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Genetics, 2000
The domestic pig originates from the Eurasian wild boar (Sus scrofa). We have sequenced mitochondrial DNA and nuclear genes from wild and domestic pigs from Asia and Europe. Clear evidence was obtained for domestication to have occurred independently from wild boar subspecies in Europe and Asia. The time since divergence of the ancestral forms was estimated at approximately 500,000 years, well before domestication approximately 9,000 years ago. Historical records indicate that Asian pigs were introduced into Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. We found molecular evidence for this introgression and the data indicated a hybrid origin of some major "European" pig breeds. The study is an advance in pig genetics and has important implications for the maintenance and utilization of genetic diversity in this livestock species.
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Pigs (Sus scrofa) were first domesticated between 8,500 and 8,000 cal BC in the Near East, from where they were subsequently brought into Europe by agriculturalists. Soon after the arrival of the first domestic pigs in northern Europe (~4500 BC), farmers are thought to have started to incorporate local wild boars into their swine herds. This husbandry strategy ultimately resulted in the domestication of European wild boars. Here, we set out to provide a more precise geographic and temporal framework of the early management of suid populations in northern Europe, drawing upon mitochondrial DNA haplotype data from 116 Neolithic Sus specimens. We developed a quantitative mathematical model tracing the haplotypes of the domestic pigs back to their most likely geographic origin. Our modelling results suggest that, between 5000 and 4000 BC, almost all matrilines in the north originated from domesticated animals from the south of central Europe. In the following period (4000–3000 BC), an estimated 78–100% of domesticates in the north were of northern matrilineal origin, largely from local wild boars. These findings point towards a dramatic change in suid management strategies taking place throughout south-central and northern Europe after 4000 BC. Pigs were first domesticated in the Near East around 8500 BC and subsequently brought into Europe by agricul-turalists 1. Ancient mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) studies further indicate that, by 4500 BC, domesticated pigs bearing Near Eastern haplotypes appeared in northern Europe 2. Soon thereafter, agriculturalists are thought to have incorporated local wild boars into their domesticated swine herds 1,2. On the basis of a relatively small and geographically diffuse set of mtDNA data, it has been hypothesized that the Near Eastern mtDNA lineages were rapidly replaced by European haplotypes, apparently within 500 years or less, after the first introduction of Near Eastern domesticates into the region 1. Here, we set out to derive a more precise geographic and temporal framework for the early management of indigenous wild boar populations in northern Europe, a process which ultimately led to domesticated European lineages. We examined ancient mtDNA haplotype data from a large sample of 87 domestic and 29 wild Neolithic Sus specimens (Fig. 1). The study targeted an 80-bp highly informative fragment of the mitochondrial control region that provides ample information about maternal ancestry 1,3–5. The presence of Near Eastern haplotypes Y1 and Y2 in pigs located in Europe has been previously interpreted as a marker of their domesticated status 1 , demonstrating the role of humans in facilitating the translocation of suids from the Near East into Europe. Reflecting the difficulty in resolving the domesticated status of animals by lineage alone in regions inhabited by both domesticates and their wild progenitors, Sus with the European haplotype A or C could represent either wild or domestic animals 2. In order to better resolve the source and timing of pig management processes, we developed a stochastic model to trace the mtDNA haplotypes from nascent domestic pig populations of northern Europe of 5000 BC to 3000 BC back to their likely origin. Our study is the first to use such a quantitative model to ascertain the origin of prehistoric mtDNA haplotypes of northern domestic pigs.
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L'objectivite scientifique en exegese biblique quelques reflexions actuelles à propos d'un vieux débat
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Güncel Çocuk Cerrahisi Çalışmaları
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Bu üründe yer alan bilgiler sadece lisanslı tıbbi çalışanlar için kaynak olarak sunulmuştur. Herhangi bir konuda profesyonel tıbbi danışmanlık veya tıbbi tanı amacıyla kullanılmamalıdır. Akademisyen Kitabevi ve alıcı arasında herhangi bir şekilde doktor-hasta, terapist-hasta ve/veya başka bir sağlık sunum hizmeti ilişkisi oluşturmaz. Bu ürün profesyonel tıbbi kararların eşleniği veya yedeği değildir. Akademisyen Kitabevi ve bağlı şirketleri, yazarları, katılımcıları, partnerleri ve sponsorları ürün bilgilerine dayalı olarak yapılan bütün uygulamalardan doğan, insanlarda ve ihazlarda yaralanma ve/veya hasarlardan sorumlu değildir. İlaçların veya başka kimyasalların reçete edildiği durumlarda, tavsiye edilen dozunu, ilacın uygulanacak süresi, yöntemi ve kontraendikasyonlarını belirlemek için, okuyucuya üretici tarafından her ilaca dair sunulan güncel ürün bilgisini kontrol etmesi tavsiye edilmektedir. Dozun ve hasta için en uygun tedavinin belirlenmesi, tedavi eden hekimin hastaya dair bilgi ve tecrübelerine dayanak oluşturması, hekimin kendi sorumluluğundadır. Akademisyen Kitabevi, üçüncü bir taraf tarafından yapılan ürüne dair değişiklikler, tekrar paketlemeler ve özelleştirmelerden sorumlu değildir.
PIGS AND HUMANS
1 0 , 0 0 0 Y E A R S O F I N T E R AC T I O N
Pigs and Humans
10,000 Years of Interaction
Edited by
U M B E RTO AL B A R E L L A , KE I T H D O B N EY,
A N TON ERV Y N C K & P E T E R ROW L EY- C O N W Y
Bioarchaeology of Pig Domestication Research Project,
Department of Archaeology,
University of Durham
1
3
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Foreword
The long 10,000 year relationship between humans and pigs has been both
multifaceted and complex. From pets to pariahs, pigs have served as sources
of sustenance and status, as well as symbols of both the sacred and the
profane. There is no other domestic animal that has intersected with so
many diVerent aspects of human existence. There is no other animal domesticate that is as interesting or as challenging to the archaeo- or ethno-zoologist.
From the very beginning, pigs have been a contrarian domesticate, the only
omnivore among the major livestock species. The pathway to pig domestication was likely quite diVerent than for other domesticates. Pig domestication
was probably preceded by a getting-to-know-you period in which bolder, less
wary boars were drawn to human settlements to scavenge on human refuse.
Tracking the progression from this initial commensal relationship into a
domestic partnership between humans and pigs is one the more challenging
and rewarding areas of archaeozoological inquiry. Not only does it necessitate
the development of Wne tuned markers capable of teasing out the subtle shifts
in the human/pig dynamic, it also requires a rethinking of the very meaning
of ‘domestication’ as a general concept.
The geographic range of wild boar is broader than that of the progenitors
of other livestock species (from western Europe to the Far East) and, thus,
presents a special challenge to those interested in identifying the site of initial
pig domestication. In fact, it now seems that the search for domestic origins
in pigs can begin almost anywhere within this wide geographic zone, with
genetic data pointing to multiple diVerent centres of origin in which diVerent
people navigated a broad range of diVerent relationships with resident pig
populations.
The diverse range of possible swine management regimes from free-range
(in the broadest sense) to sty-bound carries a number of diVerent economic,
social, and ecological implications which add further challenges, and opportunities, to the study of the history of human–pig interactions. The undiscriminating and highly adaptable diet of pigs has made them not only a
beach-head species for humans colonizing new territories, but also chief
sanitation oYcers for human communities throughout the ages. The use of
pigs in human adaptation to new and built environments is, then, another
exciting avenue for study.
The dietary habits of pigs have also contributed to their being labelled as
unclean, even taboo animals by many peoples around the world. In fact,
vi
Foreword
perhaps the greatest pig paradox of all is why both Jews and Muslims, living
in one of the earliest centres of pig domestication, developed strict dietary
prohibitions against them. A related question is why, despite their high birth
rates and impressive per capita yield of high-fat-content meat, pigs never
assumed a major role in any ancient Near Eastern subsistence economies. This
is especially true in later urban societies where pigs seem to have resided
outside the larger economy as the special province of the urban poor. It is an
area of research that continues to draw researchers from diverse Welds of
archaeology, anthropology, psychology, economics, history, and religious
studies.
In other global contexts, however, pigs have been a highly prized prestige
item—an important element in cementing clan and community in New
Guinea society, a sacriWcial animal of Hawaiian chiefs, a primary source of
wealth and economic prestige in Europe. And here too we see a growing
number of researchers focusing on human–pig interactions as a way of gaining
new insight into the history of human interaction with their environment
and each other.
This book brings together leading researchers exploring the multifaceted
pig paradox from a number of disciplines and cutting edge methodological
approaches. It contains the latest word on Sus evolution—from both morphological and molecular perspectives. It presents new considerations of the
initial pig domestication and a wide array of studies examining diVerent
management regimes developed around the world (both past and present).
It presents new considerations of the role of pigs in ritual and art. This
volume, then, provides the reader with a sampling of the many exciting
avenues of investigation open to those interested in exploring the long history
of human interaction with this fascinating animal. In so doing it highlights
some of the most exciting current work in the study of human/animal
interactions and points the way to productive and rewarding new research
in the future.
Melinda A. Zeder
Archaeobiology Program
National Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, DC
Acknowledgements
This book was conceived during research carried out as part of the University
of Durham’s ‘Bioarchaeology of Pig Domestication’ project, which in turn
was generously supported by fellowship and research grants from the Wellcome Trust and the Arts and Humanities Research Council. We also owe a
large debt of gratitude to our many collaborating colleagues around the world
who have provided so much invaluable data, insight and expertise into this
complex but intriguing subject. We especially thank the University of Durham
for its support during the project itself, JeV Veitch for help with improving the
quality of some of the illustrations and photographs, and colleagues at the
Flemish Heritage Institute (especially An Lentacker) for valuable input into
the editing of this volume. This book would not have been possible without
the various contributions and enthusiasm of all the participants of the Walworth Castle workshop, and to them we also oVer our heartfelt thanks.
Finally, we would like to thank all the staV of the Walworth Castle hotel for
providing such relaxing surroundings for the workshop, and to the villagers of
Walworth itself who made us so welcome and who helped us celebrate this
unique domestic animal.
More speciWc thanks and acknowledgements for selected chapters are as
follows:
Chapter 1: Special thanks to K. Fletcher and Donna Baylis of Wildside
Photography <http://www.wildsidephotography.ca> for allowing us to use
their copyrighted image (no. 22133) of a pair of Sulawesi warty pigs (Sus
celebensis) photographed at a saltlick in lowland rainforest, Suaka Margasatwa
Nantu nature reserve, Sulawesi.
Chapter 2: This study was supported by a Wellcome Trust Bioarchaeology
Research Fellowship (Keith Dobney: grant reference 060888) a research grant
from the Arts and Humanities Research Board (Peter Rowley-Conwy and
Umberto Albarella: award reference no. B/RG/AN1759/APN10977) a Smithsonian Institution Short-term Visitors award (Keith Dobney) and a Leverhulme Trust grant (Greger Larson). We are especially grateful to the
Smithsonian Museum of Natural History and to the many other institutions
and individuals who provided access to material and collections, and for
allowing us to sample them for DNA analysis. These include: Alain Ducos,
Productions Animales—UMR INRA Cytogénétique, École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, France; Chris Gerrard, Department of Archaeology,
viii
Acknowledgements
University of Durham, UK; Elizabeth Maclean, Ossabaw Hog Farm North
Carolina, USA; Marco Masseti, University of Florence, Italy; Paolo Agnelli,
Museum of Natural History, University of Florence, Italy; Field Museum,
University of Chicago, IL, USA (B. Stanley); Filippo Manconi, Tempio Pausania, Italy; Institute for Forest Ecology and Forest Inventory, Eberswalde,
Germany (Goretzki and Manfred Ahrens); Institute of Portuguese Archaeology, Lisbon, Portugal (Simon Davis); Jonathan Lee, Northern Australia
Quarantine Strategy, Australia; Laboratoire d’Anatomie Comparée, Paris,
France (Jean-Denis Vigne); Natural History Museum Berlin, Germany
(Peter Giere); Oliver Brown, Department of Archaeology, University of Sydney, Australia; Pig Biodiversity Consortium <http://www.projects.roslin.ac.uk/
pigbiodiv/>; Ross Fraser, President of the Rare Breeds Conservation Society of
New Zealand, 58 Wills Rd, West Plains, RD4, Invercargill 9521, New Zealand;
Roslin Institute, Edinburgh, Scotland; South Australia Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, SA5000, Australia (Terry Bertozzi and Steve Donnellan); Sue
Bulmer, Bulmer & Associates, 10 Tansley Ave, Epsom, Auckland, New Zealand; Smithsonian Museum of Natural History, Washington, DC, USA; University of Hildeseim, Germany (Horst Kierdorf); Oxford University Museum
of Natural History, UK (Malgosia Nowak-Kemp); Professor Richard Redding,
University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, USA; and Wnally the
Zoological Institute in Yerevan, Armenia (Ninna Manaserian).
Chapter 4: This study was supported by a Wellcome Trust Bioarchaeology
Research Fellowship (Keith Dobney: grant reference 060888), a research
grant from the Arts and Humanities Research Board (Peter Rowley-Conwy
and Umberto Albarella: award reference no. B/RG/AN1759/APN10977),
and by the Flemish Heritage Institute, Belgium. Many colleagues and institutions provided access to material and information regarding the archaeological and recent samples. Within the context of the paper, especially
mentioned are Kim Aaris-Sørensen and Knud Rosenlund, Zoological Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark; Mikiko Abe, Department of Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan; Tomoko
Anezaki, Gunma Museum of Natural History, Gunma, Japan, Adrian Balasescu, Anne Tresset, and Jean-Denis Vigne, Musée d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris,
France; Gennady Baryshnikov, Institute of Zoology, St Petersburg, Russia;
Janet Bell, Salisbury and South Wiltshire Museum, UK; Norbert Benecke,
Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Berlin, Germany; Hans-Jürgen Döhle,
Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, Halle, Germany; Lena Drenzel, Historical
Museum, Stockholm, Sweden; Peter Giere, Natural History Museum Berlin,
Germany; Susanne Hanik, Brandenburgisches Landesamt für DenkmalpXege
und Archäologisches Landesmuseum, Wünsdorf, Germany; Hitomi Hongo,
Acknowledgements
ix
Graduate University for Advanced Studies, Japan; Yuan Jing, Institute of
Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing, China; Horst
Kierdorf, University of Hildesheim, Germany; Roel Lauwerier, Rijksdienst
voor het Oudheidkundig Bodemonderzoek, Amersfoort, Netherlands; Akira
Matsui and Masakatsu Fujita, Nara Archaeological Research Center, Japan;
Augusta McMahon, University of Cambridge, UK; Richard Meadow and Viva
Fisher, Peabody Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA; Nanna
Noe-Nygaard, University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Marc Nussbaumer, Naturhistorisches Museum Burgergemeinde Bern, Switzerland; Inger Österholm,
Gotland University College, Sweden; Jörg Schibler, University of Basel, Switzerland; Bill Stanley and Bill Simpson, Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago, USA; Jan Storå, University of Stockholm, Sweden; Jacqueline Studer,
Natural History Museum Geneva, Switzerland; Kyomi Yamazaki, Iwaki Junior
College, Japan; Melinda Zeder, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC,
USA; Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, USA; Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA; Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard
University, Cambridge, MA, USA; Institute of Zoology, St Petersburg, Russia;
Natural History Museums of Paris, France and Geneva and Bern, Switzerland,
and Berlin, Germany; University of Hildesheim, Germany; University of
Istanbul, Turkey; Institute of Archaeology, Beijing, China.
From Japan, the most important suppliers of study material were Atsuhiro
Isakoda and the Iwaki City Board of Education; Hajime Komiya and the Chiba
Museum; Masato Nishino and the Chiba Prefecture Archaeological Center,
the Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, Nara Prefecture; Fukuoka Prefecture Board of Education; Kanagawa Archaeological Center; Miyagi Prefecture
Board of Education; Nagasaki Prefecture Board of Education; Nara Cultural
Institute, Nabunken; Okayama Prefecture Board of Education; Osaka Prefecture Archaeological Center; Tamagawa Cultural Research Center; Wakasa
Museum of History and Folklore, Obama.
Chapter 5: Many people over the years have helped the author in various
ways, in particular by providing unpublished data, especially Liora Kolska
Horwitz, Simon Davis, Sebastian Payne, Emmanuelle Vila, Allan S. Gilbert,
and Melinda Zeder. Arlene Rosen kindly supplied the typescript of her
forthcoming publication on environmental change in the Middle East.
Chapter 6: The following individuals and institutions have generously
made the archaeological pig remains available for our study (individual
names in alphabetical order): Katsuhiko Amitani, Tsuruga Junior College;
Tetsuya Inui; Teruhisa Kenmotsu, Yokosuka Archaeological Circle; Hajime
Komiya, Chiba Prefecture Archaeological Research Center; Kazuhiko
Kobayashi, Korekawa Archaeological Museum; Akira Matsui, Nabunken–Nara
x
Acknowledgements
Cultural Property Research Center; Hiroshi Miyazaki, Tokyo Metropolitan
Government; Manzo Maeda; Toyohiro Nishimoto, National Museum of
Japanese History; Hiroto Takamiya, Faculty of Cultural Studies, Sapporo
University; Hajime Tanida, Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima
University; Hajime Taru, Kanagawa Prefectural Museum of Natural History;
Wakasa History and Folklore Museum, Fukui Prefecture; Chiba Prefecture
Archaeological Research Center; Chiba Municipal Board of Education;
Mobara Municipal Board of Education; Narita Municipal Board of Education; Kanagawa Archaeology Fundation; So-Nan Cultural Research Center;
Kanagawa Archaeological Foundation, Tamagawa Cultural Institute; Fukushima Archaeological Research Center; Hashikami Town Research Center; Shichinohe Town Board of Education; Ethnology and Archaeology Research
Department, Keio University; Iwate Prefectural Museum; Rikuzen-Takada
City Museum; Tohoku Historical Museum; Iwaki City Board of Education;
Iwaki Educational and Cultural Foundation; Ohshima Town Board of Education; Miyake Village Board of Education; Niijima-Mura Museum; Hachijo
Town Board of Education; Yokosuka City Museum; Kushiro City Archaeological Research Center; Furano City Board of Education; Hokkaido Archaeological Research Center; Chitose City Board of Education; Tomakomai
City Archaeological Research Center; Date City Board of Education; Abuta
Town Board of Education; Assabu Town Board of Education; Otobe Town
Board of Education; Hakodate City Board of Education; Historical Museum
of Hokkaido. This study was partly supported by Grants-in-Aid for ScientiWc
Research (B) (1) 15405017 (Primary Investigator H. Hongo) and (C) (2)
11610421 (Primary Investigator K. Yamazaki) from the Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science.
Chapter 7: Kim Aaris-Sørensen, Zoological Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark;
Nanna Noe-Nygaard, Institute of Historical Geology and Palaeontology,
University of Copenhagen, Denmark; Lena Drenzel, Statens Historiska
Museum, Stockholm, Sweden; Inger Österholm and Göran Burenhult,
Gotland University College, Visby, Sweden; and Leif Jonsson, University of
Göteberg, Sweden are thanked for access to the material in their care, and for
many stimulating discussions.
Chapter 8: Appreciation and gratitude go to the following friends and
colleagues for their suggestions and assistance: Oliver Brown, Department
of Archaeology, University of Sydney, Australia; Miguel A. Carretero, Centro
de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos (CIBIO) Vairão,
Porto, Portugal; Claudio CioW, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary
Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA; Caroline Grigson, Institute
of Archaeology, University College London, UK; Sebastian Payne, English
Acknowledgements
xi
Heritage, London, UK; Joris Peters, Institut für Paläeoanatomie
und Geschichte der Tiermedizin Ludwig-Maximillian University, Munich,
Germany; Peter Rowley-Conwy, Department of Archaeology, University of
Durham, UK; Adamantios Sampson, University of the Aegean, Rhodes,
Greece; Katerina Trantalidou, Ephorate of Paleoanthropology and Speleology,
Athens, Greece. Special thanks are due to Colin P. Groves, School of
Archaeology and Anthropology, Australian National University, Canberra,
Australia, for his help in the taxonomic identiWcation of the wild pigs of
Komodo.
Chapter 9: The study was supported by the Flemish Heritage Institute,
Belgium, and by a Wellcome Trust Bioarchaeology Research Fellowship
(Keith Dobney: grant reference 060888). Mark Van Strydonck and Mathieu
Boudin of the Royal Institute for Cultural Heritage, Brussels, Belgium are
acknowledged for previous work on stable isotopes from Flemish archaeological sites.
Chapter 10: Elwira Szuma and her colleagues at the Mammal Research
Institute in Bialowieza, Poland, Per-Ola Andersson of the wild game butchery
in Sjunkaröd, Sweden, and Søren Andersen, together with the staV at the
Conservation Department, Mosegård Museum, Denmark, deserve thanks for
making recent and archaeological samples accessible for study. Christina
Lindh and colleagues at the Department of Oral Radiology, Center for Oral
Health Sciences, Malmö University, Sweden, are acknowledged for facilitated
access to equipment and assistance. Funding to examine the Ringkloster
mandibles was obtained through a grant from the European Commission’s
programme ‘Transnational Access to Major Research Infrastructures’ to
COBICE (Copenhagen Biosystematics Center), Denmark.
Chapter 11: T. Dayan and I. Hershkovitz are thanked for their invaluable
guidance, D. Wool for statistical advice, T. Shariv of the Tel Aviv University
Zoological Museum and R. Rabinovitch of the Department of Evolution,
Systematics, and Ecology, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel, for their
help with the reference collections under their care, and the reviewers for
their useful comments. This research was supported by the Israeli Antiquities
Authority. The author is a Rami Levin fellow.
Chapter 12: Acknowledgements go to Prof. Yoram Yom-Tov and Ms Tzila
Shariv of the Tel Aviv University Zoological Museum who facilitated access
to the osteological collection of Tel Aviv University, Israel, and to the late
Prof. Eitan Tchernov who facilitated access to the Comparative Mammalian
Collection of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel.
xii
Acknowledgements
Chapter 13: The work presented in this paper was made possible by the
Wnancial support of the UK Arts and Humanities Research Board (now
‘Council’) (Umberto Albarella and Peter Rowley-Conwy: award ref. B/RG/
AN1759/APN10977) and the Wellcome Trust Bioarchaeology Fellowship
(Keith Dobney: award ref. 060888). The staV of the Multi-Imaging Centre
in Cambridge where the scanning electron microscopy work was undertaken
are also acknowledged for their help. Thanks also go to all colleagues who
allowed us access to the archaeological material discussed in this paper.
Chapter 15: This chapter presents research results of the Belgian Programme
on Interuniversity Poles of Attraction (IUAP 05/09) initiated by the Belgian
Federal Science Policy OYce. The text also presents the results of the
Concerted Action of the Flemish Government (GOA 02/2) and the Fund for
ScientiWc Research—Flanders (Belgium) (FWO, G.0245.02). ScientiWc
responsibility is assumed by its authors. Anton Ervynck, Flemish Heritage
Institute, is acknowledged for his help during the analysis of the LEH; Keith
Dobney, University of Durham, kindly made available the data to calculate
the index of diVerent sites. The English was corrected by Sheila HamiltonDyer, Southampton, UK.
Chapter 16: The work presented in this chapter was made possible by the
Wnancial support of the UK Arts and Humanities Research Board (Umberto
Albarella and Peter Rowley-Conwy: award ref. B/RG/AN1759/APN10977)
and by the kindness of the pig herders who made their time available for
the interviews. Remy Ricci in particular provided us with a great range of
information about Corsican pig breeding and introduced us to other
breeders. Many thanks also go to Giancarlo Spada, Antonello Sechi, and
François de Lanfranchi for their invaluable help in contacting pig breeders,
and Marina Ciaraldi for help in formulating the questionnaire. Simon Davis,
Paul Halstead, and Marina Ciaraldi also kindly provided valuable comments
on a Wrst draft.
Chapter 18: The data on pigs analysed were published previously (Sillitoe P.
2003. Managing Animals in New Guinea: Preying the Game in the Highlands.
London: Routledge). The publishers are acknowledged for permission to use
them again here. Thanks go to every household in the Was valley that has
cooperated in surveys at intervals enquiring into the composition of their pig
herds. In particular, Wenja Neleb and Maenget Saendaep are acknowledged
for their assistance throughout this work. The valuable advice and criticism of
Robin Hide is also highly appreciated.
Chapter 19: Jan-Waalke Meyer is acknowledged for comments and encouragements, and Lise Willcox for the translation of this chapter.
Acknowledgements
xiii
Chapter 20: The following institutions are acknowledged for oVering free
copyright permission for the reproduction of illustrations and, where appropriate, for the supply of images: Bodleian Library, University of Oxford, UK
(Figs 20.1 and 20.2); Historische Museum, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
(Fig. 20.3); Bishop Tunstall’s Chapel, Durham Castle, University of Durham,
UK (Fig. 20.6). Copyright permission was granted for reproduction, and,
where appropriate, images were supplied by the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam,
Netherlands (Fig. 20.4) and the Rothschild Collection, National Trust, UK
(Fig. 20.5). Thanks also go to Anwen CaVell who willingly proofread this
chapter.
Contents
List of Wgures
List of tables
List of authors
xviii
xxvi
xxviii
Introduction
Umberto Albarella, Keith Dobney,
Anton Ervynck & Peter Rowley-Conwy
1
PART A EVOLUTION AND TAXONOMY
1. Current views on taxonomy and zoogeography of the genus Sus
Colin Groves
2. Current views on Sus phylogeography and pig domestication
as seen through modern mtDNA studies
Greger Larson, Umberto Albarella, Keith Dobney & Peter
Rowley-Conwy
3. The molecular basis for phenotypic changes
during pig domestication
Leif Andersson
15
30
42
PART B THE HISTORY OF PIG DOMESTICATION
AND HUSBANDRY
4. The transition from wild boar to domestic pig in Eurasia,
illustrated by a tooth developmental defect and biometrical data
Keith Dobney, Anton Ervynck, Umberto Albarella & Peter
Rowley-Conwy
5. Culture, ecology, and pigs from the 5th to the 3rd millennium
bc around the Fertile Crescent
Caroline Grigson
6. Hunting or management? The status of Sus in the Jomon
period in Japan
Hitomi Hongo, Tomoko Anezaki, Kyomi Yamazaki,
Osamu Takahashi & Hiroki Sugawara
57
83
109
xvi
Contents
7. Wild boar and domestic pigs in Mesolithic and Neolithic
southern Scandinavia
Peter Rowley-Conwy & Keith Dobney
8. The economic role of Sus in early human Wshing communities
Marco Masseti
9. An investigation into the transition from forest dwelling
pigs to farm animals in medieval Flanders, Belgium
Anton Ervynck, An Lentacker, Gundula Müldner,
Mike Richards & Keith Dobney
131
156
171
PART C METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES
10. Age estimation of wild boar based on molariform mandibular
tooth development and its application to seasonality at the
Mesolithic site of Ringkloster, Denmark
Richard Carter & Ola Magnell
11. A statistical method for dealing with isolated teeth:
ageing pig teeth from Hagoshrim, Israel
Annat Haber
12. Morphometric variation between populations of recent
wild boar in Israel
Goggy Davidowitz & Liora Kolska Horwitz
13. A dental microwear study of pig diet and management in
Iron Age, Romano-British, Anglo-Scandinavian, and medieval
contexts in England
Tom Wilkie, Ingrid Mainland, Umberto Albarella,
Keith Dobney & Peter Rowley-Conwy
14. The histopathology of Xuorotic dental enamel in wild boar
and domestic pigs
Horst Kierdorf & Uwe Kierdorf
15. Economic and ecological reconstruction at the Classical site
of Sagalassos, Turkey, using pig teeth
SoWe Vanpoucke, Bea De Cupere & Marc Waelkens
197
218
228
241
255
269
PART D ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES
16. Ethnoarchaeology of pig husbandry in Sardinia and Corsica
Umberto Albarella, Filippo Manconi, Jean-Denis Vigne &
Peter Rowley-Conwy
285
Contents
17. Traditional pig butchery by the Yali people of West Papua
(Irian Jaya): an ethnographic and archaeozoological example
Jacqueline Studer & Daniel Pillonel
18. Pigs in the New Guinea Highlands: an ethnographic example
Paul Sillitoe
xvii
308
330
PART E PIGS IN RITUAL AND ART
19. Wild boar hunting in the Eastern Mediterranean from the
2nd to the 1st millennium bc
Anne-Sophie Dalix & Emmanuelle Vila
20. The pig in medieval iconography
Sarah Phillips
Glossary
References
359
373
389
395
List of Figures
Fig.1.1.
Fig.1.2.
Fig.1.3.
Fig.1.4.
Fig.2.1.
Fig.2.2.
Fig.3.1.
Fig.3.2.
Fig.3.3.
Fig.3.4.
Fig.3.5.
Fig.3.6.
Fig.3.7.
Fig.4.1.
Fig.4.2.
Fig.4.3.
Fig.4.4.
Outline of artiodactyl phylogeny as accepted prior to the 1990s
Outline of artiodactyl phylogeny as revised in the 1990s
Members of the Suidae
Sulawesi warty pigs (Sus celebensis) photographed at a salt lick in
lowland rainforest, Suaka Margasatwa Nantu nature reserve, Sulawesi
A Bayesian (MCMC) consensus tree of 122 Sus mtDNA control region
haplotypes rooted by a common warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus)
Domestic pigs from Sarawak, Borneo from which hairs were sampled
for mtDNA analyses
Schematic illustration of the segregation of alleles in an F2 intercross
between the wild boar and domestic pigs
Segregation at the Dominant white (I) and Extension (E) coat colour
loci in an intercross between the European wild boar and Large White
domestic pigs
Haplotypes identiWed at the KIT/Dominant white locus in pigs
Summary of pig MC1R/Extension alleles and their eVect on coat colour
Striking phenotypic similarity between the coat colour pattern for
a domestic pig illustrated in a 14th century English medieval
manuscript (the Luttrell Psalter) (left) and one of the coat colour
pattern observed among the F2 progeny in a wild
boar/domestic pig intercross (right)
Phylogenetic tree of the near complete mtDNA genome (c.16 kb)
showing the existence of three distinct lineages of mtDNA
sequences, one Asian (A) and two European (E1 and E2)
A single nucleotide substitution in intron 3 of the IGF2 gene in pigs has
a major eVect on muscle growth, fat deposition, and the size of the heart
Linear enamel hypoplasia on the lingual surface of the mandibular
molars of a medieval European domestic pig (Ename,
Belgium, c.1000 ad)
Frequency distribution of LEH heights per cusp, per molar of
the archaeological pigs from China
Frequency distribution of LEH heights per cusp, per molar
of the archaeological pigs from Japan
Index comparing the average frequency of LEH between all
populations studied
16
17
19
28
34
39
44
45
47
48
49
50
52
58
62
63
64
List of Figures
xix
Fig.4.5. Index comparing the average frequency of LEH between the recent
wild boar populations studied
65
Fig.4.6. Index comparing the average frequency of LEH between all
populations studied from south-west Asia
69
Fig.4.7. Index comparing the average frequency of LEH between
all populations studied from Europe
70
Fig.4.8. Index comparing the average frequency of LEH between diachronic
strata from Zürich-Mozartstrasse
70
Fig.4.9. Index comparing the average frequency of LEH between all
populations studied from China
71
Fig.4.10. Index comparing the average frequency of LEH between all
populations studied from Japan
72
Fig.4.11. Frequency distribution of the length (mm) of the M3 of Sus per
chronological phase of Çayönü Tepesi, compared to the data
available from recent specimens
74
Fig.4.12. Frequency distribution of the length (mm) of the M3 of Sus from
the strata at Zürich-Mozartstrasse
76
Fig.4.13. Frequency distribution of the length (mm) of the M3 of Sus from
the archaeological sites in China, compared to the data available
from recent specimens
78
Fig.4.14. Frequency distribution of the length (mm) of the M3 of Sus
from the archaeological sites in Japan (grouped per chronological
phase), compared to the data available from recent specimens
80
Fig.4.15. Summary of the frequency distributions of the length (mm) of the
M3 of Sus from the archaeological sites in Japan (grouped per
chronological phase), compared to the data available from recent
specimens
81
Fig.5.1. Distribution of sites with and without pigs in the 5th millennium bc 93
Fig.5.2. Distribution of sites with and without pigs in the 4th millennium bc 94
Fig.5.3. Distribution of sites of the southern Levant with and without
pigs in the 4th millennium bc
95
Fig.5.4. Distribution of sites with and without pigs in the 3rd millennium bc 96
Fig.5.5. Distribution of sites in the southern Levant with and without
pigs in the 3rd millennium bc
97
Fig.5.6. Distribution of sites with and without pigs in the Upper
Euphrates and Khabur basins in the 3rd millennium bc
98
Fig.5.7. Diachronic changes in the proportion of pigs in two sites on the
Middle Khabur
105
Fig.5.8. Diachronic changes in the proportion of pigs at Tell Brak in the
Upper Khabur basin
106
xx
Fig.6.1.
Fig.6.2.
Fig.6.3.
Fig.6.4.
Fig.6.5.
Fig.6.6.
Fig.6.7.
Fig.6.8.
Fig.7.1.
Fig.7.2.
Fig.7.3.
Fig.7.4.
Fig.7.5.
Fig.7.6.
Fig.7.7.
Fig.7.8.
Fig.7.9.
Fig.7.10.
List of Figures
Relative proportion of land mammals exploited during the Jomon
period: combined MNI data from 60 Jomon sites from the Incipient
Jomon phase to the Final Jomon phase, located in Honshu and Kyushu
Location of the sites where Sus samples were taken
Kill-oV pattern for Sus based on epiphyseal fusion of limb bones
Age proWles for Sus based on tooth eruption and wear
Age proWle for Sus based on tooth eruption and wear
Comparison of the greatest length of mandibular M3 : (a) modern
Japanese wild boar populations from Kyushu and Honshu; (b) Jomon
Sus samples from Kanto region; (c) Jomon Sus samples from
Hokuriku, Tohoku, and Hokkaido
Log size index of limb bones of Jomon Sus from (a) Kanto region,
(b) Izu, (c) Hokuriku, and (d) Tohoku regions
Comparison of Sus log size index for the Late to Final Jomon
periods (4500–2500 cal. bp) in Hokkaido, Tohoku, and Kanto regions
Reconstruction of the landscape of the Danish Early Mesolithic
showing sites from which Sus data derives
Reconstruction of the landscape of the Danish Middle and Later
Mesolithic showing sites from which Sus data derives
Biometry of Sus permanent third molar (M3 )—width of the
anterior cusp (M3WA) against maximum length (M3L)—from
Mesolithic Denmark
Biometry of Sus permanent third molar (M3 )—width of the
anterior cusp (M3WA) against maximum length (M3L)—from
Mesolithic Denmark
Neolithic and later Denmark and Sweden, showing sites from
which Sus data derives
Biometry of Sus permanent third molar (M3 )—width of the
anterior cusp (M3WA) against maximum length (M3 L)—from
prehistoric Denmark
Biometry of Sus permanent second molar (M2 )—width of the
anterior cusp (M2WA) against maximum length (M2 L)—from
prehistoric Denmark
Inhumation from Ire (Gotland) showing Sus mandibles cached
at the feet of the human skeleton
Biometry of Sus permanent third molar (M3 )—width of the anterior
cusp ðM3 WA) against maximum length (M3 L)—comparing Gotland
specimens to those from Mesolithic and Middle Neolithic Denmark
Biometry of Sus permanent second molar (M2 )—width of the
anterior cusp (M2 WA) against maximum length (M2 L)—comparing
111
114
116
117
118
120
122
125
133
135
136
137
139
139
140
143
145
List of Figures
Fig.7.11.
Fig.7.12.
Fig.7.13.
Fig.7.14.
Fig.7.15.
Fig.7.16.
Fig.7.17.
Fig.8.1.
Fig.8.2.
Fig.8.3.
Fig.8.4.
Fig.8.5.
Fig.8.6.
Fig.9.1.
Fig.9.2.
Gotland specimens to those from Mesolithic and Middle Neolithic
Denmark
Relationship between the height of the mandible in front of
the M1 and individual mandible wear stages of archaeological
Sus specimens from Gotland and Denmark
As Fig. 7.11, but now comparing regression lines for both
archaeological and modern wild boar comparative data sets
Index comparing the average frequency of linear enamel hypoplasia
(LEH) between all archaeological Sus specimens recorded
Comparison of the average number of LEH lines per tooth
and individual cusp between Mesolithic Danish and Neolithic
Gotland Sus
As Fig. 7.14, but comparing Gotland with Neolithic Danish and
Bronze Age Sus
Reconstructed age-at-death data for Gotland Sus mandibles from the
settlement refuse of Ajvide compared to those found within three
separate human graves from the sites of Ajvide, Grausne, and Ire
Complete archaeological Sus half-mandible (possible trophy) from
the site of Ajvide with a hole cut in the side of the jaw, allowing
the extraction of the marrow without fragmentation
Geographical location of the island of Youra, northern
Sporades (Greece)
Early human societies which based their subsistence mainly on
marine resources also featuring a certain association with wild
boars, Sus scrofa, have been recorded from several European and
Mediterranean archaeological contexts
Geographical location of the island of Gotland
In the semi-arid region of Cuddle Spring, in eastern Australia,
scavenging of carrion by feral pigs is particularly associated
with drought following a long period of higher than average rainfall
Adult female of the Komodo wild pig photographed in August 1984
at Banu Ungulung, located less than 3 km north-east of Loho Liang,
the headquarters and visitor complex of the Komodo National Park
On Komodo, sunset is the time when the wild pigs emerge from
the monsoon jungle to snuffle around on the sandy seashore
seeking out small fish, molluscs, and other marine titbits beached
by the receding tide
Pigs herded in the forest. Detail from the page for November in Les
Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, France, early 15th century
Location of the sites in Belgium from which pig remains have been
studied
xxi
146
147
148
150
151
152
153
154
157
157
158
162
163
164
172
175
xxii
Fig.9.3.
Fig.9.4.
Fig.9.5.
Fig.9.6.
Fig.9.7.
Fig.9.8.
Fig.9.9.
Fig. 9.10.
Fig.9.11.
Fig.10.1.
Fig.10.2.
Fig.10.3.
Fig.10.4.
Fig.11.5.
Fig.10.6.
Fig.10.7.
Fig.10.8.
Fig.10.9.
Fig.10.10.
List of Figures
Frequencies of the main meat-providing domesticates at each site
Distribution of the pig mandibular molar wear stages at each site
Distribution of the pig mandibular molar wear stages for the
reference site of Wellin
13
C and 15 N stable isotope data from bone collagen of pigs and
other fauna from the four sites
Mean and standard deviation of the 13 C and 15 N stable isotope
data from bone collagen of pig and cattle per site
Tooth dimensions of the three mandibular molars per site
Comparison of the log ratio of postcranial measurements
per site: (a) log ratio of six postcranial breadths; (b) log ratio
of the astragalus
Linear enamel hypoplasia index for all sites studied, compared
with Mesolithic and recent north-west European wild boar
Frequency of linear enamel hypoplasia (average number of lines
observed per tooth and cusp) along the tooth row for each site
Examples of stages 1 and 2 on developing P3 and P4 respectively
Stage 3 showing mineralization of all cusps on M1
Mineralization of the cusps (stage 3) of a loose M3
Stages 4 and 5 on P2 and P3 respectively
Stage 4 on a loose M2
M2 at stage 6 showing that the root width is less than root length
M1 and M2 at stages 8 and 7 respectively
Stage 5–8 on loose P4
Regression line and scatter plot of tooth development versus age
for male and female wild boar
Season of death of dentally immature wild boar, red deer, and roe
deer aged 0–1 year from Ringkloster
Fig.10.11. Season of death of dentally immature wild boar and red deer
aged 1–3 years from Ringkloster
Fig.10.12. Percentage of wild boar, red deer, and roe deer possibly killed
for each month of the year that have age range estimations
of 4 months or less and are under 24 months of age
Fig.10.13. Possibly the youngest specimen examined is ALDO
Fig.10.14. Another good example is specimen FNJN
Fig.10.15. A slightly older specimen AMLN
Fig.11.1. Standardized deviates of the age groups for each layer
176
180
181
184
186
187
188
191
192
201
202
203
203
204
205
206
206
209
213
214
214
215
216
216
225
List of Figures
Fig.11.2. Age distributions calculated based only on deciduous P4 and
permanent M3 , both upper and lower
Fig.12.1. Current distribution of Sus scrofa lybica in Israel and the West
Bank, and the location of the four populations studied here
Fig.12.2. Canonical variate biplots of the cranial measurements
Fig.12.3. Canonical variate biplots of the mandible measurements
Fig.13.1. A bucco-posterior cusp of a mandibular M2 to illustrate sampling
location
Fig.13.2. A representative image of the microwear evident in the Coppergate
pigs
Fig.13.3. A representative image of the microwear evident in the
Fishergate pigs
Fig.13.4. A representative image of the microwear evident in the Elm’s
Farm pigs
Fig.13.5. A representative image of the microwear evident in modern
rooting pigs
Fig.13.6. A comparison of mean pit breadth and pit relative frequency in
modern and archaeological suids and modern primates
Fig.14.1. Macroscopic views of Xuorotic and non-Xuorotic teeth of wild
boar and domestic pigs
Fig.14.2. Scanning electron micrographs of acid-etched, non-Xuorotic
(a) and Xuorotic (b–f) enamel of wild boar and domestic pigs;
the teeth were longitudinally sectioned in a bucco-lingual plane
Fig.14.3. Light and scanning electron micrographs of Xuorotic enamel
of wild boar (a,c,d) and a domestic pig (b); the teeth were
longitudinally sectioned in a labio-lingual (incisors) or
bucco-lingual (molars) plane
Fig.14.4. Light and scanning electron micrographs of Xuorotic enamel
of a domestic pig (a) and wild boar (b–d); the teeth were
longitudinally sectioned in a labio-lingual (incisors) or
bucco-lingual (molars) plane
Fig.14.5. Fluorotic enamel of domestic pigs (a) and wild boar (b–d); the
teeth were longitudinally sectioned in a labio-lingual (incisors)
or bucco-lingual (molars) plane
Fig.15.1. Location of the Sagalassos site in Turkey
Fig.15.2. Negative cumulative curve (%) and frequency distribution of the
mandibular wear stages of the three periods considered and of
all material together
Fig.15.3. Frequency distribution of the LEH height on the lower M1
Fig.15.4. Frequency distribution of the LEH height on the lower M2
xxiii
226
229
237
238
245
248
249
250
252
253
256
259
262
263
264
270
274
276
277
xxiv
Fig.15.5.
Fig.15.6.
Fig.15.7.
Fig.16.1.
Fig.16.2.
Fig.16.3.
Fig.16.4.
Fig.16.5.
Fig.16.6.
Fig.16.7.
Fig.16.8.
Fig.16.9.
Fig.16.10.
Fig.16.11.
Fig.16.12.
Fig.16.13.
Fig.17.1.
Fig.17.2.
Fig.17.3.
Fig.17.4.
Fig.17.5.
List of Figures
Frequency distribution of the LEH height on the lower M3
Index comparing the average frequency of LEH of pig teeth
from diVerent south-west Asian sites and recent wild boars,
calculated for all molars combined
Frequency of specimens aVected by LEH (lines and depressions)
calculated for each molar and cusp from the diVerent periods
Location of Sardinia and Corsica in relation to mainland Europe
Comparison of the size of the lower M3 in Sardo-Corsican and
other European wild boars
Locations of the areas where observation of free-range pigs and
conversations with pig breeders were carried out
A pig from of the traditional Sardinian breed from the region
of Ogliastra (Sardinia)
Typical landscape in Supramonte (Sardinia), where many free-range
pigs were found in the woodland area
A young Sardinian pig from the area photographed in Fig. 16.5
tries to Wnd some shade on a very hot day in June as it eats some
poor and short grass
Free-range pigs from Castagniccia (Corsica)
Pig from the Limbara area (Sardinia) belonging to the breeder
Sebastiano Carta
Pig belonging to the traditional Corsican breed from Orone near
Levie (Corsica)
The Bavella mountains in Corsica, where pigs of the traditional
breed survive with almost no support
Abandoned enclosure in the Levie area (Corsica), which was
probably used for pigs
Pig snout with the typical iron wire inserted to avoid rooting
damage, from Bavella (Corsica)
Small cattle of the traditional Corsican breed from Perfugas
(Sardinia)
Butchery and consumption of a sow by the Yali from Kosarek
Butchery and consumption of a sow by the Yali from Kosarek
(continued)
Butchery and consumption of a sow by the Yali from Kosarek
(continued)
Butchery and consumption of a sow by the Yali from Kosarek
(continued)
Schematic representation of a pig skeleton showing bones
recovered and skeletal elements with modifications
278
281
282
288
289
290
291
292
292
293
298
298
301
302
304
306
312
313
314
317
322
List of Figures
Fig.17.6. Detail of modiWcations to the thorax showing chop marks, irregular
fractures, and human gnaw marks
Fig.17.7. Traces observed from the skeleton
Fig.18.1. Kwal feeding sweet potato tubers to her pigs in the late afternoon
outside her house in the Was valley in the Southern Highlands
Province of Papua New Guinea
Fig.18.2. Pig populations
Fig.18.3. Mean composition of pig herds according to pig classes
Fig.18.4. Preparing pig carcasses for cooking at a large pig kill
(showmay tok liy) in the Papua New Guinea Highlands
Fig.18.5. Pig populations by size classes
Fig.18.6. Mean demographic structure of pig population (between kills)
Fig.18.7. Mean demographic structure of pig population (after kills)
Fig.18.8. Disposal of pigs from herds
Fig.18.9. Source of pigs in herds
Fig.19.1. Location of the Ras Shamra-Ugarit site
Fig.19.2. Representations of wild boar on arms
Fig.19.3. Rhytons from Ougarit: Ras Shamra and Minet el Beida
Fig.20.1. Bestiary boar in MS Bodley 764, fol. 38v
Fig.20.2. Bestiary sow and piglets in MS Bodley 764, fol. 37v
Fig.20.3. The Judensau or Jews’ sow, c.1470, late 15th century
Fig.20.4. Winged pig on a world-orb, woodcut sheet of Cornelis
Anthonisz, 1538–48
Fig.20.5. Image of a boar musician from stained glass roundel,
Waddesdon Manor, Waddesdon, Buckinghamshire, c.1375–1425
Fig.20.6. Detail of a pig musician from Durham Castle misericord
xxv
324
326
333
341
342
344
345
347
348
352
353
360
362
363
375
375
377
380
381
381
List of Tables
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
4.1.
4.2.
5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
6.1.
7.1.
9.1.
9.2.
9.3.
10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.
10.5.
11.1.
11.2.
11.3.
11.4.
‘Traditional’ classiWcation of the Artiodactyla (Simpson 1945)
New classiWcation of the Artiodactyla (after Waddell et al. 1999)
Species of domesticated pigs and their relatives
Collections of recent wild boar mandibles studied
Collections of archaeological domestic pig mandibles studied
Percentages of pig bones in 5th millennium sites from the study area
Percentages of pig bones in 4th millennium sites from the study area
Percentages of pig bones in 3rd millennium sites from the study area
Archaeological sites used for the study of Sus remains
Sites mentioned in the present study
Stable isotope measurements performed for this study at the
University of Bradford
Standard values used for the log ratio calculations combining
six postcranial breadths
Collections studied for the evaluation of linear enamel hypoplasia
Origin and distribution of the sample in age groups
X-ray settings for modern and archaeological samples
Tooth development of molars in wild boar
Tooth development of deciduous and permanent premolars in wild boar
Tooth development in wild boar compared with normal and
undernourished domestic pig
Illustrating the problem of biased representation using pig
molars from the Hanamiai site (TH1), Tahuata, Marquesas
Islands: tooth eruption or wear stage versus age groups
The three main layers of Hagoshrim, their chronological and cultural
context, and the total number of pig teeth recovered and analysed
in each layer
The five age groups used for pigs and their definitions based on
eruption and wear of upper and lower dP3, dP4, P4, and M3
(‘d’, as in dP/3, refers to ‘deciduous’)
Pig mandibular and maxillary teeth assigned to age groups
based on the definitions in Table 11.3
16
17
21
60
67
85
87
89
112
132
183
189
190
199
200
207
208
210
220
221
222
223
List of Tables
11.5.
12.1.
12.2.
12.3.
12.4.
12.5.
13.1.
13.2.
13.3.
15.1.
16.1.
17.1.
18.1.
18.2.
18.3.
18.4.
18.5.
18.6.
18.7.
18.8.
18.9.
18.10.
xxvii
Observed and expected frequencies of each age group
in each layer, based on the data in Table 11.4
Habitats of four wild boar populations in Israel
Sample sizes of crania and mandibles
First principal component and Wrst canonical variate scores of
log-transformed raw data and size-free data of the cranium
First principal component and Wrst canonical variate scores of
log-transformed raw data and size-free data of the mandible
Variables used in analysis
Tooth wear stage (after Grant 1982), enamel surface condition,
and sex for the pig mandibular assemblages considered in this study
Summary table for pig microwear statistics from Coppergate,
Elm’s Farm, and Fishergate
Selected microwear statistics for modern primates (after Daegling &
Grine 1999) and suids
Ages of formation of the lower molars (summarized by Dobney &
Ervynck 2000)
Results of the interviews with pig breeders carried out in July 2002
by UA and FM
Breakdown of skeleton elements from the Yali butchery and
consumption event
Pig litter statistics
Pig litters according to men’s ages
Average numbers of pigs owned
Mean composition of pig herds according to pig classes
Composition of normal pig herd and after pig kill according to pig classes
Pig census date according to size of pigs
Mean composition of normal pig herd, after pig kill, and in famine
according to size classes
Source and disposal of pigs during eighteen-month period
Time pigs owned
Source of pigs in herds pre- and post-pig kill
224
230
232
235
236
239
244
247
251
271
294
323
338
339
341
342
345
346
347
349
352
354
Authors
Umberto Albarella Department of Archaeology, University of SheYeld, Northgate House, West Street, SheYeld S1 4ET, UK <[email protected]>
Leif Andersson Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology,
Uppsala University, Uppsala Biomedical Center, Box 597, SE-751 24 Uppsala,
Sweden <[email protected]>
Tomoko Anezaki Gunma Museum of Natural History, 1674–1 Kamikuroiwa, Tomioka City, Gunma Prefecture 370-2345, Japan <anezaki@gmnh.
pref.gunma.jp>
Richard Carter Centre for Continuing Education, Room EH133, Sussex
Institute, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton, BN1 9QQ, UK
<r.j.carter@ sussex.ac.uk>
Anne-Sophie Dalix HISOMA, Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée,
7 rue Raulin, F-69007 Lyon, France <[email protected]>
Goggy Davidowitz Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA <[email protected]>
Bea De Cupere IUAP 05/09, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences,
Department of Anthropology and Prehistory, Vautierstraat 29, B-1000
Brussels, Belgium <[email protected]>
Keith Dobney Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, South
Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK <[email protected]>
Anton Ervynck Flemish Heritage Institute, Koning Albert II-laan 19, box 5,
B-1210 Brussels, Belgium <[email protected]>
Caroline Grigson University College London, Institute of Archaeology, 31
Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK <[email protected]>
Colin Groves School of Archaeology and Anthropology, Building 14,
Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia <colin.groves
@anu.edu.au>
Annat Haber Department of Zoology, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv 69978,
Israel <[email protected]>
Authors
xxix
Hitomi Hongo School of Advanced Science, Graduate University of
Advanced Studies, Shonan Village, Hayama, Kanagawa 240–0193, Japan
<[email protected]>
Liora Kolska Horwitz Department of Evolution, Systematics and Ecology,
The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 91904, Israel <[email protected]>
Horst Kierdorf Department of Biology, University of Hildesheim, Marienburger Platz 22, D-31141 Hildesheim, Germany <[email protected]>
Uwe Kierdorf Institute of General and Systematic Zoology, University of
Giessen, Heinrich-BuV-Ring 26–32, D-35392 Giessen, Germany <kierdorf@
lindlar.de>
Greger Larson Henry Wellcome Ancient Biomolecules Centre, University
of Oxford, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road OX1 3PS, UK
<greger.larson @zoology.oxford.ac.uk>
An Lentacker Flemish Heritage Institute, Koning Albert II-laan 19, box 5,
B-1210 Brussels, Belgium <[email protected]>
Ola Magnell Historical Osteology, Department of Archaeology and Ancient
History, Lund University, Sandgatan 1, 223 50 Lund, Sweden <ola.magnell@
spray.se>
Ingrid Mainland Department of Archaeological Sciences, University
of Bradford, West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP, UK <i.l.mainland@ bradford.ac.uk>
Filippo Manconi Via Daniele Manin 25, Tempio Pausania (SS), Italy
<[email protected]>
Marco Masseti Dipartimento di Biologia Animale e Genetica ‘Leo Pardi’,
Laboratori di Antropologia, Università di Firenze, Via del Proconsolo
12,50122 Firenze, Italy <[email protected]>
Gundula Müldner Department of Archaeology, University of Reading,
Whiteknights, PO Box 227, Reading RG6 6AB, UK <[email protected]>
Sarah Phillips Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, South
Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK <[email protected]>
Daniel Pillonel Laboratoire de Dendrochronologie, Service et Musée
Cantonal d’Archéologie, Laténium, 2016 Hauterive, Switzerland
<[email protected]>
xxx
Authors
Mike Richards Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for
Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany
<[email protected]> and Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK <[email protected]>
Peter Rowley-Conwy Department of Archaeology, University of Durham,
South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK <[email protected]>
Paul Sillitoe Department of Anthropology, University of Durham,
43 Old Elvet Road, Durham DH1 3HN, UK <[email protected]>
Jacqueline Studer Muséum d’Histoire naturelle, CP 6434, 1211 Genève
6, Switzerland <[email protected]>
Hiroki Sugawara Historical Museum of Jomon Village Okumatsushima,
81-18 Sato, Miyato, Higashimatsushima City, Miyagi Prefecture 981–0412,
Japan <[email protected]>
Osamu Takahashi Chitose Salmon Aquarium/ Museum, 312, 2-chome,
Hanazono, Chitose City, Hokkaido 066–0028, Japan <sake@
city.chitose.hokkaido.jp>
SoWe Vanpoucke Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Department of Archaeology, Erasmushuis, Blijde-Inkomststraat 21, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
<[email protected]>
Jean-Denis Vigne CNRS—Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Dept
Ecology and Biodiversity Management, USM 303, Case postale N8 56 (Bâtiment
d’Anatomie comparée), 55 rue BuVon, F-75231 Paris cedex 05, France
<[email protected]>
Emmanuelle Vila Archéorient, Maison de l’Orient et de la Méditerranée,
7 rue Raulin, F-69007 Lyon, France <[email protected]>
Marc Waelkens Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Department of Archaeology, Erasmushuis, Blijde-Inkomststraat 21, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
<[email protected]>
Tom Wilkie Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford,
West Yorkshire, BD7 1DP, UK <[email protected]>
Kyomi Yamazaki Iwaki Junior College, 37 Suganezawa, Kamata, Taira,
Iwaki-City, Fukushima 970–8568, Japan<[email protected]>
Introduction
Umberto Albarella, Keith Dobney,
Anton Ervynck & Peter Rowley-Conwy
In terms of human–animal relationships, pigs are perhaps one of the most
iconic but also paradoxical domestic animals. On the one hand, they are
praised for their fecundity, their intelligence, and their ability to eat almost
anything, but on the other hand, they are unfairly derided for their apparent
slovenliness, unclean ways, and gluttonous behaviour. In complete contrast,
their ancestor (the wild boar) is perceived as a noble beast of the forest whose
courage and ferocity has been famed and feared throughout human history.
The relationship of wild boar and pig with humans has been a long and
varied one. Archaeological evidence clearly shows that wild boar were important prey animals for early hunter-gatherers across wide areas of Eurasia for
millennia. During the early Holocene, however, this simple predator–prey
relation evolved into something much more complex as wild boar, along with
several other mammal species, became key players in one of the most dramatic episodes in human history: the shift from hunting and gathering to
agriculture, involving the domestication of plants and animals. From that
moment, wild boar turned into pigs and became much more than mere
components of human subsistence strategies. They were key entities in the
complex cultural development of some human societies around the world
and played an important role in the history of human dispersal. Interestingly,
the consumption of pork also became (and still remains) perhaps the most
celebrated, and widespread, case of dietary proscription.
In terms of their relationships with humans, pigs are victims of their own
success. Even more than wolves, they are highly adaptable and generalized
omnivores, which means that they have a range of possible relationships with
humans that is perhaps wider and more complex than for most other animal
species. In fact, the biology and behaviour of pigs present a number of special
challenges to their study, in addition to oVering opportunities to further
understand aspects of human history.
2
Introduction
The concept of this book grew out of an international workshop, entitled
‘Pigs and Humans’, held over the weekend of 26–28 September 2003, at
Walworth Castle, County Durham, UK. It explored various research themes
including evolution and taxonomy; domestication and husbandry; new
methodologies; ethnography; and ritual and art. The various invited contributions to this book explore this somewhat diverse spectrum in more detail,
each grounded Wrmly within the disciplines of zoology, anthropology, and
archaeology. All present new evidence and/or data as a series of speciWc case
studies or syntheses from around the world, and all attempt to enhance our
current understanding of many of the issues regarding humans’ complex and
ever-changing relationship with wild boar and domestic pigs.
THE H IS TO RY OF PIGS AND H UM ANS
A major focus of the research presented here is the study of the actual fossil
remains of Sus (used here as a general term for both wild boar and domestic
pig) and what they reveal about both the animals and humans in the past.
Terms such as archaeozoology and zooarchaeology are present throughout
the book, and although it might at Wrst appear to be inconsistent usage of
terminology, these separate terms very deliberately reXect the range of emphasis, from zoological (archaeozoology being the biological study of animal
remains from archaeological sites) to anthropological (zooarchaeology being
the study of past human behaviour through excavated animal remains).
Within these subdisciplines, current research themes are highlighted and
new approaches in addressing and understanding them are explored.
Few reviews of the history of pig domestication and husbandry exist, and to
our knowledge the only wide-ranging zooarchaeological work available is represented by the unpublished dissertation of the late Berrin Kuşatman (1991). The
only multi-authored book that is in any way comparable to the one presented
here is Pigs for the Ancestors, edited by Sarah Nelson (1998a), which, like this
book, presents the study of pig history in a multidisciplinary setting. A plethora
of speciWc archaeological and historical works of course also exist (e.g. Flannery
1983; Epstein & Bichard 1984; Rowley-Conwy 1999b; Smith 2000; Wiseman
2000; Ervynck et al. 2001; Albarella & Serjeantson 2002; Magnell 2004) but more
general studies which try to detect broad trends through the integration of
diVerent sources of evidence are harder to come by. The ethnographic record is
richer, but biased towards New Guinea (Rappaport 1968; Rubel & Rosman 1978;
Sillitoe this volume) and only recently the history of pigs has been popularized
in a scientiWcally sound way (Watson 2005).
Introduction
3
A fundamental problem is diVerentiating between the fossil remains of the
various wild Sus species that exist throughout the world, a particular issue in
Island South East Asia where a number of separate species are sympatric.
Superimposed upon this, is the complication of establishing whether domestic pigs or wild boar (or both) are present on archaeological sites. The picture
is often particularly diVuse because in most of the world domestic pigs live in
areas also populated by wild boar, and inevitably interbreeding occurs, bringing ‘wild’ blood into domestic populations. In addition, domestic pigs are
often kept in free-range conditions and can escape to breed with local wild
boar. Where the latter were absent, escaped domestic pigs sometimes created
entirely feral populations.
Perhaps the most contentious and longstanding issue in the Weld of
archaeozoology/zooarchaeology is the search for the geographic origins of
domestication and an understanding of the processes involved. Until recently,
perhaps a greater interest has been shown in the evolution of other domestic
animals, such as caprines, bovines, and equids. There are probably two main
reasons for this: one is that, until recently, there was a widespread view that
pigs were domesticated later than sheep and goats (Bökönyi 1976; CluttonBrock 1999). As a consequence, pigs were not regarded as directly relevant to
the beginning of the so-called Neolithic farming revolution. The second
reason is that pigs do not provide any secondary products such as milk and
wool, or have additional uses such as transport or power, as do some of the
other common farmyard animals. This has probably led to the view that they
were of lesser importance and has created the perception that, in a human
context, pigs merely existed as meat providers.
It is perhaps not surprising that the pig has been somewhat overlooked, as
several issues make the study of the history of the pig–human relationship a
daunting task:
. The Wrst is related to the huge geographic scale of the phenomenon. Wild
pigs were distributed over a vast area (most of Eurasia), wider than that of
any other ancestor of a domestic animal (except for the wolf), and they
came into contact with humans in a great variety of environmental, economic, and social contexts.
. The temporal scale is also very long and encompasses many millennia, so
pigs have been hunted by humans probably as long as we have encountered
them, and recent evidence suggests that pig husbandry may be as ancient as
10,000 years.
. In addition, pig history can, and probably should, be investigated by using
a multidisciplinary approach, which takes into account the potential of
disciplines as disparate as zoology, palaeontology, genetics, ethnography,
4
Introduction
archaeology, and history. Each of these subjects can provide an important
contribution, but all will be insuYcient if taken in isolation. This is
precisely why researchers with diVerent expertise and backgrounds have
been invited to contribute to this volume.
The earliest studied archaeological assemblages of animal bones that included
Sus came from Danish shell middens, Swiss lake dwellings, and Italian terramare settlements. Winge (in Madsen et al. 1900: 188) believed that prehistoric
European domestic pigs were descendants of the wild boar of Europe, northern Asia, and North Africa, ‘Sus scrofa ferus’. Modern domestic pigs in South
East Asia were apparently more similar to the local wild boar, which he
believed might be a diVerent species, ‘Sus vittatus’. Beyond this, however,
Winge did not seek the geographical origins of pig domestication. Various
other ideas were soon purported. Pira (1909: 373), working on Swedish
material, argued for local domestication because the earliest domestic pigs
appeared closest to local wild boar in both size and morphology. However, by
now archaeologists were Wnding ever-earlier evidence for agriculture in the
Near East, with pigs as part of the ‘package’. So a growing view through the
mid to late 20th century was that pigs were domesticated in the Near East and
brought to Europe by immigrant farmers (e.g. Childe 1958; Flannery 1983).
Dissenters, like the geographer Sauer (1952), preferred a South East Asian
origin for domestic pigs, whereas others (Higgs & Jarman 1969) in the late
1960s argued the case for the existence of ‘intermediate’ or ‘semi-domestic’
pigs under extensive control; a trend towards closer relations, which for pigs
could potentially occur anywhere in their vast geographic range across Eurasia, not just in the previously recognized domestication centres or ‘hearths’
(e.g. Jarman 1976; Zvelebil 1995).
However, the dominant view—held by most researchers until very
recently—still argued for a limited geographical origin for pig domestication
in the Near and (probably) Far East. In Japan, one of the longest-running
debates within archaeology is whether Sus was merely hunted, semi-managed,
or domesticated by Middle and Late Jomon hunter-gatherers (see Hongo et al.
this volume). New techniques and approaches (e.g. statistical, biomolecular,
palaeopathological), many of which are described in this volume, are now
helping us to take major interpretative leaps forward in our understanding of
many of these questions. For example, DNA studies have now all but refuted
the central or twin ‘hearth’ theory of pig domestication (see Larson et al. 2005
and this volume).
Archaeozoological and ethnographic studies of pigs have also helped us
reWne the somewhat traditional (and often very ethnocentric) views of the
processes involved in the early domestication of certain species. These often
Introduction
5
simplistic ideas of a largely human-driven process, beginning with hunted
wild animals and ending in fully managed domestic ones, are now being
challenged and replaced by a more evolutionarily-based approach. These
paint a more complex (and realistic) picture of the possible range of relationships that existed (and indeed still exist) between humans and animals, one
that involves the animals more in the interaction and also takes into account
the diVerences in biology and behaviour of individual taxa. In the case of wild
boar, it is clear that they share more in common with wolves (for example in
terms of their behaviour and omnivorous diet) than they do with domesticated artiodactyls such as the bovines and caprines. A similar scenario
has, therefore, been suggested for the early interaction with humans of both
wild boar and wolves, one in which humans initially played little direct role
(e.g. see Ervynck et al. 2001).
Once domesticated, relationships between humans and pigs became ever
more diverse and complex throughout the Holocene. Husbandry regimes
became gradually more intensive and specialized, resulting in the sty-reared,
the urban, and the exclusively indoor-reared animals so familiar to the
agro-industry of today and a far cry from the noble beast of the forest of
former times. To assume, however, that urban and sty pigs are a recent
western phenomenon would be wrong. For example, it is clear that from
the beginnings of civilization in the Near East, pigs played a signiWcant role in
provisioning some of the inhabitants of the earliest cities (e.g. Zeder 1998b),
certainly between the 5th and 2nd millennium bc. Unusual pathological
conditions associated with the teeth of pigs excavated from 2nd millennium
bc deposits at Chagar Bazar, Northern Syria, strongly hint that pigs were
being fed household scraps and kept within the conWnes of the city, perhaps in
sties adjacent to houses (Albarella et al. 2006). Similarly, Wndings of naturally
shed deciduous pig teeth clearly point to the fact that pigs were roaming the
bustling streets of the Sumerian city of Tell Abu Salabikh, Southern Iraq,
during the 3rd millennium bc (see Grigson this volume).
In the Near East, large-scale pig-keeping would have been severely constrained by both ecological and maintenance factors. The animals’ high water
requirements, poorly suited to semi-arid regions where shade is limited, and
an inability to utilize cellulose-rich pasture plants, meant that pigs would have
been best kept close to or within settlements (see Grigson this volume). Some
zooarchaeological data even suggest that a possible socio-economic diVerentiation for swine-keeping occurred at some sites (Mudar 1982; Weiss et al.
1993). By the 3rd millennium bc, the importance of pigs in these urban
centres declines, and caprines (sheep and goats) become the dominant
domestic mammal in both the zooarchaeological and earliest textual records.
Why was this? Since urban pig-keeping would confer an element of autonomy
6
Introduction
to individuals, households, or groups in terms of their own food supply, pigkeeping may have become undesirable in the eyes of the temple and urban
authorities who, as we can tell from the many cuneiform tablet archives,
clearly retained broad control over food production and urban provisioning
(Zeder 1998b; Dobney et al. 2003).
Is it then a coincidence that the Near East is where the most famous food
proscription associated with any mammal appears? Much has been written
about the origins of pork avoidance for both the Jewish and Muslim faiths, and
many theories as to why it occurred abound: disease vectors including nematodes, disgust for the unclean habits of the pig, ethnic identity and/or demarcation (Harris 1974; Diener & Robkin 1978; Simoons 1994). Could it be that its
origins lie in the need for simple political control? Pigs may have been such an
important and reliable autonomous resource in times when weaker political
integration and control were the norm, that this symbol of autonomy was
quickly proscribed when centralized power was established (Zeder 1991).
Although much of our understanding about many of these issues stems from
studies of the archaeological remains, research into extant wild boar populations throughout Eurasia, as well as modern ethnographic studies of the
so-called ‘pig cultures’ of the Far East and Oceania, have all been important
in highlighting the range of complex relationships that could have existed
between pigs and humans in the past (e.g. Rosman & Rubel 1989; Sillitoe this
volume).
THE PRO BLEMS O F M ETHODOLO GY
Methodologically, the study of pig remains from archaeological and palaeontological sites presents several challenges, such as the previously mentioned
diYculties in distinguishing domestic and wild forms, the dearth of adult
animals in the archaeological record, and the general fragmentary nature of
the evidence. However, there are ways in which these problems can be tackled,
as can be seen in a number of examples in this volume. These contributions
form an alternative to the quite strong element of conservatism that has
characterized attempts to assess morphological characters of archaeological
pigs and wild boars in some of the earlier works. By carrying on simply using
measurements of third molars (M3 ) and withers heights (useful as they
may be), and strictly adhering to criteria for the separation of wild boars
and domestic pigs which are rarely applicable to archaeological material (such
as the shape of the lachrymal bone), researchers have often missed the
opportunity to fully exploit the potential of available bone assemblages.
Introduction
7
Most reports of vertebrate faunal assemblages almost inevitably end with the
statement that not enough data were available to assess pig size or shape.
Equally often, pig remains are attributed to the domestic and/or wild form
without a proper justiWcation for such identiWcations. This approach may
have been justiWable 30 years ago or so, but not today. Payne & Bull (1988)
showed how it is possible to overcome the problem of assessing morphology
in pigs, in spite of the great proportion of juveniles. However, almost two
decades after publication, their proposed new methodology has not been
taken on board as widely as one might have expected or hoped.
Better use can be made not only of newly excavated collections of pig
remains but also of material already studied, when still available for analysis.
In particular, improved techniques for the analysis of size and shape of the
animals (biometry) (Davidowitz & Kolska Horwitz this volume); the detection of kill-oV patterns (Haber this volume); and the histology, chemistry,
and biochemistry (Kierdorf & Kierdorf, Andersson and Larson et al. this
volume) of bones and teeth can substantially improve our ability to make
the most of the evidence available.
The interpretation of the history of pig husbandry requires confronting the
issues related to the wide geographic and temporal scales mentioned above.
The question of geographic scale is important because one of the problems
hampering interpretation of the evidence from particular sites can be an
overly narrow geographic remit, which does not allow an appreciation of
potential patterns of variation in widely diVerent environmental and cultural
contexts. However, any approach that deals with large geographic scale
inevitably leads to a loss of resolution with regard to speciWc local issues.
Local issues can help in reconstructing the large-scale narrative, while, at the
same time, this provides the opportunity to understand the evidence of a
particular site or speciWc area in its more general context. This is why this
book presents geographic reviews that operate at diVerent scales, ranging
from the small regional context to an almost global coverage.
If the worldwide geographic approach allows broad patterns of variability
in diVerent pig populations and human societies to be discerned, the large
temporal scale achieves the same diachronic objective. Archaeologists have
often looked at the phenomenon of pig domestication as if it were restricted
in time (the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition) and space (the Middle East), but
this has generated an unnecessary interpretative straightjacket for our understanding of this complex phenomenon. In fact, modern and historical practices can be illuminating for our understanding of phenomena that occurred
in early prehistory and therefore constant communication between specialists
of diVerent time periods is essential. Generally, if we want coherent patterns
to emerge, it is important that many geographically and chronologically
8
Introduction
diVerent data sets are compared with each other, as exempliWed by all chapters
presented in Part B of this book. Of course, inter-site comparison inevitably
brings its own problems, but these can be addressed, especially once a sound
methodology based on long-term observations and analysis has been developed.
Particularly if seen as an integrated whole, the evidence and the ideas
presented in this book should provide substantial advances in our knowledge
of the pig–human relationship and its history. The contributions also highlight possible avenues for further investigation. One research area of particular potential seems to be diet, since pigs are versatile in their feeding habits
and therefore prone to signiWcant variation. The detection of such variation
can provide a key insight into the systems of management applied to domestic
pigs, and is especially important because it aVects growth, size and morphology. A combined analysis of tooth microwear (Wilkie et al. this volume),
tooth development (Vanpoucke et al. and Dobney et al. this volume), biometry, stable isotopes, and dental pathology (Ervynck et al. this volume) should
provide an important contribution to the clariWcation of many issues regarding various aspects of pig variability. In general, bone chemistry represents a
potential source of information that has so far not been explored suYciently.
Brothwell (2001), for example, has recently highlighted the importance of
iodine deWciency in retarding growth in animals, a factor that has been
neglected in archaeological interpretations, but which now has a good chance
of being tackled with the improvement of the techniques of the chemical
analysis of bone.
Genetics are rapidly providing new information, but in many respects this
new Weld is still in its infancy and many further advances can be expected. The
work by Larson et al. (2005 and this volume) has proved that wild boars
possess a clear phylogenetic structure across Eurasia. This allows inferences to
be made on the geographic origins of populations of domestic pigs on the
basis of their mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences. However, although
powerful, this research only documents the maternal lineages and does not
provide Wne geographic detail (i.e. all European wild boar populations, with
the exception of those living on the Italian peninsula, are characterized by just
two mtDNA haplotypes). Methods and techniques for DNA extraction in
modern, historical and ancient material will most probably improve in the
future and this should eventually open up the possibility to target nuclear
DNA, providing further, and more reWned, genetic information.
The morphometric analyses reported in this volume (Rowley-Conwy &
Dobney, and Davidowitz & Kolska Horwitz) only represent the tip of an
iceberg of possibilities in the processing and analysis of metrical data. There
are certainly endless further opportunities to look at various diVerent types of
analysis of linear measurements; some may prove inconclusive, but there is
Introduction
9
always the possibility of identifying a morphometric pattern that allows some
distinction of populations. A potential future development, until recently not
suYciently explored, is the study of geometric morphotypes in pigs. Preliminary work using this technique has been explored by Bignon et al. (2005),
Warman (2005), and Cucchi et al. (2006), and it is possible that this technique
may in the future provide an even greater potential for distinguishing populations than any analysis of linear measurements, however sophisticated.
THE PRO BLEMS O F I NTERP RETAT ION
Whatever analyses are selected, a key question with which one will inevitably
and invariably always be confronted concerns the multiplicity of relations
between humans and animals. In pigs this may range from random predation
to the factory farms sadly common in our modern world. Scholars have often
described past relations between humans and animals simply in terms of
a dichotomy between hunting and husbandry. Such an approach cannot
entirely be discounted as superWcial, because the archaeological evidence in
particular can often provide only enough information for an extremely
simpliWed view of the past. Indeed, taking into account that the past can at
best be described with the limited tools available, it must not be forgotten
that what we are able to explain is merely an approximation of that past.
In addition, we must try to Wnd ways to better understand the complex
factors aVecting the functioning of past societies, and not just be content
with the interpretative models constructed by previous research.
That the relationship between pigs and humans cannot easily be categorized
also emerges clearly from several contributions to this book (e.g. Rowley
Conwy & Dobney, Masseti, Albarella et al.). If we start at the predation end
of the spectrum of potential interactions, we can observe that even wild boar
populations are aVected to a variable degree by human activities, and in general
by the creation of human-made environments. The size and morphology of
wild pigs may vary according to hunting pressure as well as habitat modiWcation caused by encroaching human settlements. In some cases wild boars live in
very close contact with human populations, and sometimes they are even partly
managed. A recent phenomenon is the trend for wild boars to settle in urban
environments, as amply reported in the media (e.g. Möllers 2004 and Hongo
et al. this volume). In this instance the Wne line between wild and domestic can
be well appreciated. The wild boars not only seem to mirror the urban domestic
pigs of medieval times, but also the Wrst Sus exploring the oldest permanent
human settlements, during those early days of developing agriculture.
10
Introduction
In modern times, we know that separate domestic and wild populations can
and do coexist in the same area, and that crosses are likely to occur. Certainly
such situations must also have occurred in the past. Redding & Rosenberg
(1998) have suggested that management patterns observed in contemporary
New Guinea may be applicable to the interpretation of the evidence from sites of
potential early pig domestication in Anatolia. In some New Guinea Highland
cultures (Rosman & Rubel 1989), all male pigs born in the village are castrated
and reproduction relies on females straying into the forest where they mate with
wild pigs (which in the case of New Guinea are most certainly ‘feral’).
Even where full domestication (however it is deWned) was achieved, control
of pig herds could have been very loose. Pigs can be largely self-suYcient in
their dietary requirements, without losing their domestic status because of this.
Free-range pigs, living totally independently at certain times of the year, still
today represent the traditional system of pig-keeping in Sardinia and Corsica
(Albarella et al. this volume) and may also have been commonplace in prehistoric times. Of course, similar systems of pig management are not necessarily
associated with similar economic patterns in human societies. In Saxon and
Early Medieval England, free-ranging pigs were taken to pasture as part of a
communal management system (Wiseman 2000), whereas in Sardinia and
Corsica the organization is entirely based on the enterprise of the individual
swineherd, though economic relations between diVerent breeders do occur (i.e.
loaning of sires, sale and purchase of animals, etc.). It would be interesting to
discover what kind of relations there might have been between free-range pig
husbandry and the organization of society in prehistoric times, whether, for
instance, it was more similar to medieval England or modern Corsica, or
something altogether diVerent. To address these questions an integration of
diVerent sources of archaeological and other evidence will certainly be required.
Systems of free-range husbandry could easily lead to a complete loss of
control over the pigs, which would eventually revert to a fully independent
life. When all ties with the swineherds are cut, pigs become feral and may even
acquire some phenotypic characters more typical of wild boar, although certain
morphological signatures of their original domestic status may survive (RowleyConwy & Dobney this volume). Individual pigs kept free-ranging are rarely lost;
therefore pigs usually only become feral either as a consequence of deliberate
human action (e.g. introductions to islands where they could represent a source
of meat through hunting), or because of a change in economic circumstances.
Economic conditions could potentially make pig-keeping not worth bothering
with, either because other resources become more viable, or as a result of the
abandonment of human settlements in areas suitable for pigs. Feral pigs can
even become pests to be hunted, as is today the case in certain parts of Australia
(Lee & Seymour 2003). This shows that the process of evolution from predation
Introduction
11
to domestication is not necessarily unidirectional. A return to hunting practices
as a consequence of the ‘feralization’ of domestic animals has also been reported
for other species, such as reindeer (Ingold 1974), and may well have occurred
numerous times in the past.
Several factors such as the depletion of the environment, the reduction of
forest cover (ideal pasture for pigs), and the need to increase the meat output
per individual animal, can bring about the need to move from free-range
systems of pig husbandry to closer forms of control (Ervynck et al. this
volume). It may perhaps be unrealistic to think of intensive stock-breeding
in prehistory, but changes in animal management certainly occurred, and an
increasing separation between wild and domestic populations can be identiWed in the archaeological record. Work in progress shows that this phenomenon certainly occurred in parts of Europe such as Portugal, Italy,
Switzerland, and Greece (Albarella et al. 2005; Albarella et al. in press b).
Many varieties of human–pig interaction, alternative to the two extremes of
hunting and intensive stock-breeding, certainly exist. Many changes from one
form of exploitation to another have been recorded in human history, but these
should certainly not be seen as an inevitable progressive sequence. In some
societies pig hunting may well have remained the most viable system to procure
a protein supply. The great number of possible forms of interaction between pigs
and humans indicates that the classiWcation of swine as either wild or domestic
can only help to describe these animals in very crude terms. Nevertheless, this
does not mean that such a distinction is invalid, as most human societies
interacting with pigs will have no hesitation in perceiving them as belonging
to either one category or the other. Even pigs that cross regularly with wild boars
are regarded as domestic by their owners, because they maintain some form of
mutual interaction with human groups, even if this may only be represented by
occasional feeding or shelter. Conversely, feral pigs (which biologically may be
regarded as domestic) are, from an anthropological and archaeological viewpoint, wild, because they live totally independently from humans. Inevitably,
some grey areas between diVerent forms of interaction exist, but this problem is
inherent to the complexity of both the natural world and human cultural
diversity, and should not stop us from trying to study and understand it.
P I G S A ND HU M A N S : 1 0 , 0 0 0 Y E A R S O F I NT E RACT I O N
The history of animal domestication and husbandry goes hand in hand with
the history of people in the last 10,000 years, and it is key to understanding
our origins, heritage, and attitude towards the natural world. In this history,
12
Introduction
pigs have played a signiWcant role, and zoologists, anthropologists, archaeologists, and historians should therefore aVord this animal the attention
proportionate to its importance, something that has not always occurred.
As previously stated, there are reasons for this (partial) neglect, and the
research presented in this book not only contributes to Wlling this gap in
our knowledge, but also highlights how future research can compensate for
such an oversight. Many lessons are still to be learnt, and the invited contributions to this volume constitute an important step towards this goal.
Pigs are fascinating creatures that have enriched our history, and continue
to contribute to making the biological diversity of the world interesting and
stimulating. Sadly, many wild pig species and populations are today threatened, traditional practices of pig husbandry are disappearing, and most
domestic pigs are now kept in poor, conWned conditions, deprived of their
most basic biological needs. Research into the relationship between pigs and
humans can hopefully contribute to raising awareness of the importance that
these animals have had for our own history, and will hopefully persuade our
society to treat them with the respect and compassion they surely deserve.
Glossary
Aetiology: The causes of diseases or pathologies
Allele: Any one of a number of DNA sequences occupying a given locus (position)
on a chromosome, most often used to refer to DNA sequences that code for a speciWc
gene. Each gene can appear in many forms, i.e. many alleles
Allochthonous: Of animals, from another region; hence imported, introduced, or
translocated (cf. autochthonous)
Allopatric: With a diVerent geographical distribution, occupying diVerent areas or
regions (cf. sympatric)
Ameloblast: Cell that secretes enamel proteins which eventually mineralize to form
the dental enamel of the tooth crown
Amelogenesis: The actual formation of dental enamel, which occurs in two stages:
the secretory stage and the maturation stage
Amino acid: A basic chemical molecule, coded for by a series of three base pairs
of DNA. Amino acids constitute the building blocks of proteins
Artiodactyla: The mammalian order which originally contained just the even-toed
or cloven-hoofed mammals (as opposed to the Perissodactyla or odd-toed mammals
such as horses), but which is now broadened to include other groups (see Chapter 1)
Autochthonous: Of animals, native or indigenous to a particular region under
discussion (cf. allochthonous)
Bergmann’s law: The principal that, all other things being equal, animals in a
warmer environment will tend to be smaller than animals of the same species in
a colder environment
Bestiary: A medieval book depicting animals, real or fabulous, and giving details of
their natural history and/or associated mythology
Bone collagen: A protein which is the main organic structural component of bone
Cementoblast: Cell that produces cementum, the hard tissue that covers the tooth
roots (cf. cementum)
Cemento-enamel junction: The physical junction between the tooth enamel and
root cementum as observed on the external portion of the tooth crown
Cementum: The hard tissue that covers the tooth roots (cf. cementoblast)
Chalcolithic (or Copper Age): The period transitional between the Neolithic and
Bronze Ages, when copper was in use alongside stone
Chromosome: Generally, a long, continuous piece of DNA on which rest genes,
regulatory elements, and other intervening nucleotide sequences (cf. nucleotide)
Crypt: The cavity in the mandibular or maxillar bone within which a tooth is
initially formed, prior to eruption
Dentine: The mineralized dental tissue between the tooth enamel or cementum
and the pulp cavity of the tooth
Diachronic: Of diVerent date. Diachronic changes are changes through time
390
Glossary
Dimorphism: The characteristic of showing two clearly diVerent forms (sexual:
see sexual dimorphism)
Diploid: Cells that contain two copies of each chromosome (one set of chromosomes
from each parent) are known as diploid cells
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid (usually in the form of a double helix) is found in all
living cells and contains the genetic instructions for all cellular life forms
Domestic: In one deWnition, a group of animals isolated from their wild relatives
by human action, so that selective breeding by humans may alter the genetic characteristics of the group (other deWnitions exist). Not synonymous with the taming of
an individual
Enamel: The highly mineralized dental tissue that forms the outer (white) surface of
the tooth crown
Epiphyseal fusion: Growing bones consist of three main components: (1) the epiphysis
(the separate articular ends), (2) the diaphysis (ends of the long bone; age ossiWes and
Wnally closes the separate growing shaft), and (3) the metaphyses (zone of growing
cartilage) which separates and joins the two. Epiphyseal fusion occurs around skeletal
maturity, when the cartilage ossiWes and joins the separate growing components
Epiphysis: The separate growing (usually articular) end of a long bone
Ethnoarchaeology: The study of the behaviour and/or material culture of contemporary societies, speciWcally to provide insights that may help archaeologists interpret
the material remains they Wnd
F1 =F2 generation: The F1 generation refers to the Wrst generation of progeny in a
breeding experiment from a controlled cross. The F2 generation is the hybrid
oVspring of F1 parents
Farrowing: Of pigs, the yearly occurrence of giving birth. Double farrowing thus
refers to the production of two litters of oVspring in one year
Feral: Animals living in the wild with no human control, but whose ancestors escaped
from human control; the behaviourally wild descendants of formerly domestic animals
Fertile Crescent: A term Wrst coined by archaeologist J. H. Breasted of the University
of Chicago to broadly deWne a region in the Middle East where early agriculture and
civilization began. This region includes ancient Egypt, the Levant, and Mesopotamia
Folivore: An animal that eats mainly leaves
Frugivore: An animal that eats mainly fruit
Funnel Beaker Culture (or TRB): The earliest Neolithic culture of the southern
Baltic coasts, Denmark, and southern Sweden as far north as the latitude of Stockholm.
This group introduced agriculture to these regions. Named after the culture’s characteristic ceramic form
Gamete: The specialized germ cells (usually sperm and eggs) that come together
during fertilization in sexually reproducing organisms
Gene: The fundamental units of heredity in living organisms, coded by genetic
material (usually DNA). Genes control the development, appearance, and behaviour
of the organism
Genotype: The genetic constitution of an individual organism
Gilt: A young female pig
Glossary
391
Germplasm: A term often used synonymously with DNA, to describe the genetic
resources of an organism
Haploid (or monoploid): A cell with half the full number of chromosomes
Hematopoiesis: The formation of blood cellular components
Heterozygous: The condition, in a diploid or polyploid organism, of possessing
at least two diVerent alleles of the same gene (cf. diploid, polyploid, homozygous)
Histology: The microscopic study of the structure and morphology of thinly
sectioned tissue
Holocene: A geological epoch covering the last 12,000 years (see Pleistocene)
Homozygous: The condition, in a diploid or polyploid organism, of possessing no more than one identical allele of the same gene (cf. diploid, polyploid,
heterozygous)
Hydroxyapatite: A calcium mineral which is the main non-organic component of
teeth and bones
Hypodontia: Having fewer than the standard number of teeth
Hypogeous: In this context, refers to animals that root for food in the subsoil
Interprismatic enamel: Enamel with a homogeneous appearance that occurs
between the enamel prisms—the main structural components of dental enamel
Isohyet: A line drawn on a map indicating points of equal precipitation
Jomon: A long period within Japanese prehistory, which nominally runs from
c. 13000 to 2500 years bp. The term (in Japanese) refers to the ‘corded’ decoration
of the distinctive pottery style which deWned it
Linnaean taxonomy: The hierarchical system of classiWcation of species into
genera, genera into tribes, and so on into higher-level groupings such as family
and order; devised by Carolus Linnaeus, an 18th century Swedish naturalist. It is
(with modiWcations) still the fundamental system of biological classiWcation
Locus: The position on a chromosome where a gene, or some other sequence, is
located (see microsatellites)
Meiosis: The process that divides one diploid cell into four haploid cells in eukaryotes
in order to create gametes (see diploid, haploid, gamete)
Mendel: Gregor Johann Mendel (1822–1884) is often referred to as the ‘father of
genetics’ for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. Mendel demonstrated
that trait inheritance follows particular laws, which were later named after him
Mesolithic: The period of European prehistory falling between the end of the
Upper Palaeolithic, coterminous with the last glacial period, and the appearance of the agricultural Neolithic (q.v.); thus, hunter-gatherer societies of Holocene age
Mesopotamia: Literally the land ‘between rivers’, referring to the region broadly
deWned by the basins of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates in the Middle East, and
including modern-day Iraq, eastern Syria, and south-eastern Turkey
Microsatellites: Polymorphic loci present in nuclear DNA that consist of repeating
units of 1–4 base pairs in length (see locus)
Misericord: A fold-up seat in the choir of a church, often with an elaborately carved
lower surface visible only when the seat is turned up
392
Glossary
Missense mutation: A type of point mutation in which a single nucleotide is
changed resulting in a changed amino acid. This type of change can, but does not
necessarily render the resulting protein non-functional
Monogenic: Pertaining to a single gene
Monotypic: Of a genus, one that contains only a single species
Mutation: Changes to the genetic material (usually DNA or RNA), usually caused
by copying errors during cell division or by exposure to radiation
Neolithic: Across most of the Old World, the prehistoric period characterized by the
Wrst appearance of farming, but in north-eastern and eastern Europe also applied to
the latest hunter-gatherer cultures characterized by the presence of pottery
Nomadism: A human subsistence strategy involving large-scale movement around
the landscape and the absence of permanent settlements
Nucleotide: The structural units of DNA and RNA
Osteochondrosis: A pathological condition associated with living bone characterized
by interruption of the blood supply (in particular to the epiphysis), followed by localized
bone necrosis (death), and possibly later regrowth
Pastoralism: A mobile form of farming principally involving the tending of domestic
animals
Perikymata: Incremental lines visible on the enamel surface which are the result of
a discontinuity in normal enamel microstructure (cf. Retzius lines)
Phenotype: The set of observable characteristics of an individual such as its size,
proportions, colour, etc., produced by the interaction of its genetic makeup or
genotype (q.v.) and the eVects of the environment
Phytolith: A mineralized microscopic body (usually silica) found in the tissues of
plants and thought to aid the structural stability of leaves and stalks
Phylogeny: The origin and evolution of a group of organisms
Pitted Ware Culture: The Middle Neolithic culture of the central and southern Baltic,
and most of southern Sweden, occupied parts of the area formerly of the Funnel Beaker
Culture (q.v.). Despite being termed ‘Neolithic’, regarded by many as a largely huntergatherer culture. Named from the pitted pottery that characterizes the culture
Pleistocene: A geological epoch which runs from 1.8 million to 12,000 years bp
Polymorphism: Generally, the possession of multiple possible states for a single
property, though in genetics it means possessing multiple alleles or diVerences at
single nucleotide positions
Polyploid: Cells that contain more than two copies of each of their chromosomes
Primate: Any species which falls within the taxonomic order of Primates, which
includes lemurs, monkeys, and apes (the latter including humans)
Prokaryotes: Organisms without a cell nucleus or any other membrane-bound
organelles, and in most cases unicellular
Retzius lines: Incremental discontinuities which occur during normal dental
enamel growth and are only visible histologically (cf. perikymata)
Rhyton: A ceramic drinking cup, probably with a religious meaning
RNA (ribonucleic acid): A nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers which
is involved in the translation of genes into proteins
Glossary
393
Scavenging: The practice of free-range domestic animals Wnding their food for
themselves on and around human settlements. Such food may include waste from
butchery or Wshing as well as cultivation; therefore particularly appropriate for
omnivorous animals such as pigs
Sexual dimorphism: The manifestation of diVerences in size, morphology, or any
other characteristic between the sexes
Soma: The entire body of an organism, exclusive of the germ cells
Stable isotope: Varieties of atoms that are not radioactive. The most common ones
used in archaeology for dietary and migration studies are isotopes of carbon, nitrogen,
and oxygen
Swidden horticulture: The practice of clearing a temporary Weld and burning the
cut vegetation, planting in the ash, and then clearing a new Weld after two or three
years’ cultivation. Such regimes often involve sporadic movement of the people’s
settlement as well
Sympatric: With the same geographical distribution, occupying the same area or
region (cf. allopatric)
Taphonomy: Formally deWned in palaeontology as the transition from the biosphere to the lithosphere, i.e. the process of fossilization. In zooarchaeology the
term covers the various processes through which animal remains go before they
become incorporated in archaeological deposits; such as butchery, processing for
consumption, cooking and eating, discard, destruction by dogs and other scavengers,
and also chemical or erosional destruction while buried
Tomes process: The projection on the distal portion of ameloblasts (q.v.), which
secretes the enamel matrix
Translocation: The movement by humans of a group of animals to a region the
animals did not previously occupy, such as an island. Usually such animals are
domestic, but wild individuals may also be translocated in order to establish new
populations for hunting
TRB Culture: See Funnel Beaker Culture
Ungulata: A classiWcation originally containing the hoofed mammals including
both the artiodactyla (q.v.) and the perissodactyla, but now broadened to include
other groups (see Chapter 1)
Yayoi: An archaeological period in Japan which runs from about 2,500 to 1,700
years bp. It is named after the region of Tokyo where excavations Wrst uncovered
artefacts associated with this period, and is generally thought to represent the arrival
in Japan of farmers from the Korean peninsula (who cultivated rice and kept domesticated pigs)
Zoogeography: The study of the geographic distribution of animal species
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