SENDEBAR

ISSN 1130-5509 | E-ISSN 2340-2415 | DEPÓSITO LEGAL GR/841-1990 sEndEbar es una revista internacional de investigación, de periodicidad anual, que publica trabajos relacionados con la Traducción y la Interpretación. Fue fundada en 1990 por Luis Márquez Villegas y su sede se encuentra ubicada en la Facultad de Traducción e Interpretación de la Universidad de Granada. La revista tiene como principal objetivo presentar trabajos científicos originales sobre la Traducción e Interpretación en todos sus aspectos (teóricos, prácticos, metodológicos, didácticos, históricos, etc.). Los lectores de esta revista son estudiosos e investigadores en el área de la Traducción e Interpretación, así como en disciplinas afines. http://revistaseug.ugr.es/index.php/sendebar Directora Director Contacto de la Redacción Editorial Office Contact Info Esperanza Alarcón Navío, Universidad de Granada, España SENDEBAR Revista de Traducción e Interpretación Universidad de Granada C/ Puentezuelas, 55. E 18071 Granada España | Spain. e-mail: [email protected] Secretaria Secretary Clara Inés López Rodríguez, Universidad de Granada, España Consejo de redacción Editorial Board Cristina Álvarez de Morales Mercado, Universidad de Granada, España Christian Balliu, Institut Supérieur de Traducteurs et Interprètes (ISTI) - Bruselas, Bélgica Cesáreo Calvo Rigual, Universitat de Valencia, España Laura Carlucci, Universidad de Granada, España Miriam Fernández Santiago, Universidad de Granada, España Dorothy Kenny, Dublin City University, Irlanda Edita Scientific Editor Facultad de Traducción e Interpretación | Departamento de Traducción e Interpretación de la Universidad de Granada (España). Publica Publisher Disponible en | Available at http://revistaseug.ugr.es/index.php/sendebar/about/editorialTeam Editorial UnivErsidad dE Granada Antiguo Colegio Máximo. Campus Universitario de Cartuja. 18071 - Granada España | Spain Diseño y fotocomposición Layout and Design Diseño de cubierta Cover Design motu estudio Francis Requena Comité Asesor Advisory Board A la memoria de Emilio Ortega Arjonilla SENDEBAR | ISSN-E 2340-0119 Número 30 (2019) Enero-Diciembre de 2019 | 430 páginas Sumario Contents Artículos originales / Research Articles 11-34 El tiEmpo EntrE costuras: análisis contrastivo EntrE la sUbtitUlación profEsional y la dE fansubbing al chino The Time in Between: Contrastive Analysis Between Professional Subtitling and Fansubbing into Chinese Helena Casas-Tost | CUI Jinyang 35-60 El papEl dE la rEvisión Editorial En la aUtoría múltiplE dEl tExto tradUcido: la vErsión bEautiful childrEn, dE c harlEs b ock ,como EstUdio dE caso The Role of Editorial Revision in the Multiple Authorship of Translated Texts: the Spanish Version of Charles Bock’s Beautiful Children as a Case Study Española dE Gemma Ándujar Moreno 61-82 m anUEl r ivas , aUtotradUctor tradUcido: as vocEs baixas / l as vocEs bajas /thE low voicEs Manuel Rivas, self-translator translated: As voces baixas / Las voces bajas / The Low Voices Xosé Manuel Dasilva 83-99 a nálisis dE la tradUcción al Español dE r Elation d’un voyagE à bruxEllEs Et à coblEntz Analysis of the Translation into Spanish of Relation d’un voyage à Bruxelles et à Coblentz José María Castellano Martínez 101-120 la tEndEncia domEsticantE dE la tradUcción china dEl cUEnto l a viuda c hing , pirata, JorGE lUis b orGEs The Tendency Towards Domestication in the Chinese Translation of the Story The Widow Ching, Lady Pirate, by Jorge Luis Borges dE Jinyu Zhu 121-139 r EthinkinG profEssional translation rolEs: thE localisation of mobilE applications A vueltas con los perfiles profesionales traductores: la localización de aplicaciones móviles María del Mar Sánchez Ramos 141-162 bUildinG a corpUs - basEd Glossary of spanish -rUssian hiGhEr EdUcation for spEcialisEd translation Elaboración de un glosario basado en un corpus español-ruso de enseñanza superior para la traducción especializada Oksana Polyakova | Miguel Ángel Candel Mora 163-197 l a tradUcción mUsical: modalidadEs , EstratEGias y propUEsta Translating Songs: Methods, Strategies and A Didactic Proposal didáctica Inmaculada Ramírez Blázquez | Beatriz Sánchez Cárdenas 199-219 post-tradUctoloGía para abordar El discUrso pUblicitario: la idEoloGía d ior Post-Translation Studies in Advertising Discourse: Youth Ideology in Dior dE la JUvEntUd En Irene Rodríguez Arcos 221-244 a r asch - basEd validation of thE EvalUation rUbric for c onsEcUtivE i ntErprEtinG p ErformancE Validación en base a Modelo Rasch, como criterio para la valoración de rendimiento de la interpretación consecutiva Foroogh Khorami | Ghasem Modarresi 245-271 l a intErprEtación En compEticionEs dE fútbol intErnacionalEs. Un EstUdio dE caso: la UEfa Interpreting in internacional football competitions. Case study: UEFA Icíar Alonso Araguás | Paula Zapatero Santos 273-299 a proximación a la intErprEtación En El ámbito dE los Approaching Interpreting for the Video Game Industry vidEoJUEGos Ramón Méndez González 301-334 i ntErprEtación En El ámbito policial En polonia: Interpreting in Police Settings in Poland: Case Study EstUdio dE caso Agnieszka Dominika Biernacka | Monika Kanigowska 335-355 la idEoloGía En la intErprEtación simUltánEa dEl discUrso político EstadoUnidEnsE: Una aproximación cUalitativa Ideology in the Simultaneous Interpreting of American political speech:a qualitative approach Elisabet Garcia Oya 357-388 socio -E conomic lEvEl and its i nflUEncE on thE acqUisition of translation c ompEtEncE Influencia del nivel socioeconómico en la adquisición de la Competencia Traductora José Cortez-Godínez Reseñas / Book Reviews 391-394 calvo, JaviEr (2016). El fantasma En El libro . l a vida En un mundo dE traduccionEs . barcElona: sEix barral , 189 pp. Beatriz Gómez-Pablos 395-397 o GEa pozo, m aría dEl m ar (2018). subtitulado dEl génEro documEntal: dE la traducción audio visual a la traducción EspEcializada . m adrid: E ditorial sindérEsis , 258 pp. Víctor Anguita Martínez 399-401 rUiz m EzcUa , a. (Ed.) (2018). a pproachEs to tElEphonE i ntErprEtation: r EsEarch, i nnovation, tEaching and transfErEncE . bErn: p EtEr l anG, 250 pp. Adela González Fernández 403-405 m artínEz p lEGUEzUElos , a ntonio JEsús (2018). traducción E idEntidad sExual: rEEscrituras au diovisualEs dEsdE la tEoría q UEEr . G ranada : c omarEs , 140 pp. Elena Alcalde Peñalver 407-410 castillo bErnal , m.p., & E xpósito castro, c. (Eds.) (2018). translation, i ntErprEting and i n tErmEdiation in l Egal and i nstitutional EnvironmEnts. c órdoba : Uco p rEss , translation and i ntErprEtinG sEriEs , ii, 200 pp. María del Mar Ogea Pozo 411-413 rodríGUEz a rcos , i rEnE (2019). traducción y violEncia simbólica . post -traduccionEs dEl cuErpo fEmEnino En los mEdios dE comunicación. G ranada : c omarEs , 130 pp. Antonio Jesús Martínez Pleguezuelos 415-417 roalEs rUiz , a ntonio (2017). técnicas para la traducción audiovisual: subtitulación. salaman ca : E scolar y m ayo E ditorEs , 157 pp. José Javier Ávila Cabrera 419-421 a rias torrEs , JUan pablo y m ahyUb r ayaa , bachir (2018). m anual dE traducción dEl discurso rEligioso islámico (árabE - Español): la jutba . tolEdo: E scUEla dE tradUctorEs dE tolEdo, 168 pp. Miguel Á. Fernández-Fernández 423-425 EUrrUtia cavEro, m ErcEdEs (2018). a pprochE didactiquE du langagE tEchno - sciEntifiquE : tEr minologiE Et discours . p EtEr l anG , coll . l inGUistic i nsiGhts , stUdiEs in l anGUaGE and c om mUnication , 249, 350 pp. Natalia Campos Martín Informe sobre el proceso editorial / Editorial Process 429 datos sobrE los artícUlos EvalUados En El númEro 30 SENDEBAR 30 (2019) Artículos originales http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence José Cortez-Godínez [email protected] Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Recibido: 21/11/2017 | Revisado: 06/03/2018 | Aceptado: 08/07/2019 Abstract This longitudinal study (2006-2013), which falls within the field of empirical-experimental translation studies, was conducted in the Language School of the Autonomous University of Baja California, Mexico. The search for paradigms to explain the mechanisms by which students translate, and how to evaluate students’ development as they become experts, led me to select the holistic model proposed by the PACTE research group (Process of Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation; PACTE, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2009, 2011), which breaks translation competence down into five sub-competences and a psychophysiological component. My working hypothesis was that the higher parents’ socio-economic level, the better their children’s academic performance. The object of study was the fifth semester of the bachelor’s degree in translation, and these variables were measured and analyzed with the aid of a pre-TOEFL exam and the Translog2000 software program. As part of this process, I isolated transfer sub-competence and linguistic sub-competence in L2, which were cross-tabulated with a socio-economic study that recorded monthly family income. The results showed that people with greater purchasing power have a more balanced development in their sub-competences (mainly in their transfer and linguistic sub-competence in L2) and a better holistic translation competence. Keywords: PACTE; translation competence; linguistic sub-competence in L2; socio-economic level; transfer sub-competence; scale; evaluation; expertise Resumen Influencia del nivel socioeconómico en la adquisición de la Competencia Traductora El presente estudio longitudinal (2006-2013), que se ubica dentro de los estudios de traducción empírico-experimentales, se realizó en la Facultad de Idiomas de la Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, México. La búsqueda de paradigmas para explicar los mecanismos por los cuales los estudiantes traducen, y cómo evaluar su desarrollo a medida que se convierten en expertos, me llevó a seleccionar el modelo holístico propuesto por el grupo de investigación PACTE (Proceso de Adquisición de la Competencia Traductora y Evaluación; PACTE, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2009, 2011), que divide la competencia traductora en cinco subcompetencias y un componente psicofisiológico. 357 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 358 La hipótesis de trabajo planteó que: a mayor nivel socioeconómico de los padres, mejor era el rendimiento académico de sus hijos. El objeto de estudio fue el quinto semestre de la licenciatura en traducción, cuyas variables se midieron y analizaron con la ayuda de un examen pre-TOEFL y el programa informático Translog2000. Como parte de este proceso, aislé los resultados arrojados por la sub-competencia de transferencia y la sub-competencia lingüística en L2, que se cruzaron con un estudio socioeconómico, el cual registró el ingreso familiar mensual. Los resultados mostraron que las personas con mayor poder adquisitivo tienen un desarrollo más equilibrado en sus subcompetencias (sobre todo, de la subcompetencia de transferencia y lingüística en L2) y una mejor competencia traductora holística. Palabras clave: PACTE; Competencia Traductora; Subcompetencia Lingüística en L2; nivel socioeconómico; Subcompetencia de Transferencia; baremo; evaluación; pericia 1. Introduction The motivation behind this study goes back to my time as a student in the bachelor’s degree in English language translation, when I experienced two realities: one in my job as an editor and translator, and the other as an undergraduate student. As a result, my skills were acquired translating against the clock for a daily newspaper in Mexicali, a very different context from the school1. This stimulated my interest in remedying this cognitive dissonance in the teaching process (Cortez, 2009) through a change in methodology, with more practical strategies that were more closely aligned with the reality of the market and the profession. In 2005, I began studying processoriented translation and, among other objectives, sought to observe subjects’ outward manifestations while they were immersed in the translation process, such as decision-making and problem solving. I also recorded whether the use of the PreTranslation Protocol (PPT, in Spanish; Cortez, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015a, 2015b, 2017) could serve as a tool to help analyze the process and shed light on how novice students gain professional expertise on their pathway toward automating processes. As described by Muñoz Martín (2007: 270): experimental translation studies would benefit greatly from broadening the focus on process automation by considering awareness and unawareness as two poles of a continuum – in other words, by promoting metacognition so students may know themselves better and take ownership of their learning and future development. Muñoz Martín (op. cit.) asserts that, among other variables, researchers may explore whether there are systematic trends in the progressive automation of tasks or in solving classifiable translation problems. Indeed, with valid samples, it becomes possible to set study objectives such as identifying similar learning progressions, recurring cognitive styles, correlations between types of problems and solutions, and stages in learning and developing expertise; establishing a hierarchy of translation problems in order of significance; and exploring subjects’ internalization of immediate or postponed solutions as they gain expertise. http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 After one year trialing the Translog2000 User software program (see Appendix 2) and duly following the new study methodology, I found a viable object of study: the 5th-semester students of the bachelor’s degree of translation, who were observed and subjected to measurements from 2006 to 2013. The study sample comprised 81 students from a universe of 125, and the aim of the study was to ascertain whether subjects’ socio-economic status directly influences the acquisition of translation competence. In this sense, the initial hypothesis was that the more students’ cultural and economic environment is conducive to their development, the greater the students’ overall translation competence will be, and the easier it will be for them to gain expertise as translators. The object of study is immersed in a bicultural environment in a region bordering the USA, where a large percentage of spoken Spanish is Hispanicized English – loanwords conjugated or inflected in Spanish that quickly permeate the speech of inhabitants of the border area. This is outlined by Basich (2012: 119) as follows: As for the impact on the two languages in contact, the centuries-old mixing of English and Spanish on the border has facilitated the development of a border vernacular in each language, known as Spanglish and Chicano English – although neither is stable. On the Mexican side, the language has accommodated English loanwords and calques that typify the Spanish of the borderland. Families get together on the porche of their house, which is clean because it has been mapeado, and the mother carries a pichel with ponche for everyone. Carros without a mofle make a loud clatter. People say aló to greet each other and ba-bay when they leave. These terms, which abound in informal language, are less frequent in writing yet still permeate all social strata and activities. In addition to the geographical location and the geolect, students’ economic status also clearly influences many aspects of their development as future professionals. One such aspect is the degree to which they are exposed to the language to be translated, as will be seen below. 2. Education, inequality, and socio-economic level 2.1. Education and inequality Research on the correlation between race/ethnicity and educational inequity in secondary education in the United Kingdom has been a major area of study since 1980 (Stevens 2007: 170). Inequality has been increasingly defined in terms of differences in educational outcomes, and research has focused on the role played by schools in the processes that generate these inequalities. Although the British government supports collecting and analyzing quantitative data on the relationship between education and race/ethnicity, and the relationship between education and inequality, most studies in this area use qualitative or ethnographic methods and an interpretive approach. 359 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 360 According to Stevens (2007: 171): The most dominant research traditions explain the existing differences in educational outcomes by pointing to processes of racism and discrimination in schools, which are explained by either the racist practices or attitudes of teachers and/or by the way in which the educational system is organized. It is argued that the educational system (in terms of its curriculum, selection mechanisms, and punish and reward systems) is organized such that it favors, usually implicitly, the interests of white, middle-class citizens at the exclusion of racial/ethnic minority people and the lower social classes. These findings suggest a lack of opportunities for non-white ethnicities and races in the country, but this is not unique to that part of the world. In a review of the mistakes in educational reform in the United States, Berliner (2005: 2) remarks, “Although the power of schools and educators to influence individual students is never to be underestimated, the out-of-school factors associated with poverty play both a powerful and a limiting role in what can actually be achieved.” Wiggan (2007: 325) also wonders what is known about student performance and academic failure, and points to extensive research on the subject with responses that range from perspectives of genetic deficiency, social class and cultural poverty, teacher expectations and students’ oppositional identity, which have been greatly popularized in discourse on student attainment. However, these responses are either inadequate as full explanations or have been politically or ideologically driven. On the subject of education and inequality, Bruner (2004: 110) states that many groups and institutions have emphatically stressed that educational and socialization practices, both prior to and after the child’s entry into school, reflect and reinforce the inequalities of the class system. As for academic outcomes, when it comes to ascertaining student characteristics, Bruner (op. cit.) claims that one of the main concerns in current scientific debates is finding a rigorous definition of the concept of intellectual competence and establishing to what extent this concept is associated with the soul, the mind, the heart, or the wider community. Bruner (2004: 111) makes reference to work by Bloom from 1964, which finds beyond any doubt that many differences in adult intellectual performance – measured using a wide variety of procedures – can be explained by factors present when children reach school age, which is at five years old. According to Eisner (2000: 3) so important is his work that “he was invited to testify to the Congress of the United States about the importance of the first four years of the child’s life as the critical time to promote cognitive development. His testimony had an impact.” These findings can be carried over to the object of this study: inequality among students from pre-school level (kindergarten) through to higher education can be ob- http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 served in the disparity in the level of competence of students who took part in this experimental study conducted at the UABC since 2006. This shows that the prior learning, general knowledge, and family environment – which may or may not be conducive to better academic achievement – of students entering the Language School, who are aged 21 on average, will be determining factors in the performance of students of translation, which will be brought to light when students are faced with a text and must make decisions and solve problems2. 2.2. Socio-economic level and education According to Andrews (1999: vii), participation in higher education by low socioeconomic groups remains relatively low in Australia. In 1997, only 19% of higher education students came from the lowest quartile of the population, when ranked by socio-economic status. This relatively low participation, the author adds (1), has remained practically unchanged in the last two decades, despite a large increase in undergraduate admissions. The introduction of the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS), which consists in scholarships or tuition fee payment programs, has been identified by some groups and critics as part of the explanation for the relatively low participation among these strata. Goldrik-Rab (2010: 437), on the other hand, argues that the massive expansion of community colleges over the last century has enabled greater participation in higher education in the United States, particularly among individuals with limited educational opportunities – after leaving high school – due to academic difficulties, financial hardship, or other factors. However, efforts to increase access have achieved little success in balancing the supply of existing places to the reduced demand from students. As a matter of fact, efforts to expand opportunities may have hampered attempts to increase completion rates. Goldrik-Rab’s study (2010: 454) concludes that much evidence on possible reforms to the community college system is still emerging and lacking, and that many studies claim to identify best practices but are only able to provide suggestions, which are incapable of directing education policies toward practices to increase student completion rates. The author proposes a much more rigorous research agenda on community colleges to inform and evaluate future action. As far as Latin America is concerned, a study by García and Jacinto (2010: 73) maintains that the pathway to higher education involves first of all completing secondary education. This is becoming more and more difficult in certain countries, such as Bolivia and Peru, for young people from rural areas and women. Only a third to half of people over 19 years of age are able to accomplish this first stage of their studies (Table 1). 361 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 362 Table 1. Net total enrollment rates in tertiary (non-university) and university education in Latin America (Source: García & Jacinto 2010), based on household surveys conducted by Siteal (Information System on Trends in Education in Latin America, SITEAL). Data on household income is for the urban population. * Cells with a low number of cases3. Tertiary and university education in Latin America and income Country Total Sex Family income level per capita Male Female Low Medium High Argentina 6,9 4,9 8,6 4,3 7,7 10,0 Tertiary University 26,1 24,7 27,4 12,4 28,5 44,8 Bolivia 5,3 4,5* 6,0* 4,8* 9,1* 5,9* Tertiary University 20,2 20,1 20,3 13,7* 22,1 39,2 Chile 7,7 8,0 7,3 4,8 8,3 10,8 Tertiary University 19,7 19,0 20,4 10,4 17,2 33,9 Mexico 1,3 1,2* 1,4 1,0* 1,4* 1,5* Tertiary 18,4 20,4 16,6 9,1 17,7 34,7 University Peru 9,3 8,3 10,3 11,4 10,3 9,3 Tertiary University 14,3 15,1 13,5 13,3 13,1 24,9 Once the obstacle of completing secondary education has been overcome, the authors add, the main conclusions regarding equity in access and graduation in higher education by sex and socio-economic level can be summed up in five propositions: 1. Between 30% and 50% of young people who are able to complete secondary level studies access higher education. 2. There is near gender equality in access to higher education in most of the countries studied. 3. The net enrollment rate by family income per capita shows that coverage is more even at the tertiary level than the university level. Indeed, whereas half of university students come from medium-high income households, at the tertiary level such students account for just 10% to 25% of the total, depending on the country. 4. Typically, tertiary-level students are the first generation to access higher education in their family, and most work while studying. Although combining work and study is also common in universities, it occurs in greater proportions among tertiary-level students. 5. Lastly, those accessing the tertiary level are more likely to graduate than those in university. http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 According to García and Jacinto (2010: 74), more specific surveys would be required to address other dimensions of equity at each level, such as differences in opportunities due to place of residence or ethnicity. However, the authors stress, in virtually all countries studied it is difficult to transition from the tertiary level to university, owing to the lack of clear pathways from one subsystem to the other. At the same time, diplomas at the tertiary level rank below university degrees in the labor market, which may be one reason why they hold little appeal. García and Jacinto (2010: 74) report that this seems to be the case in Mexico and, in this context, recommend higher education public policy oriented toward strengthening equity within the various dimensions of the tertiary level, and not just promoting greater access and higher graduation rates through various kinds of incentives but also improving the quality and relevance of studies at this level. The researchers also recommend, within the framework of lifelong education systems, facilitating linkages between the tertiary and university levels, as occurs in some industrialized countries. 3. A holistic model of translation competence With respect to the competence required of graduates upon completing their degree, Kelly (2002: 9) explains that the term translation competence has been used by various authors to describe the set of abilities, skills, knowledge, and even attitudes found in professional translators and involved in expert translation4. In other words, taken as a whole, this is what distinguishes professionals from non-professionals, experts from non-experts or what Toury (1984) termed native translators. Among other models that seek to explain how translation is performed, it is worth citing Wilss (1976), Bell (1991), Neubert (2000), and Kelly (2005). However, according to Rodríguez-Inés (2013), only those proposed by Alves & Gonçalves (2007) and PACTE have been empirically validated. The Process of Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation research group (PACTE, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2009, 2011) began studying translation competence in 1997 and breaks down its holistic model into five sub-competences and a psychophysiological component in an effort to explain the translation process empirically. In 1998, PACTE developed the first version of a holistic model for translation competence (TC) and a dynamic model for acquiring translation competence (Hurtado, 2001: 375-408). The model developed by PACTE is based on existing work in other disciplines that define notions linked to the acquisition of translation competence, in addition to models proposed to define translation competence and the acquisition of translation competence, including empirical research on written translation (PACTE 2003: 44). For this competence model, the group researched notions such as “competence”, “expert knowledge”, and “learning processes” in other disciplines like pedagogy, psychology, and language teaching (PACTE 2003: 45). Furthermore, since the group 363 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 364 considers translation an act of communication, they drew on studies on communicative competence, establishing the following theoretical assumptions: TC is the underlying system of knowledge, abilities, and skills needed to translate. TC is qualitatively different from bilingual competence. TC, like all expert knowledge, has declarative and operative components, although it is basically operative knowledge (PACTE 2001: 39) Studies conducted believe translation competence is composed of a set of interrelated sub-competences, which include all those needed to use language (PACTE 2003: 48). Within this set, special emphasis was placed on the bilingual sub-competence, which is considered by PACTE to be predominantly procedural knowledge and necessary to communicate in two languages. In addition to proficiency in the language to be translated (English), the knowledge about translation sub-competence was also measured5. This was evaluated using a scale from 0 to 100 points (see Materials and Methods). Although the instrumental sub-competence also came into play, as students translated using a software program as is Translog2000, this variable was not taken into account for this study. In fact, PACTE asserts that this sub-competence involves, first and foremost, procedural knowledge associated with using sources of documentation and information and communication technologies applied to translation (PACTE 2003: 48). Moreover, the PACTE group places emphasis on the strategic sub-competence, which includes all individual procedures – both conscious and unconscious, verbal and non-verbal – used to solve problems during the translation process. This subcompetence plays a key role in comparison to all others, because it is used to detect problems, make decisions, and compensate for shortcomings or weaknesses in the other sub-competences (PACTE 2003:: 49). The subjective aspect of the model is provided by psychophysiological components that constitute different types of cognitive and attitudinal components and psychomotor mechanisms that include memory, perception, attention, and emotions, as well as intellectual curiosity, rigor, critical thinking, and logical reasoning, among others (PACTE 2003: 58). In their 2005 revision (617-618), the PACTE group discussed the trends found in their last study and revised the competences and sub-competences that make up their TC model, in which they hypothesized that the degree of expertise influences the translation process and product. In 2009, the group published the results of another experiment in which they analyzed the work of 35 professional translators and 24 language teachers and delved deeper into the nature of translation competence. The findings support the conclusion that translation competence functions differently depending on whether the translator is working into or from a foreign language. http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 In 2011 PACTE presented the results of another study on what they call the concept of dynamic translation by expert translators, and their dynamic approach to translating specific texts stating: “We understand a ‘dynamic’ concept and approach to translation to be textual, communicative, and functional as opposed to a ‘static’ concept and approach which may be defined as linguistic and literal” (PACTE 2011: 26-27). In this study, the group presented the results obtained for the variable “translation project” and triangulated these with results for the variable “knowledge about translation”. The result of the so-called Dynamic Translation Index was then triangulated with the “acceptability” indicator to determine the relationship between the two. Their conclusion was that a dynamic approach to translation is one characteristic of translation competence and determines translation acceptability. This is one of the most important characteristics displayed by experts in translation. In sum, PACTE’s theorization formed the basis for the design of this study, which is described in the following section. 4. Materials and methods 4.1. Population of the study Students of the Mexicali campus of the Language School of the Autonomous University of Baja California were the focus of this study. During the observation period, care was taken to consistently apply the same Pre-Translation Protocol (PPT, see Figure 1) in the groups observed, without changing the measurement instruments. Therefore, only samples that fulfilled all the requirements were taken into account for this study. All fifth-semester groups over the years studied (i.e. the study universe) were considered in extracting the sample. Interestingly enough, the methodology was designed intuitively, following training by teachers at the School of Translation and Interpretation of the University of Granada, and by scouring the scant literature on the subject in the region in 2005. Nonetheless, the study measurement used – bar exceptions – is similar to the C method outlined by Waddington (2001: 315). The Pre-Translation Protocol was designed and used with the aim of establishing a local model for capturing the process by which some sub-competences in TC are acquired, and is part of a search for new methodologies for teaching translation and practical scaffolds that help improve teaching6. As part of the triangulated processproduct analysis (participant observation, entry and exit questionnaire, text capture in Translog2000 User, pre-TOEFL exam, and transfer sub-competence weighting), a possible correlation was sought between the quality of translation and the range of transfer sub-competence reflected in products graded by members of faculty. With respect to sample selection, and in order to achieve a margin of error of 7% with a 95% confidence level, the study universe comprised 125 subjects with a level of heterogeneity of 50%; the sample size recommended by the Netquest website was 365 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 366 777. The sample was made up of 81 students, meaning the results may be generalized, at least within this environment, Mexicali. Figure 1. Diagram of the Pre-Translation Protocol used in the Mexicali campus of the Language School of the UABC, in which students (A) were observed when translating. (Source: Cortez 2009: 287). The research cycle was completed in 2013 so the use of the Pre-Translation Protocol (Cortez 2009; see Figure 1) as a method and scaffold. It should be noted that the model has only been applied to students in the fourth to eighth semesters of the bachelor’s degree, although within these period comparisons were also made between different sub-competences (Cortez 2013; Cortez, Basich and Figueroa 2015b)8. Table 2 lists the groups selected for the study: Table 2. Groups for which the sub-competences in translation competence were measured in the Mexicali campus of the Language School. (Source: Cortez 2014). 5th-semester groups analyzed from 2006 to 2013 Group Semester No. students Graduating class from the BA in English language translation Group Semester No. students Graduating class from the BA in Translation 1 2006-1 6 15th 5 2008-2 16 1st 2 2006-2 16 16th 6 2009-2 22 3rd 3 2007-1 7 17th 7 2011-2 13 7th 4 2007-2 10 18th 8 2012-2 16 9th 9 2013-2 19 11th http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 4.2. Matrices With the aid of three of the matrices captured during observations in these years (Appendix 1: Socio-economic study matrix [ESOC], Appendix 4: Contrast matrix for variables 11, 12, and 13 vs. 21 and 22; and Appendices 5 and 5 bis: Questionnaires I and II), variables that may help to confirm the hypothesis were isolated and crosstabulated. It should be pointed out that variables 11 (parents’ monthly income), 12 (mother’s level of education), and 13 (father’s level of education) kept the number they were assigned in the ESOC survey, and variables 21 (transfer sub-competence) and 22 (linguistic sub-competence in L2: pre-TOEFL) were numbered by order of capture in the spreadsheet. The psychophysiological component recorded in questionnaires I and II, which addresses subjects’ perception of self-efficacy and stress, is not part of this study. Therefore, data were gathered from: The socio-economic study matrix from 2006 to 2013 (Appendix 1, ESOC). Questionnaires I and II (Perception of the task at hand, after reading the text; and subjects’ opinion after performing the task; see Appendices 5 and 5 bis; Appendix 5). The TC matrix (Table 3), in which variables were measured individually. Then, LSL2 and TRSC were extracted in order to contrast these variables in the contrast matrix (Appendix 4, which shows the details of the isolated variables so as to contrast them): Linguistic sub-competence in L2. Linguistic sub-competence in Spanish (Table 3). Contrastive sub-competence in English. Contrastive sub-competence in Spanish. Transfer sub-competence. Psychophysiological sub-competence (Appendix 3). Variables 21 (transfer sub-competence: TRSC) and 22 (linguistic sub-competence in L2: LSL2; in this case, the pre-TOEFL exam) were extracted from the TC matrix, and contrasted with subjects’ income (ESOC) to help verify the hypothesis. It should be stressed that the TRSC measurement was triangulated: the process was recorded on an observation card and pre- and post-task questionnaires. Furthermore, the translations were reviewed by two members of faculty in the Language School with over eight years’ experience teaching translation courses, and two students from the final (seventh and eighth) semesters of the degree program. Although there is no statistical study on the correlation in scores between the teachers who participated in evaluating the translations, it can be said that the same teachers took part in the measurements over the eight years. Moreover, the same text, method, and environment (translation laboratory) were used. On the other hand, there was variation in the seventh and eighth-semester service providers who assisted in the evaluation, but they were required to have a general average grade of at least 85/100 to participate in the study9. 367 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 368 4.3. Software programs The programs used to triangulate and measure the transfer sub-competence include Translog2000 version 1.0 Beta (4), a program developed by Arnt Lykke Jakobsen and Lasse Schou. This software program for Windows (De Rooze 2008: 18) was created as an alternative to collecting data using think-aloud protocols, and makes it possible to record and study all keylogging on a computer keyboard within the software environment. Jakobsen (2003: 69) stresses that “Real-time keystroke logging offers an additional and complementary method of investigating the process based on the keyboard behavior of a translator (Jakobsen 1998, 1999; Jakobsen & Schou 1999).” Translog2000 logs information about the exact time at which each keystroke operation is made, and makes it possible to replay the typing process on the computer screen. It is also possible to create a graphic representation (.log file) of an entire typing event, which includes calculating pauses of any length during the typing process (see Appendix 6). De Rooze (2008: 18) says that Translog: … logs the mean interval between the production of words and textual segments and the minimum and maximum production speed in paragraphs, sentences and words … the process logged through typing – pauses, omissions, revisions – reflects decision-making processes (the search for alternatives) and strategies such as omissions and paraphrasing in response to translation problems. In order to analyze changes in variables over these years and ensure the replicability of the experiment, the same techniques and protocols were used and the same object of study was analyzed with the same tools, such as Translog2000 User10. Thus, data were recorded by the computer and software programs, preventing any subjective bias that may be introduced by mere human observation. Other tools used were the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences program, Microsoft Excel to capture variables in the matrices, and Microsoft Word for the final graphic presentation. 4.4. Text The document used for translating from English to Spanish was a 412-word text on myopia (an informative-scientific text taken from the Internet) converted to a .tpl extension so that students could translate it within the Translog2000 User program. The program produces a text log, with a .log extension, which can be analyzed by researchers in Translog2000 and then converted to .rtf format for subsequent review and grading. The scale used by the proofreaders/reviewers ran from 0 to 100 and records whether the student is able to translate (i.e. his/her transfer sub-competence). The same scale http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 was used to measure student attainment in the pre-TOEFL text, and is regulated by Article 65 of the by-laws of the UABC11. Only the semantic level was taken as a parameter in establishing the level of quality in translations; in other words, grades only considered the informational content of the translation and whether the message was correctly transferred to the target language. Average TRSC grades were obtained for each student evaluated by dividing the sum of the four grades. Translations were converted to Microsoft Word and a printed, legible copy was submitted to the four proofreaders/reviewers with a code identifying each student (to prevent any kind of bias on the part of teachers who may know the student). The result of the translation is a “draft” produced in 120 minutes, minus the 10 minutes (on average) students took to fill out the questionnaires, and the 2 minutes taken to read the text. What is actually measured, therefore, is students’ ability to transfer meaning in one specific task. However, this provides a standard to determine the subject’s general level of competence. In brief, do fifth-semester students possess the sub-competence to transfer meaning from Language A to Language B? If so, the reviewer assigns a grade based on the work submitted. It should be made clear that, given the lack of related studies at my disposal in 2005, I established my own scale to record the consistency or discrepancy between transfer sub-competence and Linguistic sub-competence in L2. At the time, it was decided that the discrepancy between the two should not exceed 15 percentage points, or the variables would be deemed to exhibit polarization. In the scale a subject achieving 100/100 obtained excellent in the variable measured, 90-99/100 was a very good grade, 80-89/100 was good, 70-79/100 was considered fair, 60-69/100 satisfactory or poor, and a grade of 59/100 or less meant inadequate/a fail. For instance, if a subject exhibited a TRSC of 90/100 and a pre-TOEFL of 60/100 points, this indicated polarization between the two. Consequently, this subject should receive support to improve sub-competences that were trailing behind. 4.5. The socio-economic study The ESOC was designed based on a study by the Mexican Association of Marketing and Public Opinion Research Agencies (AMAI) (2006), and three strata were established from the existing six12. Subjects were classified by monthly family income and possible covariance was analyzed in three categories13: a) Greater than 20,000 MXN (Mexican pesos), or Stratum 1 (S1); b) Income between 10,000 and 20,000 MXN (equivalent to US$1,509), or Stratum 2 (S2); c) Monthly parental income up to 10,000 MXN (equivalent to US$754, based on an exchange rate of 13.25 MXN per dollar), or Stratum 3 (S3)14. The reason for condensing the strata into just three socio-economic levels was to facilitate data collection as this topic is sensitive and the information can be difficult to obtain. 369 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 370 4.6. Measurement of Translation Competence The (original) TC matrix gives measurements of contrastive sub-competence in L1 and L2 (these are not explicit in the PACTE model); besides, students’ command of their mother tongue, determined using a general knowledge test consisting of 100 items; and variables 21 (TRSC) and 22 (LSL2). Table 3. Translation competence matrix. Example of sub-competences measured in fifth-semester students in the 2009-2 semester. (Source: Cortez 2014). Code: M: man/W: woman. Matrix of sub-competences in translation competence Subjects 2009-2 class Contrastive subcompetence in English Contrastive subcompetence in Spanish Subcompetence in Spanish (L1) Transfer subcompetence Variable 21 Sub-competence in L2/ PreTOEFL Variable 22 Student 1(W) 28 correct answers 28 correct answers 76 correct answers 80 correct answers 62 correct answers Student 2 (W) 70 93 83 80 53 Student 3 (W) 80 66 79 70 59 Student 4 (W) 100 100 79 99 90 Student 5 (W) 59 67 70 80 69 Student 6 (W) 25 73 70 70 90 Student 7 (W) 55 45 57 30 60 Student 8 (W) 47 57 81 70 61 Student 9 (M) 32 47 70 70 73 Student 10 (W) 75 77 77 80 82 Student 11 (W) 45 65 65 65 47 Student 12 (W) 58 57 74 30 66 Student 13 (W) 100 100 82 99 60 For the socio-economic contrast, variables 11 (monthly family income), 12 (mother’s level of education), and 13 (father’s level of education) were extracted and causal relationships were identified with variables 21 and 22 (see Table 3). http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 5. Results and discussion All six variables measured, which are part of PACTE’s translation competence model and which I consider important, come into play in every translation project. These competences have been incorporated in the 2006-2 curriculum of the bachelor’s degree in translation in the UABC. As part of the study, the products were analyzed in depth, revealing covariance between punctual terminology management (quality control in searching for terms) and scores in subjects’ transfer sub-competence (Cortez 2015a: 43)15. A visual review of translations captured within the Translog2000 User program made it possible to record the pauses listed in Table 4 (below). With respect to making a record of pauses as references in the analysis of translation problems, Butterworth (1980: 165, in De Rooze 2008: 11) found that cycles of pauses and segments of language production tended to last between 18 and 30 seconds. In one study, Jakobsen (in De Rooze, op. cit.) applied an ad hoc definition in segmenting translations used in his experiment, in which a segment is set apart by two pauses of five seconds or more. Table 4. Translation problems in the 2009-2 semester of the bachelor’s degree in translation. (Source: Cortez 2014). Translation problems by time spent in minutes in the 2009-2 semester Phrase/term Maximum time min./s. Phrase/term Maximum time min./s. 1 Short-sightedness (Title) 8´57,11´´ 15 High degree myopia 2´01,41´´ 2 Blurred 7´34,55´´ 16 Full-time education 1´39,27´´ 3 Can still be seen 4´42,94´´ 17 Eye chart´´ 1´39,01´´ 4 Mild degree, medium degree or high degree 3´68,95´´ 18 Close work 1´36,57´´ 5 Medium degree 3´38,60´´ 19 Around puberty 1´26,45´´ 6 Resulting from the eye 3´12,57´´ 20 Whilst 1´26,42´´ 7 Steeply curved 2´56,94´´ 21 Increased curvature 1´21,98´´ 8 Mild degree 2´55,36´´ 22 Optometrist 1´18,80´´ 9 Mismatch 2´47,79´´ 23 Lens 1´12,17´´ 10 Allows light in 2´43,01´´ 24 Headache and tired eyes 1´11,37´´ 11 Later life 2´28,98´´ 25 Book in 1´09,82´´ 12 Length of the eye 2´14,95´´ 26 Britain 1´04,23´´ 13 Will stop getting 2´09,93´´ 27 To run in 1´04,10´´ 14 Focusing power 2´07,41´´ 371 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 372 The analysis in this study shows the translation problems that caused the longest pauses, whether to give an immediate solution, a non-immediate solution, or postponed solution, as listed by the PACTE group (2003: 89). In order to clearly visualize the relationship between pause and translation problem, a chart was produced showing the distribution of the amount of time spent researching the meaning of each term or phrase – in other words, performing a punctual terminology management. The criterion used to present data was the number of subjects who had the same translation problem (from highest to lowest). Table 4 shows the list of translation problems, ordered by the maximum time spent solving them. This methodology was used to delve deeper into subjects’ punctual terminology management over the semesters studied, and one recurring finding is that novice students spend a long time attempting to translate the title of a text even before gaining a solid understanding of the subject of the translation (e.g., 8 minutes, 57 seconds, 11 centiseconds in the 2009-2 semester, and 7 minutes, 28 seconds, 63 centiseconds in the 2008-1 semester). The mentioned is a loss of valuable time that could be used to read up on the topic or look up key words, and for teachers, it raises the issue of designing new strategies to maximize classroom teaching time and encourage students to optimize the time they spend on the translation process. 5.1. Socio-economic level and TRSC To demonstrate the correlation between socio-economic level and subjects’ TRSC and LSL2, I drew upon the matrices designed, in which it was found that only four subjects from S1 and S2 obtained less than 80/100 in TRSC (i.e. a fair to poor TRSC), which I consider very significant, as they make up just 5.06% of the sample. On the other hand, in S1 and S2 put together, in LSL2, just 11.53% of subjects scored 7079/100, and 7.69% of the total sample were in the 60-69/100 range. In S3, on the other hand, 16.84% of subjects were in the 70-79/100 range for the LSL2 variable, with 12.82% scoring 60-69/100, which surpasses S1 and S2 in this grade range. This means that S3 – the sector with the least financial resources – has 29% more students with a fair to poor LSL2 compared to S1 and S2. It is also noteworthy that 26 of the 41 subjects from S3 (equivalent to 32.91% of the sample) scored between 80 and 93/100 in TRSC. This is very positive and suggests a powerful intrinsic motivation to climb the social ladder or achieve self-realization. However, 14.81% of the sample that belongs to S3 exhibit a TRSC from fair (70/100) to poor (60/100). The general analysis performed has established that: (1) S1 and S2 (which make up 46.83% of the overall sample) are the only strata to have the highest TRSC scores: 100/100. http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 (2) The top six TRSC grades are found in S1 and S2. In fact, of the top 14 TRSC scores (Table 5, below), only three subjects are from S3, with scores from 93 to 95/100. (3) S1 and S2, which have greater economic solvency, are a majority in the top score tables, and nobody from these strata scored below 60/100 in the variables measured. (4) All S1 and S2 subjects in the sample achieved a passing grade in TRSC and LSL2. (5) In S3, which makes up 53.84% of the total sample, there were no excellent grades (100/100) in TRSC. (6) The highest grades in LSL2 were obtained in S2. As for the phenomenon of discrepancy between TRSC and LSL2 across the sample, it can be stated that: (1) From the overall sample, only 3.70% (from S1) plus 7.40% (from S2) display a discrepancy of more than 15/100 between the two variables. By contrast, S3 exhibits a discrepancy rate of 20.98%. This means that together S1 and S2 account for 11.1% of discrepancies in the total sample, compared to 20.98% in S3 alone – although it must be remembered that S3 represents 53.84% of the sample. Most importantly, though, all subjects from S1 and S2 achieved a passing grade in both variables. (2) S3 includes the only eight subjects not to achieve a passing grade in LSL2. This is significant as this was not observed in S1 or S2. Without a doubt, the results support the hypothesis proposed at the beginning of the study. However, there is a phenomenon whereby subjects who have not passed the pre-TOEFL test yet exhibit a good or very good TRSC; this is only observed in S3 and accounts for 10.25% of the total sample. This is very significant as this is not present in S1 or S2. This is an indication that in the Language School in Mexicali, students with a monthly family income over 10,000 MXN (S1 and S2) fall within an acceptable range of translation competence for intermediate-level students. One sub-hypothesis confirmed by the data from the matrices captured (Cortez, 2017), as a collateral result of the study, was that the level of education of both parents has a positive impact on students of the bachelor’s degree in translation as extrinsic motivation to match or improve on their parents’ status. In particular, the variable “university education” is present in at least one of the parents of students with the highest scores in the transfer sub-competence and linguistic sub-competence in L2. Another finding of the study is that in our sample I found that 82.4% were women and 17.6% men, which means that for every man who graduates from the degree, there will be three women who will be dedicated to translation and interpretation. 373 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 374 Table 5. Extract from the top 14 TRSC and LSL2 scores in the sample. Key: * University merit/** S3. (Source: Cortez 2014). Code: M: man/W: woman. History of TRSC and LSL2 in 5th semester (2006-2013) Subjects Variable 11 Variable 12 Variable 13 Variable 21 Variable 22 Semesters Parents’ monthly income in Mexican pesos Mother’s level of education Father’s level of education Transfer subcompetence Linguistic subcompetence in L2 Student 1 (W) Over 20,000 University Master’s degree 100 82 Over 20,000 University University 100 76 20,000 University University 100 71 Student 4 (W) 2009-2 * 20,000 University Master’s degree 99 90 Student 5 (W) 2009-2 20,000 High school University 99 60 Student 6 (W) 20,000 High school University 95 83 Student 7 (M) 2008-2 10,000 ** (S3) High school University 95 64 Student 8 (W) 2013-2 10,000 ** (S3) Junior high school University 93.33 62 Student 9 (W) 2011-2 20,000 University Doctorate degree 93 78 Student 10 (M) 2011-2 Over 20,000 University High school 93 86 Student 11 (W) 2013-2 10,000 ** (E3) Junior high school High school 93 72 Student 12 (W) 2008-2 20,000 University Master’s degree 90 75 Student 13 (W) 2012-2 20,000 University University 89.75 82 Student 14 (W) 2012-2 20,000 High school University 86.25 73 2006-1/ 2006-2/ 2007-1/ 2007-2 Student 2 (W) 2006-1/ 2006-2/ 2007-1/ 2007-2 Student 3 (W) 2006-1/ 2006-2/ 2007-1/ 2007-2 2006-1/ 2006-2/ 2007-1/ 2007-2 http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 6. Conclusions After reviewing and interpreting the data, it can be concluded that students’ economic status can facilitate or limit their contact with the language to be translated, and consequently, affect their command of the language. This is reflected in the products (translations) used to measure their ability to transfer a message from a source language to a target language. In view of this, it was confirmed that the higher the parents’ socio-economic status is, the better their children’s academic performance will be. This is reflected in a greater transfer sub-competence and greater linguistic sub-competence in the second language (both of which are part of translation competence). To sum up, this study’s contribution to empirical translation studies is the identification of a correlation between fifth-semester students’ monthly family income and the development of transfer sub-competence and linguistic sub-competence in L2. In other words, parents’ purchasing power can serve as a driving force enabling students to acquire a higher level of general knowledge and education, and ultimately, better holistic translation competence as they become experts in the field. 7. Bibliography • Alves, Fabio & Gonçalves, Jose Luiz (2007). Modelling translator’s competence: relevance and expertise under scrutiny. In Translation Studies: doubts and directions. Selected papers from the IV Congress of the European Society for Translation Studies. Yves Gambier, Miriam Shlesinger & Radegundis Stolze, (eds.), 41-55. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. • Andrews, Les (1999). Does HECS Deter? Factors affecting university participation by low SES groups [online]. Occasional Paper Series 80 (august 1999), 1-44. <https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1549067> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. • Basich, Kora (2012). La formación de profesores de traducción. Reflexiones desde un caso mexicano. Mexicali: UABC. • Bell, Roger (1991). Translation and Translating. London: Longman. • Berliner, David C. (2005). Our Impoverished View of Educational Reform [online]. Teachers College Record (august 2005), 1-60. <http://www.covteachalliance.org/ PDFFiles/ImpoverishedViewEdReformBerliner.pdf> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019] • Bruner, Jerome (2004). Desarrollo Cognitivo y Educación [Cognitive development and education]. Madrid: Morata. • Cortez, José (2015a). Control de calidad y competencia traductora [Quality control and translation competence] [en línea]. Plurilinkgua, 11 (May 2015), 31-48. <http:// idiomas.ens.uabc.mx/plurilinkgua/docs/v11/1/Cortez.pdf> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. • Cortez, José, Basich, Kora, e Israel Figueroa (2015b). Subcompetencia Instrumental, vital en la formación de traductores [Instrumental sub-competence, a vital part 375 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 376 • • • • • • • • of translator training]. In Visiones y perspectivas en torno al estudio de las lenguas extranjeras en diversos contextos de México. Pedagogical Meeting for Languages in Professional Education: Theories and Practices in Language Teaching. Martha Beltrán, Gabriel Garduño, Carmen Gómez-Pezuela, Anna Sokolova, and Lucrecia Monleón (coords.), 89-104. Mexico City: UAMX. Cortez, José (2014). El nivel socioeconómico de los estudiantes de traducción en la Facultad de Idiomas-Mexicali de la UABC, como variable condicionante en la adquisición de la competencia traductora: Un estudio exploratorio [The socio-economic level of translation students in the Mexicali campus of the Language School of the UABC as a determining variable in the acquisition of translation competence: an exploratory study]. Doctoral Thesis, Universidad de Granada. Cortez, José, Figueroa, Israel and Luna, Nancy (2013). Competencia traductora y subcompetencia tecnológica [Translation competence and technological sub-competence]. In Literacidad y traducción. Celina García and Luis Juan Solís (comps.), 85-111. State of Mexico: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México. Cortez, José, Basich, K. y Sánchez, I. (2012). La subcompetencia instrumental/profesional en la formación de traductores [Instrumental/professional sub-competence in translator training] [online]. In the 5th International Translation and Interpretation Congress. Traduciendo Culturas: Más que un desafío, 41-57. <https://bit. ly/2KCCB7x> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. Cortez, José (2009). Nuevas metodologías en enseñanza de la traducción: Una perspectiva cognitiva [New methodologies in teaching translation: a cognitive perspective] [online]. Mutatis Mutandis, 2 (September 2009), 282-294. <http://aprendeen0 linea.udea.edu.co/revistas/index.php/mutatismutandis/article/viewArticle/1755> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. Cortez, José, Sonia Acosta y Saúl Contreras (2017). El nivel educativo de los padres como detonante en el desarrollo profesional de los estudiantes de traducción [Parents’ level of education as a driving force in translation students’ professional development]. Investigar en traducción en la Frontera Norte, 33-57. Saarbrücken: EAE. De Rooze, Bart (2008). La Traducción contra Reloj [Translation against the clock]. In Aproximaciones Cognitivas al Estudio de la Traducción y la Interpretación. Manuela Fernández and Ricardo Muñoz Martín (eds.), 1-28. Comares: Granada. Eisner, Elliot W. (2000). Benjamin Bloom. 1913-99 [online]. Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education 30 (September 2000) Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/bloome. pdf [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. García, Ana and Jacinto, Claudia (2010). Equidad y educación superior en América Latina: el papel de las carreras terciarias y universitarias [Equity and higher education in Latin America: the role of tertiary and university programs] [online]. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación Superior (RIES) 1 (January 2010), 58-75. City of Mexico: IISUE- UNAM/Universia. <https://www.researchgate.net/publicaa- http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e • • • • • • • • • • • • • 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 tion/316280953_Equidad_y_educacion_superior_en_America_Latina_el_papel_ de_las_carreras_terciarias_y_universitarias > [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. Goldrick-Rab, Sara (2010). Challenges and Opportunities for Improving Community College Student Success [online]. Review of Educational Research, 80 (3), 437–469. <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/0034654310370163> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019] Hatim, Basil (2001). Teaching and Researching Translation. Longman: England. Hurtado Albir, Amparo (2001). Traducción y Traductología: introducción a la traductología [Translation and Traductology: Introduction to Traductology]. Madrid: Cátedra. Jakobsen, Arnt Lykke (2003). Effects of Think Aloud on Translation Speed, Revision and Segmentation. In Triangulating Translation. Fabio Alves (ed.), 69-95. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Kelly, Dorothy (2002). La competencia traductora: bases para el diseño curricular [Translation competence: basics for curriculum design] [online]. Puentes, 1 (January 2002), 9-20. <http://wpd.ugr.es/~greti/revista-puentes/pub1/02-Kelly.pdf> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. Kelly, Dorothy (2005). A Handbook for Translator Trainers. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing. Matthiesen, Steven J. (1991). Preparing for the TOEFL. In The Newbury House TOEFL Preparation Kit. Daniel B. Kennedy (ed.), New York: Newbury House. Muñoz Martín, Ricardo (2007). Traductología cognitiva y traductología empírica. In Gerd Wotjak (ed.), In Quo vadis, Translatologie? Gerd Wotjak (ed.), 267-278. Frank & Timme. Neubert, A. (2000). Competence in language, in languages, and in translation. In Developing translation competence. Christina Schäffner and Beverly Adab (eds.), 3-18. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. PACTE (2011). Results of the Validation of the PACTE Translation Competence Model: Translation Project and Dynamic Translation Index [online]. In IATIS Yearbook 2010. Sharon O’Brien (ed.), 317-343. London: Continuum. <https://goo.gl/ pE6nxh> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. PACTE (2009). Results of the Validation of the PACTE Translation Competence Model: Acceptability and Decision Making [online]. Across Languages and Cultures, 10 (2), 207-230. <https://goo.gl/ZphnYA> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. PACTE (2008). First results of a Translation Competence Experiment: ‘Knowledge of Translation’ and ‘Efficacy of the Translation Process. In Translator and Interpreter Training. Issues, Methods and Debates. John Kearns. (ed.), 104-126, London: Continuum. PACTE (2005). Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues [online]. META, 50 (2), 609-619. <https://goo.gl/pUJLU8> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. 377 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 378 • PACTE (2003). Building a Translation Competence Model, In Fabio Alves (ed.), Triangulating Translation: Perspectives in Process Oriented Research, 77-102. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. • PACTE (2001). La competencia traductora y su adquisición [online]. Quaderns, Revista de Traducció 6, 39-45. <https://goo.gl/91cXiT> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. • PACTE (2000). Acquiring Translation Competence: Hypotheses and Methodological Problems in a Research Project. In Allison Beeby, Doris Ensinger, D. and Marisa Presas (eds.), Investigating Translation, 99-106. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. • Pym, Anthony (2003). Redefining Translation Competence in an Electronic Age [online]. META, 48 (December 2003), 481-495. <https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ meta/2003-v48-n4-meta725/008533ar.pdf> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. • Rodríguez-Inés, Patricia (2013). ¿Cómo traducen traductores y profesores de idiomas? Estudio de Corpus [How do translators and language teachers translate? A corpus study] [online], META 58 (April 2013), 165-190. <https://www.erudit.org/ fr/revues/meta/2013-v58-n1-meta01275/1023815ar.pdf> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. • Stevens, Peter A. J. (2007) Researching Race/Ethnicity and Educational Inequality in English Secondary Schools: A Critical Review of the Research Literature Between 1980 and 2005 [online]. Review of Educational Research, 72 (2), 147-185. <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/003465430301671> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. • Toledo, David & José Cortez (2011). Cómo se desarrolla la competencia traductora [How translation competence is developed] [online]. Memorias del VII Foro de Estudios en Lenguas Internacional (January 2011), 426-433. <https://www.re)searchgate.net/publication/281111263_Como_se_desarrolla_la_Competencia_Traductora_un_estudio_exploratorio> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. • Wiggan, Greg (2007). Race, School Achievement, and Educational Inequality: Toward a Student-Based Inquiry Perspective [online]. In Review of Educational Research, 77 (September 2007), 310-333. <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/ abs/10.3102/003465430303947> [Retrieved: January 22, 2019]. • Wilss, Wolfram (1976). Perspectives and limitations of a didactic framework for the teaching of translation. In Translation applications and research. Richard W. Brislin (ed.), 117-137. New York: Gardner. http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 379 Appendix 1. Sample of the Socio-Economic Study Matrix (ESOC) Age Sex Marital status Works? Other occupation Years studying English Reading level in English Reading level in Spanish Commu-nication level in English Communication level in Spanish Level of studies completed Parents’ income Mother’s level of education Father’s level of education Name For privacy reasons, subjects’ names have been omitted. Socio-economic study of students of the bachelor’s degree in translation in the 2009-2 semester. 21 F Single No X 3 50% 100% 50% 100% 4th 10,000 University University 25 F Single No X 8 75% 100% 50% 100% 4th 10,000 Junior high University 22 F Single No X 4 75% 100% 75% 100% 4th 10,000 University Master’s 19 F Single Yes X 13 75% 75% 75% 75% 4th 20,000 University Master’s 20 F Single No X 15 75% 75% 100% 75% 4th 10,000 Elementary Elementary 24 F X No X 21 100% 75% 100% 100% 4th 10,000 University University 19 F Single No X 15 75% 100% 75% 100% 4th 10,000 High school University 21 M Single No X 2 75% 100% 75% 75% 4th 10,000 University University 20 F Single No Studying 2 75% 100% 75% 100% 4th 10,000 High school Master’s 20 F Single Yes X 5 100% 100% 100% 100% 4th 10,000 High school University 23 F Single No Studying Italian 3 50% 100% 75% 100% 4th 10,000 University High school 20 F Single No X 15 75% 100% 50% 100% 4th X University University 20 F Single No X 5 75% 100% 50% 100% 4th 20,000 High school University · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 380 Father’s level of education Knows the PPT? Applied the PPT? Found PPT useful? Has worked as a translator? Currently works as a translator? Junior high Yes Yes Yes No No University No No Did not answer No No Junior high No No Did not answer No No Doctorate degree No No Yes No Did not answer University No Did not answer Did not answer No No X No No Did not answer No No University No No No Yes Yes Master’s Yes Yes Yes Yes No Master’s Yes No Yes No No University No Did not answer Did not answer Yes Did not answer Master’s No Did not answer Did not answer Yes Yes High school No No Did not answer Yes No University Yes Yes Yes Yes No Junior high No No No No No Master’s No No Yes No No Elementary No Did not answer Yes No No University Yes Yes Yes No No Elementary No Did not answer Did not answer Yes No Junior high No No Yes No No University Yes Yes Yes No No University No No Did not answer No No http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 Appendix 2. Translation Sample in Translog2000 User 381 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 382 Appendix 3. Sample of Questionnaire II: Subjects’ Psychophysiological Perception Problems Difficult terms Type of dictionary Use translation techniques? Which? Felt comfortable translating? No Length of the eye Wordreference Yes Adaptation, expansion Yes Yes Sightedness Other Don’t know Equivalence, adaptation, omission Yes Yes Cannot remember Wordreference Don’t know Equivalence Yes Yes Con Other Yes Adaptation, equivalence No Yes Degree Wordreference Yes Equivalence Yes Yes Científica (Scientific) Wordreference Don’t know Equivalence Yes Yes Close work Wordreference Yes Modulation, omission, adaptation, expansion Yes X X X X X X No X MerriamWebster X X Yes Yes Eye chart Wordreference Don’t know X Yes Yes Chart Wordreference Yes Adaptation No No Eye chart MerriamWebster Yes Adaptation Yes Yes Mild Wordreference No X Yes No X Wordreference Don’t know X Yes No Steeply Wordreference Yes Transposition, modulation, adaptation, expansion Yes Yes Eye chart MerriamWebster No X Yes http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 Appendix 4. Contrast matrix for variables 11, 12, and 13 vs. 21 and 22 Samples from 2009-2 and 2013-2 semesters 2013-2 semester Variable 11 Variable 12 Variable 13 Variable 21 Variable 22 Name Parents’ income Mother’s level of education Father’s level of education TC Pre-TOEFL 10,000 Junior high University 93.33 62 10,000 Junior high High school 93 72 10,000 Vocational high school Junior high 92.33 63 20,000 University University 92 84 20,000 High school Master’s 92 84 20,000 University University 92 84 10,000 University High school 91.66 80 20,000 Did not answer Did not answer 91.33 60 10,000 Elementary High school 90 72 10,000 Elementary Elementary 89.33 55 20,000 High school Junior high 88 71 10,000 High school University 87.66 78 10,000 Junior high Did not answer 87.66 73 10,000 University High school 87.33 90 10,000 Elementary No education 85.66 71 20,000 University University 82 83 10,000 High school University 77.66 64 10,000 Junior high Did not answer 75 78 10,000 University High school NP 83 383 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 384 Subjects Variable 11 Variable 12 Variable 13 Variable 21 Variable 22 Semester 2009-2 Parents’ income Mother’s level of education Father’s level of education Translation competence Pre-TOEFL Female student 1 (almost University Merit award) 20,000 High school University 99 60 Female student 2 (University Merit award) 20,000 University Master’s 99 90 Female student 3 10,000 High school University 80 82 Female student 4 10,000 University University 80 62 Female student 5 10,000 Junior high University 80 53 Female student 6 10,000 Elementary Elementary 80 69 Female student 7 10,000 High school Master’s 70 61 Male student 8 10,000 University University 70 73 Female student 9 10,000 University Master’s 70 59 Female student 10 10,000 University University 70 90 Female student 11 10,000 University High school 65 47 Female student 12 Did not answer University University 30 66 Female student 13 10,000 High school University 30 60 http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 Appendix 5. Questionnaire I QUESTIONNAIRE I AUTONOMOUS UNIVERSITY OF BAJA CALIFORNIA LANGUAGE SCHOOL MEXICALI, B. C. ON SEPTEMBER 18TH, 2012 1.- NAME: Subject START TIME: 11:29 GROUP: 5th semester 2.- TYPE OF TEXT: Expository 3.- TARGET AUDIENCE: All audiences 4.- WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF THE LANGUAGE? Referential function 5.- HOW WOULD YOU DESCRIBE THE TRANSLATION? A____ VERY INTERESTING B____ INTERESTING C x SOMEWHAT INTERESTING D___UNINTERESTING E____BORING 6.- WHAT TYPE OF TRANSLATION IS IT? A_x__INTO THE MOTHER TONGUE (DIRECTA) B___ INTO A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (INVERSA) C ___ I DON’T KNOW 7.- PLACE A CHECK MARK (X) NEXT TO THE KIND OF TRANSLATIONS YOU PREFER: I.- LITERATURE ( x ) II.- POETRY ( ) III.- SCIENTIFIC TEXTS ( ) IV.- TECHNICAL JOURNALS ( ) V.- PROCEDURE MANUALS ( ) VI.- MEDICAL JOURNALS ( ) VII.- PERIODICALS ( x ) VIII- LEGAL TEXTS ( x ) IX.- RECIPES ( x ) X.- VIDEO GAMES ( x ) XI.- COMICS ( x ) XII.- OTHER_______________________________ 8.- DO YOU THINK THE TEXT IS…? A.- AN ORIGINAL_____ B.- A TRANSLATION__x____ C.- OTHER ( ). D.- WHY? Because it mentions a percentage in Great Britain and the language is more American TIME QUESTIONNAIRE COMPLETED: 11:44 SUPERVISOR__________________________________________________ 385 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 386 Appendix 5 bis. Questionnaire II QUESTIONNAIRE II START TIME: 12:22 1.- HOW WOULD YOU DESCRIBE THE TRANSLATION? A___VERY EASY B___EASY C_x__FAIR D___DIFFICULT E___VERY DIFFICULT 2.- DID YOU EXPERIENCE ANY PROBLEMS TRANSLATING? YES_____ NO__x___ REMARKS_____________________________________ 3.- WHICH WORDS OR TERMS DID YOU HAVE TROUBLE WITH? _some medical terms_______________________________________________ 4.- WHAT KIND OF DICTIONARIES DID YOU USE? ONLINE DICTIONARIES: MERRIAM-WEBSTER___ RAE____ OTHER____x_______ BRITANNICA __ PRINTED DICTIONARIES: ________________________ 5.- DID YOU USE ANY TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE? YES__x__ NO_____ I DON’T KNOW_____ 6.- SELECT THE TECHNIQUE YOU USED: A). - TRANSPOSITION_______ B).- MODULATION_____ C).- EQUIVALENCE____ D).- ADAPTATION_________ E). - OMISSION_x__ F).- EXPANSION__________ G).- EXPLANATION_________ H). - OTHER______________________________ 7.- DID YOU FEEL COMFORTABLE TRANSLATING? YES__x___ NO______ WHY?____________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 8.- HOW DID YOU FEEL WHEN TRANSLATING? ___Very relaxed and calm, under no pressure________________________________________ TIME QUESTIONNAIRE COMPLETED___12:24_________ SUPERVISOR_____________________________________________ http://dx.doi.org/10.30827/sendebar.v30i0.6594 issn-e 2340-2415 | Nº 30 | 2019 | pp. 357-388 Appendix 6. Source text for translation in Translog2000 User 387 · artícUlos oriGinalEs Cortez-Godínez, J. Socio-Economic Level and its Influence on the Acquisition of Translation Competence s E n d E ba r 388 Notes 1. The Language School of the Autonomous University of Baja California (UABC), Mexico, where the bachelor’s degree in translation is offered. 2. A study by Cortez, Basich, and Figueroa (2013) found that the average age of students upon entry into the bachelor’s degree is 21. 3. The tertiary level is situated between secondary education and university, and may take the form of upper secondary education with vocational training, a 3 or 4-year technical degree, elementary or secondary school teacher training (4 years), a 3-year technical high school program, a high school-level accounting program, among other options. 4. The concept of transfer “is the stage at which the material analyzed is transferred in the translator’s mind from language A into language B” (Nida & Taber, 1969: 33, in Hatim, 2001: 23). 5. What Hurtado calls the transfer competence (competencia translatoria, later called competencia de transferencia) (Pym, 2003: 485-486) 6. This was done in the knowledge that the use of the PPT (protocolo previo de traducción, pre-translation protocol) is an artificial strategy, as professional translators use whichever method best suits them when working (my own experience is a testament to this). The Pre-Translation Protocol serves both as a research strategy and as a support for student metacognition, raising awareness of the different steps that will later become automatic. Ultimately, the goal was to set the process down on a Petri dish and observe it as aseptically as possible. 7. Retrieved from: https://www.netquest.com/es/panel/calculadora-muestras/calculadoras-estadisticas. 8. The bachelor’s degree in translation comprises 8 semesters (4 years) and students only begin to learn about translation techniques in third semester. 9. These were students nearing graduation who were enrolled in programs in which they develop the skills needed for their profession. Retrieved June 28, 2017, from http://campus.mxl.uabc.mx/index.php/servicios-estudiantiles/servicio-social/profesional. 10. It was my tutor, Dr. Ricardo Muñoz-Martín, who acquainted me with the software program, at the beginning of this undertaking in 2006. 11. The result of student evaluations shall be expressed on a centesimal grade scale from 0 to 100. Final grades shall be given as a whole number, with 70 considered the minimum passing grade in graduate studies, and 60 at other levels of study. 12. Available at http://www.amai.org/ 13. It should be noted that the six existing economic strata (A-B, C+, C, D+, D, and E) were condensed into three to ensure participants were willing to provide information. Thus, broadly speaking, S1 covers from C+ up, S2 C and C+, and E3 from D+ down. 14. Retrieved from: http://www.banamex.com/economia_finanzas/es/divisas_metales/resumen.htm. 15. The difference between a real, rigorous search for keywords, and a lack thereof.