Theological Development of Satan

Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary Liberty University THE THEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SATAN Submitted to Dr. Fred Smith in partial completion of course requirements for THEO 525 – Systematic Theology I Elke Speliopoulos Downingtown, PA December 17, 2009  THESIS STATEMENT This paper will show that while the theological development of Satan is much stronger in the New Testament than in the Old Testament, a consistency can be uncovered by studying the Old Testament intently that gives a clear understanding that Satan as a malevolent entity is under the control of a sovereign omnipotent God from ages past to a yet unfulfilled future.  TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 1 THEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT 2 FROM “THE SATAN” TO “SATAN” 3 EARLY ENCOUNTERS 5 WHO DO ISAIAH AND EZEKIEL REFER TO? 6 SATAN IN RELATIONSHIP TO GOD IN OLD TESTAMENT 7 INTERTESTAMENTAL PHASE 7 THEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE NEW TESTAMENT 9 NAMES OF SATAN 10 THE DEVIL 10 THE SERPENT 10 BE-ELZEBUL 11 RULER OF THE WORLD 11 THE PRINCE OF THE POWER OF THE AIR 12 THE EVIL ONE 12 THE CHURCH FATHERS AND OTHERS ON SATAN 12 CONNECTING THE TESTAMENTS 13 CONCLUSION 14 APPENDIX A – TAXONOMY OF SPIRIT BEINGS 17 APPENDIX B – DISPOSITION OF SPIRIT BEINGS 18 BIBLIOGRAPHY 19  INTRODUCTION From one of the very first chapters of the Bible, where we are introduced to Satan’s disruptive role, to the very last book, where he meets his end, Satan plays a prominent role throughout Scripture. He has also occupied the minds of Christians throughout the centuries, starting with the apostles and the church fathers. To the 21st century believer, it is clear who Satan is – or is it? Christians, of course, are well aware of the spiritual battle, which Paul has helped them understand in passages such as Romans 8:38-39 “For I am sure that neither death nor life, nor angels nor rulers, nor things present nor things to come, nor powers, nor height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God in Christ Jesus our Lord.” (Romans 8:38-39, ESV) and Ephesians 6:12 “For we do not wrestle against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic powers over this present darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places.” (Ephesians 6:12, ESV). However, this image of Satan and his cohorts, the demons, has taken on a theological life of its own in popular literature, such as Frank Peretti’s This Present Darkness, published in 1986, and the follow-up Piercing the Darkness, published in 1989, by no longer reflecting the image of Satan as presented in the pages of the Bible. Rather, Wells calls this view of the powers of good and evil in the form of angels and demons “Zoroastrianism in modern garb”, as all activities in life are presented in the books as either angelic or demonic. . David F. Wells, God in the Wasteland: The Reality of Truth in a World of Fading Dreams (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdman's Publishing Company, 1994), 178-79. To quote Lightner, “God and Satan are not similar to the good side and the dark side of the ‘force’ portrayed in Star Wars. Such a dualistic concept is foreign to God’s Word.” . Robert Lightner, Angels, Satan and Demons: Invisible Beings that Inhabit the Spiritual World, ed. Charles R. Swindoll (Nashville, TN: Word Publishing, 1998), 66. As this paper will show, the theological development of Satan is decidedly more complex and decidedly less dualistic in the scriptural references. Much information about Satan’s relationship to God can be gleaned from the pages of the Old Testament that teach us about God’s sovereignty over all his creation, including Satan. A correct understanding is of utmost importance as the ultimate picture of Satan makes it clear that, while a powerful and personal force, he is ultimately subjected to God’s direction and control. THEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE OLD TESTAMENT Unlike the New Testament, the Old Testament does not provide a well developed concept of Satan. . Sidney H. T. Page, “Satan: God's Servant,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Vol 50, no. 3 (The Evangelical Theological Society, 2007; 2008), 449. In the passages where the Old Testament speaks of Satan, the term speaks of a role or function more so than a personal name. This warrants investigation to clarify how the Old Testament authors understood the role of HaSatan, or the Satan. Furthermore, as Walton recently pointed out at the annual meeting of the Evangelical Theological Society, a comparison of the taxonomy and disposition of spirit beings is warranted. This would include both benevolent and malevolent beings, especially in light of Ancient Near East (ANE) writings, as it helps in the understanding of how Satan was understood by the writers of the Old Testament. . John H. Walton, “Demons in the Ancient Near East, Israel and the Bible”, (New Orleans, Louisiana: Paper presented at the ETS National Meeting, November 18, 2009). As will be seen in the section on the theological development of Satan in the New Testament, Walton’s explanation will also help understand the shift in how Satan is presented by the New Testament writers. FROM “THE SATAN” TO “SATAN” Satan is encountered by the specific Hebrew term שָּׂטָן (śā-ṭān) in three places in the Old Testament: in the prologue of Job, in Zechariah 3:1-2, and in 1 Chronicles 21:1. The Hebrew term שָּׂטָן in its occurrences in the Old Testament is translated “as ‘Satan’ 19 times, ‘adversary’ seven times, and ‘withstand’ once” . James Strong, The Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible: Showing Every Word of the Text of the Common English Version of the Canonical Books, and Every Occurrence of Each Word in Regular Order., electronic ed. (Ontario: Woodside Bible Fellowship., 1996). . A closer look at the occurrences of שָּׂטָן in the first two examples in Job and Zechariah shows that שָּׂטָן is not a proper name, but rather appears to be a role or function. Interestingly, there are no cognates to the Hebrew term שָּׂטָן in other Semitic languages. . Dictionary of the Old Testament Wisdom, Poetry, and Writings, eds. Tremper Longman III and Peter Enns (Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP, 2008), 714. In Hebrew, several other interpretations are possible. Among them are a “supernatural ‘adversary’, including one who attempted to block the way in a determined fashion…, an enemy one faced in battle…, an opponent to royal policy…, a rival for the throne…, an adversary in international relations…, or an ‘accuser’ in a court.” . Allen C. Myers, The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1987), 914. Page confirms this interpretation and elaborates on the role of Satan in this context. In his view, it is critical to understand that the Hebrew word שָּׂטָן is a rather common noun, indicating an opponent or adversary, even in a military context. As already mentioned, only in three passages in the Old Testament is this adversary depicted as a supernatural being in opposition to God: in the prologue of Job, Zechariah 3:1-2 and 1 Chronicles 21:1. . Page, “Satan: God's Servant,” 449. The first two list Satan with the definite article ה (hă), while 1 Chronicles uses the term for the first time as a personal name, however this has recently been questioned and may represent a common noun after all, as in an unnamed adversary. . Ibid., 454. Page makes it clear that especially in the Job passage, the Satan is depicted as a “prosecuting attorney who has the unenviable task of bringing charges against human beings but is nonetheless a loyal member of Yahweh’s retinue” . Ibid., 449., yet always in a subordinate role, pointing out to God inconsistencies in meetings of the heavenly council, and only able to do what Yahweh allows him to do. However, there is some ambivalence as to who does the actual afflicting of Job. In Job 1:11 and 2:5, it is Yahweh who stretches out His hand. In other examples, it is the Satan doing the work of afflicting Yahweh’s loyal servant Job. . Ibid., 451. Page writes, “Seeing Yahweh behind the harmful actions of otherworldly forces is not foreign to the biblical world of thought.” . Ibid., 452. In Zechariah, Page sees a bit of a shift in the Satan to someone who is actually bringing accusations, in this case against Joshua. However, the setting again appears to be a meeting of the heavenly council. Zechariah, like the writer of Job, depicts Satan in a functionary role that is subordinate to Yahweh. . Ibid., 451. . Routledge is not as optimistic as Page about the role of the Satan in Job and Zechariah. To him, it is difficult to see Satan as a loyal servant in Job and even more difficult to see him as simply doing his duty in Zechariah. . Robin Routledge, Old Testament Theology: A Thematic Approach (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2008), 123. He provides a cultural comparison for the role of the Satan when he writes that his task, “like the roving secret police of the Persian Empire, was to spy on the disaffected and report disloyalty to the king.” . Ibid., 122. Chisholm agrees that there is a shift in Zechariah to the Jobian passage, in that while the nature of the Satan is not fully revealed as being evil, the accuser here appears to have malevolent intentions. . Robert B. Chisholm Jr., Handbook on the Prophets (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002), 460. The development of “the Satan” to “Satan” becomes apparent in 1 Chronicles 21:1, where Satan now seems to become a personal name, however, as mentioned, this is debated. The understanding of Satan appears to have developed to the existence of a “supernatural being opposed to God, to whom evil could be attributed.” . Routledge, Old Testament Theology. Page adds an interesting observation to the 1 Chronicles passage’s shift from laying the blame for the census taking by David on the incitement by God (in 2 Samuel 24:1, a parallel passage) to one caused by Satan: he believes “this may be due in part to a growing reluctance to attribute evil directly to God” and that this introduces the same uncertainty as in the divine versus satanic causing of Job’s suffering. . Ibid., 454-55. EARLY ENCOUNTERS As far back as Genesis 3, Christians have been taught to see the first encounter with Satan. However, as Routledge reminds his readers, the presentation of temptation is in the form of a snake and has analogies to ANE mythology, where “chaos monsters are sometimes depicted as serpents.” . Ibid., 148. The association of the serpent to Satan does not occur until later in Judaic writings (the earliest text here is Wisdom of Solomon, dating from the time of the start of Christianity) and is further developed in New Testament times. . Ibid. WHO DO ISAIAH AND EZEKIEL REFER TO? Isaiah 14:12-17 has been the depiction of Satan’s fall to many Christians through the centuries, while another passage in Ezekiel 28 has given them additional insights into Satan, which will be discussed further on. However, these passages have raised the rightful critical observation that these poetic lines may not be depicting Satan after all. Isaiah 14:12 speaks of בֶּן־שָׁחַר הֵילֵל (hê-lēl běn šā-ḥăr), which Jerome translated in the Latin Vulgate as Lucifer. The original term translates to “Helel son of Shachar”, according to the NET Bible’s translation note on the passage, assumed to be a name for either the morning star, Venus, or a crescent moon. . NET Bible (n.p.: Biblical Studies Press, L.L.C., 1996-2007), 1292 tn + sn 23. Buksbazen adds here that “Helel” means “the shining one” and “ben shachar” “the son of the dawn”. . Victor Buksbazen, The Prophet Isaiah: A Commentary (Bellmawr, NJ: The Friends of Israel Gospel Ministry, Inc, 1971; 2008), 198. The translators of the NET Bible do not see this passage as an allusion to Satan as this is “contextually unwarranted”, as the broader context speaks of the king of Babylon. . NET Bible, 1292 tn + sn 23. Baker shares the opinion that this passage, which according to some English interpreters refers to Satan, is better understood to be referring to the king of Babylon. . David W. Baker, “Isaiah,” in Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, ed. John H. Walton, ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), 4:72-73. This king is an amalgamation of the pride and despotism of all kings across the earth. . John N. Oswalt, The NIV Application Commentary: Isaiah (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2003), 210. The other passage often referenced as well in Christian circles as pertaining to the fall of Satan is found in Ezekiel 28:12-19. The translators of the NET Bible here see an imagery, which is “drawn upon an extrabiblical Eden tradition about the expulsion of the first man…from the garden due to his pride.” . NET Bible, 1617 sn 10. In one example regarding Ezekiel 28:14, Bodi shows the parallels to examples of Phoenician ivories, which are part of an increasing collection of objects depicting cherub motifs in Phoenician art. He especially highlights the carved depiction of a king-cherub with the face of the king. . Baker DW. As such, the conclusion that the passage in Ezekiel has to depict Satan cannot be automatically reached. Chisholm adds that some Mesopotamian and Canaanite mythical elements seem to have found a reflection, especially in Ezekiel 28:12-17. . Chisholm, Handbook on the Prophets, 270. SATAN IN RELATIONSHIP TO GOD IN OLD TESTAMENT As Page already expressed, Satan can only act when God allows him to act. Speaking of God, Oswalt adds to our understanding here that “there is no sense in which he is threatened by Satan. In fact, he does not even address Satan as the cause of the event….Satan is not the equal of God and is no threat to God, and conflict with him has nothing to do with the creative activity of God.” . John N. Oswalt, The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature? (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), 67. INTERTESTAMENTAL PHASE Routledge adds that it was later Jewish traditions who attributed to Satan the role of leader of a rebellion against God in heaven and was cast out of heaven as a consequence. Some of these writings depict Satan as being one of the seraphim, and therefore the greatest created being. In these writings he is called Sammael and has ambitions to take over the place of God. . Routledge, Old Testament Theology, 123. Some theologians have placed Satan’s rebellious act in the gap between Genesis 1:1 and 1:2; however, the biggest critique of this view is that God declared His creation “very good”, which certainly would not have been called such if the fall of Satan and the other angels siding with him had already occurred. . Ibid., 133-34 (footnote 22). As already discussed, שָּׂטָן is not notably used as a personal name in the Old Testament. The earliest mention of the term as a proper name is found in Jubilees 23:29 and Apocalypsis Mosis 10:1, which date to about the time of Antiochus Epiphanes IV in 168 B.C. It appears that in light of the persecutions the Jews suffered, the earlier use of evil demons and corrupt angels in deuterocanonical texts prior to 168 B.C. is substituted here with the naming of Satan. . Dictionary of the Old Testament Wisdom, 715. One reason for this could be that there was an increased interest in demonology, which developed during the intertestamental period. This is most likely attributable to the destitute circumstances the Jewish people found themselves in. While they had experienced exile and occupation before, nothing quite compared to what they were experiencing under Antiochus Ephipanus. This led to a reflection on and even preoccupation with suprahuman forces, which will help explain the shift in the New Testament’s depiction of Satan. . Sydney H. T. Page, Powers of Evil: A Biblical Study of Satan & Demons (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1995), 87. In this context, the work of Walton and his son will become more interesting in the next few years. They investigated the taxonomy and disposition of spirit beings from Mesopotamian sources all the way to the Patristic Period. Of note here is that they find only disinterested malevolence in Class II beings, described as functionaries by Walton and Walton, such as angels or the Satan, whereas Yahweh, classified as a Class I being, is described as a disinterested benevolent being. It is only under the influence of Hellenistic Judaism that the concept of both malevolent and benevolent Class II beings, demons (daimon) and angels (aggelos), develops. John Walton, and Jonathan Walton, “Demons in the Ancient Near East, Israel and the Bible”, Paper presented at the ETS National Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, November 18, 2009. THEOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE NEW TESTAMENT In Luke 10:18, Jesus refers to seeing Satan fall, but beyond this, there is little additional information as to the origin of Satan in the New Testament. . Oswalt, The NIV Application Commentary, 208. One proposal that has been brought forward is that Jesus saw Satan fall in his preincarnate state, but this may simply indicate Jesus using the tradition of Satan’s fall in discussing the disciples’ exorcisms in the larger context of the passage. . Mark L. Strauss, “Luke,” in Zondervan Illustrated Bible Background Commentary: Matthew, Mark, Luke, ed. Clinton E. Arnold (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2002), 1:412. However, what is clearly developed by the New Testament writers is a much richer understanding of a person Satan versus the concept of the Satan as the adversary or accuser, which was developed in the Old Testament. The depiction of the conflict between the forces of a benevolent God and a malevolent Satan are visible throughout the New Testament and are not limited to one or even several writers, but are rather pervasive throughout. . D. R. Wood, and I. Howard Marshall, New Bible Dictionary, 3rd ed. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996), 1065. An interesting parallel is drawn by Pao and Schnabel: the phrase “ek tou ouranou pesonta (“fall from heaven”) closely resembles the expression “exepesen ek tou ouranou (“has fallen from heaven”) of Isaiah 14:12. They add a perspective of eschatogical hope through this parallel phraseology, “As in the Qumran documents where the fall of the evil one is accompanied by the exultation of the righteous in cosmic battles…, this fall of Satan may also point forward to the exaltation of Jesus.” . David W. Pao, and Eckhard J. Schnabel, “Luke,” in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, ed. G. K. Beale, and D. A. Carson (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007), 318. NAMES OF SATAN Satan occurs in the Scriptures under multiple names. While the Old Testament uses שָּׂטָן consistently when it refers to the function of the adversary or accuser, only in the New Testament is Satan called “the devil” in passages such as Matthew 4:1; 13:39; 25:41 and Revelation 12:9; 20:2 and several other passages (71 times in the ESV). Satan is called “the serpent” in Genesis 3:1, 14; 2 Corinthians 11:3; and Revelation 12:9; 20:2. In Matthew 10:25; 12:24, 27 and Luke 11:15, another name is used: “Be-elzebul”. John cites Jesus as calling Satan “the ruler of this world” (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11). Paul describes him in Ephesians 2:2 as “the prince of the power of the air”. The final name Satan can be seen under is “the evil one” as in Matthew 13:19 and 1 John 2:13. . Wayne A. Grudem, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine, Leicester, England ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Inter-Varsity Press; Zondervan Pub. House, 1994), 414. The following section will provide a brief look at where and in which context these names are used. THE DEVIL In Matthew 4:1; 13:39; 25:41 and Revelation 12:9; 20:2, the Greek term used is διάβολος (diabolos), bearing a similar meaning of “adversary” as in the Hebrew usage, however here the meaning can also include “false accuser”. THE SERPENT Genesis 3:1 uses the term נָחָשׁ (nā-ḥāš), depicting a serpent. 14; In 2 Corinthians 11:3 and Revelation 12:9; 20:2, the Greek term is ὄφις (ophis). The term bears a connection to the נָחָשׁ of Job 26:3, where a serpent is depicted and ANE mythology is assumed. . Spiros Zodhiates, The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament, electronic ed. (Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers, 2000). In addition, this is the same word used for the brazen serpent of John 3:14. (Heiser has done an interesting study on the term and meaning of נָחָשׁ that exceeds the scope of this paper. . Michael S. Heiser, “The Nachash and His Seed,” The Divine Council, Retrieved from http://www.thedivinecouncil.com/nachashnotes.pdf (accessed December 17, 2009). ) BE-ELZEBUL In Matthew 10:25; 12:24, 27 and Luke 11:15, the term used is Βεελζεβοὺλ (Beelzeboul) The meaning here is “lord of the flies” or “lord of the manure pile,” and refers to Satan. . Walter A. Elwell, and Barry J. Beitzel, Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1988), 273. RULER OF THE WORLD Jesus uses this title for Satan three times; each occurrence is in the Gospel of John (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11). . Ronald F. Youngblood et al., “Ruler of This World,” in Nelson's New Illustrated Bible Dictionary (Nashville: T. Nelson, 1995). In John 12:31, some Greeks had arrived who wanted to speak with Jesus. However, Jesus was ready to declare what was coming to His disciples and the crowd that had gathered in Jerusalem as it was near Passover. As part of His speech, a voice from heaven confirms His message. Regarding “the ruler of this world” (ἄρχων τοῦ κόσμου τούτου), Jesus declares that he would be cast out now as the judgment of the world (κόσμου, kosmou) had come. In John 14:30, Jesus is speaking to His disciples at the last supper and after Judas Iscariot has left. Here, however, he announces that “the ruler of the world” (τοῦ κόσμου ἄρχων) will come, but reassures the disciples that he has no power over Jesus. Finally in John 16:11, Jesus is still in the same setting, but now explains to His disciples about the role of the Holy Spirit, the Helper, who will achieve three things, one of them the conviction of the world (κόσμον, kosmon) concerning their impending judgment as “the ruler of this world” (ἄρχων τοῦ κόσμου τούτου) is judged: 8 And when he comes, he will convict the world concerning sin and righteousness and judgment: 9 concerning sin, because they do not believe in me; 10 concerning righteousness, because I go to the Father, and you will see me no longer; 11 concerning judgment, because the ruler of this world is judged. (John 16:8-11, ESV) THE PRINCE OF THE POWER OF THE AIR The term used in Ephesians 2:2 is used only this once: ἄρχοντα τῆς ἐξουσίας τοῦ ἀέρος (archonta tēs exousias tou aeros). Zodiathes adds an interesting note here regarding the use of ἀέρος: In 1 Thess. 4:17 Christ at His parousía…, coming, meets the believers in the air, designated to be the area immediately above the earth. The air is not designated by the Jews as the dwelling place of angels, but of Satan and his demons. It is in this context that Paul designates Satan as being the ruler of the power of the air. . Spiros Zodhiates, The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament, electronic ed. (Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers, 2000). THE EVIL ONE The evil one is πονηρὸς (ponēros) in Matthew 13:19 and 1 John 2:13. This term can describe “evil in a moral or spiritual sense, wicked, malicious, mischievous.” . Spiros Zodhiates, The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament, electronic ed. (Chattanooga, TN: AMG Publishers, 2000). THE CHURCH FATHERS AND OTHERS ON SATAN The concept of Lucifer in Isaiah 14: 12 equaling Satan found support in Tertullian’s writing Against Marcion. Likewise, Origen and Augustine make the same association in their writings. . Ronald Youngblood, “The Fall of Lucifer (In More Ways Than One),” in The Way of Wisdom: Essays in Honor of Bruce K. Waltke, eds. J. I. Packer and Sven T. Soderlund (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000), 169. Schultz adds Gregory the Great, but also lists systematic theologians, such as Henry Thiessen, as those who have made this connection . Richard L. Schultz, “Isaiah,” in Theological Interpretation of the Old Testament: A Book-by-Book Survey, ed. Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Craig G. Bartholomew, and Daniel J. Treier (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2005, 2008), 206. , which, as has already been discussed, is not easily a natural or logical one. As Youngblood writes, not only did the church fathers equal Lucifer to Satan, but so did Geoffrey Chaucer in The Canterbury Tales, and John Milton in Paradise Lost. . Youngblood, The Way of Wisdom, 169-70. Likewise, the passage in Ezekiel 28 has found what appears to have been creative adoption by the church fathers. Duguid calls it “imaginative exegesis”, but also reminds readers that this line of thinking has found adoption again in more modern expositions. Citing the example of the merchant ship not literally representing Tyre in the prior verses, Duguid continues that the association with the king of Tyre with Satan leads to an interpretation that “ignores the metaphysical context of both passages”. . Iain M. Duguid, “Ezekiel,” in NIV Application Commentary: Ezekiel (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing Company, 1999), 344-349. CONNECTING THE TESTAMENTS As already seen, the New Testament depicts Satan as a malevolent moral agent, unlike the somewhat more benign view of the Old Testament. While a malicious intent cannot be completely suppressed (an example is the Satan’s continued incitement against Job), it is not as clearly developed as in the New Testament. Yet also here, it is apparent that God is ultimately in control. Satan can only do what God permits him to do. Oswalt underlines what was stated before that while everywhere else in the world good and evil are two distinct and equally powerful forces, depicting a dualism, this is nowhere found in the pages of the Bible and is even “expressly denied.” . Oswalt, The Bible Among the Myths: Unique Revelation or Just Ancient Literature?, 130. Oswalt adds: The incipient dualism of a good deal of popular Christian teaching is a witness to the power of this way of thinking. In such teaching Satan assumes the role of the negative entity, while Jesus takes on the role of the positive entity, and the world is the shadowy battleground reflecting their ongoing struggle in the real, heavenly realm. We, the “pawns on the board,” as it were, must do our best to enable Jesus to continually defeat Satan. Any Egyptian or Babylonian would have felt perfectly at home with such a view of things. . Ibid. Page here adds a few other thoughts on how the Old Testament and New Testament depictions of Satan join. He cites the examples of Christ’s temptation in the wilderness, which is clearly allowed by God (Mark even writes that the Spirit drove Jesus into the wilderness) . Page, “Satan: God's Servant,” 456-57. ; Jesus’ use of “lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil” in the Lord’s Prayer, again giving a somewhat ambivalent view of God’s hand in the temptation (problematic, as Page says due to James 1:13) . Ibid., 458-59. ; the sifting of the disciples in Luke 22:31-32, where Satan gets permission to test the disciples . Ibid., 459-60. ; the passion, where Satan is very actively at work in Judas Iscariot, yet clearly by doing so accomplishing God’s work . Ibid., 460-61. ; church discipline such as in 1 Corinthians 5:5 and 1 Timothy 1:20, leading to remedial discipline, while allowing Satan to do his work . Ibid., 459-60. .; and Paul’s thorn in the flesh, which he considers both from Satan to inflict pain and from God as a gift with “a salutary purpose”. . Ibid., 464. CONCLUSION As has been shown, the theological development of Satan, while much less developed in the Old Testament than the New Testament, nevertheless shows a consistency in that it highlights that Satan is a powerful force, yet never outside the control of his Creator God. Three perspectives are important to remember: Primarily, belief in spiritual forces is a virtually global experience; secondly, belief in an all-good and omnipotent God is no more difficult than the belief in the powers He created, and the belief in evil spirits may actually preserve the belief in a good God; thirdly, the biblical evidence of a world of spirits is pervasive, and as such we should not disregard teaching about this topic. . Page, “Powers of Evil,”268-69. At the same time, believers need to be careful to avoid allowing the exaggeration of a fear of the power of Satan and evil spirits, while not permitting Satan to serve as an excuse for personal failings. It is furthermore important to clearly delineate what is biblical from what is superstition and to refuse beliefs which are outside of the teaching of the Bible. This also includes avoiding any sort of speculation over that which is not provided to us by God. Lastly, a real danger lurks in allowing oneself to become imbalanced. While Satan, according to the Scriptures, is a reality, God has given believers the full armor of God, which will allow them to withstand, according to Ephesians 6:11. . Ibid., 269-270. Ultimately for the Christian, while much of the development of the theology of Satan is important to understand, at the same time it should not be cause for concern. God has made it very clear to believers what the answer to Satan is: it is the blood of the Lamb, Jesus Christ. Galeotti summarizes this very well: “The Bible has little to say directly about Satan intentionally. The focus of the Bible is God and not Satan.” . Galeotti, “Satan's Identity Reconsidered,” 83. As this paper has shown, while Satan is acting against the interests of God, none of this is unknown to God or outside of His control. Through the death of Jesus Christ on the cross, His burial and resurrection, Satan’s malevolent intent toward God’s creation, mankind, is forever defeated. Youngblood sums it up quite well, when he writes, “The devil fell, falls, and will fall again.” . Youngblood, The Way of Wisdom, 175. Believers can thus live in great confidence that the outcome is clear and that their God wins.  APPENDIX A – TAXONOMY OF SPIRIT BEINGS John Walton, and Jonathan Walton, “Demons in the Ancient Near East, Israel and the Bible”, Paper presented at the ETS National Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, November 18, 2009.  APPENDIX B – DISPOSITION OF SPIRIT BEINGS John Walton, and Jonathan Walton, “Demons in the Ancient Near East, Israel and the Bible”, Paper presented at the ETS National Meeting, New Orleans, Louisiana, November 18, 2009.  BIBLIOGRAPHY Dictionary of the Old Testament Wisdom. Poetry, and Writings, eds. Tremper Longman III and Peter Enns. Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP, 2008. Buksbazen, Victor. The Prophet Isaiah: A Commentary. Bellmawr, NJ: The Friends of Israel Gospel Ministry, Inc, 1971; 2008. Baker, David W. “Isaiah.” In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel. Edited by John H. Walton, ed. Vol. 4. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009. Bodi, Daniel. “Ezekiel.” In Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel. Edited by John H. Walton, ed. Vol. 4. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009. Chisholm, Robert B., Jr. Handbook on the Prophets. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002. Duguid, Iain M. “Ezekiel.” In NIV Application Commentary: Ezekiel. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing Company, 1999. Elwell, Walter A., and Barry J. Beitzel. Baker Encyclopedia of the Bible. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Book House, 1988. Galeotti, Gary. “Satan's Identity Reconsidered.” Faith and Mission Volume 15, no. 2 (Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary, 1998; 2006). Lightner, Robert. Angels, Satan and Demons: Invisible Beings that Inhabit the Spiritual World. Edited by Charles R. Swindoll. Nashville, TN: Word Publishing, 1998. Myers, Allen C. The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1987. NET Bible. 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