Hisbah Complementary Policing in Northwest geo Political, Nigeria.

HISBAH COMPLEMENTARY POLICING ORGANIZATIONS IN THE NORTHWEST GEO-POLITICAL ZONE, NIGERIA. KAWU ADAMU SULE B.Sc, M.Sc (BUK) SPS/14/PSO/00008 BEING A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY, BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PhD) IN SOCIOLOGY (WITH SPECIALIZATION IN CRIMINOLOGY). FEBRUARY, 2021 i DECLARATION I, Kawu Adamu Sule, hereby declare that this work is the product of my research efforts undertaken under the supervision of Professor Sadiq Isah Radda and has not been presented anywhere for the award of a degree or certificate. All sources have been duly acknowledged. _____________________________ Kawu Adamu Sule SPS/14/PSO/00008 ___________________________ Date ii CERTIFICATION This is to certify that the research work for this thesis and the subsequent write-up by Kawu Adamu Sule (SPS/14/PSO/00008) were carried out under my supervision. ______________________________ Professor Sadiq Isah Radda Supervisor ___________________________ Date ______________________________ Prof. Baffa Aliyu Umar Head of Department ___________________________ Date iii APPROVAL This thesis has been examined and approved for the award of PhD in Sociology. ______________________________ Prof. Suleiman Khalid External Examiner ___________________________ Date ______________________________ Dr. Aminu Mohammed Dukku Internal Examiner ___________________________ Date ______________________________ Professor Sadiq Isah Radda Supervisor ___________________________ Date ______________________________ Prof. Baffa Aliyu Umar Head of Department ___________________________ Date ____________________________________ ___________________________ Dr. Bello Ibrahim Representative Board of School of Post-Graduate Studies Date iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All praises and prayers are due for Allah (SWA) and may His peace and endless blessings be upon His noble Prophet, Muhammad (SAW) the son of Abdullah, together with his household, companions and those who followed their footsteps until the Day of Judgment. I am ever grateful to Allah for the gifts of life, health, strength, determination, optimism and the opportunity to undergo this programme (PhD). I will forever be grateful to my hardworking father, Mal. Sule Ibrahim Kera (Baffa) and my lovely and caring mother, Hauwa’u Mika’il (Baba), both of whom have been very supportive throughout the journey in life. In fact I am short of words to adequately express my gratitude for all they have done for me right from my childhood to date. May Allah reward them with the best of all rewards, ameen. My special gratitude goes to my supervisor (who, at the same time, is my academic father, mentor, teacher and role model), Professor Sadiq Isah Radda, for being always available and helpful in spite of his heavy schedules. I must confess that his insightful input, constructive criticisms, instructive advices and receptive approach have taught me the virtues of hardwork, commitment, tolerance, accountability, organization and competence. May Allah bless his life with prosperity and good health, may He guide and protect his family, ameen. My sincerest appreciations also go to my external examiner, Prof. Khalid Suleiman of the Department of Sociology, Usman Danfodio University, Sokoto and my internal examiner, Dr. Aminu Mohammed Dukku, for sacrificing their highly valued time to go through my work. I must confess that I have learnt a lot from you. v I am also indebted to Professor Shehu Usman Rano Aliyu who has been the source of inspiration to me. I wish to acknowledge his assistance right from my undergraduate days to date. Only Allah can reward him for all the guidance and scholarly assistance he provided to me. In fact, Professor Shehu Rano is part of the reason I have achieved this academic milestone. May the Almighty Allah bless and protect him and his entire family, ameen. I equally like to acknowledge the contributions of the Director, Murtala Auwal Memorial Boarding College Rano, Mal. Dahiru Auwal Salihu, for his supports. In fact, words cannot explain how grateful I am for all he has contributed towards the completion of this study. My special thanks also go to Professor Isma’il Zango Muhammad, Drs Maikano Madaki, Bello Ibrahim, Usman Ibrahim and Ahmad Aminu Musa for their input and encouragement. I also wish to acknowledge the contributions of my colleagues Mal. Ibrahim Adamu Basirka, Mal. Musa Abubakar, Mal. Sabi’u Y. Zakari, Mal. Gaddafi Mu’azu, Mal. Ahmadu Abubakar Suleiman and the entire academic and non-academic staff of the Department of Sociology, Bayero University, Kano. It is only fair to acknowledge some individuals who contributed (in important ways) towards the completion of this study: Suraja Salisu (Manager, Danlami Petroleum Service Station Rano), Nasir Alhassan Ahmad (Dan-Maikudi), Aminu Ahmad Rano (Manager A. A. Rano Filling Station, Birnin Kebbi), SP Abdullahi Bala Rano, Yusuf Tijjani (DC), Adamu Rano Aminu, Tijjani Bala, Ahmad Aliyu Ibrahim (Gwadabe), Ibrahim Dahiru (Master), Ibrahim Mohammed, Auwalu Ja’e Rano, Ibrahim Hangai, Muhammad Nuhu Ya’u, Haruna Muhammad Jamilu, Sani Abdullahi (Sani Quru), Muhammad Dan-Borno, Aliyu Isah vi Barkum (Shehu Kato), Bashir Abubakar Rano, Umar Salisu, Habib ya’u, Jamilu Mai-Shago Dutse, Mal. Suleiman Isyaku Muhammd (FUD), Mal. Mu’az Abdallah (FUD), Usman Suleiman Sarki (FUD) and other staff of the Department of Criminology and Security Studies Federal University, Dutse, Jigawa State who took part during the data collection. I also want extend my specially appreciations to my boss, Alhaji Saleh Baba Rano (Chairman, Salbas Oil and Gas Nigeria Ltd.) and his Managing Director, Alhaji Sa’ad Sani Sa’id (Boros) for their timely supports. May the Almighty Allah bless them and their respective families, may He continue to promote the Company (Salbas Oil and Gas Nigeria Ltd.) to the greatest height. My profound gratitude also to my wives, Amina Umar Rano, Asma’u Rabi’u Adam and Rukayya Alhaji Saleh; my sisters Hauwa, Amina, Rukayya, Asma’u, Hadiza, Adama and Karimatu and my brother, Mal. Mika’il Sule. I also appreciate my three daughters and son Aishatu, Hauwa’u, Maimunatu and Alhassan respectively, for their patience and tolerance. Finally, I want to acknowledge the contribution of the Tertiary Education Trust fund (Tetfund) for the research grant award through the Directorate of Research Innovation and Partnership (DRIP), Bayero University, Kano (grant number BUK/DRIP/RG/2017/00037), which facilitates the data collection for this study. Kawu Adamu Sule February 1, 2021 vii DEDICATION This research is dedicated to my grandparents Mal. Mika’il Abubakar (Baffan Garke), Mal. Ibrahim Dan-Agwai (Baffan Kasuwa), Mallama Khadijah Abubakar (Yagwal) and Mallama Lubabatu; my son, Alhassan Kawu Sule (Baffa); my daughter, Maimunatu Kawu Sule, my cousin brother Abubakar Usman (Garba Dare); and to the parents of my friends, Mal. Haruna Muhammad (Dan-Haru), Mallama Aishatu Hussaini (Mai-Shinkafa) and Mallama Hafsat Muhammad (Mama), Alhaji Aminu Abdullahi (Bala yola), all of them of blessed memory. May Allah forgive their shortcomings, and grant them Jannatul Firdausi, ameen. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page _________________________________________________________________i Declaration ________________________________________________________________ii Certification ______________________________________________________________iii Approval Page _____________________________________________________________iv Acknowledgements _________________________________________________________v Dedication _______________________________________________________________viii Table of Contents __________________________________________________________ix List of Tables ____________________________________________________________xiv Acronyms _______________________________________________________________ xvi Abstract ________________________________________________________________xvii Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Background to the Study __________________________________________________1 1.2 Statement of the Problem __________________________________________________3 1.3 Research Hypotheses _____________________________________________________8 1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study ____________________________________________9 1.5 Significance of the Study _________________________________________________10 1.6 Scope of the Study ______________________________________________________12 1.7 Operational Definition of Terms ___________________________________________13 ix Chapter Two: Literature Review and Theoretical Framework 2.1 Introduction __________________________________________________________17 2.1.1 Policing and Crime Prevention in Nigeria __________________________________21 2.1.2 The Need for Complementary Policing Organizations in Nigeria ________________21 2.1.3 Type of Complementary Policing Organizations _____________________________23 2.1.4 Contributions of Hisbah to Crime Prevention and Control _____________________27 2.1.5 Methods of Operation of Hisbah in Crime Prevention and Control _______________30 2.1.6 Success Recorded by Hisbah in Crime Prevention and Control __________________33 2.1.7 Nature of Hisbah-Police Relationship _____________________________________34 2.1.8 Challenges Facing Hisbah in Crime Prevention and Control ____________________37 2.1.9 Literature Gap ________________________________________________________42 2.2 Theoretical Framework _________________________________________________44 2.2.1 The Routine Activity Theory _____________________________________________44 2.2.2 Broken Windows Theory ________________________________________________46 2.2.3 Social Contract Theory _________________________________________________49 2.2.4 Intergroup Contact Theory ______________________________________________52 2.2.5 Social Control Theory __________________________________________________56 2.2.6 Conceptual Framework _________________________________________________59 2.2.7 Theoretical Synthesis __________________________________________________60 Chapter Three: History of the Study Area and Methodology 3.1 Introduction __________________________________________________________61 3.1.1 A Brief History of Northwest Geo-Political Zone of Nigeria ____________________61 x 3.1.2 A Brief History of Hisbah in the Northwest, Nigeria __________________________65 3.1.3 History of Hisbah in Jigawa State ________________________________________67 3.1.4 History of Hisbah in Kano State __________________________________________68 3.1.5 History of Hisbah in Kaduna State ________________________________________69 3.1.6 History of Hisbah in Katsina State ________________________________________69 3.1.7 History of Hisbah in Kebbi State _________________________________________70 3.1.8 History of Hisbah in Sokoto State ________________________________________71 3.1.9 History of Hisbah in Zamfara State _______________________________________72 3.2 Methodology _________________________________________________________73 3.2.1 Research Design ______________________________________________________73 3.2.2 Target Population _____________________________________________________74 3.2.3 Sample Size __________________________________________________________74 3.2.4 Sampling Methods ____________________________________________________75 3.2.5 Methods of Data Collection _____________________________________________79 3.2.5.1 Instruments of Data Collection _________________________________________79 3.2.5.2 Quantitative Data Collection Method ____________________________________79 3.2.5.2 Qualitative Data Collection Method _____________________________________80 3.2.6 Methods of Data Analysis _______________________________________________81 3.2.6.1 Analysis of Quantitative Data __________________________________________82 3.2.6 Methods of Data Analysis _______________________________________________81 3.2.7 Ethical Considerations _________________________________________________82 3.2.8 Problems Encountered in Data Collection __________________________________83 xi Chapter Four: Data Presentation, Analysis and Discussion 4.0 Introduction __________________________________________________________85 4.1 Section A: Demographic Profiles of the Respondents ___________________________85 4.2 Section B: Contributions of Hisbah Policing to Crime Prevention and Control in the Northwest Nigeria _________________________________________________________89 4.3 Section C: Hisbah’s Methods of Operation and Crime Prevention and Control in the Northwest, Nigeria _________________________________________________________97 4.4 Section D: Successes Recorded by Hisbah in the Northwest Geopolitical Zone _____104 4.5 Section E: Nature of Hisbah-NPF Relationship ______________________________109 4.6 Section F: Challenges Faced by Hisbah ____________________________________115 4.7 Section G: Testing of Hypothesis _________________________________________121 4.8.1 Multiple Regression Coefficient_________________________________________130 4.8.2 Controlling the Effects of Respondents’ State of Resident and Nature of Hisbah – Police Relations__________________________________________________________131 4.9 Discussion of Major Findings ____________________________________________133 4.10 Contributions of the Study to Body of Knowledge ___________________________142 Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 5.1 Introduction _________________________________________________________146 5.2 Summary ___________________________________________________________146 5.3 Conclusion ________________________________________________________149 5.4. Recommendations _____________________________________________________150 5.4.1 Recommendations for Policy Making ____________________________________150 xii 5.4.3 Recommendations for Further Studies ____________________________________153 Bibliography ____________________________________________________________155 Appendix I ______________________________________________________________167 Appendix II _____________________________________________________________174 Appendix III _____________________________________________________________177 Appendix IV _____________________________________________________________180 Appendix V _____________________________________________________________182 Appendix VI _____________________________________________________________185 Appendix VII ____________________________________________________________188 xiii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: The Intergroup Contact Theory Table 3.1: The Geo-Political Zones in Nigeria Table 3.2: States and Local Government Areas in the Northwest Zone Table 3.3: Sample Size of the Prospective Respondents for Quantitative data Table 3.4: Sample Size of the Prospective Respondents for the Qualitative data Table 4.1.1a: Demographic Profile of the Respondents Table 4.1.1b: Demographic Profile of the Respondents Table 4.2.1: Awareness of Hisbah’s Crime Prevention and control Activities Table 4.2.2: Hisbah’s Major Crime Prevention and Control Activities Table 4.2.3: Opinions on Hisbah’s Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Table 4.2.4: The Nature of Hisbah's Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Table 4.3.1: Respondents’ Classification of the Hisbah's Methods of Operation Table 4.3.2: Respondents' Assessment on Hisbah's Methods of Operation Table 4.3.3: Opinions on whether Hisbah‘s Methods of Operation Contributes to Crime Prevention and Control Table 4.3.4: Suggestions on problem-Solving method of Hisbah's Table 4.4.1: Perceived Hisbah's Successes in Crime Prevention and Control Table 4.4.2: Opinions on the Major Category of Crimes Successfully Prevented and Controlled by Hisbah Table 4.4.3: Respondents' Opinions on Reason for Hisbah's Success Table 4.5.1: Opinions on Nature of Hisbah-Police Relations Table 4.5.7: Opinions on the Consequence of Police-Hisbah Relationship on Crime Prevention and Control Table 4.6.1: Opinions on the Challenges faced by Hisbah in crime Prevention and Control Table 4.6.2: Magnitude of Challenges faced by Hisbah in Crime Prevention and Control Table 4.6.3: Opinions on whether Challenges Faced by Hisbah Negatively Affects their Crime Prevention and Control Activities Table 4.7.1a: Hisbah’s Major Policing Activities and Opinions on Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Table 4.7.1b: Chi-square Tests Table 4.7.1c: Symmetric Measures Table 4.7.2a: Hisbah’s Method of Operations and Opinions on Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Table 4.7.2b: Chi-square Tests Table 4.7.2c: Symmetric Measures Table 4.7.3a: Perceived Successes of Hisbah and Opinions on Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Table 4.7.3b: Chi-square Tests Table 4.7.3c: Symmetric Measures Table 4.7.4a: Nature of Hisbah’s –Police Relationship and Opinions on Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Table 4.7.4b: Chi-square Tests Table 4.7.4c: Symmetric Measures xiv Table 4.7.5a: Nature of Challenges faced by Hisbah and Opinions on Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Table 4.7.5b: Chi-square Tests Table 4.7.5c: Symmetric Measures Table 4.8.1a: Multiple Regression Coefficients (Model 1) Table 4.8.1b: Model 1 Summary Table 4.8.21a: Multiple Regression Coefficients (Model 2) Table 4.8.21b: Model 2 Summary xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACG AIG ANOVA CAN CLEEN CLOs CRFN DCP DPP DSS EFCC FCT FRSC ICPC IGP HRW IDI IGP IRBC JIBWIS JNI JSHC JTI KSHB KSHC LGAs NCE NCS NAFTIP NDLEA NIS NPF NSCDC OPC PPRO SP SPSS ZSHC Assistant Commandant-General Assistant Inspector-General of the Police Analysis of variance Christian Association of Nigeria Center for Law Enforcement Education of Nigeria Civil Liberty Organizations Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria Deputy Commissioner of Police Department of Public Prosecution Department of State Service Economic and financial Commission Federal Capital Territory Federal Road Safety Corps Independent Corrupt Practices Commission Inspector General of the Police Human Rights Watch In-depth Interviews Inspector-General of the Police Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada Jama’atu Izalatul Bid’ah wa iqamatus-Sunnah Jama’atu Nasril Islam Jigawa State Hisbah Commission Jama’atu Tajdid al-Islam Kano State Hisbah Board Kebbi State Hisbah Committee Local Government Areas Nigeria Certificate in Education Nigeria Customs Service National Agency for Trafficking in Persons National Drugs Law Enforcement Agency Nigeria Immigration Service Nigeria Police Force Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps Oodua People’s Congress Police Public Relations Officer Superintendent of Police Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Zamfara State Hisbah Commission xvi ABSTRACT The reintroduction of sharia legal system and public distrust of the police for its enforcement were the two major events that paved way for the emergence of Hisbah policing organizations in Nigeria. As complementary policing groups, Hisbah have contributed greatly in the enforcement of law and maintenance of peace and social order in the study area. Notwithstanding the above, Hisbah organizations still faces serious problems including: attitudinal challenges involving allegations on human rights breaches which originate from poor training of the personnel; constitutional constraints which challenge the legitimacy of the Hisbah; and jurisdictional constraints which manifest in the recurrence clashes between the Hisbah corps and the Police. In view of the above background, this study examined the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria, their methods of operation, successes achieved, relationship with the Nigeria Police Force and the challenges faced in the course of discharging their duties. Routine activity, social control, social contract, broken windows and inter-group contact theories were used as theoretical framework. A sample of 1620 respondents was selected, from 4 states with statutory Hisbah (Jigawa, Kano, Kebbi and Zamfara) using a multistage cluster sampling for the quantitative data, while purposive sampling method was primarily used to select 21 participants for the qualitative data. The study found out that the various Hisbah organizations in the sampled states: (i) contributed to crime prevention and control; (ii) their activities were desirable and successful; and (iii) their methods of operation were generally described as proactive with emphasis on encouraging what is good and discouraging what is evil. The findings showed that in spite of huge challenges such as inadequate funding, logistics, remuneration, and training of staff, Hisbah remains a force to reckon with as far as crime prevention and control in the region are concerned. Giving the findings above, it is recommended that the various Hisbah organizations in the region should be strengthened by providing them with: proper funding, operation equipment, a reviewed training curriculum, and more training opportunities. In Zamfara State where the study discovered no working relation between the Hisbah and police, the study recommends that such relationship should be established. It was also recommended that further studies should be conducted to cover the entire 3 Northern geo-political zones (Northwest, Northeast and North Central) and that both state-owned and citizens operated Hisbah should be studied on comparative basis. xvii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study There seems to be an agreement among academics that no country can survive without policing, but available evidence, however, suggests that many societies have existed without formal police organizations (Reiner, 2000; Conklin, 2004; and Reid, 2007). This implies that policing is not limited to the activities of formal law enforcement agencies. It, therefore, implies that policing could be taken to mean any measures and actions taken by various institutions and groups, whether formal or informal, that seeks to regulate social relations and practices with the sole aim of ensuring safety of people and conformity to societal norms and values. In most, if not all modern states, the policing system has assigned the organization of the police a huge responsibility of enforcing laws and maintenance of social order. The police are expected to promote and enforce law abiding behavior. These expected roles are defined and regulated by laws of the country. In Nigeria, the policing system is predominantly regulated and controlled by the government mainly through its formal police institution, the Nigeria Police Force (NPF) and other statutory security agencies, such as the milita ry, the Department of State Service (DSS), the Nigeria Immigration Service (NIS), the Nigeria Customs service (NCS), the National Drugs Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA), etc. The return of democratic rule in 1999 has ushered in new forms of violent crimes as many people get involved in sophisticated criminal activities including assassination, political thuggery, kidnappings, 1 militancy and insurgency among others (Alemika and Chukwuma, 2003). These challenges have exposed the weakness of the NPF to effectively enforce laws and maintain social order. Thus, in addition to the existing NPF and other aforementioned statutory policing organizations, the government responded further with the establishment of the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps (NSCDC) as a sister agency to complement the efforts of the NPF in policing the country. Despite the existence of the above formal policing organizations, there exist a number of complementary policing organizations which are largely informal and thus not necessarily recognized by the central government. Some of these informal policing organizations include vigilante groups commonly found all over the country. These vigilante groups evolved to supplement the police efforts by filling the resource gap. Thus their operations were partly guided by the law and partly by tradition. Bakassi Boys that operated mainly in the Southeast and Oodua People’s Congress in the Southwest were good examples of such vigilante groups. There were allegations that those two vigilante groups were violent and were allegedly abused by politicians for selfish ends (Elsergany, 2010). In the Northern part of the country, there were attempts by twelve (12) state governments to implement sharia legal system for their respective states, Hisbah was formed by some volunteer groups to help in enforcing the sharia laws. The concept of Hisbah originated from the verses of the Holy Qur’an and the traditions of the Holy Prophet (May the Peace and Blessings of Allah be Upon Him). It is generally based on the obligation placed on every follower of Islam to call for what is good or right and denounce what is bad or wrong (Sami, 2 2005). Therefore, Hisbah groups right from their inceptions were formed to promote what is good and denounce what is bad as defined in the context of Islamic legal system. In the Northwestern states of Nigeria, Hisbah groups began as voluntary organizations following the implementation of Sharia in the seven states of the region in 2000 (Elsergany, 2010). In some of these states, Hisbah corps were provided with uniform, office for easy identification, and vehicles to ease their movement for the enforcement of the sharia law – which seeks to enforce those laws relating to the rights of Allah over His creatures, rights of people over their fellow human beings and rights of both (Khan, 1983). It should be noted that many of the criminal offences were also denounced by sharia law. These include among other offences, murder, theft, dishonesty, corruption, mismanagement, violence, armed robbery, prostitution, adultery, rape, etc. (Sami, 2005). Thus, as Hisbah tries to enforce Sharia it, at the same time, enforces criminal law (ibid). In spite of the above, however, the various Hisbah organizations in the region were presented in more negative terms in the literature. It is against this background that this study examined the activities of Hisbah complementary policing organizations in the Northwestern region, Nigeria. This will educate the public on how various Hisbah groups in the region have been complementing the Police in crime prevention and control. The successes recorded, the challenges faced and the prospects of Hisbah were also examined. 1.2 Statement of the Problem With the return of civilian rule in 1999, and of course, increase in the Nigeria’s population, there have been urban expansions and proliferation of multiple type of violent and property 3 crimes (Offiong, 2001; and Ellis, 2016). Protection of lives and property through the detection, control and prevention of crime, as well as due enforcement of laws and the preservation of order are the primary responsibilities of the state which is discharged through the law enforcement agencies, especially the Police. Good policing depends, to a large extent, on how well these responsibilities are discharged by the Police. Unfortunately, there is apparent failure on the part of the police to effectively carryout such duties. This failure might be connected to the fact that the Police are: understaffed, ill-equipped, poorly trained, corrupt, indiscipline and distrusted by the members of the public. As a result, both violent and property crimes are routinely committed and the Police could not promptly detect, arrest and prosecute their perpetrators. Thus, a number of lives and property have been lost and that people generally feel unsafe and hardly sleep with their two eyes closed (Ajayi and Longe, 2015). The NPF seem more adept at para-military operations and the exercise of coercion than at community service activitiess. This has blocked the potentials for non-coercive contact between the police and the public thereby increasing the level of public suspicion and distrust of the police. As such, ordinary people in the Nigeria’s streets greet the Police with fear and hatred and perceive them as inept, high-handed and corrupt and therefore not allies, friends or partners in the fight against crimes (ibid). Furthermore, the ineffectiveness of the police to guarantee safety of lives and property could be linked with the fact that the policing system used was imported from England (Tamuno, 1970; and Jauhari, 2011). It is, therefore, expensive, time consuming, insensitive to the social values and belief system of the people and thus foster antagonism between the police and the public (ibid). 4 The above, coupled with the insufficient number of police personnel to effectively police over 200 million Nigerians and the fact that violent and property crimes are routinely committed without prompt detection and prosecution, have given rise to the advocacy for alternative strategies for crime prevention and control (Adegoke, 2014). The role of the traditional mechanisms has been remarkable and appears more in line with the agitations of Nigerians for a more culturally relevant approach to policing. Borrowing from Merton’s (1957) manifest and latent functional analysis, it can be inferred that functioning cultural institutions are as important as the formalized ones in terms of positive consequences (Ritzer, 2012). As such, people must recognize the fact that there are a number of structural and functional alternatives that can perform the same task in the society. Hence, there is wisdom in believing the fact that criminal justice system alone, cannot by itself, provide absolute solution to the complex problems of crimes and social disorder in Nigeria. Therefore, resources outside the system (such as Hisbah) are desperately needed to complement those used by the system, especially in Nigeria where the police-civilian ratio is far below the international standard (Adegoke, 2014). Unfortunately, most Nigerians, including scholars, of course, do not seem to recognize the important role played by Hisbah organizations in complementing the efforts of the NPF in crime prevention and control. Available literature relegates the services provided by Hisbah to that of enforcement of the sharia laws, mindless of the fact that there exist points of convergence between the Sharia and the criminal law being in force (Uthman, 2003). In 5 other words, the role of Hisbah in crime prevention and control throughout the Northwest states, especially issues concerning their contributions, methods of operations, success recorded, nature of their relationship with the police and the obstacles they faces in their work, are surprisingly largely understudied thereby making their complementary policing role grossly under-documented and unappreciated. In view of the above, Hisbah have been complementing the policing efforts of the Nigeria Police Force and those of other statutory policing organizations in the prevention and crackdown of criminals that have engage in sales and consumption of illicit drugs, violent conducts, sexual assaults, rape, burglary and even advanced fee fraud among other crimes in the Northwest of Nigeria (Uthman, 2003; Gwarzo, 2003; Adamu, 2008; and Abdullah, 2010). This is in addition to their regular conducts of surveillance, night patrols along the streets, interceptions of liquor outlawed by the various state legislations, apprehending prostitutes rehabilitating and reuniting them with their respective families among other policing contributions. In the same vein, Hisbah in the Northwestern Nigeria often serves as an intermediary body that bridges the gap between the police and the public. The distrust between the police and members of the public has resulted in apparent lack of will on the part of the public to support the police by reporting criminal activities to them. As such, the emergence of the Hisbah in the region has provided an alternative platform for receiving crime reports. These reported crimes are in turn reported to the police by the various Hisbah groups in the region 6 and sometimes even undertake joint operations with the police and other statutory enforcement agencies to crack down the reported criminals. Unfortunately, despite the above complementary policing role played by these Hisbah groups in crime prevention and control in the region, they are still confronted with problems of inadequate funding, poor method of staff recruitment, lack of basic enforcement training (as majority of the prospective personnel were young men with little or no formal education, background in law, and without training in law enforcement tradition for arrest, investigation and gathering and preservation of evidence), lack of basic operational equipment, poor relationship with the personnel of the Nigeria Police Force (NPF), harassment and extortion by the same police personnel, unprofessional conducts leading to human rights breaches by the Hisbah personnel and apparent lack of recognition and appreciation of their complementary policing efforts by the enforcement agencies themselves (especially the police), members of the public, including the academia. These problems if left unchecked could lead to low morale on the part of the Hisbah personnel who are mainly volunteers with serious consequences on the safety of lives and property of the law abiding citizens in the Northwest region of Nigeria. In addition, most studies conducted on policing in Nigeria focused more on the challenges faced by the NPF in the delivery of its statutory duties as enshrined in the Police Act of 1946 and the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Therefore, most of these research works examined police corruption, extrajudicial killings, enforced disappearances, human rights breaches by the police, and poor police public relations among other policing challenges. However, the relative absence of sociological studies on the important roles 7 played by complementary policing organizations especially Hisbah in crime prevention and control is an extremely significant oversight. In view of that, this study was conducted to fill in the vacuum. This has contributed in analyzing the activities of Hisbah in the Northwest Nigeria paying attention to the successes recorded, the challenges faced by and the prospects of these Hisbah complementary policing organizations in the region. The above stated problem has evoked the following questions: 1. What are the contributions of Hisbah’s complementary policing activities to crime prevention and control across the Northwest, Nigeria? 2. How do the methods of operation used by Hisbah assist in crime prevention and control across the Northwest, Nigeria? 3. Does the success of Hisbah in crime prevention and control determine their contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria? 4. Does the nature of Hisbah’s relationship with the police affect their contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria? 5. Do the challenges faced by Hisbah affect their contributions to crime prevention and control across the Northwest of Nigeria? 1.3 Research Hypotheses The followings are the hypotheses for this study: 1. Hisbah’s complementary policing activities do not influence opinions on their contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria; 2. Method of operations employed by Hisbah does not determine opinions on their contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria; 8 6. Perceived Hisbah’s successes in crime prevention and control does not affect opinions on their contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria; 3. Nature of Hisbah-Police relations is not a determinant of opinions on Hisbah’s contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria.; and 4. Nature of challenges encountered by Hisbah does not influence opinions on their contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria. 1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study The broad aim of this study is to examine the activities of Hisbah complementary policing organizations in the Northwest geopolitical zone of Nigeria. However, the specific objectives are to: 1. Examine the contributions of Hisbah policing activities to crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria; 2. Assess how methods of operation used by Hisbah assist in crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria; 3. Analyze the successes recorded by Hisbah across states in crime prevention and control in Northwest, Nigeria; 4. Describe the nature of the relationship between the Hisbah and the NPF in crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria; and 5. Examine the challenges faced by Hisbah in crime prevention and control in the Northwest Nigeria. 9 1.5 Significance of the Study The emergence of numerous complementary policing organizations that work alongside the Nigeria Police to ensure that life and property of the citizens are protected and that law and order are maintained deserves research attention. Hence, this study was conducted to examine the complementary policing activities of Hisbah organizations in the Northwest geo-political zone of Nigeria so that recommendations with policy implications could be offered in order to make them more effective and efficient in crime prevention and control. This study will specifically contribute to the: (a) Hisbah: It is hoped that the findings of this study will be useful to various Hisbah organizations in the Northwest, and other parts of Northern Nigeria where they exist, by pointing out the best possible ways to conduct their duties without violating the fundamental human rights of the citizens. This has the positive implication for efficient and effective crime prevention and control activities. (b) Socio-economic Development: If the study’s findings are implemented, it is hoped that the security of life and property of the residents will be enhanced, which will, in turn, promote the socio-economic development of the Northwest geo-political zone, and other parts of Northern Nigeria where Hisbah police has been institutionalized, by making the environment safe and secured for the citizens to go about their normal businesses in life. This will further bring about economic prosperity, political stability, improved standard of living and overall social well-being. 10 (c) Policy: This study is expected to be of great value to the policy makers by providing insight on the worthiness of traditional policing systems that have been developed based on the indigenous cultural heritage as alternative to the inherited colonial policing system which was not in tandem with the aspirations and the security needs of Nigerians. Hence, various states in the federation where no traditional policing system was operative can learn from the numerous advantages gained by the various Hisbah operating states for possible adoption. In the same vein, the government of those states with statutory Hisbah, especially Jigawa, Kano, Kebbi and Zamfara States where data for this study were collected, can now, through the findings of this research, identify the specific problems that have been bedeviling the various Hisbah organizations in their respective states for prompt and appropriate solutions. (d) Literature: The study is also expected to be significant as it will add to the existing literature on complementary policing activities in Nigeria. This is due to the fact that not much have been studied and documented on the Hisbah especially on their complementary policing activities and associated issues such as their contributions to crime prevention and control, methods of operations used, their successes, nature of their relationship with the Police and other security agencies, challenges faced and so on. The study is therefore hoped to be of great value to the academics, students and future researchers who may wish to conduct further studies on the subject in order to add value to the existing stock of knowledge. The limitations of this study is anticipated to facilitate the desire to conduct further investigations on the role of complementary 11 policing organizations, such as the Hisbah and other culturally oriented policing organizations, especially in places outside the scope of this study. (e) Police and Other Enforcement Agencies: Similarly, the findings are expected to guide the NPF and other statutory law enforcement agencies to make them recognize and appreciate the role of Hisbah and other alternative policing organizations in crime prevention and control. This will hopefully foster the bond of their partnership in the light of spirit de corps thereby eliminating or at least reducing the potentials for conflict of interest and physical clashes between the NPF and the various Hisbah formations in the region. 1.6 Scope of the Study This study deals with the examination of the activities of Hisbah policing organizations towards crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria. Its scope had covered those policing issues including the failure of the Nigeria Police Force to provide citizens with the much needed security services and how such failures have resulted in the emergence of complementary policing organizations, especially the Hisbah (which appears as alternative to the NPF) though originally formed to enforce only Sharia laws. The study had limited its scope to the role of the Hisbah in crime prevention and control and how these have contributed in improving the security services provided to Nigerians by assisting the police. The scope has also covered the nature of the relationship between the Nigeria Police Force and the Hisbah in relation to crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria. 12 In addition, the research examined some range of policing issues relating to the atmosphere under which the Hisbah as complementary policing bodies discharge their duties. Based on this, attention was particularly focused on issues such as the methods of operation used by Hisbah that set them apart from the police in the discharge of their duties, the successes recorded, the challenges faced and their prospects in the Northwest of Nigeria. Accordingly, this study was limited to only those adult residents of the Northwest region of Nigeria irrespective of their gender and other demographic characteristics, including, the volunteers and officials of the Hisbah, the personnel of the Nigeria Police Force, officials of the National human Rigths Commission (NHRC), religious/community leaders, personnel of the Department of Public Prosecution (DPP), and members of the public who had one experience or the other in the hands of Hisbah as complainants, suspects, witnesses, or even victims of crime. 1.6 Operational Definition of Terms This section is meant to provide operational definitions of some key terms used by this study. In the context of this study, the concepts are defined as follows: i. .Complementary Policing Organizations: These are those voluntary and or quasi formal policing organizations that operate within the mandate of communal consensus to support the Nigeria Police Force by providing services of protecting lives and property of the citizens through crime prevention and control, but without the federal constitutional power to prosecute. Complementary policing organizations are mainly composed of volunteers and are commonly funded by 13 the community members though some of them may get logistic support from the government. ii. Compementary Policing Activities: This refers to the policing activities engaged in by Hisbah organization which aimed at complementing the efforts of the Nigeria Police force in crime prevention and control with the sole aim of protecting lives and property of the citizens. These include all crimes prevention and control activities as defined below. iii. Crime Prevention and Control Activities: This refers to the efforts made by law enforcement agencies and other law abiding citizens to forestall crime, enforce law, and relieve the criminal justice of workloads. In other words, crime prevention denotes a philosophy of self-defense where the Hisbah and community take action before crimes are committed. These include street patrol, fight against immoral conducts, raids on criminal hideouts, surveillance, rehabilitation of offenders and community sensitization among others. iv. Hisbah Complementary Policing Organizations: Hisbah complementary policing organizations (or Hisbah) in this context means those state institutions provided to promote proper conducts and denounce all types of misdeeds, offences or immoral conducts. Examples include all Hisbah Boards, Committees or Commissions established by the various sharia implementing State Governments in the Northwest geopolitical zone of Nigeria to enforce sharia laws. 14 v. Hisbah Activities: his refers to the crime prevention and control activities carried out by Hisbah in the Northwest geopolitical zone. These include street patrol, fight against immoral conducts, raids on criminal hideout, surveillance, rehabilitation programmes, community sensitization, conflict resolution through mediation, negotiation and arbitration, etc. vi. Nature of the Challenges: This is an index score of the challenges faced by Hisbah organizations as believed to have existed by the respondents. It implies serious, moderate and less serious challenge. vii. Method of Operations: This refer to the working habits exhibited by Hisbah, which make the public to feel at ease and subsequently cooperate with the Hisbah by voluntarily reporting criminal activities to them. In this context, method of operations means either preventive or reactive methods used in the conduct of Hisbah’s work. viii. Nature of Relationship: In this context, the nature of relationship implies how collaborative partnership is established between the Hisbah and the Nigeria Police Force in their efforts to prevent and control crimes. Hence, the nature of the relationship could be good/cordial or poor/non-cordial. ix. Police: Police here refers to the Nigeria Police Force (NPF), which is a constituted body of persons empowered by the Section 214 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria to enforce the law, protect 15 property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers also include the use of discretion and the legitimized use of force. 16 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction This section presents a review of the related literature and theoretical framework for the study. The first section reviewed literature on policing and crime prevention; the need for complementary informal policing organizations; types of complementary policing structures; the contributions and successes of Hisbah in crime prevention and control; methods of operation of Hisbah in crime prevention and control; the nature of Hisbah-police relationship; and the challenges faced by Hisbah in crime prevention and control. However, the second section was primarily on the theoretical framework for the study. Hence, the routine activity, the broken windows, the social control theory, the social contract, and the inter-group contact theories were reviewed and social contract theory was adopted as the theoretical framework for this study. 2.1.1 Policing and Crime Prevention in Nigeria In medieval society, policing was a collective responsibility where all adult members of the community, especially male adults, were obliged to contribute towards the prevention and control of crime and disorder under the ‘watch system’ that preceded the emergence of modern police force as a state institution (Reid, 1997). It should, however, be noted that, even long ago before the British invasion of Nigeria, there existed some forms of traditional policing among the various states, kingdoms and empires that constitute the present Nigeria (Tamuno, 1993 cited in Ojukwu, 2011). Thus, it could be argued that the idea of policing in 17 Nigeria was never a new phenomenon (Obilade, 1979; Asein, 1998; and Beredugo, 2009). There were native laws, customs and sanctions mostly drawn from traditional religions that played a central role in the prevention and control of crimes (ibid). The fear of vengeance of the gods, oracles and ancestral spirit kept everyone in checked. These were said to have discouraged vices and mischief and by extension provided an effective policing system (Tamuno, 1993; and Ojukwu, 2011). Policing typically involves measures and actions taken by a variety of social institutions and groups (both formal and informal) to regulate social relationships and practices in order to secure the safety of the members of community as well as enforcing conformity to the shared norms and values of the society (Reid, 1997; and Siegel, 2009). It, therefore, involve the creation of systems of surveillance and threat of sanction for the discovered deviation. There is a greater agreement among scholars and researchers that the core mission of any policing organization is to enforce laws, keep social order and protect life and property of the citizenry (Goldstein, 1977; Larson, 1978; Dambazau, 2007; and Siegel, 2009). These core responsibilities of the police are the reflection of government’s primary purpose of existence, as inferred by the social contract theory (Oakeshott, 1975). Thus, the police who carried these functions were elevated to the status of national symbol and an integral part of the human cultural framework. In Nigeria, the Nigeria police Force (NPF), as the governmental institution with the primary responsibility to provide security for life and property in the country, has failed to effectively protect lives and property of the citizens (Tamuno, 1993; Jauhari, 2011; and Ojukwu, 2011; 18 Radda, 2014). Partly because, the NPF was not established to provide such services, but to promote the economic as well as the political interests of the colonial masters (Tamuno, 1993; and Jauhari, 2011). In most of their official conducts, the personnel of the Nigeria Police Force were alleged of brutal subjugation of the communities and the suppression of resistance to colonial rule in the country; hence, the trade unionists, students and other nationalists who resisted colonial occupation formed their primary victims (ibid). As such, many Nigerians considered (and still consider) the police as a symbol of dictatorial establishment rather than the protector of peoples’ lives and property (Dambazau, 2007; and Sule, 2015). Hence, instead of becoming a friend to the public, many Nigerians see the police as their number one enemy (Asemota, 1993; Alemika, 2010; Nuraddeen, 2010; and Sule, 2015). The above negative public perceptions of the police continue even after the political independence was granted to the country, as successive military and even civilian regimes were alleged to have continued to use the police in denying a quite number of Nigerians of their fundamental rights (Radda, 2005; and Jauhari, 2011). The above problems were, however, amplified by other internal problems as many writers have allegedly accused the NPF as being unprofessional, brutal, corrupt, inadequate, below standard, poorly coordinated, insufficiently trained, and gross abusers of human rights in the conduct of their duties (Alemika and Chukwuma, 2000; Network of Human rights Violations Monitors, 2006; Dambazau, 2007; Radda, 1999; Radda et al., 2011; and Amnesty international, 2011). 19 Hence, policing in Nigeria is marked by widespread corruption, dishonesty, lack of public confidence, and lack of public support and cooperation, which collaboratively impeded the ability of the NPF to properly tap its operational potential (Sule, 2015). Looking at the above antecedents in the history of policing in Nigeria, one may subscribe to the idea that the Nigeria Police Force is fundamentally a state machinery organized to defend and preserve the interest of the dominant class at the expense of poor and voiceless Nigerian masses. Consequently, despite the strategic position of the police in the criminal justice, and the important role it was given by the laws, the NPF are described more in image tarnishing terms by the major segments of the population (Dambazau, 2007; Nuraddeen, 2010; Radda et al., 2011; Amnesty international, 2011; and Sule, 2015). 2.1.2 The Need for Complementary Policing Organizations in Nigeria Complementary policing organizations are those community established security institutions that are not state-owned or constitutionally provided for (Inyang and Abraham, 2013). These include community based vigilante groups, neighbourhood watch groups, religious based vigilante groups (such as Hisbah), and so on. However, most of the available literature on informal policing focuses essentially on the structure and activities of the vigilante groups, which is only an aspect of the informal policing structure (Chukwuma, 2000). Etiologically, the word “vigilante” is of Spanish origin which means a “a watchman” or “guard,” but some scholars like Johnston (1996) traced its root to Latin word vigil, meaning “awake” or “observant.” Thus, vigilantism is an activity connected with the self-appointed law enforcement groups, which appeared occasionally in older communities (or less 20 developed countries) where: law enforcement officers and the courts were nonexistence, insufficient, or corrupt; municipal institutions are disorganized; or constituted authorities seemed unable to cope with lawlessness and disorder (Johnston, 1996). In other words, vigilante organizations often emerged in a situation where there is a general perception of increased criminality which put fear in the mind of right thinking citizen about the safety of life, property and the survival of the social order (Adinkrah, 2005). Vigilante groups flourish not only in the environment characterized with state’s lack of capacity to protect the citizens from crime, but also where the state itself is considered corrupt and untrustworthy by the majority of the citizens (Heald, 2007). Thus, vigilantism is a result of the general perception that the state is not doing enough to guarantee the safety of a community. As such, when the public considered the state as ignoring their security plights, actions of vigilantism occur (Nina, 2000). Despite the fact that most of the definitions for vigilantism have been centered on the notion of private citizens taking laws into their hands, however, vigilante groups could also be of great service to the community as rightly pointed by Pratten (2008) and Buur and Jensen (2004) who argued that vigilante could sometimes be very important to local people as it often addresses issues of security and moral order that are of relevance to people living on the margin, beyond the reach of the formal state apparatus. To facilitate easy understanding of vigilantism, Johnston (1996: 97) had offered the following six main characteristics: i. Minimal planning, preparation or premeditation; 21 ii. Private agents acting in voluntary capacity; iii. Activity undertaken without authority or with minimal support by the state; iv. Force is either used or threatened; v. A reaction to the real or perceived transgression of institutional norms; and vi. Aims to offer people the assurances that established order will prevail. It was argued that in the United State, classic vigilantes were members of an organized committee who acted as the last resort because of the failures of established law system (Brown, 1975; Burrows, 1976; and Culberson, 1990). Culberson (1990) added that vigilante justice has been in existence in the United States since 1800 with a view to fight crimes, but ended up persecuting immigrants and blacks. Research findings in Amsterdam revealed that vigilantism surfaced predominantly in situations of effecting citizen’s arrest (Rosembaum and Sederbergs, 1974). However, findings by Minnar (2001) shows that vigilante groups, to a greater extent, contributed to a rise in gang related violence and assault cases. Another findings by Gopge (2003) attributed vigilante groups’ formation to factors such as political interference, leniency of the constitution, poor police visibility, high rate of unemployment, poverty, alcohol abuse, as well as lack of trust in the prosecution system. Tundu (2015) added the predisposing factors for vigilantism to include the community perceptions of poor or no service delivery by the state security service providers, lack of trust in the police mainly due to political history, corruption and so on. Similarly, it was argued that the operation and structures of most of the vigilante groups that operates in Nigeria do not fit the classical conception of vigilante (the pursuit of self- 22 perceived justice without legal authority), especially now that most of these vigilante groups work in collaboration with the Nigeria Police Force and other statutory enforcement agencies. Some of these vigilante groups were reported as being adherent to ‘due process’ in the arrest and handling of the crime suspects (Radda, 1994; Shaw, 2000; and Chukwuma, 2002). To put it in clearer terms, Nigerian vigilante organizations were reported as having ambiguous relationship with the state (Prattens, 2008). It was further argued that while these vigilante groups operate sometimes, under state sponsored guise of defense against insurgency, they are also actively part of the insurgent process (ibid). In view of the above, it can be concluded that the common trend in the literature on informal policing is to equate informal policing structures with vigilantism. That is why the informal policing structure is conceptualized in the same light as vigilantism. Hence, it can be said that there is apparent inadequacy in the literature on the activities of the complementary policing organizations in Nigeria and that further studies needs to be initiated to unveil how these organizations operate. 2.1.3 Type of Complementary Policing Organizations Alemika and Chukwuma (2003) were of the opinion that in the absence of satisfactory literature that try to separate the informal complementary policing structures that have been bundled together as vigilante groups, the term could be used loosely as generic term in describing the various types of informal complementary policing structure that could be identified in most of the literature. They, thus, identified four typologies of vigilante groups. These are religious vigilantism, ethnic vigilantism, state-sponsored vigilantism and 23 neighbourhood or community vigilantism. They further argued that the above classification is flexible as one type of vigilante group could combine the feature of two or more groups. Religious vigilantism in Africa according to Shaw (2000) refers to those vigilante groups that seek to promote and enforce religious laws. However, with the establishment of Sharia legal system in twelve (12) northern states (namely Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Niger, Sokoto, Yobe and Zamfara states) from 1999 to 2000, religious vigilante groups generally referred as Hisbah were formed. Their duty was to enforce compliance with the Shariah laws such as ban on sale and consumption of alcohol, ban on prostitution, arrest of petty thieves, arrest of rapists, and so on, sometimes without authorization by the Sharia court (Chukwuma, 2002; Alemika and Chukwuma, 2003; and Nwauche, 2004). These Hisbah groups were further accused of imposing punishments for such offences on their own without taking the suspects to the designated Sharia court (Chukwuma, 2002; and Nwauche, 2014). But the opinion of Gwarzo (2003), Olaniyi (2005), and Adamu (2008) differs slightly. For them, Hisbah were complementary policing organizations since most of their arrests are handed over to the police for onward prosecution in criminal courts. The above position wss reflected in statutory provisions in some of the state Hisbah establishment laws, which provided that the Hisbah shall render all necessary assistance to the police and other statutory security agencies especially as it relates to the issues of prevention, detection, control and reporting of offences (See Section 7(4)(1) of the Kano State Hisbah Board (Establishment) Law, 2003; Section 9(1) of the Zamfara State Hisbah Commission (Establishment) Law, 2003, and Section 5(d) of the Jigawa State Hisbah 24 Advisory Committee (Establishment) Law, 2004). Thus, based on the above accounts, it can be said that Hisbah plays both complementary and alternative roles to the police in the way of crime control and maintenance of social order. The second, ethnic vigilantism, as the name suggests, refers to groups that are organized to defend members’ narrow ethnic interest and sometimes carryout crime prevention and control activities (Tertsakian, 2003). Some of the ethnic vigilante groups in Nigeria include the Bakassi Boys in the Southeast and the Oodua People Congress (OPC) in the Southwest. Tertsakian (ibid) reported that the OPC began as a self-determination group, but later incorporate vigilante work into its activities. The author further argued that their activities go beyond fighting crimes as they were also accused of engaging in street procession, robbery, torture and lynching of criminal suspects and their enemies (Alemika and Chukwuma, 2003; Oronsaye and Igbafe, 2012). Bakassi boys, on the other hand, operated in three (3) Southeastern States of Anambra, Abia and Imo; they were also allegedly hijacked by these State Governments to fight political opponents (ibid). This is in addition to the alleged degrading inhuman treatment with which they handled the criminal suspects. They were reported as making routine public spectacles of many of the suspects they capture by parading them naked on the streets often with the suspects’ body parts chopped into pieces and later burnt to the cheering of surging and urging crowds (ibid). The third is state-sponsored vigilante, which operates with the support of government (Scharf, 2000). Good examples of state-sponsored vigilante groups include the Bakassi Boys that were active in three eastern states of Abia, Anambra and Imo. Bakassi vigilante group 25 began as an initiative of local traders in Aba market, Abia State who were disturbed by the spate of violent property crimes in their market. However, the Bakassi Boys were later hijacked by politicians, who successfully added partisan politics into the objectives of the vigilante group (ibid). Another example could be the state-sponsored Hisbah groups which began as spontaneous groups originating from voluntary Islamic groups whose main aim was to support the implementation of Sharia but later were hijacked and allegedly abused by the various State Governments where Sharia legal system was adopted (Gwarzo, 2003; Olaniyi, 2005; and Adamu, 2008). Lastly, not the least, neighbourhood or community vigilantism, which were described as those groups of people organized at the neighbourhood, street associations in the cities or rural areas to manage street entrances or villages’ gates as the case may be, at night (Chukwuma, 2002; and Heald, 2007). It was also part of their daily routine, foot patrols at night meant to comfort the community members to have general feelings that some people are watching over their security. Chukwuma (2002) added that the members of this type of vigilante groups do not carry weapons, but rather armed with whistles, which they use in arousing the neighbourhoods in the events of any suspicious movement or criminal attack that may warrant for collective actions and or resistance. Unfortunately, the vigilante groups that started basically as volunteer groups to pursue the interest of the people and to provide protection and safety for the local residents have transformed into nightmares and scary gangs for Nigerians in many places (ibid). Some scholars were of the view that instead of protecting the citizens from violent and property 26 crimes, these vigilante groups have victimized the same citizens through killings, burning and other inhuman and unprofessional treatments (Ajayi, 2006; Adamu, 2008; and Oronsaye and Igbafe, 2012). This is because their activities were largely unchecked as they have apportioned so much power to themselves and somewhat behave as if they are above the laws of the land (ibid). Some writers believed that the shift in their primordial objective is what amplifies the spate of violent crimes in Nigeria (Oronsaye and Igbafe, 2012). 2.1.4 Contributions of Hisbah to Crime Prevention and Control The purpose of the Hisbah is to protect members of the society from deviance, preserve their faith, guarantee the welfare and security of the people and enforce Sharia law (Baker, 2004). Hence, Hisbah was typically meant to serve as a control mechanism Islam provided for mankind to maintain order and regulate social life so that every member will go about his/her legitimate businesses of life without any form of hindrance (Gwarzo, 2003; Adamu, 2008; and Abdullah, 2010). It is an institution for enacting codes of conduct established by the Islamic law to promote what is good (halal) and ensure the avoidance of forbidden things (haram). Muhammad-Noor (2014) argued that the Hisbah is ideally supposed to operate technically as the state institution with specific focus on promoting the proper conducts and ensuring the avoidance of all types of misdeeds or offences. This position (of the arrangement of a state empowered institution of Hisbah) was supported boldly in the Holy Qur’an: And let there be [arising] from you a nation inviting to [all that is] good, enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong, and those will be the successful (Qura’an 3: 104). 27 In addition, the following hadith (tradition of the Holy Prophet, May the peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) also support the establishment of Hisbah. On the authority of Abu Sa’eed Al-Khudree (may Allah be pleased with him) who revealed that: I heard the Messenger of Allah (May the peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) said that whoever among you sees an evil, let him change it with his hands; and if he is not able to do so, then (let him change it) with his tongue; and if he is unable to do so, then with his heart (dislike it), and that is the weakest of faith (Aydemir, 2012: 2). Thus, it can be said that the function of Hisbah is to maintain the public law and order, and supervise the bahaviour of the citizens, in all spheres of life, with a view to promote good conduct and ensure that no malpractice is allowed to take place in an Islamic state (Muhammad-Noor, 2014). The Supreme Council for Sharia in Nigeria cited in Baker (2008) viewed the role of Hisbah as: The Hisbah groups are indispensable vehicle for the proper implementation of Sharia as its indomitable vanguard. The Hisbah groups already established are meant to complement the police in their statutory duties and are not rivals. But this can only be achieved if the mentality and orientation of the Police Force is refocused to one of service away from extortion and tyranny… (Baker, 2008: 175). Aydemir (2012) sees the establishment of the Hisbah as the Muslims’ efforts to actualize the Islamic doctrine of commanding right and forbidden wrong. He was therefore of the opinion that beside being an obligation upon individual Muslim to actively seek for what is right and remove the prohibited, Hisbah is a spiritual state’s institution with powers to appoint citizens to carry out the responsibility of enjoining what is right and forbidden what is wrong. This implies that the aim of Hisbah is to preserve the harmony of the society by giving more weight towards educating, reminding, improving and acting so that every offence committed is not repeated (Ibrahim, 2018; 2019). 28 Muhtar (1987) argued that it is an obligatory duty upon any person in-charge of the Muslims’ affairs to appoint some qualified people that will enforce what is good and forbid what is bad. He also described it as an individual responsibility of the rulers to ensure that appropriate persons are appointed for enjoining what is good and forbidding what is bad. As rightly argued by Muhammad Abdulqadir al-Mubarak quoted by Ibrahim (2015) that Hisbah is a monitoring body formed by the government to monitor the activities of individuals related to morality, religion, and economy with the intention to maintain justice and honour as mentioned by Islamic Sharia (penal laws) and in accordance with the current situation and time. The introduction of Hisbah in Nigeria, was greeted with growing specter of uncertainty and incipient agitations that its introduction would reduce tolerance for non-Muslims and their activities, especially those that contradicts the tenets of Islam (Chukwuma, 2000; Alubo, 2011; and Nwauche, 2014). Again, Alubo (2011) added that the establishment and operation of Hisbah have led to widespread allegations that they are a police force and therefore unconstitutional in view of the provision of Section 214 (1) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, which provided that there shall be only one police force in Nigeria. Over the years, it was alleged that the activities of Hisbah went beyond the religious meaning of ‘commanding good and discouraging evils’ to practical duties consistent with the general interest of the Muslims (Abdullah, 2010). Hence, Hisbah began to deal with various social, moral and criminal matters such as healthcare, public discipline and violent and other forms of crimes (Gwarzo, 2003; Adamu, 2008; Abdullah, 2010; and Elsergany, 2010). 29 2.1.5 Methods of Operation of Hisbah for Crime Prevention and Control Hisbah as a religious institution under the authority of the state is meant to appoint people to carry out the responsibility of enjoining what is right (whenever people start to neglect it) and forbidding what is wrong (whenever people start to engage in them). The rationale for this important assignment is to safeguard society from deviance, protect the faith, and ensure the welfare of the people in both religious and worldly manners according to the Law of Allah (Muhammad-Noor, 2014). Allah has made it obligatory upon all Muslims to enjoining good and forbiding wrongdoing to the extent of their knowledge and abilities (ibid). This has made the Hisbah’s method of operation primarily preventive. This is because, the activities of Hisbah are essentially organized around ensuring that the limits of Allah have not being violated, protecting the honor of the people, and ensuring public safety and social order. The above goes a long way in assisting the people to fulfill their religious duties as mentioned in the Holy Qur’an and the traditions of the Holy Prophet, Muhammad (May the Peace and Blessings of Allah be upon Him) (Kurd, 1927). Hence, some researchers have celebrated the methods of operation used by the Hisbah in the conducts of their functions as being friendly, proactive, pro-people, timely, reformative, reconciliatory and transparent (Adamu, 2008; Suberu, 2009; Galadima and Mahadi, 2013). This approach has resulted to a positive relationship with both the public and the police to such an extent that even some police stations in Kano State refers cases to Hisbah because of their quick and satisfactory mediation approach (ibid). 30 Despite the application of the above laudable approach by the Hisbah in its crime prevention activities in the region, some studies revealed that there are problems with the Hisbah’s methods of operation (Human Rights Watch, 2004; and Nwauche, 2014). The fact that the Hisbah has the power to arrest criminal suspects though, but their power was limited as they are not supposed to take the suspect straight to the court or administer punishment. Instead, they are expected to handover all criminal suspects in their custody to the police (See Section 7(4)(1) of the Kano State Hisbah Board (Establishment) Law, 2003; Section 9(1) of the Zamfara State Hisbah Commission (Establishment) Law, 2003 and Section 5(d) of the Jigawa state Hisbah Advisory Committee (Establishment) Law, 2004). Again, the Hisbah officials are not supposed to enter into peoples’ private residents or be spying on them on the basis of mere suspicion. However, studies shows that Hisbah corps has often disregarded such limitations and guidelines and violate citizen’s rights to privacy as they entered into people’s private homes in search of suspects (Human Rights Watch, 2004; and Nwauche, 2014). Hisbah corps members were also alleged of arresting some individuals based on denunciations from other residents (ibid). The instrumental role played by Hisbah in adultery cases alleged to have been committed by Safiya Hussaini of Sokoto State and Amina Lawal of Katsina State in 2001 and 2002 respectively, are some of the often cited examples (Human Rights Watch, 2004). Similarly, the Hisbah was further accused of not being organized; spearheaded conflicts with non-Muslims; and terrorized the public (Chukwuma, 2000a; Alubo, 2011; and Nwauche, 2014). Still some writers sees Hisbah as digressing from the aim of its formation by arbitrarily arresting ‘offenders’ of the Sharia penal code and even administer their version of 31 justice without recourse to the conventional law enforcement agencies (Ndiameeh, 2009). The Hisbah was also accused of mounting roadblocks on federal high ways to apprehend vehicles conveying alcoholic beverages into the state, which brings about accusations bordering on the persecution and intolerance of Igbo non-Muslim subgroups (Human Rights Watch, 2004). There were also several human rights abuse allegations accusing Hisbah of flogging and battering of suspected offenders exist, but no allegation on extrajudicial killings was ever made against the Hisbah as it was found to be the case with the operations of both Bakassi Boys and the OPC (Human Rights Watch, 2004; Baker, 2008; and Nwauche, 2014). Even those on human rights abuses cited above were quite unscientific due to absence or insufficient proof. In addition, some reports showed that the various Hisbah groups in the region have been able to improve the training of the Hisbah corps, which has been translated into active observance and promotion of human rights in their respective jurisdictions (Abdullah, 2010). Thus, many of the Hisbah corps pays more attention to less controversial roles such as mob control, ensuring of security in public places or traffic control, and so on (ibid). This approach has neutralizes the hitherto conflicts with the members of the public which make them to prefer taking of their complaints to the Hisbah rather than going to the police or even to the court for litigations (Galadima and Mahadi, 2013). This was because of the simple fact that the Hisbah corps appeared to be more transparent, less corrupt and less prejudiced in their operation (Adamu, 2008; and Galadima and Mahadi, 2013). 32 From the above, it can be seen that most of the views and perceptions on the Hisbah’s method of operations were more of insinuations and presumptions as none could be linked to any specific scientific study that unveiled facts on the Hisbah’s method of operations. 2.1.6 Success of Hisbah in Crime Prevention and Control Gwarzo (2003) argued that the Hisbah personnel in the Northwest geopolitical zone of Nigeria were recruited and trained to curb anti-Islamic behaviours such as alcoholism, pornography, drug abuse, gambling, prostitution, advance fee fraud, and other immoral conducts. These efforts have complemented the police in the region to crackdown on criminal gangs that engaged in rape, burglary, drugs trafficking and abuse, sexual assaults, pornography, and so on (Abdullah, 2010). With regard to juvenile delinquency, Hisbah organizations in the region were reported as being very instructive in curbing the menace (ibid). In Kano State alone, for example, reports indicated that the Hisbah in the state has arrested about 133 delinquent children in 2009; who engaged in runaway, pick-pocketing, larcency and sexual misconducts (Abdullah, 2010). These children were rehabilitated by the Kano State Hisbah Board and subsequently reunited with their respective families (ibid). The efforts (of fighting crimes) by the Hisbah were particularly amplified by the failure of formal policing organizations, especially the Nigeria Police Force to guarantee the safety of life and property of the populace and of course public lack of confidence in the NPF (Jemibewon, 2001). As a result there is increasing spate of crimes such as theft, rape, thuggery, proliferation of juvenile gangs, drug abuse and so on. This situation has made a mockery of the formal police institutions thereby giving more justifications for complementary policing organizations such as Hisbah to exist (Olaniyi, 2005; Oronsaye and 33 Igbafe, 2012; and Human Rights Watch, 2004). Hence, Hisbah plays both complementary and alternative roles to the NPF in terms of crime detection, prevention, control and maintenance of peace and order. They are provided with uniforms, vehicles and offices across the Local Government Areas (LGAs) in Kano, Jigawa, Kebbi, and Zamfara States, often by the local and the various state governments. In all of the above states, Hisbah personnel were provided with monthly allowances (ibid). In some states (such as Kaduna, Katsina and Sokoto), membership and participation is voluntary and largely unpaid (ibid). Their incomes largely depend on contributions by members, pioneering religious sects and gifts from some philanthropists. It can be observed from the above literature that not much has been documented on the successes recorded by the various Hisbah organizations in the Northwest geopolitical zone of Nigeria. Thus, issues such as the Hisbah’s presence in every nook and crannies (even the remotest parts) of the Northwest and the contributions offered in the fight against immoral and criminal activities, conflict resolution, organization of government-sponsored mass marriages, etc. were not richly studied in the previous studies. 2.1.7 Nature of Hisbah-Police Relationship The relationship between Hisbah and the Nigeria Police Force was said to be complicated because the police is a federal agency and Hisbah organizaions are mainly state-owned (like those in Kano, Kebbi, Jigawa and Zamfara states) or sometimes voluntary institutions established by private citizens (examples are those in Katsina, Kaduna and Sokoto States). This bipolar structure has resulted in conflicts of interest. The police in Nigeria are secular 34 and also included non-Muslims who were not keen to enforce the Islamic legal codes (Peters and Barends, 2001). Again, there are some differences between Sharia legal systems and the English legal system adopted by Nigeria (Marenin, 1985: 76). The fact that Hisbah groups were basically operating within the context of Sharia which borders around Islamic religious belief, yet many citizens, including the non-Muslims, preferred taking their cases to these Hisbah organizations rather than going to the police (Galadima and Mahadi, 2013). Furthermore, the introduction of Sharia has enabled the officers in the police to leave the enforcement of certain troublesome legal rulings to the Hisbah. For instance, Hisbah organizations deal with alcohol and adultery more willingly than the police (Weimann, 2007). Again, some researchers reported that the friendly approach used by the Hisbah in the conducts of their functions has resulted into a positive relationship with both the public and the police to such an extent that even some police stations referred cases to the Hisbah because of their quick and satisfactory mediation approach (Galadima and Mahadi, 2013). Despite the above, however, there have been many reports of clashes between the Hisbah corps and the personnel of the Nigeria Police Force in some states (Olaniyi, 2005; Orasanye and Igbafe, 2012). For instance, Ndiameeh (2009) reported that the creation of Hisbah police which ‘brutally’ enforcing Sharia laws and of engaging in other excessive and unchecked activities has led to the usurpation of police powers by the Hisbah in the Northwest geopolitical zone, especially in Jigawa, Kano, Kebbi and Zamfara states where the various Hisbah organizations are state-owned therefore well structured and organized. This has resulted in mutual suspicion and subsequently in violent conflict between the two policing organizations (ibid). It was further revealed that some of the Hisbah organizations in the 35 region suspected that the police were sabotaging the implementation of Sharia laws by failing to follow up cases handed by them (the Hisbah) (Oronsaye and Igbafe, 2012). While, the police accused Hisbah of running a parallel institution and of unprofessional conduct of arresting people who committed acts that are not criminal (ibid). Olaniyi (2005) cited some of the instances in which the Hisbah police clashes with the personnel of the Nigeria Police Force. However, in 2006, Hisbah religious police were banned by the then Inspector-General of the Police (IGP), Mr. Sunday Ehindero, who described them as illegal police organizations that operates in violation of Section 214 of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (Ibrahim and Abubakar, 2006). The IGP equally ordered the arrest of the then Commandant-General of the Kano State Hisbah Board, Late Sheikh Yahaya Faruk Chedi who was detained by the Nigeria Police Force for more than three months, on the account of running a parallel police institution against the provision of section 214 of the 1999 Constitution, leaving Hisbah organizations in other states in the region in suspense (ibid). Another problem could be associated with lack of coordination department in the Hisbah which shall be responsible for the promotion of rapport with the police. It should be noted that the role of coordinating department is to motivate the police and other relevant agencies to cooperate with the Hisbah in crime prevention and control. Tilley (1992), in his review of the first phase of safer cities projects, identified the pivotal role of coordinators. The success or failures of some of the projects were found to be dependent on the ability of the coordinators as well as the relationships that coordinators struck with their partnering agencies. Hence, Hisbah must ensure that its relationship with the police and other partnering 36 agencies is properly coordinated because it is through proper coordination that trust, reciprocity and conflict negotiation will be established and maintained. The above literature shows that not many studies were conducted from 2012 onward to findout if improvement were recorded in terms of nature of the Hisbah-Police relationship. In the same vein, the absence of reported clashes between the various Hisbah organizations and the State Police Commands in the region in the recent time signaled the fact that improvement in the Hisbah-Police relationship might have been achieved. 2.1.8 Challenges faced by Hisbah in Crime Prevention and Control In the beginning, Hisbah was very popular especially in Kano, Zamfara, Jigawa, Sokoto, and Katsina, and was widely accepted by the residents of these states (Ibrahim and Abubakar, 2006). This positive non-hostile relationship was reported as short lived because of the alleged unprofessional conducts of some Hisbah corps members (HRW, 2004). It should be noted that there are certain qualifications that must be possessed by a person to be appointed to administer Hisbah (Al-Muhtasib). S/he must be a person with sincerity, impartiality, knowledge, wisdom and mild temper. Unfortunately, there were allegations that most of the Hisbah corps were recruited at local level, by local authorities in partnership with traditional leaders who submitted the list to their respective state governments (HRW, 2004; Denmark, 2005; and the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, 2008). As such, despite the involvement of few learned individuals in the list, majority of the prospective corps were young men with little or no formal education, background in law, and without training in law 37 enforcement tradition for arrest, investigation and gathering and preservation of evidence (ibid). Again, there were allegations that the Hisbah corps engaged in rampant abuses of human rights and other unprofessional conducts in the course of discharging their enforcement duties (HRW, 2004; and Oronsaye and Igbafe, 2012). For instance, the Kano State House of Assembly had passed the Traffic amendment Law of 2004, which prohibited the ferry of females on commercial motorcycle (Adamu, 2008). The passage of this law has brought about violent clashes between the commercial motorcyclists and the Hisbah corps whose duty was to enforced compliance (Olaniyi, 2005; and Adamu, 2008). In Zamfara state, there were allegations that Hisbah corps prohibited men and women from travelling together, disrupted conversation between men and women in public places and used violence when seizing consignment of alcohol outlawed by Sharia’ah laws being enforced (HRW, 2004). Similarly, there were reports that Hisbah was very unpopular among non-Muslim (mainly Christians) residents especially in Kebbi, Kaduna and Kano (Adamu, 2008). It was reported that Hisbah personnel have attempted to enforce Islamic laws on even non-Muslim residents of these states in particular (ibid). It was further revealed that the Hisbah corps armed with local and non-lethal weapons attacked brothels, hotels and internet cafes in the predominantly Christian community of Sabon Gari (Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, 2008). It was also reported that, although it has been part of the role of Hisbah to protect and detect crimes, make arrest and handover the criminal suspects to the police, they were accused of administering summary and jungle justice such as lynching, lashing and brutalizing the citizens alleged of violating the Sharia penal code (Denmark, 2005). It is 38 important to note that the above allegations on summary and jungle justice could not be confirmed by any scientific study, which make it part of the armchair allegations spearheaded by non-Muslim writers. However, a summary of the challenges facing the Hisbah in crime prevention and control in the region were given by Radda, Dambazau and Ibrahim (2011). The authors have summarized the challenges into three broad categories: (i) foreign influence; (ii) constitutional constraints; and (iii) attitudinal problems. The authors had linked up the foreign influence factor with the American war against what they called ‘Islamic fundamentalism’ following the September 11, 2001 attacks on the twin towers of the World Trade Center and the United States Defence Headquarters, Pentagon. Hence, the establishment of Sharia legal system in northern Nigeria was considered a threat by the United States, its allies and supporters such as Nigeria. This has led to the frozen of the bank accounts belonging to Islamic organizations across the globe (ibid). in Nigeria, the federal government also responded by declaring the Hisbah as parallel institution to the Nigeria Police Force, which is not in consonant with the provision of Section 214 (1) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal republic of Nigeria. Another major challenge bedeviling the Hisbah in the region was related to constitutional constraint. The authors were also of the view that constitutional constraints were mainly in the area of conflict between the 1999 Constitution and the Islamic law (ibid). They added that the problem was more serious at the take-off phase before the victory of the Kano State Government in the Supreme Court. The Hisbah groups were henceforth accused of usurping 39 the powers and duties of the Nigeria Police Force as enshrined in the Police Act of 1964, contrary to the provision of Section 214 (1) of the 1999 Constitution, which provided that: There shall be a police force for Nigeria, which shall be known as the Nigeria Police Force, and subject to the provisions of this section no other police force shall be established for the federation or any part thereof (S 214(1) 1999 CFRN). A typical example of how these constitutional constraints were used against the Hisbah could be sensed in the words of the former Assistant Inspector-General of the Police (AIG), in charge of Zone 1, Kano, Sir Kerrian Dudari who warned the Hisbah. Dudari remarked that: Hisbah is not (reflected) in the Nigerian constitution, although they have their state functions, they must not contradict police functions (as provided in the 1999 Constitution of the Federal republic of Nigeria and the Police Act of 1964), because (the) police are not ready to delegate any power to any organization (Nuhu, 2004:30). Again, there were some documented cases of violent and jurisdictional conflicts between the Hisbah and the police (Gwarzo, 2003; Nuhu, 2004; Radda, Dambazau and Ibrahim, 2011). In many cases, personnel of the NPF released criminals arrested by Hisbah or physically clashed with Hisbah personnel and frequently arrest, detain and prosecute some of the Hisbah personnel (ibid). This has led to the issuance of arrest order by the then InspectorGeneral of Police (IGP), Mr. Sunday Ehindero against the former Commandant-General of the Kano State Hisbah Board, Late Sheikh Yahaya Faruk Chedi (Ibrahim and Abubakar, 2006). The net result of this single action was the lower morale on the part of both the Kano State Government and other Hisbah organizations in the country. However, a civil sue was instituted against the Federal Government of Nigeria by the arrested officials of the Kano State Hisbah Board, and an acquittal of the criminal charges against them by the Nigeria Police Force could understandably be regarded by the Kano State Government and other 11 Northern states (Zamfara, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Jigawa, Kaduna, 40 Katsina, Kebbi, Niger, Sokoto, and Yobe states) that have established Hisbah, as a stateowned institution, as a victory and of course an affirmation by the apex court that the state owned Hisbah organizations in the Northwest region and elsewhere were recognized by the laws of the land and therefore their existence and operations are legitimate (Adamu, 2008; and Nwauche, 2014). Another problem faced by Hisbah in the discharge of their duties is attitudinal problem (Radda, Ibrahim and Dambazau, 2011). There were allegations that Hisbah organizations in the region were unprofessional in their conducts and lack sufficient training to effectively enforce the Sharia laws (Scharf, 2000; Shaw, 2000; Alemika and Chukwuma, 2003; Adamu, 2008; Oronsaye and Igbafe, 2012; and Nwauche, 2014). Generally, their attitude towards law enforcement was seen as unprofessional, uncivil, coercive, poorly coordinated and often confrontational machinery easily exploited and abused by the politicians to promote their (often illegitimate) political interest through harassing of political opponents and ethnic minorities (ibid). In addition, the Hisbah has also scrambles with alcohol and hard drugs dealers who often alleged that the activities of Hisbah towards them was unconstitutional and therefore in protest wrote petition against the activities of Hisbah to the then Inspector-General of Police (IGP) in 2008 (Radda, Dambazau and Ibrahim, 2011). So, there are still many elements who still considered the activities of Hisbah as illegal and of course in violation of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. 41 Other problems often encountered by various Hisbah groups in the discharge of their duties apart from insufficient training includes; lack of adequate equipment and vehicles, logistic problems, inadequate funding, over dependence on handouts from wealthy citizens, lack of gender representation and political interventions among other things (Gwarzo, 2003; Nuhu, 2004; Adamu, 2008; Radda, Dambazau and Ibrahim, 2011; Oronsaye and Igbafe, 2012; and Nwauche, 2014). 2.1.9 Literature Gap In view of the above review, it can be seen that most of the studies viewed Hisbah as synonymous to traditional vigilante groups without giving due considerations to peculiarities that set them apart. Unlike conventional vigilante groups, Hisbah organizations are guided by the religious injunctions and guidelines which make them more organized and human rights inclined. In the same vein, many of the studies reviewed were quick to rule out the need for Hisbah and thus could neither appreciate nor acknowledge the complementary policing services provided by Hisbah that greatly helped in ensuring the safety of life and property of the citizens in the region. The literature has also failed to appreciate the early moral interventions provided by Hisbah in addressing the problems of youth misconducts which assisted greatly in the reformation process of the affected young men and women. In addition, the literature has not placed due emphasis on the public acceptance of Hisbah and how that has served as a bridge between the Police and members of the public (with Hisbah as mediator). Instead, the literature has attributed the emergence of Hisbah as well as that of other vigilante groups as a public response to: (i) a policing system that people considered as alien and 42 therefore not in tandem with the needs, aspirations, normative values and belief systems of the indigenous people in the region; (ii) the police failure to provide adequate policing services that can guarantee the safety of life and property of the citizens; (iii) the public lack of trust and confidence in the Nigeria Police Force due to widespread corruption, human rights breaches, incivility and other unprofessional conducts; and (iv) the eagerness of the overzealous private citizens to enforce the Sharia laws implemented between 2000 and 2004 by the various Sharia implementing states in the region. In the same vein, the reviewed literature has not satisfactorily addressed the role of Hisbah in crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria. Hence, there is an apparent dearth of literature on the complementary policing dimension of the Hisbah’s work which rendered the available literature inadequate and therefore unable to provide detailed updates on: (i) the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control across the states in the Northwest geopolitical zone; (ii) the methods of operation used by the various Hisbah groups in the region, (iii) the successes recorded by Hisbah in their crime prevention and control activities; (iv) the nature of the relationship or partnership between the Hisbah and the Nigeria Police Force in crime prevention and control in the region; and (v) the challenges faced by various Hisbah groups in carrying out their crime prevention and control activities in the region. It can therefore be said that the focus of the available literature on the subject matter of this research has recognized and appreciated only the Sharia law enforcement dimension of the Hisbah’s activities, while the crime prevention and control dimension was not given the publicity it deserves. It is in line with the above that this study was conducted to fill in the vacuum as rightly identified in the literature. 43 2.2 Theoretical Framework Policing is an integral part of the overall social control system that reflects and has an impact on social, economic, political and other cultural institutions in the society. Hisbah groups were spontaneously formed by volunteers (mainly civilians) to enforce Sharia law, which were later transformed into organized and well structured government-controlled complementary policing organizations that assists the Nigeria Police Force in providing security for life and property of the citizens and also a means of combating social anomie in the society. Routine activity, broken window, social contract, inter-group contact and social control theories were reviewed and one (social contract theory) was adopted as the theoretical framework that guides this study. 2.2.1 The Routine Activity Theory Contrary to those theories that have individual characteristics of criminal offenders as their central focus, the routine activity theory examines the environmental context in which crimes occur. Routine activity is a theory of place, where different social actors intersect in space and time. The people we interact with, the places we travel to, and the activities we engage in, influence the likelihood and distribution of criminal behavior. Introduced by Cohen and Felson (1979), the routine activity theory suggests that when motivated offenders and suitable targets meet in the absence of capable guardians, crime is likely to happen. Conversely, the absence of any of these three conditions might be enough to prevent a crime from occurring. The authors also emphasized how overarching social conditions contextualize and define the everyday activities of people. Situated within the broader 44 framework of environmental criminology, routine activities theory suggests that reducing criminal opportunities serves a key role in reducing the prevalence of crime. Note that the routine activity theory offers suggestions on the probability of criminal behavior rather than making definite claims about when crime will occur. The presence of a motivated offender, a suitable target, and a lack of guardianship does not mean that crime will invariably result. Instead, the theory demonstrates how likelihood of crime increases or decreases based on the existence of these three elements This helps us to understand the role of Hisbah in crime prevention and control in the Northwest Nigeria, it can be said that Hisbah groups were created to counter immoral and often criminal activities prevailing in the region. The presence of the Hisbah police and their policing activities, such as street patrol, fight against immoral conducts, raids on criminal hideout, surveillance, rehabilitation of offenders and community sensitization, have greatly discourage criminal and immoral conducts and promote social order. As such, the various Hisbah groups in the region have, through their policing activities, served as capable guardians. It should be noted that Hisbah groups are composed of ordinary citizens who provides more guardianship than the police because there are comparatively fewer police officers patrolling the neighbourhood than there are citizens (ibid). While routine activity theory provides valuable contributions to our understanding of the policing roles of Hisbah in the Northwest Nigeria, scholars critique the theory on a number of grounds. For example, while routine activity theory assumes the presence of motivated offenders, many researchers discuss how a motivation varies across offenders (Clarke and 45 Cornish, 1985). Others argues that routine activity theory fails to properly address the role of criminal opportunity contexts – the circumstances in which motivated offenders and suitable targets converge in the absence of capable guardians (Wilcox, Kenneth and Hunt, 2003). 2.2.2 Broken Windows Theory Broken windows theory was introduced in 1982 in an article by social scientists James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling. Since then, it has been subject to great debate both within the social sciences and the public sphere. The theory asserts that in communities contending with high levels of disruption, maintaining order not only improves the quality of life for the residents, but also reduces opportunities for more serious crimes. The broken windows metaphor is one of deterioration: a building where a broken window goes unrepaired will soon be subject to far more extensive vandalism – because it sends a signal that the building owners are not in control. In other words, if a window is broken and left unrepaired, people walking by will conclude that no one cares and no one is in charge. This will create tendency for vandals to break into the building, and if it is unoccupied, perhaps become squatters or light fires inside. This is explained in the original words of Wilson and Kelling (1982): If the first broken window in a building is not repaired, the people who like breaking windows will assume that no one cares about the building and more windows will be broken. Soon the building will have no windows (Wilson and Kelling, 1982: 30). This implies that when police officers keep streets orderly and punish even the smallest signs of misbehavior with a warning or an arrest, people will behave in a more orderly way. So, a successful strategy for preventing crime, according to this theory, is to fix problems when they are small. Because the authors believed that more serious crimes evolved from minor infractions. In other words, if rude remarks by loitering youth were left unchallenged, such youth will be under the impression that no one cares and his/her behavior will likely escalates 46 to a more serious crimes. Thus, take minor problems and nip them in the bud before things get worse. Repair the broken window within a short time and the tendency is that vandals are much less likely to break more windows or do further damages. The above position was supported by Newman (1972) who argued that communities ravaged by crime prevalence must establish effective informal policing mechanisms, such as the Hisbah, that can be used to reduce unruly behavior as well as the spate of crime in the community. He further viewed the role played by informal social control institutions, exercised through everyday relationships, as more effective than legal sanctions in dealing effectively with crime. He concluded that through informal social control institutions, proactive citizens express a sense that disorderly conducts and crime will not be tolerated. The theory also facilitates an understanding of the subject matter of this research. This is because Hisbah as a religious/moral police seeks to enforce sharia laws. Thus, bulk of its works revolves around the reinforcement of moral values addressing issues such as prostitution, sexual misconducts, drug abuse by youths – discovered to be rampant among the youth in the study area (Dukku, 2017; Madaki and Dukku, 2017), and other delinquent and criminal behaviours. This is very important because such misconducts if left unchecked will escalate into a more serious and destructive crimes. Again, Hisbah has been faced with a number of internal and external problems. Thus, identifying and tackling them early (as suggested by the broken windows theory) will also strengthened the complementary policing activities of the Hisbah. 47 But, in spite of the above explanatory power of the broken windows theory, the theory was severely criticized for ignoring the fact that millions of youths commit all sorts of other obnoxious behavior in front of adults, yet never become career criminals. The theory was also criticized for increasing friction between the police and the citizens particularly in poor and minority areas. Such neighbourhoods tend to receive a disproportionate amount of police attention perhaps because they experienced more crimes. Hence, the theory was attacked for criminalizing the poor and the homeless. This is due to the simple fact that the physical signs that characterizes a neighbourhood with the disorder that broken windows policing target, correlates with the socio-economic conditions of its inhabitants. Many of the acts considered illegal, but disorderly are often targeted in public settings and are not targeted when conducted in private. As such, those individuals with no access to private space are often criminalized. The critics, thus, considers the application of the broken windows theory in policing as a state war against the poor as opposed to a war against more serious crimes (Robert and Stephen, 1999). Critics also questioned the effectiveness of the theory when crimes to be prevented are committed by non-residents of the neighbourhood where the crime was committed. In cybercrime, for instance, the victims might be several millions miles away from the criminals. From the researcher’s viewpoint, the broken windows theory is prioritizing the prevention and control of minor crimes at the expense of more serious life threatening crimes. 48 2.2.3 Social Contract Theory The social contract theory is a hypothesis explaining how society originates as well as the presumed relationship between its members, how they incur responsibilities, and their rights. Early proponents of the social contract theory, such as Hobbes (1651) and Locke (1690), differed in their views and both have been surpassed by Rousseau whose influential 1762 treaties, the Social Contract, has made him synonymous (since its publication) with social contract theory. The central argument of social contract theory is that the fundamental basis for government and law in the social system is rooted from the social contract, according to which human beings begin as individuals in a state of nature, and create a society by establishing contract whereby they agree to live together in harmony for their mutual benefits, after which they are said to live in a state of society. This contract involves the maintaining of certain natural rights, an acceptance of restriction of certain liberties, the assumption of certain duties such as the duty to avoid infringing on the rights of other members, to obey just laws, to comply with and help enforce just contracts, to serve as juries, and to defend the community, and so on; and the pooling of certain powers to be exercised collectively (by the state or government on behalf of all). The above implies that, at the heart of the social contract theory is the idea that society is the product of a contract, an agreement or compact, and that political legitimacy; political authority and political obligations are derived from the consent of the governed and are the artificial product of the voluntary agreement of free and equal moral agents. On this view, legitimacy and duty depend on the voluntary individual acts, and not on natural political 49 authority, patriarchy, theocracy, divine rights, custom or psychological compulsion (Oakeshott, 1975). One of the most important obligations that Nigerian state has towards its citizens is the protection of lives and property, which is the hallmark of modern police institution. The failure of the police to discharge this important responsibility amounts to a state’s failure to honour the social contract voluntarily entered into with the citizens. This failure may be reflected in the forms of police extrajudicial killings, brutality, corruption, incivility, partiality, poor exercise of discretion, poor investigation techniques, violence against the citizens, and other physical and emotional abuses of suspects by the personnel of the Nigeria Police Force. When these occur, the probability is riped that the citizens will become discontented and subsequently suspicious of the police and therefore unwilling to support the police efforts at combating crimes. In order to maintain social order and by extension social contract, the Nigerian state has to make sure that its obligations towards the citizens are fulfilled by supporting the complementary policing organizations that are voluntarily formed by the citizens themselves to assist the police. The above depicts the story of the various Hisbah groups in the Northwest Nigeria. This is because, in all of the states where statutory Hisbah organizations exist, the initial Hisbah committees and groups were voluntarily formed by the local residents to support the enforcement of sharia law; they were not state-initiated (Radda, Dambazau and Ibrahim, 2011). However, looking at the sensitivity of their operations, and in their attempts to avoid a situation where private citizens will attempt administering justice, some of the state governments in the region officially took over the Hisbah leading to the enactment of law 50 establishing the various Hisbah organizations in four of the seven states in the region (Jigawa, Kano, Kebbi and Zamfara states). Like the preceding theories, the social contract theory was also severely criticized. Asirvatham and Misra (2005) categorized the criticisms of social contract theory into three perspectives: (i) historical perspective; (ii) legal perspective; and (iii) philosophical perspective. The strongest criticism from historical viewpoint was built on the premise that the idea of a period of time when the hitherto free men came together to enter into a contract for the establishment of the state is fictitious and therefore imaginary. The critiques argued that primitive men lacked the advanced level of rationality which the social contract theory ascribed to men in the state of nature (Sabine and Thorson, 1973). The legal critics maintain the stand that, even if the primitive men had attained the advanced level of rationality and intelligence ascribed to them by the social contract theory, the resultant contract would still lack a binding force over the parties. The critics further argued that for the contract to be binding, it requires the force and sanction of the state. This implies that the so-called contact was operated outside of any validating legal framework. Again, if the original contract is invalid, then all subsequent contracts based on it are also invalid, and the rights derived from it have no legal basis. As if not enough, critics from the legal standpoint added that contract is supposed to be binding only on those who accept it voluntarily. Hence, the question is on how the social contract can be binding on subsequent generations who were not parties to the original contract (Nwoko, 1988). 51 Furthermore, those who criticized the theory on philosophical dimension argued that the theory simply assumes that the relationship between the individual and the state is voluntary. While in reality membership in a state is obligatory; hence, obligations of an individual towards the state are not contractual. They also argued that social contract theory foster a false notion that rights can exist in or outside (before the establishment) of society; while in reality, it is the social recognition that constitutes the basis of political rights and obligations. Thus, to sum these up, social contract theory is no more than an attempt to hinge on the idea of hypothetical agreement rather than an actual one (Stumpf, 1971). 2.2.4 Intergroup Contact Theory The intergroup contact theory was first proposed by Allport (1954), who suggested that positive effects of intergroup contact occur in contact situations characterized by four key conditions: equal status, intergroup cooperation, common goals, and support by social and institutional authorities. According to Allport, it is essential that the contact situation exhibits these factors to some degree. Indeed, these factors do appear to be important in reducing prejudice, as exemplified by the unique importance of cross-group friendships in reducing prejudice (Pettigrew, 1998). Sherif (1966) presents an excellent overview of the research on intergroup contact theory and how psychologists have used it to understand prejudice and conflict. As the article notes, friendship between members of different groups is one form of contact that helps dissolve inter-group conflict. Friendships are beneficial because of “selfexpansion,” which is a fundamental motivational process that drives people to grow and integrate new things into their lives (Aron, Norman, and Aron, 2009). When an individual learns something or experiences something for the first time, his/her mind literally grows. 52 When friendships are very intimate, people include aspects of their friends in their own selfconcept (ibid). Other studies that supported the application of the theory were presented by Everett and Onu (2013) in the following table. Table 2.1: The Intergroup Contact Theory (Summary) Condition Meaning Example Evidence Equal Status Cooperation Members of the contact situation should have equal hierarchical relationship Members should not have an employer/em ployee or instructor/ student relationship Members should Students work together in a working non competitive together in a environment group project. Evidence has documented that equal status is important both prior to (Brewer and Kramer, 1985) and during (Cohen and Lotan, 1995) the contact situation. Aronson’s ‘jigsaw technique’ structures classrooms so that students strive cooperatively (Aronson and Patnoe, 1997), and this technique has yielded positive results in a variety of countries. This position was reaffirmed by the findings of Sherif et al (1961) in their famous boy's camp study where they stirred up rivalry between two groups and found that they could cool the hostility down by giving them tasks where no one group could complete it by themselves. Thus forced to work together, the boys Common Goals Members must rely on each other to achieve their shared desired goal. Support by There should not be social and social or institutional institutional authorities authorities that explicitly or implicitly sanction contact, and there should be authorities that support positive contact. became friends again. Members of a Chu and Griffey (1985) have shown the sport team. importance of common goals in interracial athletic teams who need to work together to achieve their goals. There should Landis, Hope and Day (1984) work not be discovered the importance of institutional official laws support in reducing prejudice in the military. enforcing segregation. 53 Importantly, self-expansion and intimacy through friendship do not work like magic, nor does it happen through superficial small talk. Intimacy develops through deep communication involving sustained, reciprocal and escalating conversations in which two friends come to know each other in a meaningful way. A recent meta-analysis involving some 500 studies conducted by Davies, Tropp, Aron, Pettigrew, and Wright (2011) revealed that spending lots of time with cross-group friends and having lots of in-depth communication with those friends were the two strongest predictors of change in positive attitudes and prejudice reduction. The study concludes that all that is needed for greater understanding between groups is contact. The reason contact works, their analysis finds, is not purely or even mostly cognitive, but emotional. The intergroup contact theory is not without criticisms. Notably, Dixon, Durrheim, and Tredoux (2005) argued that while contact has been important in showing how a more tolerant society could be promoted, the existing literature has an unfortunate absence of work on how intergroup contact can affect societal change: changes in out-group’s attitudes from contact do not necessarily accompany changes in the ideological beliefs that sustain group inequality. For example, Jackman and Crane (1986) demonstrated that positive contact with Black individuals improved Whites’ affective reactions towards Blacks but did not change their attitudes towards policy in combating inequality in housing, jobs and education. Furthermore, contact may also have the unintended effect of weakening minority members’ motivations to engage in collective action aimed at reducing the intergroup inequalities. For example, Dixon, Durrheim, and Tredoux (2007) found that the more contact Black South Africans had with White South Africans, the less they supported policies aimed at reducing 54 racial inequalities. Positive contact may have the unintended effect of misleading members of disadvantaged groups into believing that inequality will be addressed, thus leaving the status differentials intact. As such, a fruitful direction for future research would be to investigate under what conditions contact could lead to more positive intergroup relations without diminishing legitimate protest aimed at reducing inequality. One promising suggestion is to emphasize commonalities between groups while also addressing unjust group inequalities during the contact situation. Such a contact situation could result in prejudice reduction without losing sight of group inequality (Saguy, Tausch, Dovidio, and Pratto, 2009). Despite its shortcomings, the inter-group contact theory could provide the basis for understanding one of the cardinal objectives of this research, which is the assessment of the successes recorded by Hisbah in crime prevention and control in the study area. It can be said that Hisbah could not be successful without being able to do away with prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination. This is due to the fact that the Hisbah is likely to come in contact with out-group members such as Christians, followers of traditional religion, prostitutes, drug addicts, the police, personnel of other security agencies, and members of the general public. Hence, it becomes necessary to contact, communicate and, in some cases, work together with the above categories of people because the opportunity to communicate and work with others will help them understand and appreciate different point of views that will make them more acceptable to those others. For example, working with the police through joint task operations and well coordinated working arrangements will help reduce rivalry, trade insults, tense argument, resorting to physical violence, and discrimination against each other, which will in turn improve the quality of service offered by each (the Hisbah and the Police) and enhance emotional ties. Because, an individual's beliefs can be 55 modified by that person coming into contact with a culturally distinct category member and subsequently modifying or elaborating the beliefs about the category as a whole. 2.2.5 Social Control Theory The social control theory was developed by Edward A. Ross (1901), Albert J. Reiss (1951), Jackson Toby (1957), F. Ivan Nye (1958) and later by Travis Hirschi (1969). The theory holds that individuals’ relationships, commitment, values, norms and belief systems discourage them from breaking the law. Hence, if moral values are internalized and individuals are tied into and have a stake in the affairs of their community they will voluntarily limit their propensity to commit deviant acts. In other words, ties to family, school and other social bonds serve to diminish one propensity for deviant behaviour. Hirschi (1969) described four elements of the bond to society: (i) Attachment: This implies that the internalization of norms, conscience, and super ego is determined by an individual’s attachment to others. This, according to Hirschi is the sociological counterpart of superego; (ii) Commitment: People obey rules for the fear of consequences of breaking them. This is the counterpart of the ego; (iii) Involvement: This denotes a person’s personal involvement in conventional activity. Individual heavily involved in conventional activity simply does not have time to engage in criminal behaviour; and (iv) Belief: A common value system within a culture. The criminal either disregards the beliefs s/he has been taught entirely, or rationalizes their deviant behaviour so that they can engage in criminal activity and still believe that it is wrong. 56 From the above, it can be seen that, the central argument of the social control theory is the fact that criminality is a possibility for all individuals within society, and that it can only be avoided when familial and other social bonds are maintained. Hirschi cited in Siegel and McCormic (2006) believed that typically these social bonds are based on attachment to those both within and outside of the family including friends, teachers, men of God, and coworkers; commitment to activities in which an individual has committed time and energy, like educational or career goals; involvement in activities that work to further strengthen the bonds an individual has towards others; and finally, belief in wider social values. When those bonds are built, an individual has limited time to become involved in criminal activities (Lilly et al., 1995; Akers and Sellers, 2004). Siegel and McCormic (2006) strongly believed that these four (4) aspects of social control interact to insulate an individual from criminal involvement. Hisbah organizations could be seen as communal efforts which were supported by the government for the reinforcement of moral values of our society. To achieve this, the various Hisbah organizations in the Northwest have arrested a number of juvenile offenders, trafficked children and prostitutes who were rehabilitated and reintegrated with their respective families (Gwarzo, 2003; Adamu, 2008; Radda, Ibrahim and Dambazau, 2011). This is important because good parentage or its absence could be instrumental in producing future criminals. Young prostitutes, trafficked and delinquent children who were arrested, rescued, rehabilitated and reunited with their parents are most likely to be monitored by, and emotionally attached to those parents. A study by Brendgen et al. (2001) revealed that male juveniles who were not adequately monitored by their parents were more likely to be aggressive and violent during adulthood, 57 and that early intervention (such as those done by the Hisbah) could lead to the prevention of later offending. In the same vein, Herrenkohl et al. (2003) found that young people who showed less violent behaviour were more likely to hold stronger attachments with their parents. Thus, Chapple (2003) suggests that the claim made by social control theory that parental attachment and bonding reduces likelihood of delinquency was supported by most researches. Again, the Hisbah organizations were also said to have engaged in counseling services for the parents of the delinquent or trafficked children thereby making sure that these children were re-enrolled into school system. A study by Herrenkohl et al (2003) discovered that juveniles’ attachment to school appears to serve a proactive function against later misconducts. Furthermore, in their efforts to provide moral rehabilitation, some of the Hisbah organizations have reportedly incorporated in their rehabilitation programmes, teaching of religious knowledge. This is meant to transform those children from delinquent lifestyle to that of religiosity. Johnson et al. (2001) discovered that religiosity had negative effects on delinquency. They further explained that religion reduces tendency for delinquency because of the effect it has on shaping beliefs. In the same vein, studies conducted by Benda and Turney (2002), Herrenkohlet al. (2003), and Resnick et al. (2004) reaffirmed further that religiosity lowers the likelihood of delinquency among young people. In view of the above, this study adopted social control theory as a theoretical frame of reference. This is because it is the only theory that lays emphasis on the influences of morality and belief system on crime prevention and control, two most important pillers upon which the activites of Hisbah, its methods of operation, successes recorded and relationship with the police rests. 58 2.2.6 Conceptual Framework Principles of Social Control Attachment Commitment Involvement Belief Shapes the philosophy of Hisbah (i.e the Islamic moral principle of enjoining the good and discouraging the evil) Hisbah complentary policing Policing activities Methods of Operation Relationship with outgroup members Crime prevention Fig. 2.1: Hisbah Complementary Policing Model The above Hisbah complementary policing model (Fig. 2.1) infers that complementary policing can be possible if activies, methods of operation and relationship without group members are guided by theIslamic moral objective of enjoing what is good and discouraging what is evil. 59 2.2.7 Theoretical Synthesis The five theories reviewed in this study have different postulations but there are striking similarities among them which makes them relevant facilitating our understanding of the subject of this study. For example, the routine activity theory believed that crime can be prevented when guardianship is provided to protect suitable target from being victimize by motivated offender. The broken windows theory on insists on fixing minor problem of misconducts as way of preventing crimes. In the same vein, social contract theory insists on tasking government to honour the agreement it entered with the citizens by making sure their life and property are protected. The intergroup contact theory gave more weight to cooperation through improving positive contact with various social groups and institutions as a way of preventing crime. lastly, the social control theory insists on strengthenin social bond through attachment, commitment, involvement and belief. Inspite of the above differences in the postulations of the theories, there are, at least two basic assumptions they all have in common: (i) they all assumed that crime is a possibility for all individuals; (ii) all crimes are proactively preventable. 60 CHAPTER THREE HISTORY OF THE STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter has two major parts: (i) history of the study area; and (ii) methodology. The first part presents a brief history of the Northwest geo-political zone, the states that made up the zone and the various Hisbah groups in the region. Under the methodology which is the second part, a detailed description and justification of the research design, target population, sample size, sampling techniques, methods of data collection, and methods of data analysis used in this study were presented. 3.1.1 A Brief History of Northwest Geo-Political Zone of Nigeria Nigeria, the Giant of Africa, is located between the latitude 40oN and 140oN of the equator and between the longitudes 30oE and 150oE of the Greenwich Meridian. Therefore, latitudinal extent is 100o, while the longitudinal extent is 120o. The country is positioned on the Gulf of Guinea in the West Africa and is surrounded by French speaking countries of the Republic of Benin in the west, the Niger Republic in the North, the Republic TChad in the northeast and the Republic Cameroon in the east. However, the south is occupied by the Atlantic Ocean. Nigeria has six geo-political zones which were created by the military government of General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida (Adegbija, 1997). The six zones were created based on similarities of the natives in terms of their culture, ethnic composition and history (ibid). 61 With a population put at 35, 786, 944 by the 2006 Census, the zone is the most populated in the country and also has the one of largest land mass (Anyaeche, 2007). Having just come out of successive political, ethnic and religious conflicts, the zone is still considered as one of the most fragile area given its volatile nature. The zone is the home to ancient Hausa states of Daura, Gobir, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Rano and Zazzau, which were brought under a single political entity by the Usman bn Fodio led jihad in the beginning of the nineteenth century. Hausa speaking people are the dominant ethnic group, but there are other ethnic subgroups such as the Fulani, Bwari, Zabarmawa, Dakarkari, Kambari, Gungawa, Dandawa, Dukkawa, kaje, Kataf, and so on (ibid). In short, the Northwest is the core Hausa/Fulani Muslim zone. Hausa language is, however, the language that is spoken by almost every person in the zone (Jibril, 1991). Similarly, the Northwest zone has produced many political leaders such as Sir Ahmadu Bello, the first Premier of the Northern region, Mal. Aminu Kano, General Murtala Ramat Muhammad – a former military Head of State, Maj. General Hassan Usman Katsina, General Sani Abacha – a former military Head of state, President Umar Musa ‘Yaradua – a former President, Arc. Namadi Sambo – the immediate past Vice president, President Muhammadu Buhari – a former military Head of State and the incumbent President of the Federal republic of Nigeria, Sen. Rabi’u Musa Kwankwaso, Alhaji Sule Lamido, Mal. Ibrahim Shekarau among other prominent sons and daughters of this country. 62 The six geo-political zones in Nigeria as well as the various State Governments and Local Government Areas under them have presented in the following table: Table 3.1: The Geo-Political Zones in Nigeria S/N ZONES STATES/FCT 1. North TOTAL Benue, Kogi, Kwara, Nassarawa, Niger, and Plateau 6 Central 2. Northeast Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba and Yobe 6 3. Northwest Jigawa. Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Sokoto and 7 Zamfara 4. Southeast 5. South-South Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu and Imo 5 Akwa-Ibom, Cross-Rivers, Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta and 6 Edo 6. Southwest 7. TOTAL Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo 6 Federal Capital Territory (FCT) 1 6 37 Table 3.1 above shows the various geo-political zones and the respective State Governments in each. It can be seen that a total of there are thirty six (36) States in Nigeria and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) making a total of 37, which were further regrouped into six geopolitical zones. 63 Table 3.2: States and Local Government Areas in the Northwest Geopolitical Zone S/N STATE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS TOTAL 1. Jigawa Auyo, Babura, Birniwa, Birnin Kudu, Buji, Dutse, Gagarawa, 27 Garki, Gumel, Guri, Gwaram, Gwiwa, Hadejia, Jahun, Kafin Hausa, Kaugama, Kazaure, Kiri-Kasamma, Kiyawa, Maigatari, Malam-Madori, Miga, Ringim, Roni, Sule tankarkar, Taura and ‘Yankwashi. 2. Kaduna Birnin Gwari, Chikun, Giwa, Igabi, Ikara, Jaba, Jema’a, Kachia, 22 Kaduna North, Kaduna South, Kagarko, Kajuru, Kaura, Kauru, Kubau, Kudan, Lere, Makarfi, Sabon Gari, Soba, Zangon Kataf and Zaria. 3. Kano Ajingi, Albasu, Bagwai, Bebeji, Bichi, Bunkure, Dala, Dawakin 44 Kudu, Dambatta, Dawakin Tofa, Doguwa, Fagge, Gabasawa, Garko, Garun Malam, Gaya, Gezawa, Gwale, Gwarzo, Kabo, Kano Municipal, Karaye, Kibiya, Kiru, Kumbotso, Kunchi, Kura, Madobi, Makoda, Minjibir, Nassarawa, Rano, Rimin Gado, Rogo, Shanono, Sumaila, Takai, Tarauni, Tofa, Tsanyawa, Tudun Wada, Ungogo, Warawa. and Wudil. 4. Katsina Bakori, Batagarawa, Batsari, Baure, Bindawa, Chiranchi, Dan 34 Musa, Dan Dume, Danja, Daura, Dutsi, Dutsin Ma, Faskari, Funtua, Ingawa, Jibia, Kafur, Kaita, Kankara, Kankia, Katsina, Kurfi, Kusada, Mai Adua, Malumfashi, Mani, Mashi, Matazu, Musawa, Rimi, Sabuwa, Safana, Sandamu and Zango. 5. Kebbi Aleiro, Arewa Dandi, Argungu, Augie, Bagudo, Birnin Kebbi, Bunza, Dendi, Fakai, Gwandu, Jega, Kalgo, Koko/Besse, Maiyama, Ngaski, Sakaba, Shanga, Suru, Wasagu/Danko, Yauri and Zuru. 64 21 S/N STATE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS 6. Sokoto Binji, Bodinga, Dange Shuni, Gada, Goronyo, Gudu, TOTAL 23 Gwadabawa, Illela, Isa, Kebbe, Kware, Rabah, Sabon Birni, Shagari, Silame, Sokoto North, Sokoto South, Tambuwal, Tangaza, Tureta, Wammako, Wurno and Zurmi. 7. Zamfara Anka, Bakura, Birnin magaji/kiyaw, Bukkuyum, Bungudu, 14 Tsafe, Gummi, Gusau, Kaura Namoda, Maradun, Maru, Shinkafi, Talata Mafara and Zurmi. GRAND 7 185 TOTAL Table 3.2 above shows the various states and the respective Local Government Areas under them in the Northwest zone, Nigeria. It can be seen that there are seven (7) States and a hundred and eighty five (185) Local Government Areas (LGAs) in the zone. 3.1.2 A Brief History of Hisbah in the Northwest, Nigeria The term Hisbah is an Islamic concept that calls for enjoining or encouraging what is right and forbidding or discouraging what is wrong. It is the divinely responsibility of a ruler to intervene by enjoining good and forbidding the evil so as to sustain social order based on sharia legal system (Cook, 2000; and Sami, 2005). However, some scholars in the Salafiyya Islamic school were of the view that Hisbah is a sacred duty of all Muslims not just rulers (Olsson, 2008). Radda, Ibrahim and Dambazau (2011) traced the history of Hisbah to the life time of Prophet Muhammad (May the Peace and blessings of Allah be Upon Him) and his companions. For example, the four rightly guided Caliphs (that is, Abu bakr, Umar, Uthman and Aliyu) were reported of seriously performing Hisbah works. 65 In Nigeria, the practice of Hisbah was grounded during the reign of Usman bn Fodio, after a successful Fulani jihad in 1804 that led to the emergence of Sokoto caliphate (Hiskett, 1973). The purpose of the 1804 jihad was to reform Islam in the large part of present Northern Nigeria so that anti-Islamic practices such as Bori cult, associating Allah with partners in worship, magical practices, adultery and fornication, denial of orphans of their inheritance, and so on would be stopped or at least minimized (ibid). These reflect some of the moral values in Islam which must be reinforced by all faithful. However, after the colonization of Nigeria, the Caliphate was subjected to a contradictory value system and conducts of the colonialists, which were not in tandem with the Islamic values in all spheres of life including trade, politics and laws (ibid). These contradictions have brought with them some social vices and immoral conducts such as injustice, corruption, hoarding, interest dealing (riba), false testimonies, inexact weight, cheating, and indecency, etc. (Attahiru, Al-Aidaros and Yusof, 2016). When the sharia legal system was reintroduced across the various states in the Northwest sub-region, some Hisbah volunteer groups began to emerge spontaneously (Adamu, 2008). Later, these informal Hisbah policing organizations were formalized and taken over by some of the State governments in the region (Zamfara, Kano, Jigawa and Kebbi), in order to provide institutional and statutory support (ibid). Olaniyi (2005) believed that the formal launching of Hisbah by the various State Governments in the region was part of their combined efforts of implementing the Sharia law, combating the ‘pervasive insecurity and growing social anomie’ among youths and of course prevent private citizens from attempting administering justice. Let briefly examine the activities and development of Hisbah institution in each of the seven states. 66 3.1.3 History of Hisbah in Jigawa State Initially, early Hisbah committees in Jigawa State were organized by the emirates and were made to remain local and quasi-official with only loose oversight in the beginning by the Ministry of Religious affairs – as overseer of Zakkat and preaching committee and later by the Ministery of Justice (Ostein, 2007). The committees were established from wards up to emirate levels. The general conducts of the Hisbah guards were guided by a code of conduct: (i) must not humiliate anyone; (ii) must work with the sharia law; (iii) must not settle personal scores in the guise of sharia; (iv) must cultivate good relationship with the community; (v) must work with the community in finding solutions to problems; and above all (vi) must be faithful (ibid). Fortunately or unfortunately, a problem developed with the Dutse Emirate Hisbah committee following the arrest of a son of a prominent member of the emirate for drunkenness. However, the Jigawa State government responded by passage of Hisbah Advisory Committee (Establishment) Law of 2004 by the Jigawa State House of Assembly. The Law has recognized and brought Hisbah more directly under the government through establishing a state-based Hisbah Advisory Committee and Local Government Hisbah Committees under the State’s Ministry of Justice (ibid). Section 5 of the said Law stated clearly the functions of the Hisbah Advisory Committee including assisting the law enforcement agents in the prevention and detection of crimes through identifying and exposing criminals and places where criminal activities takes place (See Section 5(d) of the Jigawa State Hisbah Advisory Committee (Establishment) Law, 2004). Furthermore, section 6 of the same Law mandated 67 the establishment of the Hisbah committees and Hisbah Guards for each Local Government Area in the state. 3.1.4 History of Hisbah in Kano State Following the implementation of Sharia legal system in Kano State in 2000, some informal Hisbah groups began to emerge spontaneously, which prompted the formal launching of a state owned Hisbah by the government of Rabiu Musa Kwankwaso in order to provide institutional support and perhaps avoid abused of human rights by the volunteer guards in the spontaneous Hisbah groups that were formed by the private citizens (Adamu, 2008). In 2003, Hisbah was institutionalized by the passing of Kano State Hisbah Board (Establishment) Law No. 4 of 2003 (later amended in 2005 and 2007) by the Kano State house of Assembly. Section 6 of the said law empowered the Hisbah Board to establish Hisbah corps (Muhtasib). The corps was empowered by the same section to discharge Hisbah duties under the instructions of the State Hisbah Commandant-General. This is in addition to the responsibilities given to the Board to make policies for, and coordinate the activities of the Hisbah committees at local and zonal levels (See Sections 8 and 9 of Kano State Hisbah Board (Establishment) Law, 2003 as amended in 2007). Similarly, the modus operandi of the Kano State Hisbah corps, the regulations of the Board, the annual reports of its activities, the auditing and accounting of Hisbah’s finances, and the quorum for Board meetings were all explained by sections 13, 14, 15, 16 and 17 of the Kano State Hisbah (Establishment) Law of 2003 as amended in 2007 respectively. 68 3.1.5 History of Hisbah in Kaduna State At the time of conducting this study, Kaduna State has no official Hisbah committee, board, commission, agency or group at any level of government throughout the state. Though there are some spontaneous groups under the Jama’atu Izalatul Bidi’ah Wa Iqamatus Sunnah, and the Jama’atu Nasrul slam, largely affiliated to some Islamic sects, that performs Hisbah role of enjoining what is right and denouncing what is wrong. Such groups are neither officially recognized nor coordinated by the government. The only state agency that deal with Islamic matters, the Bureau for religious affairs, has no organ or arm whose remit include Hisbah. 3.1.6 History of Hisbah in Katsina State After sharia implementation in Katsina State, there were reported clashes between the State Government and some independent Islamic groups who wanted a speedy implementation process beyond what the Government was willing to do. This has resulted into absent of official Hisbah in the state. However, an independent Hisbah called Rundunar Adalchi (the army of righteousness) exist. The Rundunar Adalchi in collaboration with the Local Government Councils was very active in stopping anti-Islamic conducts such as alcohol consumption, prostitution, music and public dancing in their respective jurisdictions (Ostien, 2007). The Rundunar Adalchi was accused of human rights breaches and of making arrests, detentions and prosecutions without handing over the criminal suspects to the police. This had provoked response of the Government which restricted the police functions of the Hisbah in the state (ibid). It should be noted that the Rundunar Adalchi later changed to Hisbah after they claimed to have consulted with Islamic books (ibid). 69 The fact that Hisbah was not officially recognized by the Government in Katsina state, the independent Hisbah resorted to self-training under the supervision of the Chairman of its Da’awa Committee. Members were recruited from all segments of society, with no age limit or special qualification required. It should be noted that in most circumstances, the independent Hisbah enjoyed the support and cooperation of the police (ibid). At a point, the independent Hisbah had witnessed internal tension, but they were able to overcome the tension. Up to the time of conducting this study, Hisbah has remained independent of the State Government. 3.1.7 History of Hisbah in Kebbi State Kebbi State is in the Northwest geopolitical zone of Nigeria. It has Birnin Kebbi as its capital and was created in 1991 out of the former Sokoto state. Kebbi State has a total land area of about 36309 square kilometeres, and has a population of 3, 238, 628 according to the 2006 censuus. There are 21 Local government areas and four (4) Emirate Councils (Gwandu, Argungu, Yauri, and Zuru) in Kebbi state. Although the main ethnic groups in the state are Hausa, Fulani, Dakarkari, Kambarawa, Gungawa and handful of Zabarmawa, but Hausa is the major language spoken locally. The people are largely Muslems, with few Christians and some adherents of traditional belief, especially in Zuru and yauri (Falola, 2001; and Harniscfeger, 2004). In Kebbi State, the Hisbah guards were spontaneously organized by various Islamic aid groups, ‘yan agaji. These groups were formally coordinated by the government, but were mainly coordinated by Islamic non-governmental organizations such as Izala, and Jama’atu 70 Nasril Islam (JNI). The volunteer Hisbah guards were recruited from within the local population and therefore conduct themselves as citizens volunteer and private compalinants (Ostein, 2007). Later, the office of the Special Adviser on Religious matters was mandated to coordinate these spontaneous Hisbah groups all over the state resulting into the formation of Hisbah commands for the state and for each of the Local Government Councils. There were some challenges in the beginning particularly in securing the police endorsement, but this problem was short-lived (ibid). Some of these Hisbah guards are volunteers and some are being paid monthly allowances. It was reported that social vices such as prostitution, sale and consumption of alcohol and other intoxicants were checked by the Hisbah activities in the State. This is in addition to the settlement of family and communal disputes embarked upon by the Hisbah in the State. 3.1.8 History of Hisbah in Sokoto State At the beginning of Sharia implementation in Sokoto State in 2000, there was no official Hisbah institution or any special sharia law enforcement agency for the state. However, just like in the other sharia implementing states, spontaneous voluntary Hisbah groups existed. The Hisbah volunteers rarely make arrests and when they do they often hand over the accused to the police for onward prosecution. The relationship between the Hisbah and the police was cordial as no clashes were ever reported. In 2005, an organization, the Joint Hisbah Committee of Five Islamic Organizations appealed to the Sokoto State Government to establish Hisbah for the full implementation of sharia in the State. There were many of such calls from within and outside of Sokoto State (ibid). 71 3.1.9 History of Hisbah in Zamfara State Zamfara State was carved out of |Sokoto State on Ovtober 1, 1996 by the then Military Head of State, General Sani Abacha. It is situated in the Northwest flank of Nigeria. Zamfara State occupies 39, 762 square kilometers, and shares boarders with Sokoto State and Niger Republic to the north, Katsina State to the east, and Kaduna, Niger and Kebbi states to the south. The State has predominantly Muslim population of about 90%, which gave the then Governor, His Excellency, Ahmad Sani Yarima, the impetus to be the first Nigerian governor to implement sharia legal system on 27th January, 2000 (Suberu, 2009). It was reported that the Governor was confronted by five aid groups, namely the JNI, Fityanul Islam, Jama’atu Izalatul Bid’ah wa Iqamatus-Sunnah (JIBWIS) Jos faction, JIBWIS Kaduna faction, and Jama’atu Tajdid al-Islam (JTI), who promised to assist in the implementation of the sharia. Thus, a Joint Aid Monitoring Committee was formed under the Ministry for Religious Affairs to provide Hisbah services (Ostein, 2007). In 2003, the Joint Aid Monitoring Committee was instructed by the State Government to suspend their activities mainly due to public outcry about their excesses and unprofessional conducts (Paden, 2005). In the same 2003, the state government responded by establishing a Hisbah commission as a legal entity by enacting the Zamfara State Hisbah Commission (Establishment) Law of 2003. The Law provided for the appointment of a Chairman for the Commission, six Permanent Commissioners, and ten part time members (See Section 5(1) (a)(b) and (c) of the Zamfara State Hisbah Commission (Establishment) Law of 2003). Powers of the Commission were outlined in Section 6 (1-120 of the same Law. Section 9(2) of the Law confers all members and staff of the Commission with powers of Justice of Peace in cases of arrest. The accused are either prosecuted by the Hisbah or handed over to the police for onward prosecution and 72 that Hisbah Commission is reported as being firm in making sure that justice is done to all cases that emanates from them (Ostein, 2007). With regards to the cooperation with the police and other law enforcement agencies, the Commission was reported as being in active collaboration with the aforementioned bodies to maintain law and order throughout te State. The Hisbah Commission was credited for minimizing the sale and consumption of alcohol beverages, prostitution, gambling and other social vices (Paden, 2005). They also succeeded in resolving many disputes and conflicts among people often without going to the courts (ibid). 3.2 Methodology This section presented the followings: research design; target population; sample size; sampling techniques; methods of data collection; and methods of data analysis. 3.2.1 Research Design As the study seeks answers to the research questions, this research primarily adopted descriptive survey which involved both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Some of the reasons for adopting this design include: (i) its ability to guarantee efficiency for collecting information from large number of respondents, which this study targeted; (ii) surveys are flexible such that a wide range of data such as information on attitudes, perceptions, values, beliefs and so on, can be collected. Given the nature of this study, sizeable data was collected ranging from demographic profile of the respondents, and their perceptions regarding the Hisbah as complementary policing organizations in crime prevention, detection and control in the Northwest, Nigeria. The overall desire was to understand how these complementary 73 policing groups have been instrumental in the prevention and control of crime in the Northwest geo-political zone in particular and Northern Nigeria in general. 3.2.2 Target Population The target population for this study were adult residents of the Northwest geo-political zone in Nigeria, both males and females of 18 years of age and above, including the officials of the Hisbah, officers and men of the NPF, personnel of the Department of Public Prosecution (DPP), cross section of non-Muslims, individuals who had contact with Hisbah as witnesses, complainants and suspects, and personnel of the National Human Rights Commission. The aim was to obtain, from these respondents, both quantitative and qualitative data to answer the research questions raised by the study. 3.2.3 Sample Size It is very important to determine the sample size to be studied from the target population, because it is financially costly, tedious and time consuming to attempt studying the entire target population. Based on the aforementioned constraints, a total of one thousand six hundred and forty one (1641) respondents were drawn from the target population. This is in conformity with the sample size table by Krejcie and Morgan (1970), which requires that a minimum of one thousand five hundred and thirty sixty (1536) respondents are required for studies with more than ten million (10m), but less than one hundred million (100m) population size. The sample was selected from four of the seven states that comprised the Northwest geopolitical zone of Nigeria, which has a total population size of thirty five 74 million, seven hundred and eighty six thousand, nine hundred and forty four (35, 786, 944), according to the 2006 Population and Housing Census. 3.2.4 Sampling Methods The study employed a multistage cluster sampling technique to obtain the respondents. At the 1st stage, the entire Northwest geopolitical zone was divided into clusters of seven states and four states were selected. In the 2nd stage, the selected four states were divided into clusters of Local Government Areas (LGAs) and one (1) LGA was selected in each to give a total of four (4) LGAs. At the 3rd stage, the selected LGAs were further divided into clusters of political wards and three political wards were selected from each to give a total of twelve (12). In the 4th stage, five (5) residential locations were selected in each of the political ward to give a total of sixty (60) locations. The 5th stage is where the locations were also divided into clusters of streets and three (3) streets were selected in each to give a total of a hundred and eighty (180) streets. Nine (9) households were selected in each of the streets selected, at 6th stage to give a total of one thousand six hundred and twenty (1620) households. Finally, at the 7th stage, one respondent was selected in each of the households chosen to give a total of one thousand six hundred and twenty (1620) respondents for the quantitative data. It should be noted that at the 1st stage, only states with statutory Hisbah institutions were purposively selected from the seven states in the Northwest geopolitical zone because Hisbah organizations in theses states are more organized and structured because of the supports they enjoyed from their respective state governments. These states are Jigawa, Kano, Kebbi and Zamfara States. In the 2nd stage, the same purposive sampling technique was used to select one LGA with the most organized Hisbah in each of the selected states. This will enable the 75 researcher to obtain most comprehensive data on the activities of the Hisbah. The 3rd stage is where the LGAs were broken into the clusters of political wards and three (3) political wards were chosen in each of the selected LGAs using lottery method which gave room for objectivity. The names of the political wards in each of the selected LGAs were written on small pieces of papers, folded, squeezed, put in a container, thoroughly mixed and three were drawn one after the other without replacement. At the 4th stage, locations were identified and the same lottery method of selection was repeated for the same reason to select five (5) residential locations. In the 5th stage, streets were identified in each of the residential location and three (3) streets were selected in each using the same lottery method and for the same eason of objectivity. To allow for objectivity at the 6th stage, nine (9) households were selected at each of the chosen street, using a skip method of two houses. The houses were identified, labeled and lottery method was used to select the first household, after which the selection process begun. Lastly, at the 7th stage, convenience sampling technique was used to select one respondent from each of the selected households. This is shown in table 3.3 below. Table 3.3: Sample Size of the Respondents for Quantitative Data State LGAs No. of No. of No. of No. of Total No. of Political Locations Streets Households Respondents Wards per LGA per LGA per LGA per LGA per LGA Jigawa Dutse 3 5x3=15 3x15=45 9x45=405 1x405=405 Kano Dala 3 15 45 405 405 Kebbi Birnin 3 15 45 405 405 Gusau 3 15 45 405 405 Total 12 60 180 1,620 1,620 Kebbi Zamfara Table 3.3 above indicates the sample size of the study. It shows the selected study areas through multistage sampling and number of the respondents drawn from 1620 households, 76 180 streets, 60 locations, 12 political wards in four LGAs (Dutse, Dala, Birnin Kebbi and Gusau) of the four (4) states (Jigawa, Kano, Kebbi and Zamfara) with the statutory Hisbah institution in the region. A total of four hundred and five respondents were selected in each of the selected States. This brings the total number of respondents for the quantitative data to one thousand six hundred and twenty (1620). Similarly, to generate qualitative data, purposive sampling was used to draw: (a) four (4) officials of the Hisbah; one from each of the selected states; (b) four (4) officials of the Nigeria Police Force; (c) four (4) officials of the State Department of Public Prosecution (DPP); (d) four (4) non-Muslim residents; and (e) four (4) persons who had contact with the Hisba. Latly a personnel of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) Northwest Office, Kano was drawn into the study. These participants were selected because they have adequate knowledge about the issue being studied and they are ready to divulge the information. Notes were taken and electronic device was used (where allowed) to record responses of the participants during the in-depth interview sessions.. The above brought the total sample size for the qualitative data to be twenty one (21), making the total sample size for the study to be one thousand six hundred and forty one (1641) respondents. 77 Table 3.4: Sample Size of the Respondents for the Qualitative Data S/N 1 Stakeholders/Institution/Organization/Agency State Hisbah No. of Respondents 4 2 The Nigeria Police Force 4 3 State Department of Public Prosecution 4 4 The National Human Rights Commission 1 5 Leaders of non-Muslim Communities 4 6 Individuals who had contact with Hisbah 4 Total 21 Table 3.4 above shows the total sample size of the respondents for the qualitative data. It can be seen that the qualitative data were collected from six (6) different stakeholders including four (4) Hisbah officials, four (4) officials of the NPF, four (4) officials of the DPP, an official of the NHRC, four (4) leaders of non-Muslim communities and four (4) individuals who had one contact or the other with Hisbah. This brings the total of respondents from whom qualitative data was collected to twenty one (21) as indicated in the above table (Table 3.4). Hence, the total sample size for the study is one thousand six hundred twenty (1620) respondents selected for the quantitative data plus twenty one (210 respondents selected for the qualitative data. This brings the total sample size for the study to be one thousand six hundred and forty one (1641). 78 3.2.5 Methods of Data Collection This section described the process of gathering the desirable information carefully, with least possible distortion, with a view to make thorough analysis capable of providing logically credible answers to research questions. In view of the above, the section presented and discussed instruments of data collection; quantitative data collection method; and qualitative data qualection technique. 3.2.5.1 Instrument of Data Collection The decision on which tool to use for data collection was guided by the research questions and study objectives, hence, self-administered questionnaires and in-depth interviews guides were the instruments employed in collecting both the quantitative and the qualitative data respectively. 3.3.5.2 Quantitative Data Collection Method As indicated in the proceding section, this study used a combination of quantitative and qualitative data. The quantitative data was collected through questionnaire instrument. The questionnaire was structured and contained both open and closed ended questions. The design of the questionnaire was guided by the research questions and study objectives. The questionnaire instrument was adopted because of its appropriateness and its ability to facilitate collection of information from the large sample used for this study across four different states. It is also comparatively easier since not much technical skills or knowledge is required for its administration.The questionnaire consisted of sections: the first section was 79 on demographic characteristics of the respondents; while the second sections consisted of five parts with each focusing on a specific research objectives. During the data collection phase, a total of 3 research assistants were employed in each of the sampled states who assisted the researcher with the questionnaire administration in the sampled LGAs. Each of the research assistant was assigned to a political ward to administer 135 questionnaires in 5 locations and 45 streets which were completed successfully within three weeks. 3.2.5.3 Qualitative Data Collection Method Qualitative researchers typically rely on four methods for gathering information: (a) participating in the setting, (b) observing directly, (c) interviewing in depth, and (d) analyzing documents and material culture. In-depth Interviews (IDI) was conducted using IDI guides to collect qualitative data. The design of the interview guides used was guided by the research questions and study objectives. The seleceted espondents for the IDIs were interviewed on face to face basis with each of the respondent interviewed with an informed consent. A total of 21 in-depth interviews were conducted on the respondents purposively selected, based on their knowledge and experience on the subject matter of the research. However, only one respondent appeared uncooperative, but he was later convinced to give response after extensive engagement with the researcher. The in-depth interviews were administered by the researcher, while a note taker was employed to assist with note taking and audio recordings. 80 3.2.6 Methods of Data Analysis This section presented and discussed the methods used in taking raw data, mining for insights that are relevant to the study’s broad and specific objectives, and drilling down into the collected information to ensure that all questions raised by the study are properly answered. The section is divided into two: Analysis of quantitative data and analysis of qualitative data. 3.2.6.1 Analysis of Quantitative Data The quantitative data obtained from the questionnaires were organized, analyzed and presented using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The SPSS was used because it is an extremely powerful tool for manipulating and deciphering survey data. It is flexible and can be used in a customizable way on even the most complex data sets. It gave the researcher, more time to make the best use of the collected data which was used to draw an informed conclusion. Frequency distributions and percentages were obtained, Chi-square (X2) tests were conducted to establish the relationship between dependent and independent variables. In the same vein, Cramer’s V and Phi were computed to ascertain strength of the relationship. Furthermore, multiple regression analysis was also made to determine the most important predictor in forming an opinion on the contributions of Hisbah activities to crime prevention and control. The analysis of the quantitative data generated, however, was guided by the research questions and study objectives. 81 3.2.6.2 Analysis of Qualitative Data The analysis of data for this study was carriedout based on interpretative model of noticing, collecting and thinking (NCT), which allows for a comprehensive analysis of the subject matter for this study. The qualitative data was generated from the twenty one (21) in-depth interviews conducted by the researcher. The recorded data were transcribed, cleaned, organized, classified, interpreted and utilized. The analysis of the qualitative data was also based on the research quations and study objectives, and was used to supplement the analysis of the quantitative data. Finally, Secondary data reviewed in the literature were used to complement or repudiate both the quantitative and qualitative data analyzed. 3.2.7 Ethical Considerations in the Study The researcher ensured that ethical considerations for studies in social sciences have been duly observed. The following ethical issues were considered during the conduct of the study: a. Informed Consent: The researcher ensured that all persons participating in the reseasch as respondents were fully informed about the purpose of their participation in the research being conducted. This had allowed them to make an informed decision as to whether they will participate in the study or not. b. Voluntary Participation: The respondents for this study were made to participate in this research freely without any form of coercion. Respondents were informed of the right to withdraw their participation at any time without any hinderence. c. Do no Harm: The researcher ensured that the study does not harm the participant in anyway. Harm can be both physical and psychological and therefore can take the 82 form of physical injury, stress, pain, anxiety, diminishing self-esteemed or an invasion of privacy. It is very important to stress again that the involvement in the research process does not in any way expose the respondents to harm, intended or otherwise. d. Confidentiality: The research ensured that all identifying information is not made available to, or accessed by anyone, but the researcher. The researcher also ensued that such identifying information were excluded from the published documents including the questionnaire, interview guides and the research results itself. The researcher was very curious of how the entire thesis was worded to ensure that no opportunity was left opened for the respondents to be identified by name, gender, place of resident, age, occupation or any other identifying information. e. The diginity and wellbeing of the respondents for both quantitative and qualitative data were protected at all the times. f. Fair Subject Selection: The respondents for this study were fairly selected without any prejudice, personal biased or preference. 3.2.8 Prroblems Encountered in Data Collection No research activity will ever take place without encountering one problem or the other, this study is also not an exception. Two major problems encountered during the conduct of this study took place at the data collection phase: (i) there was a problem of funding which coerced the research to delay the data collection for about a year, not until when the the 83 Directorate of Research Innovation and Partnership (DRIP), Bayero University, Kano intervened through award of TET Fund research grant (grant number BUK/DRIP/RG/2017/00037); (ii) the second problem was encountered in Zamfara when I requested for an audience from the police (for IDI) which was technically denied. It took me about two and half hours to convince a Deputy Commissioner of Police to be interviewed. 84 CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the outcome of the research. After an introduction, the results of the analyzed data were presented interpreted and the findings dicussed. The chapter is divided into eight (8) sections. The first section presents the socio-economic and demographic profiles of the respondents where socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents were presented and analyzed. Section two presents and analyzes data on the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control, section three is devoted to the presentation and analysis of data on the Hisbah’s methods of operation, while section four presents and analyzes data on the successes recorded by Hisbah in its crime prevention and control activities. The presentation and analysis of data on the nature of Hisbah-Police relationship is the focus of section five, while section six gives a multiple variable analysis, where crosstabulations, chi-square analysis and multiple regression analysis were presented and interpreted. Section seven discussed the major findings, while section eight presented the summary of major findings. 4.1 Section A: Demographic Profiles of the Respondents This section presents data on the socio-economic and demographic profiles of the respondents. These profiles are important for this study because they facilitate an understanding of social and economic factors that may influence the respondents’ perceptions and views on the role of the various Hisbah policing organizations operating in the selected states. Hence, data on age distribution, sex distribution, marital status, highest 85 educational qualification, occupational distribution, monthly income, religious affiliations and state of residence of the respondents were presented and discussed. Table 4.1.1a: Demographic Profiles of the Respondents Profile Age (Years) 18-27 28-37 38-47 48 and above Total Sex Male Female Total Marital Status Single Married Divorced Widowed Separated Total Religion Islam Christianity Traditional Religion No Religion Total State of Residence Jigawa Kano Kebbi Zamfara Total Frequency Percentage 760 468 191 155 1,574 48.2 29.7 12.1 9.9 100.0 1,015 559 1,574 64.5 35.5 100.0 848 601 67 43 15 1,574 53.8 38.2 4.3 2.7 1.0 100.0 1,359 188 26 1 1,574 86.3 11.9 1.7 0.1 100.0 390 389 395 400 1,574 24.8 24.7 25.1 25.4 100.0 Table 4.1.1a shows that an overwhelming majority (48.2%) of the respondents were young people within the age bracket of 18 – 27 years. Only 9.9% of the respondents were 48 years and above. Since younger individuals are more likely to commit crimes or engage in immoral behaviors than the older ones, they are also more likely to have one encounter or the other 86 with policing organizations like the Hisbah. The table also indicates that close to two-thirds (64.5%) of the respondents for this study were males, whereas only 35.5% of the respondents were females. This could be related to the sampling method (availability sampling) adopted in the selection of the respondents. In addition, slightly more than half (53.8%) of the respondents were single, whereas only 1.0% of the respondents were separated with their spouses. Single individuals may be prone to committing crime because they are lacking strong attachment to many significant others (wife, children and in-laws, for example), making them potentially less concerned with the consequences associated with being apprehended by law enforcement agencies and the accompanying stigma. Hence, this category of individuals is more likely to come into contact with the complementary policing organizations like the Hisbah. On the religious affiliations of the respondents, it can be seen that an overwhelming majority (86.3%) of the respondents were followers of Islamic faith, while only 0.1% of the respondents claimed to have no religion at all. This could be due to the fact that the study was conducted in the Northwest of Nigeria where a majority of the residents were Muslims. It should be noted that 405 questionnaires were administered to the selected respondents in each of the above states. It can be observed that majority (25.4%) of the respondents were residents of Zamfara State. The remaining 25.1%, 24.8% and 24.7% were residents of Kebbi, Jigawa and Kano States respectively. This implies that the return rate of the questionnaire was higher in each of the selected States, but in comparative terms, those retrieved from Zamfara and Kano states were slightly the highest and lowest respectively. 87 Table 4.1.1b: Demographic Profiles of the Respondents Profile Educational Qualifications Primary Leaving Certificate WASSCE/SSCE Diploma/NCE First Degree/HND Graduate Degree Others Total Occupations Farming Civil/Public Service Trading Craftsmanship Artisanship Unemployed Others Total Monthly Income (in Naira) Below 5,000 5,000-50,000 50,001-100,000 100,001-150,000 150,001-200,000 Above 200,000 Total Frequency Percentage 79 345 607 329 169 45 1574 5.0 21.9 38.6 20.9 10.7 2.9 100.0 192 604 192 36 30 361 159 1574 12.2 38.4 12.2 2.3 1.9 22.9 10.1 100.0 768 524 133 83 23 43 1574 48.8 33.3 8.4 5.3 1.5 2.7 100.0 Table 4.1.1b shows the socio-economic profile of the respondents, it can be observed that a majority of the respondents (38.6%) were holders of either Diploma or Nigeria Certificate in Education (NCE). However, only 2.9% of the respondents were holders of certificates such as literacy, post literacy, vocational training certificates and so on. This could be because the study involved many young people who might be in higher institutions of learning pursuing various academic qualifications. The second reason could be because the study was conducted in the metropolitan areas of the selected states where educatioinal opportutnities for the residents exists. 88 In the same vein, majorities (38.4%) of the respondents were government employees (civil or public servants), while only 1.9% of the respondents engaged in artisanship as their primary occupation. This could be because majority of the respondents were fairly educated as shown in the same table. This has afforded them an opportunity to be absorbed into the public or civil service, as the case may be. Similarly, looking at the monthly income of the respondents, it can be seen that majority of the respondents (48.8%) earned a monthly income of less than NGN5,000, however, only 1.5% of the respondents earned a monthly income of between NGN150,001 and NGN200,000. This implies that majority of the respondents were low income earners who, looking at their social class, may be more prone to indiscriminate arrest and prosecution by the complementary policing organizations like the Hisbah. 4.2 Section B: The Contributions of Hisbah Policing to Crime Prevention and Control in the Northwest Nigeria This section presents data on the contributions of Hisbah policing activities to crime prevention and control in the Northwestern region of Nigeria. Table 4.2.1: Awareness of Hisbah’s Crime Prevention and Control Activities Responses Aware Not Aware Total Frequency 1,499 75 1,574 Percentage 95.2 4.8 100.0 Table 4.2.1 above presents data on the respondents’ awareness of the Hisbah’s crime prevention and control activities. It can be seen that almost all (95.2%) of the respondents 89 were aware of the Hisbah’s crime prevention and control activities. However, only a few (4.8%) of the respondents claimed that they were not aware of such activities. This indicates that the respondents for this study are fully aware of the Hisbah’s crime prevention and control activities and therefore have provide information that will help answer the research questions asked by this study. Table 4.2.2: Hisbah’s Major Crime Prevention and Control Activities Major Crime Prevention and Control Activities Street Patrol Fight Against Immoral Conducts Raids on Criminal Hideouts Surveillance Rehabilitation of Offenders Community Sensitization Total Frequency 455 492 189 121 95 147 1,499 Percentage 30.35 32.82 12.61 8.07 6.34 9.81 100.0 Table 4.2.2 presents data on the major crime prevention and control activities engaged by Hisbah. It can be observed that a majority of the respondents (31.3%) were of the view that fights against immoral conducts was the major crime prevention and control activity engaged-in by Hisbah. In contrast, only a few (6.34%) of the respondents believed that rehabilitation of offenders is the major crime prevention and control activity engaged by Hisbah. This implies that the Hisbah has been very instrumental in the crime prevention and control activities in the region. Thus a study of this nature can be important because it brings to light the contributions of complementary policing groups which are often ignored and therefore not given the attention they deserve by the stakeholders: the government; the public; and the academia. 90 Table 4.2.3: Opinions on Hisbah’s Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Hisbah Contributes to Crime Prevention and Control Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree 561 35.6 Agree 764 48.5 Undecided 182 11.6 Disagree 35 2.2 Strongly Disagree 32 2.0 Total 1,574 100.0 Table 4.2.3 shows respondents’ views on whether Hisbah’s activities contribute to crime prevention and control. It can be seen that an overwhelming majority (84.15) of the respondents believed that Hisbah’s activities contributes to crime prevention and control in the study area. However, only 2.0% of the respondents strongly disagreed with the above position. This implies that the residents in the study area have acknowledged the contributions of Hisbah’s activities to crime prevention and control. It can therefore be inferred that Hisbah organizations in the Northwest of Nigeria have been among the important partners of the Nigeria Police Force in the fight against crimes. Re-affirming the above position, an Investigation Officer of the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) argued that: …. Hisbah have been so far successful in dealing with issues such as drug abuse, prostitution, homosexuality, gambling, breach of trust, domestic violence…. The fact that Hisbah officials have been recruited from within the local communities, you find them in… even those places where you cannot have the presence of the police. This has made it possible for Hisbah to identify early signs of criminality and deals with them. It also made it possible for them to get reports on criminality first hand, even before the police (Investigative Officer, NHRC, Northwest Office, Kano, 2018). 91 The above implies that not only do Hisbah contribute to crime prevention and control through identification of early signs of criminality and prevention of crime escalation in their various communities, especially remote villages. Similar opinion was pointed out by an official of Crime Department Kano State Hisbah Board who noted that: …. We prevent and control… crimes because of our number. There is the presence of Hisbah even in those places where you hardly find the police. For example, there are fifteen (15) Hisbah officials in every political ward throughout the state and that our men and officers were recruited from within such communities. That is the reason we get first hand information about criminal activities, even before the police become aware of them (Official, Crime Department, Kano State Hisbah Board, Kano, 2018). This implies that the Hisbah is present even in those ungoverned spaces where the police are not found. It also shows that Hisbah recruits community members an action which give them (Hisbah organizations) an upper hand in obtaining first hand information ahead of other security organizations including the police. Still on this, an official of the Department of Public Prosecution (DPP) Kano State Ministry of Justice interviewed had this to say: … The police as I told you are not enough to spread all over the country. In fact, there are places you find that a few police officers are there. Therefore, whatever it entails to engage other people that can help them in the discharge of their duties is a welcome idea. That is why this institution of … the Hisbah become very useful to the police as they often arrest and bring the suspected criminals to the police…. We have a number of instances where the Hisbah or the vigilante members help the police in arresting notorious criminals… (Official, DPP, Ministry of Justice, Kano, 2018). The above implies that most of the arrests made by Hisbah, especially in those places without police, are handed over to the police, which is an important contribution to policing in the study area. Furthermore, even the official of the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) in Jigawa State, subscribed to the belief that Hisbah contributes to crime prevention and control in the region. When asked of his opinion on the Hisbah’s contribution to crime prevention and control, he admitted that: 92 … in fairness to the Hisbah, their activities are really contributing to crime prevention and control…. I …suggest that they widen the scope of their activities to cover other immoral and criminal activities that are becoming threats to our collective being. If you look at the the Hisbah’s crime prevention and control activities in this state (Jigawa), you find that their focus is more on alcohol consumption and supply, prostitution and sexual misconducts, which is good, but I think if they can extend the same gesture to include drug addiction, theft and other criminal offences that will be better. Let the Hisbah identify those young people who use drugs and make efforts to rehabilitate them (Reverend Father, CAN Dutse, 2018). From the IDI above it can be seen that even leaders of non-muslim communities appreciate the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control to the extent of appealing to the Hisbah to widen their scope of activities to include other forms of crimes that prevails in their communities. The same positive view on the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control was expressed by another CAN official in Kebbi State when interviewed. He pointed out that: Over the years, the Hisbah has been very instrumental in crime prevention and control. The truth is, if the Hisbah can be given more powers they can be of great help to the security network, especially if we look at their contributions in dealing with erring youths who abuses drugs, engage in petty thefts and so on (Reverend Father, CAN Birnin Kebbi, 2018). To further repute the coommenest insinuation in the literature that Hisbah operates against non-Muslims, the leader of non-Muslim community interviewed above was even advocating for more powers to the Hisbah. However, fighting drug abuse has been integrated into the work of the Hisbah in Kebbi State. The Chairman Kebbi State Hisbah Committee was asked on the types of crimes they pay attention to, and he noted that: …. Part of our contributions benefits even the non-Muslims residents, because whenever we have an arrest involving a Christian, we often invite their leaders and introduce the suspect and explain the nature of the offence committed… we hand over the accused to them if the case is a misdemeanor… sometimes the leaders themselves suggest that we prosecute the accused in the court of law or refer the case to the appropriate agency.… We have … apprehended many drug 93 addicts, some of whom were counselled and released…some were referred to the NDLEA. We also fight against sexual misconducts and girls’ abductions… (Official, Kebbi State Hisbah Committee, Birnin Kebbi, 2018). The above IDI indicates that Hisbah consults with the leadership of non-Muslim communities when they have a case involving non-Muslims and sometimes decisions on how to go about handing the case. This shows the readiness of Hisbah to carry other interest groups along in their activities. Apart from inviting outgroup members (leadership of nonMuslim communities), they also render counseling services, especially to drug addicts and also make referrals of cases to appropriate agencies.The above position was re-affirmed by the official of the Nigeria Police Force, Kebbi State Command who noted that: Table 4.2.4: The Nature of Hisbah's Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Nature of Hisbah’s Contributions Complementary to the Activities of the NPF Problematic/Disservice to the NPF No Impact Total Frequency 1,098 283 178 1,559 Percentage 70.4 18.2 11.4 100.0 Table 4.2.4 shows respondents’ opinions on the Hisbah’s contributions to crime prevention and control. It can be seen that more than two-thirds (70.4%) of the respondents subscribed to the view that Hisbah’s contributions to crime prevention and control have been complementary to the activities of the Nigeria Police Force. However, only a few (11.4%) of the respondents believed that the activities of Hisbah had no impact at all on crime prevention and control in the region. This implies that Hisbah’s activities in the region have been positive and complementary to the activities of the Police in their efforts towards crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria. The above opinion was also in line with 94 the views of the personne of the Department of Public Prosecution (DPP), Jigawa State Ministry of Justice, who argued that: … the Hisbah is complementary to the police in Jigawa State because… the police cannot be everywhere, but you can find Hisbah even in the remotest parts of the state… down to villages. Many times, the Hisbah will apprehend offenders and submit to the police. In many instances, especially in the event of rape that happens everywhere… the Hisbah apprehend the suspects and hand them over to the police…(Official, DPP, Ministry of Justice, Kano, 2018). The above IDI shows that Hisbah organizations in the study area have been supportive of the police in terms apprehending offenders of rape and handover the suspected criminals to the police. Still on the complementary policing activities of the Hisbah’s, an official of the Jigawa State Hisbah Commission (JSHC) revealed that: …. Honestly, the complementary policing activities of the Hisbah have covered the nooks and crannies of this state. Hisbah is present in all the villages and metropolitan areas. There is no village, no matter how remote, where you cannot find Hisbah. There are many villages where you cannot get a police personnel, members of the armed forces, NSCDC or other security agencies, but the Hisbah has representation in all the villages in Jigawa State (Official, JSHC, State Headquarters, Dutse, 2018). The above implies that the shortage of manpower in the police to cater for the security needs of Nigerians is significantly reduced by the Hisbah because of their complementary policing activities in every nooks and crannies of the study area. On the same subject matter, the opinion of an official in the Department of Crime, Kano State Hisbah Board (KSHB) was equally stimulating. He opined that: Hisbah in Kano State was established to promote what is good and discourage what is evil. Our focus has always been on the enforcement of Sharia law. However, we have also been charged with a responsibility of assisting the police in the discharge of their duties (Official, Crime, KSHB, Kano, 2018). 95 The above IDI reveals that in some states like Kano, Hisbah has a statutory responsibility of assisting the police. Even the National Human Rights Commission acknowledged the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control in the region. An official of the Investigations Unit, NHRC Northwest Zone had this to say: Oh yes, Hisbah in my opinion has been contributing remarkably to crime prevention and control. This could be connected with the fact that the Hisbah acted as something like religious police service whose mandate is to discourage moral misconducts from onset. This has contributed in making them more proactive in the conduct of their activities (Head of Investigations Department, NHRC Northwest Zone, Kano, 2018). It can be seen from the qualitative data presented above that the the complementary efforts of the various Hisbah organizations in the Northwest are guided by their desire to promote and safeguard the moral wellbeing of the society, which resulted in proactive policing activities for which the Hisbah is known. 96 4.3 Section C: Hisbah’s Methods of Operation and Crime Prevention and Control in the Northwest, Nigeria. This section presents data on the methods of operation used by Hisbah in crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria. Table 4.3.1: Respondents’ Classification of the Hisbah's Methods of Operation Hisbah's Methods of Operation Problem-solving (Proactive) Incident-driven (Reactive) Coercive/forcible Discriminatory against Non-Muslims Total Frequency 1,050 312 141 47 1,550 Percentage 67.7 20.1 9.1 3.1 100.0 Table 4.3.1 above presents the respondents’ classification of the Hisbah’s methods of operation. It can be observed that about two-thirds (67.7%) of the respondents classified the Hisbah’s methods of operation as largely being problem-solving (proactive). However, only (3.1%) of the respondents classified the Hisbah’s methods of operation as being discriminatory against non-Muslims. This implies that most of the residents in the Northwest region consider the Hisbah as being proactive in its operations with the primary focus of discouraging immoral and criminal behaviours before they occur. This opinion could be considered a testimony of the claims made by the various Hisbah officials interviewed in the selected states. For example, an official of the Crime Department, Kano State Hisbah Board disclosed that: Our methods are also guided by the philosophy of encouraging what is good and denouncing what is evil. We always try to make sure that immoral and criminal activities are prevented before they even occur. We also give emphasis to counseling of the suspected offenders…and we also subject them to some 97 rehabilitation programmes conducted in-house with a view to changing their attitudes (ACG Crimes, KSHB Kano, 2018). The above view implies that Hisbah operates largely on problem solving model through giving more weight to offender-counseling and mounting of rehabilitation programs. Similar view, on the Hisbah’s methods of operation, was also obtained when the Chairman, Jigawa State Hisbah Commission was interviewed. He argued that: Our methods are primarily proactive because that is what Islam teaches. The first … is to preach to the members of the public in the regular mosques, at wedding events, at naming ceremony events …emphasizing on the need for people to do what is right and shun from those bad attitudes and conducts…. Sometimes we even take cases to the first and second class emirs for quick and effective resolutions…. After arrests are made we do not …rush the suspects to the police or prosecute them in a court, especially if the suspects are first timers, instead we keep them here, counsel them further and release them later after they agree to sign a good conduct undertaking…(Chairman, JSHC Dutse, 2018). From the above, it can be seen that the chain of activities that Hisbah engages in is mainly problem solving. From preaching with a view to encourage good conducts and discourage the bad ones, to consultations with the traditional rulers, down to couselling and post-counselling release are all meant to assist the suspects change their attitudes to the desired ones, which is essentially problem-solving activity. The methods of operation were also not different in Kebbi State as revealed by the Chairman Kebbi State Hisbah Committee during an in-depth interview. He revealed that: We …counsel the offenders, remind them of Allah and release them after which some of them even report criminal activities to us at later times. We, however, sometimes have to prosecute some of the apprehended drug addicts who proved unrepentant. There are still those we transferred to the NDLEA…. It all depends on the nature of the crime and the perceived willingness of the suspects to reform (Chairman KSHC Birnin Kebbi, 2018). Looking at the above IDI, it can be seen that the methodology of Hisbah is to a greater extent similar in all most all the states. It often begin with making efforts to counsel the suspects 98 and releasing them later upon convinction that they have been transformed into better and law (Shariah) respecting citizens. Similarly, in Zamfara State, the Deputy Director Administration, Zamfara State Hisbah Commission interviewed on their methods of operation revealed that: …cases of sexual misconducts are often reported to us when people in a particular neighbourhood suspect that women have been sighted in and out of a particular residential home. You know that it is very difficult to arrest suspects of sexual misconducts, but whenever we get such reports, we often assigned our staff to the area for surveillance. If that suspicion is reasonable we sometimes invite the owner of the house or hotel (as the case may be) and we channel our complaints to him/her… (Deputy Director Administrator, ZSHC Gusau, 2018). It remains the same in Zamfara State that the Hisbah pays more emphasis on taking proactive measures against the suspected criminals through surveillance and issuance of warnings to the suspected perpetrators. In view of these, it can be inferred that the operational activities of the Hisbah are guided by the religious injunction which requires all Muslims to prevent the evil first by actively promoting what is ordain by Allah and discouraging what is evil. This is the reason why the various Hisbah organizations in the region gave more weight to religious and moral counseling, preaching, in-house rehabilitations, entering into good conduct agreement with the suspects and so on. 99 Table 4.3.2: Respondents’ Assessment of Hisbah's Methods of Operation Assessment of Hisbah’s Methods of Operation Frequency Percentage Excellent 642 41.0 Good 629 40.2 Fair 185 11.8 Poor 18 1.1 Very Poor 92 5.9 Total 1,566 100.0 Having described what they believed to be the methods of operation used by Hisbah in the study area, the respondents were asked to provide a general assessment on them. Their responses are presented in Table 4.3.2, which indicates that a majority (81.2%) of the respondents assessed the Hisbah’s methods of operation as being excellent and good, while only 7.0% of the respondents assessed them as poor. This implies that the methods of operation used by Hisbah is seen by the respondents as being largely proactive (as indicated on table 4.3.1). This is very important because an excellent method of operation is likely to help in promoting good Hisbah-community relations, which will give way to a better understanding of the public’s concerns (especially those that are crime related), and citizens are likely to be more inclined to report crimes that occur to the Hisbah by willingly providing tips and intelligence information to them. In other words, crime cannot be prevented by the Hisbah if the community does not have confidence in what they do. The above view was reflected in the opinion of the official of the Nigeria Police Force, Kebbi State Command who appreciated the collaborative nature of the Hisbah’s methods of operations. He noted that: Hisbah’s methods of operation is a collaborative one, because whenever they want to conduct a special operation, especially the anti-prostitution operation, 100 they used to inform the Police about it and the Police make sure that they are given all the necessary manpower and other supports they required (Police Public Relations Officer, NPF State Headquarters, Birnin Kebbi, 2018). It can be seen in the above IDI that even the Police described the Hisbah’s methods of operations as collaborative. The same was found to be true in Jigawa State as the personne of the NPF in the State acknowledged the methods of operations used by Hisbah as good and within the confine of the law. He admitted that: Honestly, their methods of operations are in tandem with the provisions of the laws. After arrest, the Hisbah often conduct in-house investigations after which they refer cases to the police for continuation. There are a number of rape cases that were initiated by the Hisbah and ended by the Police. This is to tell you that we have been working together as partners in crime prevention and control (Police Public Relations Officer, NPF State Headquarters Dutse, 2018). The above IDI shows that not only ae Hisbah organizations proactive, but also partners of the police in terms of crime prevention and control. Even the official of the Investigation Department, NHRC had reaffirmed the above positions in his assessment of Hisbah’s methods of operation. In his words: Well my feelings are those of appreciations. I am really pleased with the manner in which they conduct themselves. In the beginning there were problems, perhaps because the Hisbah personnel in their early years were not properly trained and therefore there were a lot of issues bordering on lack of professionalism in their conducts manifested in poor arrests, clashes with the personnel of the police and that of other security agencies, illegal detentions and quite a number of allegations on human rights abuses by the members of the public. However, things are getting better these days (Head of Investigations Department, NHRC Northwest Zone, Kano, 2018). The IDI above contrasted those insinuations in the literature that Hisbah has been unprofessional in its conducts, especially those to do with arrests, clashes with the police, illegal detentions and human right breaches. Those mistakes were often committed in the past, but the modern Hisbah of today performs much better. 101 However, the opinion of a Deputy Commissioner of Police interviewed in Zamfara State, on the nature of Hisbah’s methods of operation, was strikingly different from what have been earlier revealed. He alleged that: You cannot talk of anything like methods of operations in the Hisbah, because you are talking about an organization that lacks any blueprint for its operation. They are just operating on their own without recourse to the Nigerian Constitution and law enforcement tradition and ethics. Left to me their methods of operation are poorly designed and unorganized; therefore you cannot expect any positive outcome from people who are not prepared for the job (DCP, NPF State Command Gusau, 2018). Looking at the above qualitative responses, it can be seen that the methods of operation used by Hisbah in the region are generally depicted, both from within and from outside the organizations, as collaborative, lawful and complementary to the police. However, in Zamfara State there was an apparent lack of synergy between the police and the Hisbah, which make the police personnel to view it as an organization, which is poorly designed, poorly structured, poorly organized and without a blueprint for successful operations. Table 4.3.3: Opinions on whether Hisbah‘s Method of Operations contributes to Crime Prevention and Control Responses Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree Total Frequency 726 659 33 71 85 1,574 Percentage 46.1 41.9 2.1 4.5 5.4 100.0 Table 4.3.3 shows respondents’ opinions on whether the method of operations used by Hisbah contributes to crime prevention and control in the region. It can be seen that a significant proportion (88.0%) of the respondents agree that Hisbah’s method of operations 102 contributes to crime prevention and control in the study area. However, only 2.1% of the respondents could form an opinion on the question. This implies that residents of the Northwest region of Nigeria have a general positive view about the Hisbah’s crime prevention and control activities, especially with regards to their method of operations. Table 4.3.4: Suggestions on Problem solving Method of Hisbah Suggestions Frequency They should be maintained 987 They should be redesigned 376 They should be completely changed 190 Total 1,553 Percentage 63.6 24.2 12.2 100.0 Table 4.3.4 above shows respondents’ suggestions on the problem solving method of Hisbah. It can be seen that a majority of the respondents (63.6%) suggested that the method of operations used by various Hisbah organizations operating in the sampled states in the region be maintained. On the one hand, this position has reaffirmed their earlier views that the various Hisbah organizations in the region were proactive in their approach and seen as performing excellently as indicated on Tables 4.3.1 and 4.3.2 respectively. On the other hand, only 12.2% of the respondents suggested that Hisbah’s methods of operation be completely changed. 103 4.4 Section D: The Successes Recorded by Hisbah in the Northwest Geopolitical Zone. This section presents data on the successes (in crime prevention and control) recorded by the various Hisbah organizations operating in the Northwest Geopolitical Zone. Table 4.4.1: Perceived Hisbah’s Successes in Crime Prevention and Control Respondents’ Opinions Successful Not Successful Total Frequency 1,391 179 1,570 Percentage 88.6 11.4 100.0 Table 4.4.1 shows respondents’ perceived Hisbah’s successes in its crime prevention activities. It can be observed that an overwhelming majority (88.6%) of the respondents believed that the various Hisbah groups operating in the region were successful as far as crime prevention and control are concerned. This is against the opinions given by only 11.4% of the respondents who described the efforts of the various Hisbah groups, operating in the Northwest, Nigeria as unsuccessful. This implies that the operational activities of the Hisbah towards crime prevention and control in the Northwest Geo-political Zone of Nigeria were successful as acknowledged by the respondents of this study. In view of the above, an official of the Crimes Department, Kano State Hisbah Board had this to say: In spite of some hurdles faced in the discharge of our duty, the overall performance of the Hisbah in crime prevention and control has been wonderful. We compiled thousands of criminal cases annually. This is because of the trust and confidence members of the public have in our abilities. Most of the residents, in some instances, even the members of Christian communities, prefer to report civil and even criminal cases involving them to the Hisbah rather than reporting to the Police. Being a religious body, we always try to operate within the confines of Sharia law which is characterized by utmost transparency, incorruptibility and difficult to abuse laid down procedures (Official Crimes Department, KSHB Kano, 2018). The above IDI revealed some of the successes recorded by the Hisbah include their ability to secure public confidence and trust to the extent that even the non-Muslim communities take 104 their cases to Hisbah. In the same vein, an official of the Investigations Department, NHRC had this to say: …looking at the number of cases they process and the confidence and trust members of the public have on them, I can tell you that Hisbah is very successful. In fact, you cannot imagine what would have been the level of immorality in metropolitan cities like Kano if the Hisbah has not been created (Official, Investigations Department, NHRC Northwest Zone, Kano, 2018). From the above in-depth interviews, it can be seen that Hisbah in the Northwest Nigeria are being considered as successful for their wonderful performances and their transparent and incorruptible approach which earned them the trust and confidence of the general public. This has resulted in providing the Hisbah with an opportuinity to process thousand of criminal cases that were sometimes initiated by the citizens themselves, including the nonMuslim residents. Table 4.4.2: Opinions on the Major Category of Crimes Successfully Prevented and Controlled by Hisbah Category of Crimes Violent crimes (murder, rape, robbery, hate crimes, terrorism, political thuggery, ethno-religious violence, etc.) Property crimes (burglary, theft, shoplifting, fraud, embezzlement, arson, etc.) Enterprise crimes (corruption, cybercrime, bribery, blackmail, conspiracy, etc.) Public order crimes (gambling, sexual offences, prostitution, substance abuse, etc.) Not applicable Total Frequency Percentage 465 29.6 220 14.0 114 7.2 608 38.6 167 1,574 10.6 100.0 Table 4.4.2 above is on the respondents’ opinions on the major category of crimes that have been successfully prevented and controlled by the various Hisbah organizations in the region. It can be seen that a majority (38.6%) of the respondents were of the view that public order 105 crimes, such as gambling, sexual offences, prostitution, substance abuse, and so on, was the major category of crimes prevented and controlled by the various Hisbah groups in the region. However, only 7.2% of the respondents considered enterprise crimes such as corruption, cybercrime, bribery, blackmail, conspiracy, etc. as the major category of crimes prevented and controlled by the Hisbah organizations in the region. This is not surprising because the Hisbah groups in the region have, as their core value, the desire to uphold the Islamic moral injunction, which advocates for the promotion of what is good or right and denouncing of what is bad or wrong. The above could be better understood by looking at the narratives of the officials of the various Hisbah organizations in the selected states. An official of the Crimes Department of the Kano State Hisbah Board interviewed on the successes recorded by Hisbah in the state disclosed that: …apart from conflict resolutions and our fight against prostitution, alcoholism, homosexuality, breach of trust, domestic violence, nuisance, gambling and other vices, we also process cases of rape, statutory rape, drug abuse, street fight, advance fee fraud (419), urban gang (Daba), women trafficking, girls’ abduction, domestic slavery and so on. We are very successful because of the advantages that our number has given to us. As at now, there is a presence of Hisbah even in those places where you hardly find the police (Official, Crimes Department, KSHB Kano, 2018). . The IDI above reveals that Hisbah has been very active in the prevention and control of different forms of crimes, because of the advantage their number gave them. Hisbah personnel are deployed to even the remotest parts of the states were they operates. Interviewed on the successes recorded by Hisbah in Jigawa State, the official of the Jigawa Stste Hisbah Commission (JSHC) revealed that: 106 Sincerely speaking, Hisbah in Jigawa State is very successful… and our success could be attributed to the consistent support of the State Government… and the cooperation we get from the residents of the State…. Some of the areas where we recorded successes include halting the activities of magicians and soothsayers, prevention and control of drug trafficking and abuse, closure of beer parlors, … checkmating sexual misconducts involving commercial sex workers, widows and so on. Today, the activities of Hisbah have resulted into a general decline in the number of unwanted pregnancies, fornication and adultery etc (Official, JSHC Dutse, 2018). It can be seen in the above IDI that the successes recorded by Hisbah in the srudy area include an ability to checkmate sexual misconducts, closure of beer parlors, and prevention and control of drug trafficking and drug use. These successes were believed to be associated with the consistent support they enjoyed from the various state governments that established them and the supports from the members of the public. Another story of success was narrated by an official of the Zamfara State Hisbah Commission, who disclosed that: Hisbah in Zamfara State is a success because apart from crime prevention and control activities, we also assist in reconciliations of marriages, family disputes, business disputes, debts disputes, and friendship disputes and so on. In fact, Hisbah is highly respected because of our objective and unbiased approach…. Today, people from other states are saying that there is no way someone will come to Zamfara State and commit fornication or adultery. This is because of the attention we have given to surveillance and patrol activities (Official, ZSHC, Gusau, 2018). . The IDI above shows that Hisbah was seen as a success because of its ability: to reconciliate marriages; resolve family disputes; resolve dets and friendship disputes. All these were achieved because of the Hisbah’s objective and unbiased approach. Another view on the successes recorded by Hisbah in Kebbi State was also given by an official of the Kebbi State Hisbah Committee who disclosed that: We recorded a lot of successes in the war against drug use. We try to fight immoral conducts, for example prostitution, alcohol consumption, partying, 107 clubbing and so on. We also fight against illegal hosting of women in the mens’ private rooms for fornication and adultery (Official, KSHC Birnin Kebbi, 2018). A successful war against drug use, fight against immoral conducts such as prostitution, alcoholism, partying and clubbing, illegal hosting of women for fornication and adultery were some of the success recorded by Hisbah in the study area as seen in the above IDI. The series of qualitative data presented shows that there is a synergy between the quantitative and the qualitative responses in terms of the major category of crimes prevented and controlled by the various Hisbah organizations in the Northwest geopolitical zone, Nigeria. It can be seen that the Hisbah has been unanimously described as successful, by the respondents across the four states, in the prevention and controlled of public order crimes such as alcoholism, homosexuality, gambling, women trafficking, drug trafficking and abuse, prostitution and sexual misconducts, curtailing the activities of urban gangs, forcible and statutory rapes and so on. Table 4.4.3: Respondents’ Opinions on Reason for Hisbah’s Success Reason for Hisbah’s Success Integrity of the Hisbah’s personnel Public hatred for the NPF State Government’s support for Hisbah Total Frequency 538 242 611 1,391 Percentage 38.7 17.4 43.9 100.0 It can be seen from Table 4.4.3 that majority (38.7%) of the respondents for this study believed that the various Hisbah organizations in the region were largely successful in their crime prevention and control activities because of the support given to them by the various state governments. In contrast, only 17.4% of the respondents believed that the Hisbah 108 groups in the region were successful because of the public hatred of the NPF. This implies that the Hisbah organizations in the selected States were state sponsored. Hence, they are likely to be organized, statutory guided and with the operational strength to provide policing services and supports to other law enforcement agencies like the NPF, NSCDC, NDLEA, NIS, DSS and so on. 4.5 Section E: Nature of Hisbah-NPF Relationship This section presents data on the nature of the Hisbah – police relationship vis-à-vis its contribution to crime prevention and control. Table 4.5.1: Opinions on Nature of Hisbah-Police Relations Nature of Police-Hisbah Relationship Poor/Non-cordial Good/Cordial Total Frequency 580 975 1,555 Percentage 37.3 62.7 100.0 Table 4.5.6 above presents data on the nature of the Police-Hisbah relationship. It can be seen that about two-thirds (61.9%) of the respondents believed that there is a good (cordial) relationship between the NPF and the Hisbah in the region. However, the remaining 37.3% of the respondents described the Police-Hisbah relationship as bad (non-cordial). This could be taken to mean that from the residents’ point of view, there is an apparent good working relationship between the NPF and the various Hisbah organizations in the region. Data from the interviews conducted with both the Hisbah and NPF personnel indicates that there is a cordial relationship between the Hisbah and the police in Jigawa, Kano and Kebbi States, while the reverse was found to be the case in Zamfara State. An official of the NPF, 109 Jigawa State Command Headquarters interviewed on the nature of Hisbah – police relationship disclosed that: Honestly, we have never had any misunderstanding with the Hisbah. They are doing their work the best way they can do it and we appreciate the kind of help we get from them. Thank God that our CP has always been advocating for partnership. He has always been instructing the police officers and men under his command to work with relevant stakeholders like the Hisbah in order to provide security for life and property of the law abiding citizens. I could remember that even during our show of force exercise we do invite the Hisbah to be part of it (Official, NPF Jigawa State Command Dutse, 2018). From the IDI above it can be seen that terms used by the Police to describe the nature of their relationship with Hisbah include understanding, appreciation working together and invitation. This implies that the relationship between these two important institutions is cordial. The same cordiality on the nature of Hisbah – police relation was reaffirmed by the official of the Jigawa State Hisbah Commission who disclosed that: …our relationship with the police and other security agencies is a cordial one. I have no doubt on their readiness to cooperate and assist us with manpower and technical assistance whenever the need arise. It is true that crime prevention and control is not a one agency business, all stakeholders must work together to succeed. I can tell you that the story of our success cannot be completed without mention of the police. Without the assistance of the NPF, Hisbah could have been a failed institution (Official, JSHC Dutse, 2018). In the IDI presented, it can be observed that there is cordial working relationship between Hisbah and the Police which is manifested in the ongoing interagency assistance between the two policing groups in the study area. In Kano State the same cordial relationship was revealed by an official of the Kano State Command Headquarters of the NPF interviewed. He noted that: … actually, there is a cordial relationship between the NPF and the …characterized by mutual respect ..and knowledge of our boundaries…Hisbah is very instrumental in the fight against crimes such as statutory rape and other 110 serious felonies which they often transfer to the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) of the NPF State Command…. In addition, whenever the Hisbah is going for operation they invite us for reinforcement. The Police is also often invited to participate in their workshops where we exchange ideas. Again, all criminal cases initiated by the Hisbah are transferred to the police 100 percent (Official, NPF Kano State Command, Kano, 2018). It can be observed in the above IDI that from the Police viewpoint, Hisbah and the Police have been working together in their efforts to prevent and control crime in the study area. Their relationship has been characterized by mutual respect, mutual understanding of statutory boundaries and interagency referrals, which facilitate the cordiality of their relationship. Interviewed on the nature of Hisbah – police relationship, an official of the Crimes Department, KSHB added that: …there is a cordial and good working relationship with the NPF. Like I said in the beginning, our personnel outnumbered the police personnel in this state. In every nook and cranny of this state there is a presence of Hisbah. Therefore, most of the criminal cases, especially those from remote villages, were reported to the Hisbah first before their eventual referrals to the police. Again, the CP is a member of the Hisbah Governing Board. Even in this office the police have representation; there are 5 police officers from the Office of the AIG Zone 1, and 3 officers from the State Police Command Headquarters... (Official of Crime Department, KSHB Kano, 2018). From the Hisbah’s viewpoint, however, Hisbah-Police relationship is described in terms of working together and referral of criminal cases, which further showcase the cordiality of the relationship. In Kebbi State, an official of the NPF interviewed on the nature of Hisbah – police relationship revealed that: Our relationship (with the Hisbah) has been very cordial, the people of the state too and the State Government have been very supportive of the police. At least they always provide information to us and come to our aid whenever the need arise… we never had any operational conflict with the Hisbah… (Official, NPF Kebbi State Command, Kano, 2018). 111 The above stance implies that not only is the Hisbah-Police relationship cordial, but also peaceful. This stance was also reaffirmed by an official of the Kebbi State Hisbah Committee who noted that: Our relationship with the Police here in Kebbi is a collaborative and symbiotic kind of relationship. We also have the same cordiality with other security agencies. Overall, we are very grateful to the Police, the DSS, the NSCDC and other security agencies for their cooperation…. (Official, KSHC Birnin Kebbi, 2018). The message in the above IDI is not different from the previous ones. The commonest context, as far as Hisbah-Police relationship is concerned, has been collaboration, mutuality and appreciations. However, the reverse was found to be the case in Zamfara State where an official of the NPF interviewed disclosed that such cordiality does not exist between the Hisbah and the police in Zamfara State. In his words: Here in Zamfara State the relationship with the Hisbah is very poor. They have never invited us even for once to assist them either in their trainings or operations; they are just on their own. To be frank with you, the NPF is particularly unhappy with the Hisbah because of their poor handling of criminal cases. Imagine an organization that claims to be preventing and controlling crime without involving the police, you know that is a joke…. Because it is our mandate to fight crime, every other persons or groups are just assisting us…(Official, NPF Zamfara State Command, 2018). It was only in Zamfara State different version of Hisbah-Police relationship was found as revealed in the IDI above. The NPF described their relationship with Hisbah as being poor, unhappy, non-cooperative. The same was found to be true with the Hisbah as revealed by an official of the Zamfara State Hisbah Commission interviewed on the same subject matter. He noted that: …. In terms of our relationship with the NPF, however, I will boldly say that there is misunderstanding…. In the past whenever arrests are made, we used to take the arrestees to the police for safe keeping because we do not have cells 112 here. However, whenever we go back to take the suspects we often discovered that they have been released by the police without recourse to us. Perhaps, they considered Hisbah an institution that is problematic to them. Sometimes they refuse to refer our cases to us because of the bribe they can get from the parties…(Official, Zamfara State Hisbah Commission, 2018). On their part, the Hisbah also described the nature of their relationship with the police as involving misunderstanding and problematic. In sum, the quantitative data presented earlier, the qualitative data generated from the above in-depth interviews indicate that, to a significant degree, there is a cordial working relationship between the Hisbah and the police. It can be seen that with the exception of Zamfara State where Hisbah-Police relationship appeared very poor or even non-existent (because the qualitative respondents from both Hisbah and Police organizations in the state described their relationship as very poor, non-collaborative, problematic, unhappy and that of suspicion and mistrust), officials of these two key organizations (the Hisbah and the NPF) from other three states (Jigawa, Kano and Kebbi) commonly used terms such as cordial, cooperation, partnership, trust, collaboration, supportive, symbiotic, mutual and so on, to describe the nature of their relationship. In these three states, it has reached a point that there are joint operations and interreferrals and of cases between the two policing organizations. 113 Table 4.5.2: Opinions on the Consequences of Hisbah-Police Relationship on Crime Prevention and Control Effect of the Police-Hisbah Relationship Positive Negative No Response Total Frequency 833 682 59 1,574 Percentage 52.9 43.3 3.8 100.0 When the respondents were asked of their opinions on the consequences of the Hisbah-Police relationship on crime prevention and control, a majority of the respondents (52.9%) believed that the consequence is positive, while only 43.3% of the respondents viewed the the relationship to have negative consequences (Table 4.5.7 above). This could be taken to mean that from the public viewpoint there is cordial working relationship between Hisbah and the Police, which also produce positive impact on their collective efforts toward crime prevention and control. \ 114 4.6 Section F: Challenges Faced by Hisbah Organizations This section presents data on the effects of the challenges faced by Hisbah to crime prevention and control. Table 4.6.1: Opinions on the Challenges Faced by Hisbah in Crime Prevention and Control Challenges Inadequate Funding Yes 1,137(72.6) No 428(27.4) Total 1,565(100.0) Poor Training of Staff 1,045(67.3) 507(32.7) 1,552(100.0) Inadequate Basic Operational Equipment 1,146(73.8) 407(26.2) 1,553(100.0) Lack of Public Support 1,092(70.3) 461(29.7) 1,553(100.0) Poor Remuneration 1,034(68.3) 481(31.7) 1,515(100.0) 983(63.8) 559(36.2) 1,542(100.0) 1,120(73.3) 408(26.7) 1,528(100.0) 897(58.2) 645(41.8) 1,542(100.0) 1,025(66.5) 517(33.5) 1,542(100.0) Violation of Fundamental Rights by the Personnel Interference by Politicians Rivalry with the Police Recruitment of Personnel with little or no Formal Education Table 4.6.1 above presents data on the respondents’ views on the challenges faced by the various Hisbah groups in the Northwest, Nigeria in their crime prevention and control efforts. It can be observed that a majority of the respondents (72.6%) believed that inadequate funding is a problem to Hisbah, while only 27.4% of the respondents provided a contrary opinion. In the same vein, 67.3, 73.8, 70.3, 68.3, 63.8, 73.3, 58.2 and 66.5 percents of the respondents who were also the majority believed that poor training of personnel, lack of basic operational equipment, lack of public support, poor remuneration, violation of the fundamental rights of citizens, interference by politicians, rivalry with the police and recruitment of personnel with little or no formal education were among the problems faced 115 by Hisbah in the region respectively. However, only 32.7, 26.2, 29.7, 31.7, 36.2, 26.7, 41.8 and 33.5 percents respectively were of the contrary view. This is to suggest that the various Hisbah groups that operate in the region are being bedeviled by serious problems that could be demoralizing as far as their crime prevention and control efforts are concerned. These challenges were acknowledged by the officials of the various Hisbah organizations in the selected states. On the challenges, for example, an official of the Jigawa State Hisbah Commission admitted that: …one of our major challenges is the public hostility against our personnel…. I could not count the number of instances in which our members were attacked by criminal elements. On several occasions our personnel had to retreat because of the resistance posed by the criminal elements…. Although we do not encounter much political interference now, but we did in the past… praise be to Allah the Governor has warned all politicians against interfering with our work…. I also want to say that in Jigawa State Hisbah Commission there have not been many complaints on human rights abuses by our personnel… with regards to the funding there is a problem. In spite of the State Government’s efforts to support us financially, the funding is grossly inadequate to cater for our demands (Official, JSHC Dutse, 2018). The IDI above disclosed some of the problems that troubled Hisbah organizations in their efforts to prevent and control crimes. It can be seen that public hostility, political interference and funding were some of the problems encountered by Hisbah in Jigawa State. Still on the challenges an official of theCrimes Department, Kano State Hisbah Board interviewed revealed that: … Some of the challenges of Hisbah today include training. I will categorically tell you that, I have attended more than ten courses on criminal investigation within and outside Nigeria. Most of these trainings were sponsored by foreign donors. Perhaps, the foreigners have understood the strategic nature of our job and felt that we should be trained on modern techniques for criminal investigations. Whenever I come back, I used to share the same experience with my subordinating staff. However, it is my opinion that there is always the need for training and retraining which are no longer forthcoming …at this point I will like to appeal to the State Government to please help organize trainings for the Hisbah personnel, especially on criminal investigations and human rights observance…. If truth most be told, then I must admit that funding is a serious 116 challenge to the Hisbah today... of course the government is doing its best, but there is still the need to do more. Part of our problem today is fueling and servicing of our operation vehicles. Sometimes we have to contribute money from our meager allowances to fuel the vehicles to be used for effecting arrest or for repatriating beggars or women arrested for prostitution and reunite them with their respective families (Official, Crimes Department, KSHB Kano, 2018). From the above IDI, it can be observed that Hisbah in Kano State is particularly troubled by inadequate training of staff and lack of adequate funding. Regarding the challenges again, another official from the Kebbi State Hisbah Committee the interviewed admitted that: You cannot divorce modern agencies from problems. No matter your efforts you must find yourself buried in challenges. I can tell you that we have a number of challenges, but we always try our best to overcome them…. Honestly, the Government had never interfered in our activities… the State Government is trying its best to fund the Hisbah, but the funds are inadequate. So, we try to manage what we get from the Government in the most transparent and prudent way. We do not compare ourselves with Hisbah in other places, but we get all the support we need from the State Government. … Yes, we do sometimes receive complaints on human rights abuse by our personnel, but this is very rare. Most of the complaints were amplified by people’s ignorance of why we do what we do, and as soon as we explain to them they voluntarily withdrew such complaints, in most of the cases (Official, KSHC Birnin Kebbi, 2018). In Kebbi State, some of the major problems include inadequate funding and human right breaches by the personnel of Hisbah, as rightly pointed in the above IDI. For Zamfara Hisbah the story was unchanged as revealed by the official of ZSHC who noted that: One of the area we have problem is the corruption in our courts. Sometimes the suspected offenders we prosecute in the courts were immediately released and that demoralizes our men… There is also the problem of training; you find that our staffs are not properly trained on enforcement tradition. Many of them were accused of human rights abuse or professional misconducts and that is why I think working jointly with the police in our operations can help in ensuring human rights observance and strict adherence to enforcement ethics…. We are also confronted with the problem of coordination in the administration of Hisbah. There is generally poor chain of command and lack of respect for subordinating staff… Sometimes, if a case involves a highly placed person, politicians often interfere and finally we get calls from “the above” instructing us to immediately release the accused and stop the case (Official, ZSHC Gusau, 2018). In Zamfara State, corruption in the criminal justice system, especially the courts, inadequate training of staff, poor coordination in terms of chain of command, indiscipline among 117 subordinating staff, political interference and lack of synergy with the Police were the major challenges as revealed in the above IDI. In addition to the above, an official of the Investigations Department, NHRC, Northwest Zone, interviewed on the challenges, also revealed that: …. Well most of the complaints we received were from the members of the public and they boarder on professional misconducts. For example, there have been complaints against the Hisbah on unlawful entry into private homes during raids, unlawful detention of suspects and other misconducts by Hisbah officials. On their part, the police have also bitterly complained for Hisbah’s inability to promptly report criminal cases to them for proper investigation, especially on rape cases, where the suspects were alleged to be unnecessarily kept under the Hisbah’s custody for a long period before being subsequently transferred to the police for proper investigations and onward prosecution. This has been particularly problematic to the police because most of the evidences that could be tendered to the court get distorted since investigation of rape is often tight on time (Official, Investigations Department, NHRC Northwest Zone, Kano, 2018). From the National human Rights commission’s point of view, Hisbah in the Northwest is generally challenge by problems including unprofessional conducts such as unlawful entry into private homes, unlawful detention of suspects and general misconducts among the personnel as pointed in the above IDI. It can be noted that the various respondents interviewed had admitted the prevalence of public hostilities against the officials of the Hisbah, human rights breaches by some of the Hisbah personnel in some states, corruption in the court, poor coordination of the activities of the Hisbah, political interference, professional misconducts and so on, as some of the problems confronting the various Hisbah organizations in the region. However, the common problems that were identified to have cut across the boundaries of all of the states where the study was conducted include problem of funding and lack of proper training and retraining of the Hisbah personnel, especially on enforcement tradition. 118 Table 4.6.2: Magnitude of Challenges Faced by Hisbah in Crime Prevention and Control Magnitude of the Challenges Serious Moderate Less serious Total Frequency 715 616 243 1574 Percentage 45.4 39.1 15.4 100.0 Table 4.6.2 presents data on the nature of the challenges faced by Hisbah in crime prevention and control activities in the region. An index score obtained shows that a majority of the aggregated responses (45.4%) indicated that the various Hisbah organizations operating in the region are faced with serious problems, whereas only 15.4% of the aggregated responses show that the problems are less serious. This implies that the various Hisbah policing organizations, in spite of their contributions to crime prevention and control, as admitted by the respondents (see Tables 4.23, 4.24 and 4.25), are faced with serious challenges which are likely to negatively affect their crime prevention and control outputs. Table 4.6.3: Opinions on whether Challenges Faced by Hisbah Negatively Affects their Crime Prevention and Control Activities Challenges have Effects Strongly agreed Agreed Undecided Disagreed Strongly disagreed Total Frequency 666 737 8 91 72 1,574 Percent 42.3 46.8 0.5 5.8 4.6 100.0 When the respondents were asked whether the identified challenges negatively affects Hisbah’s crime prevention and control activities, a majority of the respondents (46.8%) 119 agreed, while only 0.5% of the respondents did not formed an opinion on the question. This is to suggest that the various Hisbah groups in the region are faced with a serious challenge that constrains their crime prevention and control activities. 120 4.7 Section G: Testing of Hypotheses This section presents the cross-tabulations of the dependent and independent variables, after which chi-square tests were conducted to establish the relationship between them. In addition, Cramer’s V and Phi were computed (appropriately) to test the strength of relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Hypothesis 1: Hisbah’s policing activities do not influence opinions on their contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria. Table 4.7.1a: Hisbah’s Major Policing Activities and Opinions on Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Hisbah Hisbah's Major Policing Activities Contributes to Fight Crime Against Raids on Prevention Street Immoral Criminal Rehabilitation Community and Control Patrol Conducts Hideouts Surveillance of Offenders Sensitization Total Strongly 238 193 46 12 17 49 555 agreed (52.3%) (39.2%) (24.3%) (9.9%) (17.9%) (33.3%) (37.0%) Agreed Undecided Strongly disagreed Disagreed Total 170 (37.4%) 20 (4.4%) 276 (56.1%) 16 (3.3%) 100 (52.9%) 38 (20.1%) 88 (72.7%) 13 (10.7%) 12 2 0 5 (2.6%) (.4%) (.0%) (4.1%) 15 5 5 3 (3.3%) (1.0%) (2.6%) (2.5%) 455 492 189 121 (100.0%) (100.0%) (100.0%) (100.0%) 54 (56.8%) 17 (17.9%) 3 (3.2%) 4 (4.2%) 95 (100.0%) 76 (51.7%) 9 (6.1%) 764 (51.0%) 113 (7.5%) 10 32 (6.8%) (2.1%) 3 35 (2.0%) (2.3%) 147 1499 (100.0%) (100.0%) From Table 4.7.1a reveals that majority of the respondents who indicated that fight against immoral conducts, raids on criminal hideouts, surveillance, and rehabilitations of offenders and community sensitization respectively as the major policing activities engaged by Hisbah agreed that Hisbah contributes to crime prevention and control respectively. However, a 121 majority of those who indicated street patrol as the major crime prevention and control activity engaged-in by Hisbah also strongly agree with the statement that Hisbah contributes to crime prevention and control. Similarly, those who believed that community sensitization is the major policing activity done by Hisbah appeared more likely to strongly disagree that Hisbah contributes to crime prevention and control. Table 4.7.1b: Chi-square Tests Pearson’s chi-square Likelihood ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid cases Critical table value =31.41 P-value = 0 .05 Value 211.951a 212.007 47.627 1,499 df 20 20 1 Asymm. Sig. (2 sided) .000 .000 .000 A chi-square test was conducted and the value compared with the critical chi-square value at at 0.05 significance level. The result shows that the computed chi-square value obtained was greater than the critical table value; hence, null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate one accepted, which suggests that Hisba’s major policing activities (independent variable) influences opinions on Hisbah’s contributions to crime prevention and control (dependent variable) as shown in Table 4.7.1b above. Table 4.7.1c: Symmetric Measures Value Phi .376 Cramer’s V .188 N of Valid cases 1,499 Approx. Sig. .000 .000 To determine the strength of the relationship, Cramer’s V value of .188 was obtained which suggests a weak influence of Hisba’s major policing activities (independent variable) on the 122 respondents’ opinion on Hisbah’s contributions to crime prevention and control (dependent variable). Hypothesis 2: Method of operations employed by Hisbah does not determine opinions on their contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria. Table 4.7.2a: Hisbah’s Methods of Operations and Opinions on the Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Hisbah's Methods of Operation Total Hisbah Contributes to ProblemIncidentCoercive Discriminatory Crime solving driven against NonPrevention and (Proactive) (Reactive) Muslims Control Strongly agreed 457 76 18 8 559 (43.3%) (24.4%) (12.9%) (18.2%) (36.0%) Agreed 492 186 68 17 763 (46.6%) (59.6%) (48.9%) (38.6%) (49.2%) Undecided 79 45 32 16 172 (7.5%) (14.4%) (23.0%) (36.4%) (11.1%) Strongly 21 2 8 1 32 disagreed (2.0%) (.6%) (5.8%) (2.3%) (2.1%) Disagreed 7 3 13 2 25 (.7%) (1.0%) (9.4%) (4.5%) (1.6%) Total 1056 312 139 44 1551 (100.0%) (100.0%) (100.0%) (100.0%) (100.0%) Table 4.7.9a reveals that irrespective how Hisbah’s methods of operation are described, respondents in the study area are likely to agree that Hisbah contributes to crime prevention and control. Similarly, those who described Hisbah’s methods as being coercive are more likely to strongly disagree that the Hisbah contributes to crime prevention and control. 123 Table 4.7.2b: Chi-square Tests Pearson’s chi-square Likelihood ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid cases Critical table value =21.03 P-value = 0 .05 Value 192.688a 159.791 128.506 1,551 df 12 12 1 Asymm. Sig. (2 sided) .000 .000 .000 Table 4.7.2b shows the results of a chi-square test conducted to establish if, at all, a relationship exists between contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control (dependent variable) and Hisbah’s methods of operations (independent variables). However, at 0.05 significance level the critical table value (21.03) of the chi-square was found to be less than the computed chi-square value suggesting that the null hypothesis, which says there is no significant relationship between the dependent and independent variables was to be rejected. Table 4.7.2c: Symmetric Measures Phi Cramer’s V N of Valid cases Value .352 .203 1,551 Approx. Sig. .000 .000 To determine the strength of the relationship, Cramer’s V was computed as shown in Table 4.7.2c above and the result (.203) shows that the relationship between the dependent and independent variables was moderate. 124 Hypothesis 3: Perceived Hisbah’s successes in crime prevention and control do not affect opinions on their contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria. Table 4.7.3a: Perceived Successes of Hisbah and Opinions on the Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Hisbah Contributes to Crime Prevention and Hisbah's Perceived Total Control Sccesses Successful Not successful Strongly agreed 523 38 561 (37.6%) (21.2%) (35.7%) Agreed 694 70 764 (49.9%) (39.1%) (48.7%) Undecided 129 49 178 (9.3%) (27.4%) (11.3%) Strongly disagreed 23 9 32 (1.7%) (5.0%) (2.2%) Disagreed 22 13 35 (1.6%) (7.3%) (2.2%) Total 1391 179 1570 (100.0%) (100.0%) (100.0%) It can be seen from Table 4.7.2a that those who either agreed (49.9%) or strongly agreed (37.6%) that Hisbah has been successful in its crime prevention and control activities are more likely to believe that Hisbah contributes to crime prevention and control in the study area. The strength of the relationship between the dependent variable (opinion on Hisbah’s contributions to crime prevention and control) and the independent variable (Hisbah’s perceived successes) is presented below. 125 Table 4.7.3b: Chi-square Tests Pearson’s chi-square Likelihood ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid cases Critical table value =9.49 P-value = 0 .05 Value 93.333a 74.498 73.267 1,570 df 4 4 1 Asymm. Sig. (2 sided) .000 .000 .000 It can be seen in Table 4.7.3b that at 0.05 significance level the critical table value (9.49) of the chi-square was found to be less than the computed chi-square value implying that the null hypothesis, which says there is no significant relationship between the dependent and independent variables was to be rejected. Table 4.7.3c: Symmetric Measures Phi Cramer’s V N of Valid cases Value .244 .244 1,551 Approx. Sig. .000 .000 To examine the strength of the relationship the Cramer’s V value as indicated in Table 4.7.3c revelas that the relationship was moderate meaning that it is statistically significant. 126 Hypothesis 4: Poor Hisbah-Police relationship is not a determinant of opinions on Hisbah’s contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria. Table 4.7.4a: Nature of Hisbah-Police Relations and Opinions on Contributions to Crime Prevention and Control Hisbah Contributes to Crime Opinions on the Nature of Police-Hisbah Prevention and Control Relations Poor/Noncordial Good/Cordial Total Strongly agreed 190 (32.8%) 361 (37.0%) 551 (35.4%) Agreed 282 (48.6%) 475 (48.7%) 757 (48.7%) Undecided 57 (9.8%) 123 (12.6%) 180 (11.6%) Strongly disagreed 29 (5.0%) 3 (.3%) 32 (2.1%) Disagreed 22 (3.8%) 13 (1.3%) 35 (2.3%) Total 580 (100.0%) 975 (100.0%) 1555 (100.0%) Table 4.7.4a shows that those respondents who sees cordiality in the Hisbah-Police relationship are more likely to believed that Hisbah organizations in the region contributes to crime prevention and control and vice versa. Table 4.7.4b: Chi-square Tests Pearson’s chi-square Likelihood ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid cases Critical table value =9.49 P-value = 0.05 Value 52.996a 53.827 16.387 1,555 df 4 4 1 Asymm. Sig. (2 sided) .000 .000 .000 A chi-square test was run and the value (52.996) compared with critical value (9.49) from the table at 0.05significance level. The result shows that the computed Chi-square value was greater than the critical table value; hence, the null hypothesis which says that there is no relationship between the the nature of Hisbah-Police relations (independent variable) and the respondent opinion on the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control was to be rejected. 127 Table 4.7.4c: Symmetric Measures Phi Cramer’s V N of Valid cases Value .185 .185 1,555 Approx. Sig. .000 .000 However, the value (.185) of Cramer’s V computed to determine the strength of the relationship suggests that the relationship is weak and therefore not statistically significant. Hypothesis 5: Nature of challenges encountered by Hisbah does not influence opinions on their contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria. Table 4.7.5a: Nature of Challenges Faced by Hisbah and Contributions Prevention and Control Hisbah contributes to crime Nature of Challenges faced by prevention and control Hisbah Serious Moderate Less Serious Strongly Agreed 322 177 62 (45.0%) (28.7%) (25.5%) Agreed 309 339 116 (43.2%) (55.0%) (47.7%) Undecided 58 78 46 (8.1%) (12.7%) (18.9%) Strongly Disagreed 16 11 5 (2.2%) (1.8%) (2.1%) Disagreed 10 11 14 (1.4%) (1.8%) (5.8%) Total 715 616 243 (100.0%) (100.0%) (100.0%) to Crime Total 561 (35.6%) 764 (48.5%) 182 (11.6%) 32 (2.0%) 35 (2.2%) 1574 (100.0%) Table 4.7.5a above revealed that respondents who indicated that Hisbah policing organizations in the region are faced with moderate (55.0%) and less serious (47.7%) challenges are likely to agree that Hisbah contributes to crime prevention and control. 128 However, those who indicated that Hisbah organizations in the region are faced with serious challenges are most likely to strongly disagree (2.2%) that Hisbah contributes to crime prevention and control. Table 4.7.5b: Chi-square Tests Pearson’s chi-square Likelihood ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid cases Critical table value =15.51 P-value = 0.05 Value 78.641a 73.721 50.968 1,574 df 4 4 1 Asymm. Sig. (2 sided) .000 .000 .000 Table 4.7.5b shows the result of a chi-square test computed to establish whether statistical relationship exists between the nature of challenges faced by Hisbah (independent variable) and opinions on their contributions to crime prevention and control (dependent variable). It can be observed that at significance level of 0.05, the table (15.51) value is less than the computed chi-square value (78.641) suggesting that the null hypothesis which says there is no relationship between the dependent and the independent variables was to be rejected. Table 4.7.5c: Symmetric Measures Phi Cramer’s V N of Valid cases Value .185 .185 1,555 Approx. Sig. .000 .000 Cramer’s V value (.158) shown in Table 4.7.5c to determine the strength of the association shows that the relationship is weak and therefore not statistically significant. 129 4.8.1 Multiple Regression Coefficients The following is the multiple regression coefficient conducted to identify the most influencial predictor (independent variable) of the dependent variable. Table 4.8.1a: Multiple Regression Coefficients (Model 1) Unstandardized Standardized Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta Model 1 (Constant) .828 .126 Hisbah's Major Policing .089 .013 .177 Activity Hisbah's Method of .236 .027 .228 Operations Perceived Successes of .230 .074 .076 Hisbah Nature of Hisbah-Police -.036 .041 -.022 Relationship Nature of challenges .119 .028 .107 Dependent variable: Contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control. t 6.561 7.092 Sig. .000 .000 8.786 .000 3.120 .002 -.875 .382 4.267 .000 Table 4.8.1a above shows a multiple regression analysis that Hisbah major policing activities, Hisbah’s method of operations, perceived successes of Hisbah, nature of Hisbahpolice relationship and nature of challenges faced by Hisbah as independent variables and opinions on contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control as dependent variable. The results show that Hisbah’s method of operations is, the most important predictor of forming an opinion on the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control, followed by perceived successes of Hisbah’s with Beta .236 and .230 respectively. However, the nature of Hisbah-Police relationship has very limited (negative) effects on forming an opinion on the contributions of Hisbah activities to crime prevention and control (with Beta .036). 130 Table 4.8.1b: Model 1 Summary Model 1 R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson a 1 .368 .135 .133 .747 1.934 a. Predictors: (Constant), Hisbah's Major Policing Activity, Hisbah's Method of Operations, Perceived Successes of Hisbah, Nature of Hisbah-Police Relationship, Nature of challenges. b. Dependent Variable: Contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control. Similarly, table 4.8.1b above provides R and R2 values. The R value (.368) represent the simple correlation), which indicates weak degree of correlation. The R2 value (.133) indicates how much the total variation in the dependent variable can be explained by the independent variables. In this case, only 13.3% of the variation in the dependent variable can be explained by the independent variables examined, which is fairly week, but still relevant. 4.8.2 Controling the Effects of Nature of Hisbah-Police Relations Since the nature of Hisbah-Police relationship and respondents’ state of residence have very limited effects on forming an opinion on the contributions of Hisbah activities to crime prevention and control, it is important to re examine the other important independent variables with predictive value on the dependent variable. 131 Table 4.8.2a: Multiple Regression Coefficients (Model 2) Unstandardized Coefficients B Std. Error .837 .098 .085 .012 Standardized Coefficients Beta Model 1 (Constant) Hisbah's Major Policing .170 Activity Hisbah's Method of .241 .027 .232 Operations Perceived Successes of .166 .070 .058 Hisbah Nature of challenges .119 .028 .107 a. Dependent Variable: Hisbah Contributes to Crime Prevention and Control t 8.548 6.815 Sig. .000 .000 9.036 .000 2.364 .018 4.277 .000 The multiple regression analysis (on Table 4.8.2a above) reveals that on one hand, Hisbah’s method of operations is again, the most important predictor of forming an opinion on the contributions of Hisbah activities to crime prevention and control, followed by Hisbah’s perceived successes with Beta .241 and .166 respectively. On the other hand, Hisbah’s major policing activity has limited effects on forming an opinion on the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control (with Beta .085). Table 4.8.2b: Model 2 Summary Model 2 R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate .359a .129 .126 .748 a. Predictors: (Constant), Hisbah's Major Policing Activity, Hisbah's Method of Operations, Perceived Successes of Hisbah, Nature of challenges. b. Dependent Variable: Contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control. Table 4.8.2b above provides R and R2 values. Just like Model 1 (see Table 4.8.1b) the R value (.359) represent the simple correlation, indicates a weak degree of correlation. The R2 value (.129) indicates how much the total variation in the dependent variable is explained by 132 the independent variables. In this case, only 12.9% can be explained, which is also week. Hence, it can be said that Nature of Hisbah-Police Relations has very insignificant overall effect on the degree of correlation between the dependent and independent variables. Since, model 1 explains only 13.3% of the correlation between the dependent and independent variable, and model 2 explains only 12.9% of the same variables, the difference is quite insignificant. 4.9 Discussion of Major Findings One of the specific objectives of this study is to examine the contributions of Hisbah organizations to crime prevention and control in the Northwest Nigeria. The study found out that the residents of the study areas were aware of the activities of the various Hisbah groups in the region and agreed that Hisbah’s personnel have significantly impacted on policing the study areas. Similarly, a majority of them indicated that fight against immoral conducts was the major crime prevention and control activity engaged by Hisbah, and that the crime prevention and control activities of the various Hisbah groups in the region were desirable. Hence, they subscribed to the view that Hisbah’s contributions to crime prevention and control have been positive and complementary to the activities of the Nigeria Police Force which refuted insinuations in the literature that Hisbah has been of disservice to the police and the various communities in which they operate (Chukwuma, 2000a; Human Rights Watch, 2004; Alubo, 2011; and Nwauche, 2014). The above supports the findings of Gwarzo (2003), Olaniyi (2005), and Adamu (2008) who described the various Hisbah groups in Nigeria as complementary policing organizations to the activities of the Nigeria Police Force, since most of the suspects arrested by Hisbah are 133 handed over to the police for onward prosecution in the courts of law. This is in line with the core principle of Hisbah as rightly pointed out by Muhammad-Noor (2014) who argued that the function of Hisbah is to maintain public law and order, and to supervise the behaviour of the citizens, in all spheres of life, with a view to ptomoting good conducts and ensuring that nomal practice is allowed to take place in an Islamic community. The above findings reaffirmed the position of the routine activities theory which posits that when motivated offenders and suitable targets meet in the absence of capable guardians, crime is likely to happen (Cohen and Felson, 1979). Conversely, the presence of these three conditions might be enough to prevent a crime from occurring (ibid). The fact that Hisbah groups were meant to counter immoral, unIslamic and often criminal activities prevailing in the region, their mere presence and their policing activities, such as street patrol; uprooting immoral conducts like prostitution, gambling, drug trafficking and abuse, sexual offences and other delinquent behaviours; raids on criminal hideouts; surveillance; rehabilitation programmes; community sensitization and so on, have greatly discouraged criminal and immoral conducts thereby promoting social order. As a result, the various Hisbah groups in the region have, through their policing activities, served as capable guardians by: (i) increasing the efforts involved in offending; (ii) increasing the risks associated with offending; (iii) reducing the rewards that come from committing a crime; and (iv)reducing the situational factors that influence the propensity of an individual to offend. The above efforts have made the contributions of Hisbah to be felt and appreciated by many of the respondents irrespective of their state of residence and religion as revealed by the study. Hence, the agitations that the introduction of Hisbah would reduce tolerance for nonMuslims and their activities, especially those that contradict the tenets of Islam (see 134 Chukwuma, 2000b; Alubo, 2011; and Nwauche, 2014) were disproved by the findings of this research. The study also assessed the ways in which the method of operations used by Hisbah assist in crime prevention and control in the Northwest, Nigeria. The study found out that most of the residents in the Northwest region describe the Hisbah’s methods of operation as being proactive; the focus of which centered on discouraging immoral and criminal behaviours. This has reaffirmed the findings of some researchers who described the methods of operation used by the Hisbah in the conduct of their functions as being friendly, proactive, pro-people, timely, reformative, reconciliative and transparent (Adamu, 2008; Suberu, 2009; Galadima and Mahadi, 2013). The study also found out that the residents were contented with the above methods of operation adopted by the various Hisbah groups in the region as a majority of the respondents described them as being excellent thereby suggesting that the methods of operation used by various Hisbah organizations operating in the sampled states be maintained. Being proactive implies an attempt to fix problems when they are small, which depicts the Hisbah’s guiding principle of seeking to promote good and discourage evil. The above reflects the central argument of the broken windows theory which posits that problems are better fixed when they are small as more serious crimes evolved from minor infractions (Wilson and Kelling, 1982). It can be observed that the bulk of Hisbah’s works are on the reinforcement of moral values and addressing moral challenges such as prostitution, sexual misconducts, drug abuse by youths, and other delinquent and criminal behaviours, which if left unchecked will escalate into a more serious and destructive crimes. 135 Take, for example, when prostitutes visibly ply their trade or beggars accost passersby, more serious crimes flourish. Hence, the security services provided by the various Hisbah organizations in the Northwest of Nigeria have contributed greatly in fixing minor criminal activities (as proposed by the broken windows policing), without which more serious crimes could have evolved. A good example could be the arrest of juveniles who engaged in runaway, pick pocketing, larcency and sexual misconducts (Gwarzo, 2003; Olaniyi, 2005; and Abdullah, 2010). Similarly, the 15,259 prostitutes sent out of the business, the closure of 492 brothels, and 408 gambling houses by the Hisbah in 2009, in Kano State alone, were all part of the Hisbah’s efforts in ensuring that criminal activities are properly taken care of from the start. These efforts have saved the state from experiencing more serious future crimes (Radda, Ibrahim and Dambazau, 2011; Dambazau, 2011). Similarly, the operation of Hisbah has been associated with a number of internal and external problems such as inadequate funding, poor method of staff recruitment, low quality staff with the majority of the staff being young men with little formal education, lack of background in law, and insufficient training in law enforcement tradition for arrest, little knowledge and skills on investigation and intelligence gathering and preservation of evidence. They are also confronted with inadequate basic operational equipments, harassment and extortion by the police (in few places), unprofessional conducts leading to human rights breaches and lack of recognition and appreciation of their complementary policing efforts by the enforcement agencies themselves (especially the police), members of the public and even the academia. 136 The Hisbah could be made a better complementary policing organization if these constraints were removed early. Because the earlier they are removed the better the performance of the Hisbah; this is the position of the broken windows theory. It should be noted, however, that respondents who believed that Hisbah’s methods of operation are problem-solving/proactive are more likely to consider Hisbah’s contributions as positive and contributory to the police, while those who described Hisbah’s methods as being discriminatory against Non-Muslims are more likely to consider the same methods as negative and problematic. The data also reveal that Muslims are more likely to view the Hisbah’s methods of operation as problem-solving/proactive. Whereas, the followers of Traditional Religion are more likely to see it as incident-driven and coercive, the Christians are more likely to see it as discriminatory against Non-Muslims. This has, however, explained why researchers like Chukwuma (2000a), HRW and CLEEN (2002; 2003), Human Rights Watch (2004), Ndiameeh (2009), Alubo (2011) and Nwauche (2014) accused Hisbah of partiality and of being harsh on Non-Muslims. The above findings contradicts the arguments put forward by Human Rights Watch (2004), Chukwuma (2000b) and HRW and CLEEN (2002) who accused Hisbah of incivility, lack of organization, lack of professionalism and human rights breaches in the conduct of their duties. Looking at the above allegations, one may find that all of the above studies were carried out at the early phase of the Hisbah’s existence. However, the findings have reaffirmed some earliar reports that the various Hisbah groups in the region have been able to improve the training of their staff, which has been translated into active observance and promotion of human rights in the discharge of duties, as many of the Hisbah corps pay more 137 attention to less controversial roles such as mob control and ensuring security in public places, traffic control, and so on (Adamu, 2008; and Galadima and Mahadi, 2013). The study also had as one of its core objectives the desire to analyze the successes recorded by Hisbah, across the States, in crime prevention and control in the Northwest region of Nigeria. The study found out that the respondents (irrespective of their state of residence) have unanimously described the various Hisbah groups operating in the sampled states as successful as far as crime prevention and control were concerned. The study also found out that public order crimes (such as gambling, sexual offences, prostitution, substance abuse, etc.) were the major crimes prevented and controlled by the various Hisbah groups in the region. It further discovered that the various Hisbah groups in the sampled states were particularly successful because of the support given to them by their respective state governments and the wider acceptance by the public. This is in line with the position of Baker (2008) and Minaar (2001) who posited that non-state or informal policing organizations (such as the Hisbah), can be highly effective and successful since they often operate with local knowledge and more importantly with legitimacy. Another reason could be due to their relative administrative flexibility because semi-informal arrangements allow for greater flexibility that enables the various Hisbah groups in the region to get on with the job without formal arrangements hindering progress (Little and Gelsthorpe, 1994). Looking at the above, it can be inferred that the various Hisbah groups in the region were largely successful because of the acceptance they enjoy from the members of the public and the supports they enjoyed from the various state governments that established them. This is 138 also the argument of the social contract theory which posits that society is the product of a contract or agreement between the citizens and the state (in which duties and obligations were assigned to each), and that political legitimacy, political authority and political obligations are derived from the consent of the governed and are the artificial product of the voluntary agreement of free and equal moral agents. This is because legitimacy and duty depend on the voluntary individual acts, and not on natural political authority, patriarchy, theocracy, divine rights, custom or psychological compulsion (Oakeshott, 1975). It is pertinent to note that one of the most important obligations that Nigerian state has towards the citizens, is the duty to protect life and property. This important state’s responsibility was assigned to the Nigeria Police Force. The police failure to carryout this important assignment amounts to the failure of the Nigerian state to honour the agreement entered with the citizens in the social contract (Hobbes, 1651; Locke, 1690; and Oakeshott, 1975). This can invalidate the contract thereby raising the potentials for social, economic and political imbalances. Thus, the establishment of voluntary Hisbah groups by private citizens and their subsequent complementary policing activities were supported by the various state governments in their efforts to honour the agreement (protection of life and property of the citizens) they entered into with the citizens. In the same vein, another objective of the research was to study the nature of the relationship between the NPF and the Hisbah in terms of its contributions to crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria. To be able to provide useful data, the respondents were asked on their awareness of the NPF’s crime prevention and control activities and the result shows that 139 many of the residents were aware of such activities. The findings also show that an overwhelming majority of the respondents, irrespective of what they believed to be the nature of Hisbah – Police relationships (either good/cordial or bad/non-cordial) described the Hisbah’s crime prevention and control as being successful. The data show that no significant statistical relationship exists between the successes recorded by Hisbah and the nature of Hisbah – Police relationship. In addition, the findings shows that people in the region generally rated the performance of the police in the area of crime prevention and control as good, but in spite of that commendation, a majority of the residents would prefer to be processed by the Hisbah in the event of any criminal case involving them. This cannot be unconnected with the methods of operation used by Hisbah in the discharge of their duties which is mainly proactive as revealed by the study and also in agreement with the findings of Adamu (2008), Suberu (2009) and Galadima and Mahadi (2013) that described it as being friendly, proactive, propeople, timely, reformative, reconciliatory and transparent. This has provided an opportunity for a positive relationship with both the public and the police (with the exception of Zamfara State where there is apparent poor Hisbah-Police relationship), to such an extent that even some police stations were reported to have been referring cases to the Hisbah because of their quick and satisfactory mediation approach (ibid). The above could be understood better using the postulations of the intergroup contact theory. The theory posits that positive effects of intergroup contact occur in contact situations characterized by four key conditions: equal status, intergroup cooperation, common goals, 140 and support by social and institutional authorities (Allport, 1954). Intergroup contacts generally reduce prejudice, improve relations among the groups and make policing organizations more effective and successful (Notably, Dixon, Durrheim, and Tredoux, 2005). Establishing a well coordinated contact with out-group members, (especially the police helps the various Hisbah organizations in the region to build up greater understanding and partnership). It is true that over the years, the focus of the various Hisbah organizations in the Northwest of Nigeria has been the establishment of a well coordinated contact with the outgroup members, (especially the police) in order to build up greater understanding and partnership with them (Galadima and Mahadi, 2013). Finally, the last objective of the study was to examine the effects of the challenges faced by Hisbah in crime prevention and control activities in the Northwest, Nigeria. The study found out that inadequate funding, poor training of staff especially, lack of basic operational equipment, lack of public support, poor remuneration, violation of fundamental rights of the citizens, interference by politicians, rivalry with the police, recruitment of personnel with little or no formal education were the major challenges faced by the various Hisbah groups in the region. An index score of the above challenges indicates the existence of serious problems which a majority of the respondents believed to had negative consequences on crime prevention and control in the study area. The study also discovered that irrespective of the magnitude of the challenges faced by Hisbah (serious, moderate or less serious), a majority of the respondents believed that the contributions of various Hisbah policing organizations in the region were positive and complementary to the police efforts in crime prevention and control. However, respondents 141 who considered the challenges faced by Hisbah as serious are more likely to perceive the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control as negative and problematic than those who consider the challenges as either moderate or less serious. The above has reaffirmed some of the allegations against the Hisbah, especially those on poor recruitment and trainings (HRW, 2004; Badmus, 2006; and the Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, 2008), human rights breaches (HRW, 2004; and Oronsaye and Igbafe, 2012), political interference (Alemika and Chukwuma, 2003; Adamu, 2008; Oronsaye and Igbafe, 2012; and Nwauche, 2014) and funding (Gwarzo, 2003; Nuhu, 2004). Furthermore, the findings also revealed that Hisbah’s method of operation is the most significant indicator of how opinions on the contributions of Hisbah activities to crime prevention and control are formed. This is followed by the Hisbah’s major policing activity, which was found to be their fight against immoral conducts. Logically, by adaopting a proactive method of operations to fight against immoral conducts, the Hisbah is typically playing an important role in the inculcation of moral values, which is likely to strengthen the bonds of individuals’ relationships (attachment), commitment to the shared value, involvement in conventional activities and their belief in the common value system. This is what the social contarct theory professes. 4.10 Contributions of the Study to Body of Knowledge The introduction of Shariah legal system in some of the Northwestern Nigerian states in 2000, had nurtured a feeling in some of the citizens that the police cannot be entrusted with its enforcement. This has given birth to the spontaneously organized voluntary enforcement groups called Hisbah – subsequently taken over, reorganized, restructured and made statutory by some of the Shariah implementing state governments. Since then, the various 142 Hisbah organizations established have been complementing the policing efforts of the Nigeria Police Force, and those of other security agencies. Hisbah organizations have greatly contributed to crime prevention and control in fight against the sales and consumption of illicit drugs, violent conducts, sexual assaults, rape, burglary, advanced fee fraud. They also regularly conduct surveillance, night patrols along the streets, apprehension of prostitutes, fight gainst domestic slavery, prevention and control of domestic violence. Nigeria also suffered seriously from the increasing spate of public order crimes such as gambling, sexual offences, prostitution, substance abuse, etc., which necessitated the need to strengthened Hisbah and other vigilante organizations to assist the police in the prevention and control of crimes. Unfortunately, the contributions of Hisbah are hardly acknowledged by members of the public and sometimes even the police. As such there is dearth of literature on the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control thereby making questions such as whether or not the Hisbah’s policing, method of operations of the Hisbah, nature of Hisbah’s relationship with the police and the challenges faced by Hisbah affect their contributions to crime prevention and control, to remain largely unanswered. This study has contributed immensely to the body of knowledge, by providing answers to such questions. Prior to the conduct of this study, what prevail in the literature on Hisbah have been largely negative and uncomplimentary reports and statements about the conducts of the various Hisbah organizations in the region. The findings of this study especially those on the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control, findings on Hisbah’s method of operations which was moduled on the Islamic principle of encouraging the good and discouraging bad and evils, findings on public perceptions of Hisbah as a successful 143 complementary policing institution and findings on the nature of Hisbah-Police relationship (hitherto potrayed as poor and uncooperative) have all refuted what was commonly reported in the literature. It is also important to emphasize the fact that, although literature exists on Hisbah, some of its activities and challenges, but not much have been documented on its complementary policing role, which explains partly why literature on Hisbah’s complementary policing organizations, especially on its policing activities, method of operation, its successes and working relationship with the police. This has made this study to stand out due to the uniqueness of its focus. Perhaps the only aspect covered by this study that has been commonly discussed, researched and documented in many of the literature has been the challenges faced by Hisbah. even then, the interest of this study on that specific aspect has been on how such problems affect Hisbah’s contribution to crime prevention and control which was never given the priority it deserves in the available literature. Again, revisiting the scope of challenges is very important because of the opportunity it provides for a review of how those problems were contained by the authorities, Hisbah and other stakeholders. The findings of the study also discovered that Hisbah in the Northwest of Nigeria are initiated by private citizens against the widely speculated reports in the media and in some of the literature that Hisbah was created by some state governors to advance their political interests. The states government took over Hisbah because they felt that it was wrong to leave law enforcement to the proregative of private citizens. This might reawaken the desire, in some researchers, to investigate and verify this claim in order to counter wrong 144 conclusions and stances on Hisbah, its origin, objectives, scope of work and method of operation in Nigeria. 145 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction After introduction, this chapter contains three major sections; summary, conclusion and recommendations. 5.2 Summary The first objective of the study was to examine the contributions of Hisbah organizations to crime prevention and control in the study area. The study reveals that a majority of the respondents are aware of the Hisbah’s crime prevention and control activities and that fight against immoral conducts is the major crime prevention and control activity embarked upon by Hisbah in the region (as opined by of the respondents). The study also found out that Hisbah’s crime prevention and control activities, such fight against immoral conducts, street patrol, raids on criminal hideouts, surveillance, community sensitizations and so on, contributes to crime prevention and control in the study area as argued by a majority of the respondents. Similarly, the study foundout that a majority of the respondents believed that the crime prevention and control activities of the various Hisbah groups, in the Northwest geo-political zone, were desirable. Not only the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control are desirable, but also the study shows that Hisbah’s contributions have been complementary to the crime prevention and control activities of the Nigeria Police Force. The data showed that residents of the Northwest, Nigeria are satisfied with the policing activities of the Hisbah and were of the stand that such important organizations be maintained in their present forms to continue with the good job of crime prevention and 146 control in the region. Perhaps, their position on the retention of Hisbah might have been informed by the fact that an overwhelming majority of the respondents considered the Hisbah as being proactive in its operations with primary focus on discouraging immoral and criminal behaviours before they even occur. The second objective seeks to assess how Hisbah’s method of operations assists in crime prevention and control activities of Hisbah organizations in the region. The data obtained showed that residents of the study area are very fond of the methods of operation used by the various Hisbah groups in the region. The study also found out that Hisbah’s method of operations contributes to crime prevention and control in the region. Because people, generally, see it as proactive and problem-solving. In view of the above, a majority of the respondents suggested that the methods of operation used by various Hisbah organizations operating in the sampled states be maintained. The third objective was to analyze the successes recorded by Hisbah in its operations.The data obtained revealed that the operational activities of Hisbah towards crime prevention and control in the Northwest geo-political zone of Nigeria were successful. It was discovered that public order crimes such as gambling, sexual offences, prostitution, substance abuse, etc. were the major crimes prevented and controlled by the various Hisbah groups in the region. The data also showed that the various Hisbah organizations in the region were largely successful in their crime prevention activities because of the support given to them by the state governments. Objective four seeks to describe the nature of relationship between the Hisbah and the Police, which the literature projected as poor and non-cordial. The study found out that with the 147 possible exception of Zamfara State where the relationsp between two policing organizations was on negative terms,, there has been cordial working relationship between the Hisbah and the Police, which also facilitates Hisbah’s contributions to crime prevention and control. On the challenges faced by Hisbah, which was the last objectiveThe study also found out that inadequate funding, poor trainings of staff, lack of basic operational equipment, lack of public support, poor remuneration, violation of fundamental rights of the citizens, interference by politicians, rivalry with the police (in Zamfara State), recruitment of personnel with little or no formal education were the major challenges faced by the various Hisbah groups in the region. An index score of the above challenges shows that a majority of the aggregated responses indicate the existence of a serious problem which the majority of the respondents believed to have negative consequences on the crime prevention and control activities. A Chi-square test of the possible relationship between dependent variable, opinions on Hisbah’s contributions to crime prevention and control and the independent variables Hisbah’s major policing activities, Hisbah’s relationship with the police and nature of the challenges encountered by Hisbah in the course of discharging their job revealed an existant of weak relationship. On the other hand the relationships between the dependent variable and the remaining two variables examined, Hisbah’s method of operation, and Hisbah’s perceived successes were found to be moderate. 148 5.3 Conclusions The study believed that Hisbah organizations, by their activities, are among the key stakeholders in crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria. Hence, the Hisbah is considered by the residents as a desirable institution, which complements the efforts of the NPF in policing activities in the study area. Their policing activities, such as street patrol; uprooting immoral conducts like prostitution, gambling, drug trafficking and abuse, sexual offences and other delinquent behaviours, raids on criminal hideouts, surveillance, in-house rehabilitation programmes, community sensitization and so on, were found to have greatly discouraged criminal and immoral conducts. The study also infers that Hisbah’s methods of operation are largely proactive in nature focusing mainly on promoting what is good and discouraging what is evil and criminal. The above conclusion was drawn from the views of residents irrespective of differences in religion, state of residence and/or social class. Hence, it can be inferred that the various Hisbah groups in the region were largely successful and the secret of such successes was largely because of the general acceptance they enjoy from the members of public irrespective of religion or state of residence. The Hisbah, at the same time, enjoy the support of the Police, which in most cases assist them with enforcement where necessary. The study also concludes that Hisbah is a proactive complementary policing institution which earns the confidence and preference of many citizens compared with the Police. It can therefore be said that Hisbahs’ quick and satisfactory approach in the region had facilitated the establishment of positive relationship with both the public and the police to the extent that even some police stations refers cases to the Hisbah. 149 Despite huge challenges, such as inadequate funding, poor training of staff especially, lack of basic operational equipment, lack of public support, poor remuneration, interference by politicians, rivalry with the police (in few places), recruitment of personnel with little or no formal education, Hisbah remains a force in crime prevention and control in the region. Similarly, variations exist among the Hisbah outfits across the states in the zone, but with same mandate, methods of operation and wider acceptance among the residents. Lastly, the study concludes that of all the factors that influence opinions on the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control, Hisbah’s method of operations is the most important predictor, followed by Hisbah’s major policing activity, while, nature of HisbahPolice relationship and respondents state of residence were insignificant predictors. 5.4 Recommendations This section present some recommendations proposed by the study. The sections further divided into two sections: (i) recommendations for policy making; and (ii) recommendation for further studies. 5.4.1 Recommendations for Policy Making For policy making, the study recommends the followings: 1. The various Hisbah organizations in the region should be statutorily strengthened going by their contributions to crime prevention and control, which improves the security of life property and wellbeing of the residents. To avoid situations where private citizens will attempt administering justice, the Kaduna, Katsina and Sokoto 150 states governments (where there are no formal Hisbah) are encouraged to enact laws that will establish Hisbah organizations in their respective states under their full ownership and control. It is important to note that law enforcement activities cannot be left in the hands of private citizens. It is a professional domain that requires education, skills, competence and statutory operational guidelines; 2. Hisbah is advised to maintain its proactive method of operation and that other security agencies, such as the police, the Nigeria Security and Civil Defence Corps,the Department of State Service and so on, are encouraged to adopt this method looking at the positive impacts it has on the ability of the policing organizations to secure public trust and pprevent crimes that might have had serious consequences on life and property of the citizens; 3. The public should be encouraged to develop positive perception on the successes of Hisbah through publicizing their contributions to crime prevention and control. Hisbah perceived as successful are more likely to contribute more to crime prevention and control because of the supports they are likely to enjoy from both the public and the stae. 4. The working relationship between the Hisbah and the NPF should be strengthened looking at the role it plays in assisting the Hisbah to contribute to crime prevention and control. In Zamfara State where the study found a very poor and non-cordial relationship, such good working relationship should be established. In other words, the Hisbah and the NPF must be made to work together in order to address operational overlaps that may lead to physical clashes between the two. Management 151 of the two organizations must workout modalities for, and show commitment towards, achieving the much needed interagency cooperation; 5. Similarly, problems such as inadequate funding, insufficient remuneration, inadequate operational equipments, inadequate training of staff and so on, should be contained.The personnel of various Hisbah organizations in the region must be extensively trained on human rights and on modern techniques for law enforcement and, of course, criminal investigations. In short, a training curriculum for the Hisbah personnel must be developed to make it more in tandem with the tenets of democracy and rule of law; 6. Other Hisbah organizations in the region should adopt the Kebbi State Hisbah Commission model, which provided for consultations between the Hisbah and members of non-Muslim communities. This will assist in making the non-Muslim community aware of the Hisbah’s activities, which may go a long way in clearing all doubts on the purposes for which the Hisbah was established; 7. Members of the public in the Hisbah operating States must be enlightened by the government to understand the core principle guiding the conducts of Hisbah organizations in the region (promoting what is good and denouncing what is eveil); and 8. The National Assembly and the various State Houses of Assemblies must enact laws that will make it difficult for any high ranking state administrator (e.g the governor) to manipulate and abuse Hisbah for private or political ends. 152 5.4.2 Recommendations for Further Studies This section suggests recommendations for further studies. i. First, the current study addresses the contributions of Hisbah to crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria, the future studies should pay emphasis on the contributions of other non-religious based vigilante groups to crime prevention and control in the Northwest of Nigeria. ii. Second, the scope of this study was limited to the contributions of the statutory Hisbah organizations in Northwestern states of Nigeria, but future research should expand the scope to cover the activities of voluntary Hisbah organizations that are not statutory. iii. Third, another key area in need of research attention is the comparative study involving the state-owned and citizens’ operated Hisbah organizations in the region. iv. Forth, another comparative study on the activities of Hisbah and other vigilante should also be carried out to ascertain such grey areas where the policy makers can come in for efficiency and better delivery of security services to the citizens. v. Fifth, this study focus on the Hisbah as an institution, a study should be carried out to examine recruitment policy and staff welfare with a view to uncover those problems bedeviling the performance of individual staff. vi. Sixth, a study on the contributions of various Hisbah organizations in the 19 states of Northern Nigeria should be carried out to cross-check the validity and generalizablity of the findings of this study. 153 vii. Lastly, seveth, further study should be conducted to examine why Hisbah continue despite the huge challenges it faces. 154 BIBLIOGRAPHY: Abdullahi, A. (2010). “Harking Back to Hisbah.” Accounts Today, Retrieved from www.mia.org,my/at/at/2016/04/04 Adamu, F. L. (2008). “Gender, Hisbah and Enforcement of Morality in Shariah Implementing States of Zamfara and Kano in Northern nigeria.” Journal of African Gender Institute, Vol. 78, SI 01, pp 136-152 Adebayo, P. F. and Ojo, O. E. (2009). “The Challenges of effective Policing as a Measure of Controlling the Phenomenon of Police Corruption in Nigeria Today.” International NGO Journal. Vol. 4(3): 70-75 Adegbija, E. (1997). “The Identity, survival and Promotion of Minority Languages in Nigeria.” International Journal of the Sociology of Languages, 125 Adegoke, N. (2014).”The Nigeria Police and the Challenges of Security in Nigeria.”Review of Public Administration and Management, Vol. 3, No. 6, pp 21 - 36 Adinkirah, M. (2005). “Vigilante Homicides in Contemporary Ghana.” Journal of Criminal justice, Vol. 33, pp 415, Ajayi, A. S. (2006). Oodual People Congress (OPC) and Crime Control in Lagos Metropolis. An Unpublished PhD Thesis submitted to the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Ajayi, A. and Longe, S. (2015) “Crime and Development in Africa: Case Study of Nigeria.” In Zvekic, U (ed.) Essays on Crime and Development. Rome: United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute. Akers, R. L. and sellers, C. S. (2004). Criminology Theories: Introduction, Evaluation and Application. Los angeles: Roxbury Publishing company Alemika, E. E. O (2010) History, Context and Crisis of the Police in Nigeria. A Paper Presented at the Biennial Retreat of the Police Service Commission on the theme, Repositioning the Nigeria Police to Meet the Challenges of the Policing a Democratic Society in the twenty-First Century and Beyond, held at the Le Meridian Hotel, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, November 1-4 Alemika, E. E. O. and chukwuma, I. (2000). Police Community Violence. Lagos: Center for Law Enforcement Education of Nigeria ________________ (2003). The Poor and Informal Policing in Nigeria. . Lagos: Center for Law Enforcement Education of Nigeria 155 Aliyu, S. (2011). “Igbos accused Hisbah of Intimidation.” DailyTrust Newspaper, August 24 Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books Alubo, O. (2011). Ethnic Conflicts and Citizenship in Central Nigeria. Ibadan: PEFS Amnesty International 92011). Nigeria: Trapped in the Cycle of Violence. London: Amnesty International Press Anyaeche, C. (2007). “The Nigerian census Figures.” Nigeriaworld. Retrieved from http://www.nigeriaworld.com/articles/2007/jan/112.html Aron, A., Norman, C. C., Aron, E. N. and Lewandowski, G (2009). “7 - Shared Participation in Self-Expanding Activities: Positive Effects on Experienced Marital Quality”. In Noller, P. and Feeney, J. A. (Ed.) Understanding Marriage: Developments in the study of Couples Interaction. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. Aronson, E., and Patnoe, S. (1997). The jigsaw classroom: Building cooperation in the classroom. New York: Longman. Asein, J. O. (1998). Introduction to Nogerian Legal System. Ibadan: Sam Bookman Publishers Asirvatham, E. and Misra, K. K. (2005). Political Theory: Thirteenth Edition. New Delhi: Chand and Company Attahiru, M. S., Al-Aidaros, A. and Md Yusof, S. (2016). “Moderating Role of Hisbah Institution on the Relationship of Religiousity and Islamic Culture to Islamic Work Ethics in Nigeria.” International Review of Management and Marketting, 6(S8) 125-132 Aydemir, M. (2012). The Hisbah and its Economic Functions. An Unpublished Short Essay Submitted to the Department of Islamic Economice, International Islamic University Malaysia. Azoogu, R. (2013). “Democratization Transition and Crime in Nigeria.” Internatuional Journal of Sceintific Research, Vol. 14, pp62-71 Badmus, I.A (2006). “Ethnic Militia Movement and the Crisis of Political order in PostMilitary Nigeria”. Journal of Social Sciences, vol 13 (3) p.192 Baker, B. (2002). “When the Bakassi Boys came to Town: Eastern Nigeria Confronts Vigilantism.” Journal of Contemporary African Studies.20:223-244 ___________(2008). “Security Sector Reform and Non-state Policing in africa.” Being a Paper Presented at Chatham House on 22nd January, 2008. 156 Benda,n B. B. and turney, H. M. (2002). Youthful Violence: problems and Prospects. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 19(1), pp5-34 Beredugo, A. J. (2009). Nigerian Legal System: An Introductory Text. Lagos; Malthouse Press Limited Brendgen, M, Vitro, F. and Lovie, F. (2001). Eactive and proactive Aggression: Predictions to Physical Violence in Different Contexts and moderating Effects of Parental Monitoring and caregiving Behaviour. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 44(2), pp 119-142 Brewer, M. B., and Kramer, R. M. (1985). The psychology of intergroup attitudes and behavior. Annual review of psychology, 36 (1), 219-243. Brown, R. M. (1975). Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism. New York: Oxford University Press. Buur, L. and Jensen, S. (2004). “Vigilantism and the Policing of Everyday Life in South Africa.” African Studies. 63(2), pp 144. Burrows, W. E. (1976). Vigilantism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Chapple, C. L. (2003). “Examining International Violence: Violent role Modelling or Weak Parental Controls? Violence and victims, 18(2), pp 143-162 Chu, D., and Griffey, D. (1985). The contact theory of racial integration: The case of sport. Sociology of Sport Journal, 2 (4), 323-333. Chukwuma, I. (2002). “Vigilante policing in nigeria.” Law Enforcement Review, July – September, 2000 ______________ (2000). “Responding to Vigilantism.” Human Rights Dialogue, Series 2, No. 8 Clarke, R. V. and Cornish, D. B. (1985). “Modelling Offenders’ Decisions: A Framework for Resaearch and Policy.” Crime and Justice, Vol 1(6) Clarke, R. V. and Pat, M. (1988). “The British Gas Suicide Story and Its implications for Prevention.” In Michael Tonry and norval morris (eds0 91988). Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, Vol. 10 Cohen, E. G., and Lotan, R. A. (1995). Producing equal-status interaction in the heterogeneous classroom. American Educational Research Journal, 32 (1), 99-120. 157 Cohen, L. E. and Felson, M. (1979). “Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach.” American Sociological Review. Vol. 44 (4) Conklin, J. E. (2001). Criminology: Seventh Edition. London: Allyn and Bacon ____________ (2004) Criminology: Eighth Edition. Boston: Pearson Press Cook, M. (2000). Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thoughts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Culberson, W. C. (1990). Vigilantism: Political History of Private Power in America. Westport Conn.: Praeger Dambazau, A. B. (2007). Criminology and Criminal Justice. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. Del Buono, V. (2003). “In Search of Security.” A Paper Presented at in Search of Security: An International Conference, Canada, February 19-22, 2003 Dixon, J., Durrheim, K., & Tredoux, C. (2005). Beyond the optimal contact strategy: A reality check for the contact hypothesis. American Psychologist, 60, 697–711. Ellis, S. (2016). This Present Darkness: A History of Nigerian Organized Crime. London: Hurst and Company. Elsergany, R. (2010). “Hisbah in the Islamic Administration System.” Retrieved on May 15, http://www.en.islamichistory.com./hisbah-islamic2016 from administration.html Everett, J. A. C and Onu, D (2013). Intergroup Contact Theory: Past, Present and Future. The Inquisitive Mind. Volume 2, issue 17 Falola, T. (2001). “Violence in nigeria: The Crises of religious Politics and secular ideologies.” Canadian Journal of African studies, 35(3): 601-3 Galadima, H. and Mahadi, S. (2013). Study on Lessons Learned in Responses to Violent Conflicts in Nigeria Since 2009: Northern State Governors’ Initiatives. Abuja: NSRP Gibbons, D. C. (1994). Talking about Crime and Criminals: Problems and Issues in Theory Development in Criminology. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc. Goldstein, H. (1977). The Urban Police Functions. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Ballinger Publishing 158 Gwarzo, T. H. (2003). “Activities of Islamic civic Associations in the Northwest of Nigeria: with Particular Reference to Kano State.” Africam Spectrum, Vol. 38, N0. 3, pp 289-318 Harnischfeger, J. (2004). “Sharia and Control over Territory: Conflicts between Settlers’ and Indigenes in Nigeria.” African Affairs, 103(12): 431-452 Heald, S. (2007). “Controlling Crime and Corruption from Below: Sungusungu in Kenya.” International Relations, Vo. 21, pp 183 Herrenkohl, T. I., Hill, K. G., Chung, I., Guo, J., Abott, R. and hawkins, J. D. (2003). “Protective factors against serious Violent Behaviour in Adolescence: A Prospective Study of Aggressive Children.” Social Work, 27(3), pp 179-191 Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Berkely, CA: University of California Press Hiskett, M. 919730. The Sword of Truth: The Life and times of Shehu Usman Dan Fodio. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press Hobbes, T. (1651). Leviathan. London: Penguin Books Human Rights Watch (2004). “Political Sharia: Human Rights and Islamic Law in Northern Nigeria. Human Rights Watch Report, Vol. 16. No. 9, pp 35-6 Human Rights Watch and Center for Law Enforcement Education in Nigeria (2002). The Bakassi Boys: The Legitimacy of Murder and torture. New York: Human Rights Watch Ibrahim, A. (2019). Fundamentals of Hisbah Strategic in developing of Human in Developing Human Civilization. Academy of Entrepreneurship Journal, Volum 25. ___________ (2015). “Accontability (Hisbah) in Islamic Management: The Philosophy and Ethics behind its Implementation.” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol. 5, No. 8, August 2015 Ibrahim, N., Abdul Majeed, A., Darbaalah, E. D. (1997). In Pursuit of Allah’s Pleasure. London: Al-Firdous Ibrahim, Y. A. and Abubakar, S. (2006). “Nigeria: You Can’t ban Hisbah, Shekarau tells IG.” DailyTrust, February 10 Ikoh, M. U. (2013). “The Interface of Formal and Informal policing Structures in Calabar Metropolis: Implications for community policing in nigeria. Journal of Power, Politics and Governance, Vol. 1 (10, pp 47 159 Immigration and refugee Board of Canada (2008). “Response to Information request (RIRs).” Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada Annual Report, NGA102889.E, pp1-6 Inyang, J. D. and Abraham, U. E. (2013). “The nigerian Experience.” In M. Shaw (ed.) Crime and Policing Transitional Societies. Johannesburg: Konrad Adenauer Stiftung and South African Institute of international Affairs Jackman, M.R., and Crane, M. (1986). “Some of my best friends are black...”: interracial friendship and whites’ racial attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly 50, pp. 459– 86 Jauhari, A. (2011). Colonial and Post-Colonial Human Rights Violations in Nigeria. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol. 5: May 22 Jemibewom, D. (2001). Policing Nigeria: The Post-Colonial Experience. Lagos: Malthouse Jibril, M. (1991). “minority-Languages and Lingua Francas in Nigerian Education.” In E. N. Emenanjo (ed.). Multilingualism: Minority Languages and Language Policy in Nigeria. Agbor: Central Books. Johnson, B. R., Jang, S. J., Larson, D. B. and DeLi, S. (2001). “Does Adolescence Religious Commitment Mattaer? A Re-examination of the Effects of Religiousity on Delinquency. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20911), 1495-1518 Johnston, L. (1996). What is Vigilantism? The British Journal of Criminology, Volume 36, Issue 2, Pages 220–236 Karl, M. (2002). This House has Fallen: Nigeria in Crisis. New York: Oxford University Press Khan, M. A. (19830. “Al-Hisba and the Islamic Economy.” In Sheikh Al-imam Ibn Taymiyya’s Public Duties in Islam: The Transition of the Hisbah. London: Islamic Fundation. Krejcie, R. V. and Morgan, D. W. (1970). “Determining Sample Size for Research Activities.” Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1(3), pp 607-610 Kurawa, A. (2004). Mallam Ibrahim Shekarau and the Press: An Analytical Survey. Kano: Trans-West Africa Limited. Kurd, M. A.. (1927). Kitab Al-Sham: Vol. 5. Damascus: NA Landis D., Hope R.O., and Day H.R. (1984). “Training for desegregation in the military.” In N. Miller & M. B. Brewer 1984, Groups in Contact: The Psychology of Desegregation, pp. 257–78. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. 160 Larson, R. C. (1978). Police Deployment from Urban Public Safety Systems. Vol. 1. Lexington, Massachusett: Lexington Books Liddle, A. M. and Golschorps, L. R. (1994). Interagency Crime Prevention: Organizing Local Delivery. CPU Paper 52. London Hope actions. Lilly, J. R., Cullen, F. T. and Ball, R. A. (1995). Criminological Theory: Contexts and Consequences (2nd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Locke, J. (1690). Second Treaties of Government. New Haven, C. T.: Yale University Press. Marenin, O. (1985). “Policing Nigeria: Control and Autonomy in the Exercise of Coercion.” African Studies Review, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp 73-93. Mariolis, P. (2001). Data accuracy: How good are our usual indicators? Statistics Canada Symposium. October 17, Hull, Quebec, Canada. Merton, R. K. (1957). Social Theory and Social Structure. New York: Free Press of Glencoe Minaar, A. (2001). The new Vigilantism in the Post-1994 South Africa: Crime Prevention or an Expansion of Lawlessness. Pretoria: Institute for Human Rights and Criminal Justice Studies. Muhammad, M. (2011). The History of Kano. Lagos: Malthouse Muhammad-Noor, M. F. (2014). “The Function of Hisbah and its Contemporary Context.” In Shariah Aspects in Business and Finance (SABF) Muhtar, H. (1987). Public Duties in Islam: 2nd Edition. Leicester, United Kingdom: The Islamic Foundation, Markfield Dawah Center Ndiameeh, B. (2009). “Kano Hisbah Police Superior to Nigeria Police.” The Guardian, June 15 Network of Human Rights Violations Monitors (2006). The State of Human Rights in Nigeria: Lagos: NHRVM Network on Police Reform in Nigeria (2007). Criminal Force?: Torture, Abuse and Extrajudicial Killings by Police in Nigeria. Lagos: NOPRIN Newman, D. (1972). Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through Urban Design. New York: Architectural Press. Nina, D. (2000). “Dirty Harry is Back: Vigilantism in South Africa.” African Security Review, Vol. 9(1) 161 Nuhu, J. (2004). “Hisbah: Police Will Not Abdicate Role – IGP.” DailyTrust, November 9 Nuraddeen, U. (2010). Public Perceptions on Police Roles in Funtua, Daura and Katsina Metropolis. An Unpublished M.Sc Thesis Submitted to the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Bayero University, Kano. Nwauche, E. S. (2014). “The Nigeria Police Force and the Enforcement of Religious Criminal Law.” African Human Rights Law Journal. 14, 203 -216 Nwoko, M. I. (1988). Basic World political Theories. Nekede: Institute of Philosophy Nye, F. I. (1975). Family Relationships and Delinquent Behavior (2. Repr. ed.). Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press Oakeshott, M. (1975). The Vocabulary of a Modern European State. Political studies, Volume 23 issue 2-3, pages 319-341 O’Connor, T. (1999). Definitions of Community Policing. In L. S. Miller and K. M. Hess (2002). The Police in the Community: Strategies for the 21st Century (3rd Edition). Belmont, Califf.: Wardsworth Odenkunle, F. (1979). “The Nigeria Police Force: A Preliminary Assessment of Functional Performance.” International Journal of Sociology of Law. Ojukwu, E. C. S. (2011). Discovering the Police: An Excursion into Police Personality, Powers, Performance and Prudence. Ibadan: Gold Press Limited. Obilade, A. O. (1979). The Nigerian Legal System. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited Offiong, D. A. (2001). Secret Cults in Nigerian Tertiary Institutions. Enugu: Forth Dimension Publishing Company. Okeke, V. O. S. (2013). “Community Policing, Vigilante Security Apparatus, and Security Challenges in Nigeria: A Lessons from Britain and igbo traditional society of Nigeria. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences. Vol. 14(II), pp 306-323 Olaniyi, R. (2005). Community Vigilantes in Metropolitant Nigeria. Ibadan: IFRA Olsson, S. (2008). “Apostacy in Egypt: Contemporary Cases of Isbah.” The Muslim World, 98(1), pp 95-115 Oronsaye, A. O. and Igbafe, A. A. (2012). “Ethnic Militia in Nigeria: An Assessment of the Terrain of Conflicts, Violence and crimes. African Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 2(1), pp 3-18 162 Ostein, P. (2007). Sharia Implementation in Nigeria 1999-2006: A Source Book. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited Otto, G. and Ukpere, W. I. (2012). “National Security and Development in Nigeria. African Journal of Business Management. Vol. 6, pp 23 Paden, J. (2005). Muslim Civic cultures and Conflict Resolution: The Challenges of Democratic Federalism in Nigeria. Washington DC: Brookings Institution Press Petters, R. (2006). Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law. Cambridge: Cambridge university Press. Petters, R. and Barends, M. (2001). The reintroduction of Islamic Criminal Law in Northern Nigeria: A Study Conducted on behalf of the European Commission. Lagos: European Commission Pettigrew, T.F. (1998) Intergroup Contact Theory. Annual Review Psychology, 49, 65-85. Pratten, D. (2008). “The Politics of Protection: Perspective on Vigilantism in Nigeria.” The Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 78(1), pp 1-15. Radda, S.I. (1994) “The activities of vigilante groups and stigmatization: An assessment.” Delivered at the Sociology Department Bayero University, Kano, Seminar Series, 1994. Radda, S. I. (2005). Criminal Justice Administration and Human Rights Violations in Nigeria: An Analysis of Detention Without Trial. An Unpublished PhD Thesis Submitted to the Department of Sociology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria. Radda, S.I. (1999) “Discourse on human rights and a review of motivating factors for human rights violation in Nigeria." Being a paper delivered to the Department of Sociology, A.B.U, Samaru Zaria, 1999. Radda, S.I. (2014) “Elements and Constituents of a National Policy on Public Safety and Security” Being a Paper Presented at a 2-Day Academia Consultative Forum Organized by the Ministry of Police Affairs Held at Ajuji Hotel, Gudu District, FCT, Abuja, 8th-9thOctober, 2014. Radda, S. I. et al. (2011). The Nature of Police Patrol in Kano Metropolis. Kano: Benchmark Publishers Limited. Rankin, J. H. (1979). “Changing Attitudes Towards Capital punishment. Social Forces, 58: 194-211 163 Reid, S. T. (1997). Crime and Criminology. Boston: Mc-GrawHill Reiner, R. (2000). The Politics of the Police. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Reiss, A. J. (1951). "Delinquency as the Failure of Personal and Social Controls". American Sociological Review. 16 (2): 196–207. Resnick, M. D., Ireland, M. and Borowsky, I. (2004). “Youth Violence Perpetration: What Protects? What Predicts? Findings from the National Longitudinal Studyof Adolescence Health. Journal of Adolescence Health, 35(5), pp1-10 Ritzer, G. (2012). Sociological Theory: Eighth Edition. New York; Mc_GrawHill. Robbert, J. S. and Stephen, W. R. (1999). “Systematic Social Observation of Public Spaces: A Look at Disorder in Urban Neighbourhoods.” American Journal of Sociology, 105(2), pp 603-651. Rosemberg, M. (2003). Nonviolent Communication: A Language of Life. California: Puddle Dancer Press. Rosenbaum, H. H. and Sederberg, P. C. (1974). “Vigilantism: An Analysis of Establishment Violence.” Comparative Politics, Vol. 6(4), pp 541-570. Ross, E. A. (1912). Social Control. New York: MacMillan Sabine, G. H. and Thorson, T. L. (1973). A History of Political Theory: Forth Edition. Calcuta, New delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. PVT Ltd. Sami, Z. (2005). Law and Power in the Islamic World. Cambridge: University Press Saguy, T., Tausch, N., Dovidio, J. F., and Pratto, F. (2009). The Irony of Harmony: Intergroup Contact Can Produce False Expectations for Equality. Psychological Science, 20, 114-121. Scharf, W. (2000). “Community Justice and Community Policing in Post-Apartheid South Africa. How Appropriate are the Justice system of Africa?” A Paper Presented at the International Workshop on the Rule of Law and Development: Citizen Security, Rights and Life Choices in Low and Middle Income Countries. Institute for Development Studies, University of Sussex, 1-3 june, 2000. Sherif, M. (1966). "Theoretical analysis of the individual-group relationship in a social situation." In Gordon DiRenzo (Ed.), Concepts, Theory, and Explanation in the Social Sciences. New York: Random House, 1966. Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., & Sherif, C. W. (1961). Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robbers Cave experiment (Vol. 10). Norman, 164 OK: University Book Exchange.Schmalleger, F. (2011). Criminology: A Brief Introduction. Boston: Prentice Hall. Sekhonyane, M. (2002). “Violent Justice, vigilantism and the State’s Response.” ISS Monograph Series, No. 45. Sellin, T. (1938). Culture, Conflict and Crime. New York: Social Science Research Council. Shaw, M. (2000). Crime and Policing in Transitions: Comparative Perspectives. Johannesburg: SAILA. Siegel, L. J. (2009). Essentials of Criminal Justice. Belmont: Wardsworth Cengage Learning. Siegel, L. J. and McComic, G. (2006). Criminology in Canada: Theories, Patterns and Typologies (3rd edition). Toronto: Thompson. Stumpf, S. E. (1971). Philosophy: History and Problems. New York: McGraw-Hill. Stack, S., Cao, L., Adamzyck, A. (2007). “Crime Volume and Law and Order Culture.” Justice Quarterly, 24:291-308. Suberu, R. (2009). “Religion and Institutions: Federalism and the Management of Conflicts over Sharia in Nigeria.” Journal of International Development, 21547-560. Sule, K. A. (2015). The Need for Human Rights Education among the Personnel of the Nigeria Police Force in Kano Metropolis. An Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis submitted to the Depatment of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Bayero University, Kano – Nigeria. Tamuno, T. N. (2003) ‘The Nigeria Police Force and public security and safety’ in Fourchard, L. and Albert, I. O. (eds), Security, Crime and Segregation in West African Cities since the Nineteenth Century. Paris: Karthala, and Ibadan: IFRA. _____________(1970). The Police in Modern Nigeria 1861-1965: Origin, Development and Role. Ibadan: University of Ibadan Press. Tertsakian, C. (2003). The O’odua Peoples Congress: Fighting Violence with Violence. New York: Human Rights Watch. The Research advisors (2006). “Sample Size.” http//www.researchadvisors.com/tools/SampleSize.htm Retrieved from Tilley, N. (1992). Safer Cities and Community Safety Strategies. CPU Paper 38. London Hope actions. 165 Toby, J. (1957). Social Disorganization and Stake in Conformity: Complementary Factors in the Predatory Behavior of Hoodlums". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 48 (1): 12–17. Trojanowicz, R and Bucqueroux, B. (1994). Community Policing: A Framework for Action. Cincinnati: Anderson. Tundu, M. (2015). Erspective on Vigilantism in the Republic of Zimbabwe.” Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 6(551), pp323. Uthman, M. B. (2003). “Protecting the Rights of Accused Persons through the Proper Implementation of the Sharia Procedural Guarantees in Nortehern Nigeria.” In Ezeiolo, J. N., Ladan, M. T. and Afolabi-Akiyode, A. (eds) (2003). Sharia Implementation in Nigeria. Zaria: University Press Weinmann, G. (2007). Islamic Criminal Law In Northern Nigeria: Politics, Religion and Judicial Practice. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam. Wilcox, P. Kenneth, C. L. and Hunt, S. (2003). Criminal Circumstance: A Dynamic Multicontextual Criminal Opportunity Theory. New York: Walter de Gruyter. Wilson, J. Q. and Kelling, G. E. (1982). “Broken Windows: The Police and Neighbourhood Safety.” The Atlantic, March. Statutory Documents The 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The 1943 Police Acts as Amended in 1990. The Jigawa State Hisbah Advisory Committee (Establishment) Law, 2003. The Kano State Hisbah Board (Establishment) Law, 2003. The Kano State Traffick (Amendment) Law, 2004. The Zanfara State Hisbah Commission (Establishment) Law, 2003. 166 APPEMDIX I DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO QUESTIONNAIRE Dear Respondent, I am a PhD student in the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, conducting a research on The Role of Complementary Policing Organizations in Crime Prevention and Control: A Study of Hisbah in the Northwest, Nigeria. It is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy degree in Sociology (PhD Sociology), through the School of Post-Graduate Studies, Bayero University, Kano. The questions asked are purely for academic use and will be treated with utmost confidentiality. You are expected to respond to the questions by circling or ticking the options that appropriately reflect your opinion or by expressing your opinions in writing where applicable. Section A: Socio-economic and Demographic Characteristics S/N ITEM OPTIONS CODE SKIP 1. Age 18 – 27 years 1 28 – 37 years 2 38 – 47 years 3 48 years and Above 4 2. Sex Male 1 Female 2 3. Marital Status Single 1 Married 2 Divorced 3 Widowed 4 Separated 5 4. Highest Educational Primary School 1 Qualification Certificate 2 WASSCE/SSCE 3 Diploma/NCE 4 Degree/HND 5 Graduate Certificate 6 Others (Specify) 5. Occupation Farming 1 Civil/Public Service 2 Trading 3 Craftsmanship 4 Artisanship 5 Unemployed 6 Others (Specify) 7 167 S/N 6. ITEM Monthly Income 7. Religion 8. State of Residence 9. Place of Residence OPTIONS Below N5,000 N5,000 – N50,000 N50,001 – N100,000 N100,001 – N150,000 N150,001 – N200,000 Above N200,000 Islam Christianity Traditional None Jigawa Kano Kebbi Zamfara CODE 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 SKIP Section B: Part A: The contributions of Hisbah activities in Crime Prevention and Control in the Northwest Nigeria S/N ITEM OPTIONS CODE SKIP 9. Are you aware of Hisbah Yes 1 crime prevention activities in No 2 Q10, this State? Q11 & Q12 1 10. Which of the following do Street Patrol you think is the major crime Fight against Immoral 2 3 prevention and control Conducts 4 activity engaged by Hisbah in Raids on Criminal Hideout 5 this state? (Tick only one, Surveillance 6 please.) Rehabilitation Programmes Community Sensitization 11. Based on your answer in 10 above can we agree that the above activity has contributed to crime prevention and control in this State? Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Strongly Disagree Disagree 12. Looking at your answer in Desirable Q11 above what can you say Not Desirable about the Hisbah’s policing activities? 168 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 S/N 13. 14. ITEM How do you describe the nature of Hisbah’s contribution to crime prevention and control in this state? If you are asked to advice government on Hisbah what would you likely suggest? OPTIONS CODE Complementary to Police 1 Problematic/Disservice to the 2 Police No impact at all 3 SKIP Hisbah should continue in its present form 1 Hisbah should be restructured 2 Hisbah should be scrapped 3 Part B: Assessment of the ways in which the Methods of Operation used by Hisbah assist in Crime Prevention and Control in the Northwest Nigeria S/N ITEM OPTIONS CODE SKIP 15. In which of the following broad Problem Solving (Proactive) 1 category will you classify the Incident Driven (Reactive) 2 methods of operation used by Coercive/Forcible 3 Hisbah in crime prevention and Discriminatory against Non- 4 control in this State? Musims 16. What is your assessment of the Excellent 1 Hisbah’s methods of operation in Good 2 crime prevention and control Fair 3 activities? Poor 4 Very Poor 5 17. Do you agree that the above Strongly Agreed 1 method of operation used by Agreed 2 Hisbah has contributed to crime Undecided 3 prevention and control in this Strongly Disagreed 4 State? Disagreed 5 18. What is your suggestion on the It should be maintained 1 Hisbah’s method of operation? It should be redesigned 2 It should be completely 3 changed 169 Part C: Analysis of the successes recorded by Hisbah across States in Crime Prevention and Control in the region. S/N ITEM OPTIONS CODE SKIP 19. Do you share the opinion that Successful 1 Hisbah has been ---------- in Not Successful 2 Q20 its crime prevention and Q21 control efforts? S/N 20. ITEM If your response in 19 above is Yes, then indicate the major category of crimes that Hisbah has been more successful in preventing and controlling in this State: OPTIONS CODE Violent Crimes (such as 1 murder, rape, robbery, hate crimes, terrorism, political thuggery, etho-religious violence, alcoholism, etc) 2 Property Crimes (such as burglary, theft, shoplifting, fraud, embezzlement, arson, 3 etc) Enterprise Crimes (such as 4 corruption, cybercrime, bribery, blackmail, conspiracy, etc) Public Order Crimes (such as gambling, sexual offences, prostitution, substance abuse, etc) 20. 21. What other areas of the crime prevention and control do you think Hisbah has been successful in so far? Mention any three In your understanding, what Integrity of the Hisbah personnel do you think is responsible Public hatred of the Police for the successes mention in Government’s support of Hisbah Q16 above. 170 1 2 3 SKIP Part D: The Nature of Relationship between the NPF and the Hisbah and its on Crime Prevention and Control in the Northwest of Nigeria. S/N ITEM OPTIONS COD E 22. Are you aware of the crime Aware 1 prevention and control activities of Not Aware 2 the police? 23. How do you assess the activities of Excellent 1 the Nigeria Police Force on crime Very Good 2 prevention and control in this state? Good 3 Fair 4 Poor 5 Very Poor 6 Extremely Poor 7 S/N 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. ITEM Do you think that the opinion you expressed in 23 above could be a replica of the opinions of other residents of this State? Which institution would you prefer to process any criminal case involving you? Explain the reasons for your response in Q20 above OPTIONS Yes No CODE 1 2 The Nigeria police Force The Hisbah 1 2 In your opinion how do you look at the Hisbah? Do you think that the opinion you express in 25 above could lead to: A complementary to the NPF An alternative to the NPF/ Poor Hisbah – Police Relationship Good Hisbah–Police Relationship How do you think the nature of the Positively Hisbah – Police relationship Negatively expressed in 23 above will affect crime prevention and control in this State? 171 1 2 1 2 1 2 influence SKIP Q23 to Q29 SKIP Examination the challenges faced by Hisbah in carrying out their duties in the Northwest, Nigeria. S/N 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. ITEM Do you think that inadequate funding is a challenge faced by Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? Is poor staff training a challenge facing Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? Is lack of basic operational equipment a challenge facing Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? OPTIONS Yes No CODE 1 2 Yes No 1 2 Yes No 1 2 Do you consider lack of public support as a challenge to Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? Do you think Poor remuneration is a challenge to Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? Do you consider human rights violation a challenge facing Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? Could political interference be considered a challenge facing Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? Do you consider rivalry with the police a challenge facing Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? Do you agree that the challenges have negatively affected crime prevention and control efforts in this State? Yes No 1 2 Yes No 1 2 Yes No 1 2 Yes No 1 2 Yes No 1 2 Strongly Agreed Agree Strongly Disagree Disagreed 172 1 2 3 4 SKIP 39. What suggestions would you proffer on how to improve the performance of Hisbah in relation to crime prevention and control in this State? Thank you very much for your cooperation and time Kawu Adamu Sule May, 2017 173 APPEMDIX II DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR HISBAH OFFICIALS I am a PhD student in the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, conducting a research on The Role of Complementary Policing Organizations in Crime Prevention and Control: A Study of Hisbah in the Northwest, Nigeria. It is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy degree in Sociology (PhD Sociology), through the School of Post-Graduate Studies, Bayero University, Kano. The questions asked are purely for academic use and will be treated with utmost confidentiality. You are expected to respond to the questions by expressing your opinions freely. The contributions of the activities of Hisbah to crime prevention and control 1. What are the reasons for the establishment of the Hisbah in this State? 2. What are the complementary policing activities that Hisbah is known for? 3. Does the Hisbah engage in crime prevention and control activities? 4. How do the Hisbah’s activities contribute to crime prevention and control in this state? 174 Assessment of the ways in which the methods of operation used by Hisbah assist in crime prevention and control 1. What are the methods of operation used by Hisbah’ in crime prevention and control? 2. Do you think that the Hisbah’s method of operation has contributed in crime prevention and control in this State? 3. What do you think is should be known about the Hisbah’s methods of operation in crime prevention and control which set them apart from those used by the police? 4. Do you think that Hisbah’s method of operation is good enough to be adopted by other complementary policing groups or even the police? The successes recorded by Hisbah in crime prevention and control. 1. How can you describe the overall performance of Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this state? 2. In your own opinion, do you consider the Hisbah’s crime prevention and control activities in this state as being successful? 3. Can you give examples of some of the successes recorded by Hisbah in this state? 4. What, in your own opinion, is responsible for such successes? 5. What measures do you think can assist in ensuring more successes for the Hisbah in the future? The nature of relationship between the NPF and the Hisbah and its influence on crime prevention and control activities of the Hisbah 1. What is the nature of Hisbah – police relationship in this State? 175 2. Does the Hisbah has office for interagency cooperation? 3. In what ways does the Hisbah’s method of operation differ with that of the police? 4. What factors do you think are responsible for poor Hisbah-police relationship in this state? 5. How do you think such a poor relationship will affect the performance of Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? 6. Is there any improvement in the Hisbah-police relationship in this state? 7. What, in your own perception, is responsible for such an improvement? The challenges faced by Hisbah in carrying out their duties in the Northwest, Nigeria. 1. Do you consider political interference a problem to Hisbah in this state? 2. Is funding a challenge to Hisbah in its crime prevention and control activities? 3. Do observance and promotion of human rights constitutes a problem to Hisbah corps in the conduct of their duties in this state? 4. Are you aware of any complaint against Hisbah by the members of the public? 5. What do you think are the causes of such complaints? 6. Do the complaints against Hisbah persist? 7. What, in your understanding is responsible for the persistence of such complaints? 8. What other problems can you think of that slow down the ability of Hisbah to prevent and control crimes in this state? 176 APPEMDIX III DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE PERSONNEL OF THE NIGERIA POLICE FORCE I am a PhD student in the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, conducting a research on The Role of Complementary Policing Organizations in Crime Prevention and Control: A Study of Hisbah in the Northwest, Nigeria. It is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy degree in Sociology (PhD Sociology), through the School of Post-Graduate Studies, Bayero University, Kano. The questions asked are purely for academic use and will be treated with utmost confidentiality. You are expected to respond to the questions by expressing your opinions freely. The contributions of Hisbah activities to crime prevention and control 1. As a police officer, are you aware of the activities of Hisbah in this State? 2. Do you consider Hisbah a complementary policing organization that assist the police in crime prevention and control in this State? 3. In your own opinion, how do you think the activities of the Hisbah have contributed to crime prevention and control in this state? Hisbah’s methods of operation and crime prevention and control 1. What are your feelings about the Hisbah’s method of operation? 2. In what ways do the Hisbah’s methods of operation differ from that of the police? 177 3. Does the Hisbah’s method of operation constitute a problem to the police? Explain how. The successes recorded by Hisbah in crime prevention and control. 1. Do you consider Hisbah as a successful policing institution? 2. What successes could be credited to Hisbah in its crime prevention and control activities? 3. Do you think Hisbah should be made statutorily stronger? 4. What measures do you think can assist in improving the institution of Hisbah in crime prevention and control? The nature of relationship between the NPF and the Hisbah and its influence on crime prevention and control 1. What is the nature of Hisbah – police relationship in this State? 2. Are there jurisdictional and operational conflicts between the Hisbah and the Police in this state? 3. What factors do you think are responsible for poor Hisbah-police relationship in this state (if any)? 4. How do you think such a poor relationship will affect the performance of Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? 5. Has there been any improvement in the Hisbah-police relationship in this state so far? 6. What, in your own perception, is responsible for such an improvement? 178 The challenges faced by Hisbah in carrying out their duties 1. Can you highlight some of the problems that impede the ability of Hisbah to carryout effective crime prevention and control activities? 2. Which of the problems do you consider the most troublesome for the Hisbah? 3. What suggestions can you give on how to improve the effectiveness of Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this state? 179 APPEMDIX IV DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR PERSONS WHO HAD CONTACT WITH HISBAH I am a PhD student in the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, conducting a research on The Role of Complementary Policing Organizations in Crime Prevention and Control: A Study of Hisbah in the Northwest, Nigeria. It is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy degree in Sociology (PhD Sociology), through the School of Post-Graduate Studies, Bayero University, Kano. The questions asked are purely for academic use and will be treated with utmost confidentiality. You are expected to respond to the questions by expressing your opinions freely. The contributions of Hisbah activities to crime prevention and control 1. Have you ever had any contact with the Hisbah? 2. What was the reason for the contact? 3. Based on your encounter with the Hisbah how do you describe their activities in this State? 4. Do you think those activities contribute to crime prevention and control? If yes, explain in what ways. 180 The role of the Hisbah’s methods of operation to crime prevention and control 1. In one word, describe the method of operation used by Hisbah in handling your case. 2. Were you satisfied with the way the Hisbah dealt with your case? 3. What were the reasons for the satisfaction or nonsatisfaction? 4. Does the Hisbah’s method of operation differ significantly with that of the Nigeria Police Force? 5. Do you think that the Hisbah’s method of operation has contributed to crime prevention and control in this State? Expalin why and how. The successes recorded by Hisbah in crime prevention and control. 1. Do you consider Hisbah as a successful policing institution? 2. What successes, in your own opinion, could be credited to Hisbah in its crime prevention and control activities? The challenges faced by Hisbah in carrying out their duties in the Northwest, Nigeria. 1. Can you highlight some of the problems that in your opinion impede the ability of the Hisbah to carryout effective crime prevention and control activities? 2. Which of the problems do you consider the most troublesome? 3. What suggestions can you give on how to improve the effectiveness of Hisbah in crime prevention and control? 181 APPEMDIX V DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR OFFICIALS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC PROSECUTION I am a PhD student in the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, conducting a research on The Role of Complementary Policing Organizations in Crime Prevention and Control: A Study of Hisbah in the Northwest, Nigeria. It is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy degree in Sociology (PhD Sociology), through the School of Post-Graduate Studies, Bayero University, Kano. The questions asked are purely for academic use and will be treated with utmost confidentiality. You are expected to respond to the questions by expressing your opinions freely. The contributions of Hisbah activities in crime prevention and control 1. What are reasons for the establishment of Hisbah in this State? 2. What are the complementary policing activities that Hisbah emphasized on? 3. Does the Hisbah have prosecution powers in this State? 4. Do the Hisbah need such powers? 5. In what ways do you think the above powers or lack of powers could affect the performance of Hisbah in crime prevention and control? 6. In your own opinion, do you consider the activities of Hisbah as contributory to crime prevention and control in this state? 182 The contributions of the Hisbah’s methods of operation in crime prevention and control 1. What are your feelings about the Hisbah’s methods of operation? 2. Does the method of operation use by Hisbah comply with what is contained in the statutory document regarding their policing role? 3. How do you think the Hisbah’s method of operation constitute a problem to the police? The successes recorded by Hisbah in crime prevention and control. 1. Do you consider Hisbah as a successful policing institution? 2. What successes could be credited to Hisbah in its crime prevention and control activities? Nature of the Hisbah’s relationship with the NPF and its influence on crime prevention and control activities 1. What is the nature of Hisbah – police relationship in this State? 2. Do you associate poor Hisbah-police relationship with jurisdictional overlappings? 3. How do you think such a poor relationship will affect the performance of Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? 4. Has there been any improvement in the Hisbah-police relationship in this state? 5. What, in your own perception, is responsible for such an improvement? 6. What do you think should be done to further strengthen the Hisbah-police relationship in this state? 183 The challenges faced by Hisbah in carrying out their policing duties. 1. Can you highlight some of the constitutional constraints that impede the ability of Hisbah to carryout effective crime prevention and control activities? 2. Which of these do you consider more devastating as far as crime prevention and control is concerned? 3. What suggestions can you give on how to improve the effectiveness of Hisbah in crime prevention and control? 184 APPEMDIX VI DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR OFFICIALS OF THE NATIONAL HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSION I am a PhD student in the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, conducting a research on The Role of Complementary Policing Organizations in Crime Prevention and Control: A Study of Hisbah in the Northwest, Nigeria. It is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy degree in Sociology (PhD Sociology), through the School of Post-Graduate Studies, Bayero University, Kano. The questions asked are purely for academic use and will be treated with utmost confidentiality. You are expected to respond to the questions by expressing your opinions freely. The contributions of Hisbah activities in crime prevention and control 1. What is your overall assessment of Hisbah’s respect for human rights in this State? 2. How do you think the above respect/ lack of respect for human rights can affect the performance of Hisbah in crime prevention and control? 3. Looking at their antecedents, do you consider the activities of Hisbah as contributory to crime prevention and control in this state? The methods of operation used by Hisbah in crime prevention and control 1. What are your feelings about the Hisbah’s methods of operation? 185 2. Do the methods of operation use by Hisbah promote and protect the inalienable rights of the citizens? 3. How do you think the Hisbah’s method of operation constitute a problem to human rights observance? The successes recorded by Hisbah across states in crime prevention and control. 1. Do you consider Hisbah as a successful policing institution? 2. What successes could be credited to Hisbah in its crime prevention and control activities as far as human rights is concerned? The nature of relationship between the NPF and the Hisbah and its influence on crime prevention and control 1. What is the nature of Hisbah – police relationship in this State? 2. Are there human rights issues in the Hisbah-police relationship? 3. How do you think such a poor relationship will affect the performance of Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? 4. Has there been any improvement in the Hisbah-police relationship in this state? 5. What, in your own perception, is responsible for such an improvement? 6. What do you think should be done to further strengthen the Hisbah-police relationship in this state? The challenges faced by Hisbah in carrying out their duties. 1. Do you receive complaints against Hisbah on human rights breaches in this state? 186 2. What categories of people are more likely to have their rights being violated by the Hisbah personnel? 3. Can you highlight some other human rights issues that impede the ability of Hisbah to carryout effective crime prevention and control activities? 4. Which of these do you consider more devastating as far as crime prevention and control is concerned? 5. What suggestions can you give on how to improve the effectiveness of Hisbah in crime prevention and control? 187 APPEMDIX VII DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR NON-MUSLIM RESIDENTS I am a PhD student in the Department of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, Bayero University, Kano, conducting a research on The Role of Complementary Policing Organizations in Crime Prevention and Control: A Study of Hisbah in the Northwest, Nigeria. It is in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy degree in Sociology (PhD Sociology), through the School of Post-Graduate Studies, Bayero University, Kano. The questions asked are purely for academic use and will be treated with utmost confidentiality. You are expected to respond to the questions by expressing your opinions freely. The contributions of Hisbah activities in crime prevention and control 1. Have you ever been in contact with the Hisbah’s officials? 2. How fair are the Hisbah officials in terms of their dealings with non-Muslims? 3. How do you think the above respect/lack of respect for the rights of non-Muslim residents is likely to affect the performance of Hisbah in crime prevention and control in this State? 4. Do the policing activities engage by Hisbah contribute to crime prevention and control in this State? 188 The methods of operation used by Hisbah in crime prevention and control 1. In one word, describe the method of operation used by Hsbah in crime prevention and control. 2. Reactive of proactive: which of the aforementioned terms best explain the method of operation used by Hisbah in crime prevention and control? 3. Does the Hisbah corps have respect for the rights of the non-Muslim residents? 4. Have you ever had, or heard of, any complaints bordering on human rights breaches by Hisbah against the non-Muslim residents of this State? 5. Are you happy with the manner in which the Hisbah corps coordinates their duties? 6. Do you think that the Hisbah’s method of operations has contributed in crime prevention and control in this State? The successes recorded by Hisbah in crime prevention and control. 1. Do you consider Hisbah as a successful policing institution? 2. What successes could be credited to Hisbah in its crime prevention and control activities? The challenges faced by Hisbah in carrying out their duties. 1. Can you highlight some of the problems faced by non-Muslims in their dealings with Hisbah? 2. Which of the problems do you consider the most troublesome? 3. What suggestions can you give on how to improve the relationship between Hisbah and non-Muslim communities in this state? 189