and human from non-human bone based on the evidence present (Stanojevich, 2012). Once this task is done, and it has been identified by the expert that the remains found were indeed from a human body, the forensic anthropologist must then perform a taphonomic assessment followed by a soft tissue examination (Stanojevich, 2012). These tests are performed in order to complete a proper assessment of the remains at hand (Stanojevich, 2012). These assessments will reveal the rate of decomposition of the body, providing information about the time of death. Therefore these tests help specialists to determine if the remains acquired are meaningful to the investigation (Stanojevich, 2012). Developing a Biological Profile A biological profile is made by a forensic anthropologist of the unnamed deceased individual. The biological profile portrays their physical characteristics. There are many contributing factor that help forensic anthropologists establish the age of the victim, sex and stature (Stanojevich, 2012). In order to 77 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Sameen Ali determine the age, a forensic anthropologist must apply theoretical knowledge of skeletal and dental development to their conclusion (Stanojevich, 2012). Ossification centers in bones help determine the age of individuals. These developments occur according to age, sex and bone element involved as well as nutrition patterns. Forensic anthropologists apply odontological identification based on dental records which aid in identifying the age range for the individual, as well as identifying individuals in the absence of other unique markers (Stanojevich, 2012). If the forensic anthropologists are unable to use the evidence and are confused, they can use radiographic studies of living individuals for reference in order to come to a conclusion. When a forensic anthropologist must determine the sex of the subject, the hip bones are the key and exhibit the most significant difference between sexes of the skeleton(Stanojevich, 2012). Anthropologist can determine the difference between male and female pelvises, primarily due to the sex-specific differences that exist in regards to size and shape. Given this information, the bone structure grants anthropologists the opportunity to determine the biological sex of the victim (Stanojevich, 2012). However, the most reliable results are based on bone length, particularly the bones of the lower limbs. Figuring out the subject’s age, sex and stature eventually generates a profile for the victim (Stanojevich, 2012). The next step is to figure out how this tragedy occured. to determine the cause of death. Eyewitness Testimony and Documentation One of the expectations for a forensics anthropologist is to document all procedures with as much precision as possible. Part of their job is to include a full range of anthropological measurements and determinations as well as the taphonomic assessment, biological profiles and evidence of perimortem trauma (Stanojevich, 2012). If the investigation the forensic anthropologist is involved in is dealt with within court, the impact of their work can carry a serious significance to the outcome of the case (Stanojevich, 2012). Using scientific processes is crucial for testifying in court. It is essential that the forensic anthropologist is neutral during the hearing because their duty is to both the victim and the defendant to portray their results as honestly as possible(Stanojevich, 2012). Thus, documentation and eyewitness testimony is required of most forensic scientists as it helps the overall outcome of the death investigation by providing the legal system with scientific evidence to back up their accusations (Stanojevich, 2012). Cause of Death The next step for the forensic anthropologist is to present all the information obtained to a medical examiner so that they can understand and determine the cause of death in an investigation (Stanojevich, 2012). Forensic anthropologists classify traumatic events as resulting from sharp forces, gunshots or blunt forces (Stanojevich, 2012). These events cause blunt force damage to the bones, which produce impact marks or fractures. These marks can also help determine shape, trauma type, or weapon class of the weapon used (Stanojevich, 2012). When an anthropologist investigates a gunshot wound, they reconstruct the shattered bones to look at the injury (Stanojevich, 2012). These help the specialists to determine the entrance and exit wounds as well as how many shots were fired (Stanojevich, 2012). These injuries aid the forensic anthropologist in providing the medical examiner with information necessary 78 Questions Forensic Anthropologists Ask Forensic anthropologists apply their scientific knowledge to legal contexts in order to analyze skeletal remains.When confronted with a decomposed body, forensic anthropologists want to give as much information as possible to law enforcement regarding the death and its circumstances. However, in order to ensure that this is done effectively, they ask a series of questions which include (Anonymous, 2021): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Are the remains human? Do they represent just one individual, or a mix of several? When did the death of the individual occur? How old was the individual at the time of death? What was the individual's ancestry? What was the sex of the indivudal? What was the individual's height? Do the remains have any anomalies, injuries, diseases and are they unique to the individual? 79 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Sameen Ali Forensic anthropologists also ask questions regarding the death, these include (Anonymous, 2021): all these analyses is used to come to conclusions about the individual whose remains were found. For a modern example, photos of the skull can be used to compare to people who have gone missing (Museum of Natural History, 2019). Forensic anthropologists focus on consistencies between the bones and f lesh forms (Museum of Natural History, 2019). In some cases, photos may not exist; however, the face can be reconstructed based on skull structure and known standard features along with facial tissue thickness (Museum of Natural History, 2019). An example of this occurred when Smithsonian forensic anthropologist Dr. David Hunt was able to use facial reconstruction to ascertain the identity of the remains of a child found in Las Vegas (Museum of Natural History, 2019). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. When did the death occur? Did the individual die at the location the remains were found or were these remains transported after the death? If the person was buried, was the grave distrubed or was the person buried more than once? What was the cause of death? What was the manner of death? The distinguishing factor between questions four and five, the difference between cause of death versus manner of death, is that cause refers to the way the individual died – or what caused the death (Anonymous, 2021). Examples include, wounds caused by gunshot or stabbings, strangulation or being bludgeoned to death (referring to a hit with incredible force) (Anonymous, 2021). In contrast, manner of death is classified as either homicide, suicide, accidental, natural or unknown (Anonymous, 2021). Techniques used by a Forensic Anthropologist: Forensic anthropologists use a variety of techniques to analyze human remains and record their observations. The bones found are photographed and X-rayed (Museum of Natural History, 2019). They are also analyzed using CT scans and high power microscopes. The importance of such techniques is that they provide plenty of information about the remains without harming them (Museum of Natural History, 2019). In addition, these techniques provide a visual record that can be kept for future references Other techniques like DNA analysis may be used to help identify the individual, mitochondrial DNA found in bones or teeth can also be used to confirm the relationship of old remains to past or currently living descendants of the individual (Museum of Natural History, 2019). Chemical analysis using isotopes can help identify the age of the individual, and can provide crucial information about the individual's diet (Museum of Natural History, 2019). The data collected from 80 To forensic anthropologists, analysing human bones opens a scientific portal that allows the justice system to unveil the truth and discover facts surrounding the crime. Forensic anthropologists are not only trained in anthropology but archaeology, human osteology and chain-of-evidence procedures – which refers to records of the evidence found (Heather Walsh-HaneyJun et. al, 2017). The archaeological training, in particular, is used when human remains and other physical evidence is recovered from a crime scene. Scene responders have one chance to recover all the physical evidence, and photograph the human remains, bullet casings and other evidence scattered around the scene (Heather Walsh-HaneyJun et. al, 2017). In the laboratory, forensic anthropologists use their knowledge of human osteology and anatomy to aid the medical examiners in the important role of identifying the victim (Heather Walsh-HaneyJun et. al, 2017). Their job in the laboratory is to reconstruct what happened at the time of death. They also use facial reconstruction – a method used to identify the individual’s physiognomy (Crime Museum, 2017). This is usually performed by a sculptor who is an expert at facial anatomy (Crime Museum, 2017). This sculptor may be a forensic artist; however, the sculptor will work with a forensic anthropologist to interpret the facial features of the skeleton remains which will reveal more information (Crime Museum, 2017). The sculptor uses the three dimensional reconstruction technique which requires them to place tissue markers on the skull at specific points so that when the clay is placed, 81 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering the reconstruction resembles the victim (Crime Museum, 2017). The location of the points is decided using complex estimates of depth based on the age, gender and ethnicity of the skull (Crime Museum, 2017). Conclusion A forensic anthropologist's occupation is essential to the field of forensics and makes a significant contribution to the outcome of a court case. They establish the cause of death in an investigation and bring the victim justice. The main focus of a forensic anthropologist is to process the crime scene, examine the remains, develop a biological profile of the deceased individual, provide appropriate documentation of their findings and present them to the court of law. They work together in order to draw conclusions from evidence, by applying their knowledge of human skeletal systems to the case at hand. In addition, they use various techniques to aid them in coming to valid conclusions. In today’s society the crime rate is rising and hence forensic anthropologists are required to help solve these crimes (Bartleby Research, n.d). In order to make an impact on the world and be successful, forensic anthropologists must go through the process outlined. These processes corroborate the fact that critical-thinking, problem-solving, communication and detail orientation are just a few of the many, many skills needed in order to be successful at their jobs and provide rational conclusions. Furthermore, to truly understand a forensic anthropologist's role, it is important to understand how the environment affects their processes. This will be discussed in the next chapter. 82 Chapter 9 How does the Environment Affect Forensic Anthropology? Written By Shana Quesnel T he environment in which a body decomposes is extremely important to the way this body decomposes. The temperature, humidity, and light it in can af fect its decomposition significantly. An important part of the forensic anthropologist’s work is to determine how the body was affected by these conditions. This is when taphonomic research comes in handy; it’s a specialization focused on the way remains can be affected by the environment, such as being distributed by animals or through soil decomposition. To the average person, the work of forensic anthropologists can seem quite obscure and macabre. Although the majority of the work they do is often within a post-secondary establishment, the work itself is often physically demanding and emotionally taxing. The work of anthropologists is deeply affected by climate change, more and more often they need to work in the aftermath of a disaster which affects their work conditions negatively. Taphonomic Research and Body Preservation in Different Environments A particular field of research that is extremely useful to forensic anthropologists is taphonomic research. One may ask what exactly is taphonomic research? The term itself has a complex history. It was first used by the Soviet scientist and paleontologist Ivan Efremov in 1940, when he defined it as ‘’the 85 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Shana Quesnel study of the transition (in all its details) of animal remains from the biosphere into the lithosphere” (Lee Lyman, 2010). Since then, the exact meaning of the term has changed. It came to be understood as the study of what becomes of an organism after its burial, including the conversion and preservation of the bone to fossil (Passalacqua, 2012). Forensic anthropology is mainly concerned with the identification of cadavers in order to construct biological profiles. The body can be discovered in all kinds of conditions, and with different evidence of what happened to the victim. Just the skeletons themselves can give plenty of hints as to what happened to their bearer. It is more often than not useful for forensic anthropologists to link their work to the study of fossils, like fossil hominid taphonomy, paleopathology, and bioarchaeology (Passalacqua, 2012), death of the individual while the second attempts to determine if there was an alteration of the remains after death (Passalacqua, 2012). Determining the time of death is a complex issue. The decomposition of a body is profoundly affected by its environment, whether it is the temperature or the pH of the soil, or the activity of animals in the area. To be able to get an accurate sense of the time of death of the victim, a forensic taphonomist often crosses over into other fields and specializations. For example, when the cadaver is in advanced stages of decomposition, forensic entomology and the study of insect fauna is often the best option to give an accurate postmortem interval. However, forensic botany is useful for multiple issues such as root growth, decay rates of plants found within the body, soil composition, and pH levels, which all inf luence the bone quality of the skeletal remains (Passalacqua, 2012). Geographic information Systems can be used in the context of forensics to provide maps of the site where the body was found, but also for creating deposition models, a tool extremely useful to the forensic expert in deducting what impacted the decomposition of the body. In the 1980’s, a group of forensic anthropologists (many who had a background in archaeological science), brought to attention to the rest of the anthropologist community the gap in research on the pattern of skeleton remains of an individual without contextual grounding. This group of forensic anthropologists saw the subdiscipline of forensic taphonomy being born. The definition of forensic taphonomy can be defined as ‘’the study of postmortem processes which affect (1) the preservation, observation, or recovery of dead organisms, (2) the reconstruction of their biology or ecology, or (3) the reconstruction of the circumstances of their death” (Haglund and Sorg, 1997). Even if this type of taphonomy seems contrary to the original definition, it follows the main principles of its origins. While paleontological taphonomy mainly concentrates itself on the remains of subjects who were buried long ago, this new type of forensic study wants to know what happens in the time period after the burial of the body until it is rediscovered. This includes a lot of details of on the condition of the body ‘’the patterns and rates of soft-tissue decomposition including factors played by insect activity, bacteria, etc., the effects of animals on the remains in terms of scattering, damaging, and removing elements, the effects of plants on the remains, and even the effects of soil conditions, plant cover, shade factors, and temperature regimes.’’ (Passalacqua, 2012). There are two primary foci of taphonomic reconstructions when it comes to forensic anthropology. The first one is to scientifically determine the time of 86 This system has only recently started to be used in forensics, and has the potential to advance forensic taphonomy by taking into account detailed pieces of information, such as data on tree cover, roads, and water sources, in the taphonomic analysis (Passalacqua, 2012). When it comes to post depositional movement, and the condition of the cadaver, taphonomic analyses try to once again tackle multiple questions. These questions touch on the positions of the remains, why they are not in their original anatomical position, what’s responsible for such a change, if those changes came due to trauma or taphonomic damage, and finally when such modifications happened (Passalacqua, 2012). By posing these questions, it is possible to determine the role of humans or other agents in moving portions of the remains or modifying the condition of the remains. There are several elements that can modify the original anatomy, such as being moved by a creature (large scale) or other natural agents (small scale, like bioturbation, plant root envelopment, worm activity, etc). The nonhuman modification can also come from animal interactions with remains which can leave diagnostic marks on the bones. Forensic anthropologists often find themself with only isolated parts of skeletal elements or 87 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Shana Quesnel partial remains. To determine the causes of the differential recovery they start with macroscopic and microscopic examination of the bones’ surfaces which can reveal chewing or cuts (Passalacqua, 2012). Another situation that makes the work of the expert difficult is when the remains are scattered, this can mean missing pieces and parts from the same cadavre being impacted differently by their environment. These cases are approached with the help of an examination of landscape topography and environmental conditions; ‘’the best way to document the context of remains at a scene during recovery is through archaeological methodology, description, and analysis; generating a detailed map with supplementary photographs and notes works well’’ (Passalacqua, 2012). Forensic taphonomists identify all the taphonomic agents that could possibly impact the human remains. In other words, they attempt to identify and ignore all non-human interaction with the body to be able to focus only on human interactions with the corpse. focus and attention are necessary to be able to do their work. Some often find catharsis in the closure their work provides to victims (Roufa, 2019). Work Environment and Culture Forensic anthropologists usually do not have the typical work environment and culture of a regular 9 to 5 office job. Forensic anthropologists often do not work in the field full-time. Even if the first place one may imagine a forensic anthropologist is at a crime scene, more often than not, forensic anthropologists work in post-secondary establishments as college or university professors. Usually, their work mostly takes place in classrooms, offices, laboratories, and lecture halls(Roufa, 2019). They often consult with law enforcement where their expertise is needed. Usually, a university professor spends around fifteen hours a week teaching and thirty hours a week on other administrative duties as well as research (Roufa, 2019). An important subset of the forensic anthropologist workforce is employed in a more stereotypical CSI role at medical examiner’s offices, museums, and even in the military. This type of work can also be physically demanding. In certain cases, anthropologists sometimes need to travel to sites that are hard to access and need to carry their equipment with them. Weather and environmental conditions can have a large impact on working conditions in these cases. The emotional strain of analyzing bodies in these conditions can take a toll on the forensic anthropologist. . Even if such a situation can be emotionally taxing, their 88 The impact of climate change on forensic anthropology and the work environment An interesting take on the effect of the environment on body preservation is the effect of climate change. The climate crisis touches every aspect of human life on the planet, forensic anthropology included. A simple example of the impact of climate change on forensic anthropology is the increasing number of wildfires that scourge our planet. An obvious example is California, where a longer and dryer summer has increased the likelihood of wildfire on the West coast. In 2018, when a fire devastated Northern California, anthropologists were asked to help identify the victim of the fire that started on November 8, 2018 (Pilloud, Bartelink, Kendell & Milligan, 2020). The rapid excavation was massive, with a total of 52,000 individuals. However, there were multiple individuals missing in the aftermath of the fire, so the local sheriff's office asked for help from California State University (CSU)’s Chico Human Identification Lab to identify the remains of . The scale of the fire caused by climate change was so devastating that the university asked for the help of another anthropologist. A total of 68 anthropologists form 7 different institutions worked on this project to identify the remains of evacuees (Pilloud, Bartelink, Kendell & Milligan, 2020). The working conditions on the site, and other sites like this one, are extremely dangerous for the professionals, with smoke filled air which made it hard for them to breathe and see. The work was so urgent that the anthropologists needed to work in areas where small fires were still burning, creating even more hazardous conditions(Pilloud, Bartelink, Kendell & Milligan, 2020). The anthropologists working on this task had to wear a large amount of personal protective equipment, such as respirators and Tyvek suits, which made the work even more dif ficult. (Pilloud, Bartelink, Kendell & Milligan, 2020). On top of the physically demanding work, the emotional toll of such a task cannot be understated. On this particular site, multiple professionals lost 89 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Shana Quesnel their own homes and were faced with the deaths of neighbours and friends day in and day out, all the while expected to remain logical and analyze the circumstances of their deaths. Even if occasionally people were found alive, this work left a toll on many of the anthropologists. . The main recovery effort happened in November of 2018, with multiple follow-up operations in early December. A total of 85 victims were found in that time period, and the anthropologists played a vital role in finding all but 10 of them. The remains were moved to the Sacramento County Coroner’s office, where a wide range of techniques were used to analyze the remains, including skeletal analysis (which included identifying the biological profile of the remains and sorting commingled remains), radiographic comparison (compares postmortem radiographic with an antemortem dental record) and rapid DNA. The usage of rapid DNA was first used as a primary means of identification, identifying more than half of the victims(Pilloud, Bartelink, Kendell & Milligan, 2020). remains are affected by its environment. The field of taphonomic research is extremely useful in this pursuit. . It does this by determining how remains are affected by their surrounding environment in order to better understand how they could have been affected by human activity.. Finally, climate change is changing the world around us in unprecedented ways, and forensic science is no exception to those changes. The climate disaster changed the way forensic anthropologists work in the field, creating more hazardous working conditions and enacting an emotional toll. To conclude, the field of forensic anthropology is a complex one and with such a complex topic it has more than its share of controversy. This kind of event caused by climate change is shaping the future of forensic anthropology. As the effects of anthropogenic climate change become apparent, and disasters increase in frequency and magnitude, forensic anthropologists will be increasingly called upon to perform these difficult tasks because of this, forensic anthropologists are pushing for legislation to shape better future responses, including guidelines for wildfire scene recovery, mass fatality management for wildfire-related fatalities, and laboratory identification procedures (Pilloud, Bartelink, Kendell & Milligan, 2020). Forensic anthropologists are well equipped to assist in the present challenge and help mitigate the effects of an extreme climate. With disasters such as the wildfire in California becoming more common, they will be called upon more often to use their expertise in the service of saving human lives. Climate change is touching every facet of human life, and forensic anthropologists are impacted both in the types of work they are called upon to do, but also the conditions they are expected to practise in. Conclusion Even if the world of forensic taphonomy can look extremely mysterious,the work itself is quite simple. Their main goal is to determine how the body’s 90 91 Chapter 10 What Controversy is there surrounding Forensic Anthropology? Written By Shea McMartin Introduction The study of forensic anthropology has created opportunities within the judicial system to advance their technology great distances. However, along with this scientific technology and its significant role within society today, comes controversy. These controversies stem from areas such as the judicial system itself, where inaccurate handling of evidence can lead to wrongful verdicts, from religious groups whose practices do not support the use of forensic anthropology as well as other economic and political concerns. This chapter dives into each of these topics to display historical issues as well as those present in the present day. Controversy within the Law As previously explained, forensic anthropology is defined as “the application of the science of physical or biological anthropology to the legal process. Physical or biological anthropologists who specialize in forensics primarily focus their studies on the human skeleton” (Fondebrider, 2014). Within this scientific discipline there has been a great number of impressive technological advancements that aid our judicial system in bringing justice to those that cause harm. However, the inability for scientists and judges to be one hundred percent accurate with their findings due to either a difference of opinions 93 Shea McMartin Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering or lack of cumulative evidence, leaves room for mistakes to be made. These mistakes can be extreme and leave a detrimental impact on an individual's life. If accusations are made against an individual and the evidence is misinterpreted by forensic anthropologists, , a defendant can be wrongly convicted for a crime they have not convicted. Unfortunately this has been the case in more than one instance and leads to a continued abundance of controversy regarding the accuracy and trust that is put into forensic science in general, and forensic anthropology specifically. • • The use of forensic anthropology is so important to law enforcement organizations that it is essential that this type of evidence and method is not undermined by efforts to prove its inaccuracies. They believe that by eliminating use of forensics in the court, it will be much harder to convict criminals. Meanwhile, defendants often try to use the lack of forensic evidence or validity it maintains in assistance of the person under question (Forensic Science Controversies, 2017). Furthermore, some legal experts suggest a lack of scientific credibility on example such as evidence of bite marks, ballistics and hair analysis are severely lacking to be productive and accurate forms of evidence. There have been studies that show up to five percent of people that have been convicted of serious crimes, such as murder, are potentially innocent due to the lack of scientific proof of their guilt, and yet were put in prison regardless (Forensic Science Controversies, 2017). There has also been an extraordinary number of people that have been exonerated within the last two decades. In the United States, the National Registry of Exonerations records a total of 2,796 exonerations from 1989 to 2021. They continue to break these statistics down, with 25,007 total years lost by these individuals and an average of 8.9 years lost per individual after a wrongful conviction (Exonerations in the United States Map, 2021). This large number of exonerations has also decreased the public's trust in forensic anthropology. Within these statistics lie real stories of these thousands of wrongfully convicted individuals whose lives were stolen from them. To follow are a few examples of unfortunate instances of people who were wrongly convicted: 94 • “In 2004, the FBI erroneously matched the fingerprint of a U.S. citizen with prints found at the scene of a train bombing in Madrid, Spain, carried out by Islamic extremists.18 A government review found that the FBI had allowed its examiners to know personal information about the suspect — that he was Muslim — and to switch back and forth between his print and the print found at the scene in a way that allowed examiners to minimize differences and magnify similarities." (Forensic Science Controversies, 2017) “In 2012, Santae Tribble of Washington, D.C., was exonerated for murder and armed robbery after 28 years in prison. He had been convicted after an FBI examiner said he had microscopically matched Tribble's hair to 13 strands found at the scene. Subsequent DNA testing revealed that none of the hairs were Tribble's and that one belonged to a dog” (Forensic Science Controversies, 2017). “In 2013, David Camm of Georgetown, Ind., was exonerated of murdering his wife and children after DNA found at the scene was linked to the real killer. Blood-spatter experts had disagreed on whether the blood found on Camm's shirt proved he was near his daughter when the gun went off, or were “contact stains” produced when Camm tried to pull his son's body out of the car where he was found. A forensic biologist who testified for the defense said “people who are not scientists” had rendered most of the earlier opinions” (Forensic Science Controversies, 2017). As forensic anthropology continues to develop the goal is to improve its accuracy and expand on new strategies to make all evidence as accurate as possible. The controversy remains within the law until justice can be had for those who were falsely imprisoned while those who were guilty maintained their freedom. Religious Controversy For a large number of the global population, religion plays a vital role in their lifestyle, decision making and personal beliefs. Therefore, the role of 95 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Shea McMartin forensic anthropology has become a controversial topic amongst certain religious groups. As death is believed to be determined by a higher power such as God, the interference of science into this divinely determined rite of passage. A popular idea amongst various religious circles is that God had a plan for the death of an individual. Since it was “God’s plan,” this makes it unnecessary for scientists to interfere in the cause of death from a scientific or medical standpoint. Over the course of the 20th century, there was much debate between law enforcement and religious organizations regarding how much the law could demand in pursuit of justice. A paper written by Elizabeth C Burton outlines the historical growth of religion (specifically Judaism) and its relationship to the law. To follow is a concise breakdown of the development of autopsies within Jewish community since 1947 when Hebrew University opened Hadassah Medical School and there had to be an understanding within the religious figures and those practicing modern medicine. The following list will outline the rules put into place to create a connection between law and religion that make proceeding with an autopsy credible: The central issue lies in the practice of autopsies. As forensic anthropology includes multiple subcategories included in forensic examinations, such as “examination of firearms and bullets, tool marks, fire debris, blood type, blood-spatter patterns and digital evidence” (Forensic Science Controversies, 2017) there are areas and methods of examination that are not of great concern in this religious controversy (Forensic Science Controversies, 2017). However, an autopsy is considered by some religious groups to be an act of desecration against the person who has died, as well as God. However, this is not to say all religions nor individuals strictly follow these rules. On the topic of an autopsy, it is often specific to each individual as to how they would like to proceed depending on their personal beliefs on the matter and the situation that has led them to the point of an autopsy. There are religions, however that outright object to any interference of science on the dead body; such as in Islam and Judaism (Weaver, 2020). They believe it is important to keep the human body fully intact, leaving no room for any violation or interference. After the death of a Muslim, is it important they are buried within 24 hours of their death, and typically family members do not eat until the burial. This makes it challenging for an autopsy to be performed, and they are often discouraged (Weaver, 2020). Within Judaism, they believe that since people are to be buried fully intact and promptly after death, they are to treat the body with respect and not disrupt it by opening it up. This has made it challenging for doctors and law enforcement to advance their technology and enforce the same level of evidence within a case as with people who have different religious beliefs (Weaver, 2020). 96 1. 2. 3. “The autopsy is required by civil law, (2) three doctors determine that the cause of death cannot be determined without an autopsy, (3) three doctors believe that an autopsy will help save the life of others with similar illnesses, and (4) if a hereditary disease is in question, which may affect relatives.” (Weaver, 2020) “The law of 1953 did not specify if the final decision to perform an autopsy lies with the family or the medical authorities, and a set of amendments was later added for this reason. If the deceased did not leave written consent for an autopsy, the next of kin may refuse. If no family is found, the community organization Chevra Kadisha, which helps prepare bodies for burials following Jewish procedures, may object to the autopsy as well. Finally, if the body is unclaimed, it may be donated to medical education. Physicians are still able to proceed with an autopsy if 3 doctors deemed that a diagnosis could not otherwise be made, but this led to accusations of physicians abusing this aspect of the law.” (Weaver, 2020) “In 1962, the new deputy minister of heath Yitzhak Raphael was given the responsibility of reviewing this law. Following several committees and hearings with many experts, the following recommendations were published: An autopsy can be performed to determine the cause of death if it will save lives or obtain organs for transplantation to a specific recipient(s). An autopsy will not be performed if the patient 97 Shea McMartin Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering had expressed this choice during their life or if their specific relatives object to it, unless not establishing the cause of death may bring harm to the public or family, or if medical error may be the cause of death (which may lead to more deaths if not uncovered) (Weaver, 2020).” Globally, each country or region has their own laws on the implementation of forensic anthropology. Since there are different religions and different faiths being practiced across the globe, there had to be efforts made to bridge this gap of science and religion. There is a practice called forensic theology. It “is a tangible discipline for scholars of religion in order to assist the law enforcements in investigating and solving the criminals and to lead the judicature system in deciding legal cases and engaging the freedom of religion, wrong interpretations, and religious doctrines led to the criminalizing, social conf licts, and the loss especially in Indonesia” (Akhmad, 2011). This practice is still faced with further controversy as each side struggles to understand the other. Economic Controversy To further the discussion of controversies regarding forensic anthropology, it is important to note the economic standpoint. As discussed earlier, there are often cases of inaccuracy in the results found during a criminal investigation. A mishandling of evidence can result in great financial burden for forensic anthropologists. and methodological perspectives that include the perspectives from inter alia economics, social epistemology and organization studies. He, along with people alike, do all of these studies to figure out the most efficient and effective ways for organizations to advance their technology to benefit the quality of work. Koppl has discovered there is an immense amount of poor quality work being done within laboratories around the United States, there are biases and high risk of errors as well as scientific fraud. He believes there are eight features that diminish the abilities forensic anthropology has the poetical of acquiring if these changes are made, to follow are the eight: • • • • • Furthermore there are different opinions on where people and institutions believe money and research should be focused on to increase the efficiency of science. Some believe there needs to be more of an emphasis on the research regarding perceived disadvantages to defendants, others prefer there to be more research spent on the improvement of efficiency and of analyses and finally to improve and maximize use of forensic science within place forces. A significant figure that looks particularly on the side of institutional structure is done by a man named Roger Koppl. He has worked on studies of theoretical 98 • • “(a) the monopoly that each laboratory holds over the evidence it analyzes, with no other laboratory likely to analyze the same evidence” (Lawless, 2014); “(b) dependence on police forces, under which they are normally organized and whom they depend on for funding; (c) weak quality control systems (see Forensic Science and the Paradigm of Quality)” (Lawless, 2014); (d) “ability of forensic scientists to gain information about case circumstances which may prejudice how they interpret evidence (see Cognitive Forensics: Human Cognition, Contextual Information, and Bias)” (Lawless, 2014). “(e) no division of labor between analysis and interpretation (i.e., the scientist who performs the technical work of an analysis also interprets the results and reports them to police)” (Lawless, 2014). “(f) lack of forensic counsel for defendants, creating an information asymmetry (Lawless, 2014). “(g) lack of competition to provide defense services” (Lawless, 2014). “(h) public ownership of forensic laboratories which Koppl argues reinforces the dependence on police” (Lawless, 2014). If these changes are made, Koppl believes there will be improvement with. The forensic world which will in return benefit all aspects within controversy in the judicial system as well as economically. 99 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Conclusion Forensic anthropology offers great success in the court of law, but remains a topic of discussion regarding its abilities to offer consistent and accurate proof. This controversy within the law, within religion, economically and within the discipline itself make the future of forensic anthropology uncertain, however there is great aspiration for future development. There is hope to reconcile all problematic and controversial opinions and create a global understanding as to how to move forward with forensic anthropology as a productive science. In the chapter that is to follow there will be further discussion on how forensic anthropology is portrayed in popular culture, including crime shows as well as X files. 100 Chapter 11 How Is Forensic Anthropology Portrayed in Popular Culture? Written By Amir Ala’a Introduction Before we dive deeper into the details of how forensic anthropology is portrayed in popular culture, we must first understand what it is, exactly. Generally speaking, it is described as the “Application of physical anthropology to legal cases, usually with a focus on the human skeleton” (Diamond, 2018). To assist in solving crimes, forensic anthropologists use physical anthropology techniques to examine skeletal, badly decomposed, or otherwise unidentified human remains. Forensic anthropologists can determine a decedent's age, sex, and other distinguishing characteristics, and they are essential in recording body damage and determining how long a corpse has been decomposing for, (Diamond, 2018). Due to its extreme importance when helping solve criminal cases, this study of the body generates widespread buzz in the public. One possibility the job’s popularity can cause, is it being a major interest and topic in crime shows. To many viewers, true crime stories, especially those involving legal proceedings are extremely interesting, and so they are often chosen by writers to be portrayed in various forms of entertainment. This chapter will cover major media portrayals of forensic anthropology. The term “forensic” has a scientific definition whose meaning has been obfuscated by various media misrepresentations To avoid automatic associations 103 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Amir Ala’a with TV shows like “CSI” and “Bones,” it's critical to consider the word's Latin roots (Ongaro, 2014). “Forensic: mid 17th cent.: from Latin forensis ‘in open court, public.” Despite popular belief that the term “forensic” is intrinsically linked to crime scene investigations, “forensic” simply means that the work is related to the law and court proceedings in some way. (Onargo, 2014). So, what do forensic anthropologists do when they are not investigating horrible murders like those shown in popular crime shows? A forensic anthropologist is in charge of decoding facts such as age, height, sex, ethnicity, time and cause of death, and other features of skeletal remains associated with a legal case. This is accomplished through the use of osteobiology, which is a branch of biology that examines skeletal anatomy as well as evidence of a person's life history, such as shattered bones, bullet wounds, and weapon damage as explained earlier (Onargo, 2014). “As a forensic anthropologist, an average workday could entail anything from search and recovery of remains out in the field, to making detailed analyses of material in a medical office, to delivering a court testimony.” states Onargo (2014). Kathryn Waterhouse, Ph.D., is a forensic anthropologist and a University of Alberta professor. The need to “recognize boundaries” resurfaced multiple times in her assessment of the problems that her job entails; not only in ensuring that all conclusions are objective, but also in identifying when something sits outside one's sphere of knowledge. “It's so easy to start postulating,” Waterhouse explained, “and you always have to go—‘no, what does the evidence tell me?’” states Onargo (2014). A specialist's opinion is frequently sought by forensic anthropologists. Collaboration with forensic botanists, odontologists, etymologists, geophysicists , and geneticists is contingent for understanding and accessing material evidence. It's crucial to understand that forensic anthropology is really not nearly as spectacular as Hollywood portrays it to be (Onargo, 2014). “I had friends who worked on the Pickton case in BC,” Waterhouse digressed, “and they were 10 hour shifts day in and day out, and you just have no idea it's going to be that hard. And for them, they knew some of the context, so to deal with that mentally and work these long shifts six days a week, it's just physically very, very challenging!” says Onargo (2014). Efforts are currently being undertaken to guarantee that forensic anthropologists' mental and emotional health, as well as their security in foreign settings, are made a priority (Onargo, 2014). Because of the specialist nature of forensic anthropology, demand for these services is unpredictable, and they are often outsourced on an as-needed basis. Individuals who work as full-time forensic anthropologists are likely to end up in Hawaii's Central Identification Laboratory ()nargo, 2014). The goal of CIL (or CIHLI, as it is sometimes called) is to aid in the recovery and recognition of military members who were unaccounted for after participating in significant historical conf licts such as WWII, the Cold War, and the Korean War. Returning the remains of a loved one to a family is one of the most important ways that forensic anthropologists help people who have been affected by these awful events find closure, as well as how they pay homage to the persistent significance of past events (Onargo, 2014). Cases involving human rights are also a constant source of consulting work. Clea Koff is a forensic anthropologist from the United States whose participation in the United Nations-led investigation in Rwanda revealed the heinous animosity that existed during the 1994 genocide. In her best-selling memoir, “The Bone Woman,” she recounts the arduous four-year effort of sorting through the corpses to tell the difference between combatants and innocent civilians (Onargo, 2014). To prosecute crimes against humanity in Rwanda, forensic anthropologists sought evidence of strategically bound victims, deliberate severing of the Achilles tendon to hamper escape, age and gender data, and other circumstance-based signs, according to Waterhouse. When casework is not available, forensic anthropologists frequently work as adjunct professors at universities, serve in a medical examiner's office, join research teams, or volunteer for non-governmental groups (Onargo, 2014). 104 According to Waterhouse, the deep-seated value of this career is inherent in the societal and cultural benefits that it can create for others, which are enormously fulfilling (Onargo, 2014). “I like the idea of hard work with a strong outcome”, Waterhouse expressed, “It’s not easy mentally, it’s not easy emotionally, it’s not easy physically, but the outcome is incredibly powerful.” (Onargo, 2014). Given that the backdrop of this subject is constantly altering, 105 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Amir Ala’a the environment is significantly f luctuating, and the cross-disciplinary engagement unavoidably varies from one instance to the next, f lexibility and adaptation are essential to success as a forensic anthropologist. A bachelor's degree, a master's degree, and a PhD in Anthropology are common academic prerequisites. Due to the rigorous and detail-oriented nature of the field, having a scientific background is also essential, and allows anthropologists to testify as expert witnesses in court (Onargo, 2014). Volunteer opportunities in forensic anthropology at the college level are basically non-existent, despite the fact that field experience is often emphasised. This is due to the dangers of letting those who aren't properly educated or prepared handle forensic remains. Forensic anthropology is a diverse, irregular, and hard field of study. It essentially aims to take the liberal, grey region of anthropology and get black and white, clear-cut proof from it, according to Waterhouse. Waterhouse explained that her interest in the topic stems from her involvement in the human healing process (Onargo, 2014). “For me, it's that for one person you could be making a difference. It doesn't really matter whether you know it or not—but if you've put a name to a face, if you've put an identity to somebody, it makes a huge difference.” (Onargo, 2014). “Since Season 6, I've been writing critical summaries of each episode because I used to follow the blog of a doctor who did the same for House, M.D. For five years” says Killgrove (2015). “I have plunked myself down on the couch every week with a laptop and a stiff drink, furiously taking notes on all the things the Bones writers, prop people, makeup effects, and actors got right... and wrong... about forensic anthropology.” states Killgrove (2015) after having watched the hit 12 season (10 seasons then) show, “Bones.” Fellow academics frequently asked her to evaluate which episodes are the best representations of the subject and which episodes are simply the worst when they wish to assign the TV show as required material to their students. So, she went back over the last five years of reviews (which is over 100 episodes!) to determine which plots stood out and earned either an A or an F. It ended up looking like the show had improved significantly over its runtime (Killgrove, 2015). Let us begin with the worst. These are the top 5 Worst Bones Episodes, reviewed by Kristina Killgrovet: 1. Killgrove (2015) begins by stating “Season 8, Episode 11—The Archaeologist in the Cocoon. Considering I actually liked the previous archaeology cross-over (see below), this storyline about an archaeologist murdered for his earth-shattering find should have been a slam-dunk. But this is by far the worst written episode of the series, from both a forensic and an archaeological standpoint. Dr. Brennan and Dr. Edison's interpretation of the palaeoanthropological remains makes no sense, they butcher a huge number of vocabulary terms (including Homo sapiens), their analysis is confusing, and the earth-shattering finding is nothing of the sort. To top it all off, Brennan licks a bone to show Booth it's real, which is unscientific and just icky.” In this review, Killgrove uses an example in the episode where a character licks a bone, which completely ruins what forensic anthropology stands for. It clearly exemplifies just how much popular media does not show the reality of this job. 2. “ Season 9, Episode 14—The Master in the Slop. A vat of pig slop with human remains comes to the Jeffersonian, and Dr. Brennan and her team have to sort things out. On the surface, the forensics seem almost Forensic Anthropology in Popular Media In popular culture, the role of forensic anthropologists is often dramaticized. From crime shows such as NCIS, to sci-fi thrillers like the X-Files, forensic anthropologists are generally cast as supporting characters who provide important clues that allow the starring characters of these shows to come to important, plot-related conclusions. In order to tell a convincing, succinct story, the role of forensic anthropologists is often dramatized so that they can reach more drastic conclusions and allow the plot to progress quickly. One show that portrays forensic anthropologists in this manner is the TV show “Bones”. “Bones” focuses specifically on the work of forensic anthropologists as they work to solve crimes and identify human remains. Despite ostensibly focusing on the work of forensic anthropologists, the terminology and science used is often inaccurate to the field, something Kristina Killgrove, biological anthropologist, knows very well. She writes critical summaries of each episode of Bones, reviewing the story from the perspective of an anthropologist. 106 107 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering reasonable, but they suffer from being far too precise. The methods used for age-at-death and sex are real but are never used in isolation. Assessing ancestry or race is far more complicated than this episode makes it out to be. The team never gets a positive ID, which is an important part of any forensics case. The real kicker in this episode? The rampant sexism involved in the bait-and-switch plot in which Brennan is supposed to be honored as a woman in science and instead poses for a pin-up calendar. As an anthropologist, Brennan is undoubtedly well-versed in the topics of gender disparity in science and harassment of women in the field, so this plot is just skeevy.” says Killgrove (2015). 3. 4. 5. 108 “Season 7, Episode 9—The Don't in the 'Do. The murder of one hair stylist by another is the plot of this episode. The forensics in this one are particularly weak, with Brennan using advanced fusion of the sacrum, which tells you nothing interesting, to figure out sex, age-at-death, and height. In another plot, intern Vaziri gets an article accepted into a research journal, but the Bones’ writers horribly mangle the publishing process. I don't want people thinking our professional journals routinely run “puff pieces” and don't do appropriate peer review.” says Killgrove (2015). “Season 8, Episode 24—The Secret in the Siege. I enjoyed most of the Pelant story arc in this season, but this episode was particularly sketchy with forensic details. The biggest issue in this one was Brennan's use of Harris lines to find out when a middle-aged adult was injured, since Harris lines only form in childhood. There was also some weird pronunciation of Latin (yes, I studied the language for over a decade) and an anthropological misstep in describing Booth's religion.” “Season 7, Episode 5—The Twist in the Twister. This episode had very little forensic anthropology, but loads and loads of plot holes. From the idea that a massive tornado rather than a hurricane would destroy Virginia, to the lack of time-and-space continuity, to the fact that the forensic evidence presented was only mentioned and never shown, Amir Ala’a this was a thoroughly sub-par episode.” reviews Killgrove (2015). All in all, the top 5 worst episodes of this show according to Killgrove just go to show much popular media over exaggerates and poorly portrays scenarios that real Forensic Anthropologists most likely go through. Her number 1 best episode of the show “Bones” was season 9, Episode 8—The Dude in the Dam. Where she says, “a male model is killed by his pregnant lover, and most aspects of the forensics and the police work seem spot-on. Using two different genetically-linked traits (one of which, Darwin's tubercle, I share with my mom and my older daughter) and dental records along with forensic anthropology to ID the victim makes this the most solid episode, technically speaking, of the last six seasons. The B plot is slightly meta, as Brennan's rival may be a thinly veiled reference to author Patricia Cornwell, and the C plot is icky but fun. This episode even made me overlook Brennan's bad Latin pronunciation.” says Killgrove (2015). Killgrove herself agrees that this show overly dramatizes anthropology and its science. She also understands and appreciates the range of the duties anthropologists fulfill. She does an amazing job reviewing the way this particular show represents and portrays the important and highly respected works of a forensic anthropologist; while also going into detail with topics and issues the show includes in some episodes, such as sexism. As can be seen through her reviews, the show does portray forensic anthropology in an accurate light in some instances. However, accuracy is often discarded in favour of creating a dramatic storyline, a persistent problem with the portrayal of forensic anthropology in popular culture. Now, let us compare this portrayal of forensic anthropology with that of another TV show, “The X-Files”. The X-Files is a story centered around two FBI agents who spend their time attempting to solve cases with “paranormal” origins. In various episodes, forensic anthropology is used in the resolution of these cases. However, The X-Files does not give forensic anthropology as much screen-time and importance as Bones does. Neither of the two FBI agents, Mulder and Scully, appear to receive much time in the lab to analyze their 109 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering findings, which could be due to the fact that the X-Files division of the FBI is portrayed as a low-resource, dead-end section. The Jeffersonian Institution, in comparison, has a plethora of cool gadgets and coupled with Brennan’s easy-going leadership, everyone is eager to return to the lab, even if it means hauling all sorts of filthy material there. (Rosenberg, 2011). All in all, the portrayal of forensic anthropology in TV shows is used to increase the entertainment value of such shows, and should not be taken as an accurate portrayal of this profession. As we can see by the reviews of actual forensic anthropologists, we can say that although these are TV shows and not real life, it would have still been extremely nice to see more of a positive portrayal of this highly important area of work. In the next chapter, read on to learn about the future of forensic anthropology. 110 Chapter 12 What Future Direction will the study of Forensic Anthropology take? Written By Si Cong (Sam) Zhang Introduction In the story “The Sign of the Four, '' published in 1890, the fictional detective Sherlock Holmes used the print of a limb’s size to determine a suspect (Doyle, 2001). It is possibly the earliest example of the use of anthropology as evidence in detective fiction. However, by the time a thumbprint is used as the key plot point of “The Adventure of the Norwood Builder” in 1903, the field of forensic anthropology, fingerprinting in particular have developed to such an extent that Scotland Yard (London Metropolitan Police) have already begun using it in the real world two years prior (Sherlock Holmes, n.d.). Even in the early 20th century, the rate of development of forensic anthropology was extraordinary, and the pace does not seem to have slowed since then. As defined in the first chapter, forensics is the application of scientific techniques for the resolution of a legal conundrum. Thus, by nature, the field of forensics will advance with the newest development in other sciences. Forensic anthropology is no exception and as the field of anthropology gains more tools and techniques for the study of human remains, additional information can be gleaned from the little material evidence that survives. A more detailed description of the sciences employed in forensic anthropology can be found in chapter 7. Without a doubt, this process of improvement will not stop today. 113 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Si Cong Zhang With the novel application of existing technology and the advent of innovative techniques, forensic anthropology will likely advance to new heights in the future, solving many as of yet unsolved mysteries. replaced by new methods involving advanced technology (Ubelaker, 2019). In this chapter, the most recent innovations in each area of forensic anthropology will be discussed along with the future development which may stem from these innovations. First, the effect of new technology on the initial steps of a search effort are detailed, including detection, recovery, and the determination of human status. Then, the innovations in the identification of the individual’s characteristics and identity will be addressed. Following that, discussion of recent developments in forensic anthropology that have allowed greater insight into the study of the events which occur after death will take place. Lastly, combining all the above areas of forensic anthropology, the effect of technology on the assessment of the presence of foul play is examined. And as a footnote, the increasing use of forensic anthropology in humanitarian and human rights investigations will be discussed as well. Detection, Recovery, and Determination of Human Status The first steps of most forensic investigations involving a forensic anthropologist begin when there is reason to suggest the possibility of the presence of human remains. If there is a specific location where human remains are suspected, then the forensic anthropologist will organize a detection effort. Throughout the excavation, the forensic anthropologist will remain on-site to recognize human remains should they be found (Ubelaker, 2019). Historically, the methods of detection included pedestrian survey, aerial survey, and the use of cadaver dogs. Often, investigators search for signs of disturbed soil or physical evidence such as remains, clothing and other artifacts which may provide a clue as to where the remains may be found. Some signs of soil disturbance can be found in the topography; examples can appear as irregular depressions, mounds, or irregular vegetation patterns. These traditional methods usually involve the physical examination of the site by skilled individuals. Recently, traditional techniques are slowly being 114 Several new innovations have been developed to more accurately detect variation in soil which could be indicative of recent burials. One of such innovations is the Ground Penetrating Radar or GPR. GPR uses radar pulses to image subsurface features that may be invisible from the surface. It allows investigators to quickly examine a relatively large area without having to disturb a large quantity of earth. It is particularly useful when the remains are suspected to have been hidden in difficult to excavate materials, such as concrete, as the cavity in the material left by the body can be clearly seen using GPR. An example where GPR was used in such an investigation successfully comes from Italy, where a body was suspected to have been hidden inside one of the subterranean caves commonly found in the region. In addition to the inherent difficulty of finding remains in difficult to navigate caves, it is suspected that the entrance of the cave was covered using a reinforced concrete road. However, law enforcement was able to find the entrance of the cave under the concrete road and identify an anomaly in the cave using GPR. While GPR can prove extremely useful under certain conditions, the use of GPR can also be limited if the soil under investigation is not naturally uniform. When used on irregular soils, the anomalies in the soil cannot be easily identified (Barone & Di Maggio, 2019) Another relatively recent development is the use of electrical resistance in the detection of shallow graves. This technique takes advantage of the fact that foreign objects such as a grave in the ground will have different electrical properties compared to the background value one would expect from soil alone. A drop in electrical resistance is found in a grave 4 to 20 weeks after a simulated body (pig carcass) is buried. This is likely due to the conductive f luids which are released by an actively decomposing carcass, which increase electric conduction. This technique could see more extensive use in the future, but it appears only to be useful within the 4 to 20 weeks post-burial period during which the body is undergoing active decomposition (Jervis et al., 2009). Once the materials have been recovered, it is the forensic anthropologist’s job 115 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering Si Cong Zhang to determine if they contain human remains. If intact bones and teeth can be found, the remains can be easily identified through their morphology, but in many cases, it is not so simple (Ubelaker, 2019). Sometimes, enough nuclear DNA can be recovered and used to identify an individual as human. But given enough time and decay, even nuclear DNA evidence may not be sufficient to differentiate between human and closely related species of mammals. In these cases, the use of mitochondrial DNA may provide a solution. In mitochondrial DNA, there exist certain regions where large differences can be found between individuals, these are called “hypervariable regions”. These regions are inherited maternally between generations, meaning that the sequence of these regions is determined entirely by the mother. Because there is a copy of mitochondrial DNA for every single mitochondrion, the number of mitochondrial DNA copies can be 7000 times the number of nuclear DNA copies (Miller et al., 2003). Thus, even if the nuclear DNA is too degraded, enough mitochondrial DNA is likely to have survived for the hypervariable regions to be sequenced and compared with possible relatives. The invention of new methods and refinement of old methods can aid this process of identification in the future. However, the method which holds the most promise in the future is probably immunoassays (Ubelaker, 2019). Every organism’s cell exhibits unique chemical markers on the cell surface and inside the cell. Antibodies can bind to these unique chemical markers, and detect their presence. The immunoassay can be conducted cheaply and quickly, ideal for large scale use. Currently, most immunoassays use a double antibody system, where one antibody binds to the marker, and the second binds to the first and contains some kind of tag usually f luorescent or radioactive allowing it to be identified. A study on the immunoassay of human blood has found that human blood can be identified for up to 1 year, and will not react to the blood of other species of mammals (Hurley et al., 2009). Characteristics Which Aid in the Identification of the Missing Individual: Time Since Death and Estimation of Age at Death Historically, these traits can be derived from a largely intact skeleton, but in cases where remains are fragmented, positive identification can be difficult. 116 In the past, the estimates of age for many skeletons rarely took into account the population variation that exists between dif ferent ethinic groups of people. Many key age related changes which occur in the skeletal system occur at different points in development in different groups of people, this difference is especially prominent between females. This variation can result in the misidentification of the age of death, a critical piece of information often used to positively identify remains (Hoppa, 2000). As these differences are further studied, a more comprehensive set of data which takes into account the variations between ethnicities can be used to better characterize individuals based on skeletal remains in the future. In addition to reviewing old data, new discoveries have led to potentially new ways to gather characteristics from more damaged bodies. It is common that a body may be so damaged that bones cannot be pieced back together to provide insight into identity. But, it was found recently that as people age, their mitochondrial DNA copy number (the number of copies of mitochondrial DNA) decreases. By counting the number of mitochondrial DNA present, it is possible to give a rough estimate of the age at the time of death if no other alternatives methods are available. While skeletons are often useful clues, sometimes they are all that remain of a person. In these cases, it is very hard to determine the amount of time that has passed since death. This is due to the large variety of factors that determine the rate of decomposition, ranging from the climate, season, clothing of the victim, insects and scavengers present, to sunlight exposure in the area(Srnka, 2003; Ubelaker, 2019). Radiocarbon dating is an attractive solution to this problem. Carbon-14 is a slightly radioactive isotope of carbon that has a known half-life of 5,730 years. Carbon-14 is constantly being created by cosmic rays in the atmosphere, maintaining a stable concentration in the atmosphere. When an organism is alive, it constantly exchanges carbon with the environment resulting in a known concentration being found in all 117 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering organisms alive. When the organism dies, it stops replenishing the carbon-14, and the residual carbon-14 slowly decays. Using this phenomenon, the quantity of carbon-14 remaining in a dead organism can be used to determine when it had died. This method of radiocarbon dating has been used extensively in archeology. However, due to the detonation of atomic bombs in the mid-20th century, the concentration of radioactive carbon increased sharply from 1945 to 1965. The resulting radioactive decay of carbon-14 can be shown in a curve representing the concentration of carbon-14 in the atmosphere called the bomb curve. Due to this, the time of death for a modern individual can be derived from the bomb curve if the age of death is known (Ubelaker, 2019). Positive Identification The result of the efforts of forensic anthropologists usually amounts to the identification of a missing individual. Using the previously gathered evidence, the remains are compared to a list of known missing persons to narrow down the possible list of victims. Once the list of individuals has been narrowed down sufficiently using existing evidence, more in-depth analysis is required to determine if an identification could be made. While the physical process which determines whether an identification can be made remains mostly consistent, there has been a growing awareness of the use of statistics and probabilities involved in making such an assessment (Ubelaker, 2019). For an individual to be properly identified, there must be unique elements shared between the remains and a missing person. The probability of an identification is determined by the uniqueness of features that are shared between the remains and the missing person, and how well the differences between the remains and missing individual can be explained. There are thus different levels of identifications that describe the amount of similarities and differences. A high probability is required for an identification to be considered accurate. If an identification does not reach this level, it is considered putative, tentative or possible (Steadman et al., 2006; Ubelaker, 2019). 118 Si Cong Zhang Evaluation of Evidence for Foul Play. Typically, the evaluation of the cause and manner of death is the responsibility of the forensic pathologist, not that of the forensic anthropologist. However, often forensic anthropologists can present critical pieces of evidence which may support the work of a forensic pathologist. In particular, the help of a forensic anthropologist is often required to identify whether changes to the remains around the estimated time of death are the result of events directly related to the death of the individual or associated with events occurring after death (Ubelaker, 2019). There is some recent research regarding the differences between skeletal injuries occurring before death and occurring after death, including a better understanding of the fracture process and the types of trauma which can cause changes in the skeleton. With a better understanding of the cause of the changes in the body, it is possible to determine to a greater extent if malicious alterations to the body have been done post mortem (Ubelaker, 2019). Human Rights and Natural Disaster Investigations One trend which has been visible in the past few decades has been the increasing use of forensic anthropology in humanitarian and human rights investigations. Increasingly, forensic anthropologists have become part of teams which investigate human rights abuses. These teams can be found across the world, from the Guatemalan Forensic Anthropology Foundation to the U.N. sponsored International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. The number of anthropologists fielded by humanitarian organizations has been increasing on an almost yearly basis (Steadman & Haglund, 2005). The involvement of forensic anthropologists can aid in many areas of the investigation, such as providing a more accurate estimate of casualties by counting the number of unique bones, identifying injuries that occurred before death, the exhumation and categorization of evidence. The use of advanced forensic anthropology techniques developed for forensic investigations in the developed nations has found significant use in the investigation of human 119 Forensic Anthropology: An Uncovering rights abuses, especially in developing nations (Baraybar, 2014). At the same time, the quantification of human migration to developed nations such as the United States from less developed countries has also been a challenge for forensic anthropologists. The US-Mexico border is a prime example, as many migrants perish in the large inhospitable desert near the border during attempted crossings, and the investigations have been hindered by the lack of missing persons information from Mexico and the harsh environment (Ubelaker et al., 2019). It may become possible in the future to better quantify the situation which is occurring at the US’ southern border. In the future, it is likely the trend of incorporating forensic anthropologists in human rights investigations will continue. Human rights investigations could present a new branch of forensic anthropology which may develop given time and resources. Conclusion In the field of forensic anthropology, there are more innovations and discoveries than ever before. With the help of these new discoveries, it is likely that many current unsolved mysteries may be solved in the future. However, it is also important to keep in mind that while the rate of innovation is high, most of these processes are experimental at the moment. If the historic rate of adoption of new forensic techniques as evidence is a sign of what is to come, one can expect many years before most of the innovations discussed in this chapter can be reliably used in court. Nevertheless, the future for forensic anthropology is bright, especially concerning investigations into human rights abuses occurring in less developed nations. 120 References Chapter 1 Biehl, J. G. (2004). Introduction to anthropology. Brues, A. M. (1958). Identification of skeletal remains. The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 48(5), 551-563. Burns, K. R. (2015). Forensic anthropology training manual. Routledge. Cox, M., & Hunter, J. (2005). Forensic archaeology: advances in theory and practice. Routledge. Crowder, C., & Austin, D. (2005). 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