The Successes and Failures of the League of Arab States

The Successes and Failures of the League of Arab States Roberto M. Rodriguez Copyright © 2011 Lulu Press. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. IBSN: 978-1-105-12413-6 Table of Contents BACKGROUND INFORMATION The Arab League is one of oldest regional organizations in existence. It was founded in Cairo in March 22, 1945 to strengthen ties among the member states, coordinate their policies, and promote their common interests. Arab League. (2008). http://www.arabji.com/ArabGovt/ArabLeague.htm (accessed 5 Feb 09), p. 1. The organization was created just a few months before the United Nations came into existence on October 24, 1945. However, contrary to some other regional organizations that came later, such as the Organization of American States, the African Union, the European Union, or the Association of Southeast Asian nations, the Arab League is based on culture and not geographical contiguity. The organization has been badly divided since its very beginnings, although after the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948, all the members of the Arab League found at least one issue in which all Arab nations could agree: opposition to the Jewish state. Rula Amin. (2001). http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/o103/28/i_ins.oo.html (accessed 24 Jan 09), p. 4. Today, the Arab League remains a badly divided organization, even on questions about how to deal with Israel and how to reintegrate Iraq into the Arab community of nations. Ben Wademan. (2001). CNN Correspondent. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/o103/28/i_ins.oo.html (accessed 24 Jan 09), p. 5. The Arab League is made up of 22 member states with almost 320 million Arabs and covering almost 14 million square kilometers of territory. David Singer. (2007). The Arab League, Apple Pie, and Indigestion. The International Analysts Network. http://www.articlesbase.com/print/112862 (accessed 24 Jan 09), p. 1. The present 22 members of the League include the Palestinian Authority, Algeria, Bahrain, Comoros, Djibouti, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, Yemen and the United Arab Emirates. All members of the Arab League are also members of the Organization of the Islamic Conference, which is a larger organization based just on religion. So far, the organization has three observers: Eritrea, Venezuela and India, whose representatives have been attending some of the meetings of the organization for quite some time. After President Sadat made peace with Israel in 1979, Egypt’s membership in the organization was suspended and the Arab League decided to move its headquarters from Cairo to Tunis. At about this time at least one parliamentarian in Kuwait suggested moving the organization to Venezuela! Cam McGrath. (2004). Arab League Failing Over Darfur. Global Policy Forum. http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/sudan/2004/0821aleague.htm (accessed 24 Jan 09), p. 2. Egypt’s membership in the Arab League was reinstated ten years later. Among the member states of the Arab League are the oil-producing states of the Gulf, which benefit from the exploitation of this mineral, but many Arab nations are poor. Overall, “the combined gross domestic product of all Arab nations is smaller than Brazil and half the size of Italy, and no more than just 8 percent of the total trade is within the region.” CNN. (2004). Disappointment and Disagreement at the Arab League. March 28.http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/o103/28/i_ins.oo.html (accessed 24 Jan 09), p. 7. Another problem is the large disparity in economic income, ranging from over $ 80,000 in Qatar to $ 600 in Somalia. Arab League, 2008, op.cit., p. 4. The Arab nations are lagging behind many other in economic growth, education, the employability of women, freedom of the press and other economic, political, and social indicators. THE SUCCESSES The Arab League has created a few regional organizations to promote its aims, such as the Arab Telecommunications Union in 1953, the Arab Postal Union in 1954, the Arab Development Bank (later known as the Arab Financial Organization) in 1959, the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization in 1964, and the Arab Common Market in 1965. Salma Fatima. (2007). Failure of Arab League: Between Rational Choice Theory and Neo Functionalism. Middle Eastern Affairs. http://middleeasternaffairs.suite101.com/article.cfm/failure_of_arab_league (accessed 30 Jan 09), p. 2. However, most of these organizations have been only partially effective. The Arab Common Market, which would link all 22 Arab League members and create a single market of over 300 million consumers with a combined gross domestic product of almost $ 700 billion, has been highly ineffective. At the present time, only about 8% of trade is among the nations members of the Arab League. Most nation members depend on the sale of one or two single commodities and their trade is mainly with the outside world rather than within the group. The organization has supported its state members when the situation involves a European power. In 1945, the League supported Syria and Lebanon in their disputes with France and also demanded the independence of Libya; in 1961, it supported Tunisia in a conflict with France. Joseph Mayton. (2008). Is the Arab League Still Viable? Middle East Times. http://www.metimes.com/International/2008/03/12/is_the_arab_league_still_viable/1219.html (accessed 25 Jan 09), p. 2. However, when the situation involves the internal animosities among the Arab states, the League has been paralyzed and deeply divided. Palestine has been dear to the leaders of the Arab League since its early beginnings. Since its foundation, the organization gave full status and a vote to a representative of the Palestinian Arabs, although this representative did not sign the charter because he did not represent a recognized government. Heba Saleh. (2005). Summits that Showcase Arab Disunity. BBC News. http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/43765.html (accessed 10 Feb 09), p. 2. It was only much later, in 1964, when the League founded the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), that the Palestinians were more formally represented. Then, since the creation of the Palestinian Authority, Palestine has been represented by this Authority. In all its declarations and public announcements, the Arab League has been united in defense of the rights of the Palestinian people and against Israel. Arab League , 2008, op. cit., p. 2. However, much of this defense in favor of the Palestinian has been more rhetorical than supported with definitive acts. In the final statement of the Arab Summit in Amman on March 27-28, 2001, the leaders of the organization declared their “extreme indignation at the US use of the veto against a draft resolution at the Security Council on protecting the Palestinian people in the occupied Palestinian territories and establishing a UN observer force in these territories.” Arab League. (2001). Final Statement from the Arab Summit in Amman, 27-28 March, 2001. http://www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/league/summit0103.htm (accessed 30 Jan 09), p. 1-2. However, at this time, several Arab states already had contingent of US forces in their territories. It seems as if for brief periods of time the most anti-Western Arab governments have been able to control the language of the declarations. In practical matters, although some Arab nations, and the Arab League as an organization, have provided financial support to the Palestinians, this support has not been even close to what the Palestinians have needed or what the GNP of some of the Arab nations would suggest. If the Arab League really had wanted to help the Palestinians, they had the financial strength to do so, but did not, maybe because the representatives of the Palestinians historically have been very corrupt. The same document issued in Amman in 2001 declared support for “the blessed intifadah” of the Palestinian people, called for “severing all ties with states that transfer their embassies to Jerusalem or recognize Jerusalem as the capital of Israel,” Arab League, 2008, op. cit., p. 3. and rejected Israel’s attempts to brand as terrorists all Arab states that “carry out the duty of legitimate national resistance against the Israeli occupation of their territories.” Arab League, 2008, op. cit., p. 4. In other documents, the Arab League has referred to the Palestinian uprising as the “heroic intifada.” The Jordan Times. (2001). The Final Communiqué Issued at the Conclusion on Wednesday of the Arab League’s 13rd Session Held at the Summit Level in Amman, April 1. http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/51/209.html (accessed 23 Feb 09), p. 1. In the Beirut Declaration, approved at the Arab Summit in Beirut on March 28, 2002, the organization “emphasizes the distinction between international terrorism and the people’s legitimate right to resist foreign occupation.” Arab League. (2002). Beirut Declaration March 28, 2002. http:www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/league/communique02.htm (accessed 2 Feb 09), p. 2. For the Arab League, the suicide bombers are not terrorists but freedom fighters. However, as most Arab nations have started to realize that Israel is not going to go away any time soon, many nations have started toying with the idea of making peace with Israel, and in 2002, Saudi Prince Abdullah proposed a peace plan which, for the first time, offered Israel normal relations with Arab countries if it met certain conditions, such as its complete withdrawal from the occupied territories, but many of these conditions were unacceptable to Israel. The most notable success of the organization may have been its support to the oil boycott against the countries that supported Israel in the 1973 Arab-Israeli war which was initiated by the Arab oil-producing nation members of OPEC plus Egypt and Syria. Contrary to a similar embargo attempted in 1967 at the end of the Six-Day War, the embargo instituted in 1973 and which lasted until 1974, targeted specifically at the United States and the Netherlands, the last one for having sold armaments to Israel and having allowed US planes to use Dutch airfields to supply the Israeli forces. The embargo increased the price of oil from $ 3 to $ 12, creating an “oil crisis.” Robert B. Barsky & Lutz Kilian (2004). Oil and the Macroeconomy since the 1970s. Journal of Economic Perspective, Vol. 18, No. 4. http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty/sandleris/Macro/Readings/R_Oil_and_the_Macroeconomy.pdf (accessed 27 Feb 09), p. 116. Most scholars who have analyzed the history and development of the Arab League believe that the organization has been more successful coordinating policies in the areas of education, finance, law, trade, and foreign policy. The organization has succeeded in preserving manuscripts and translating modern technical terminology; and has declared its support for the “advancement of women in Arab society, the promotion of the rights of children, the support of youth and sports program, the preservation of Arab culture and heritage, the promotion of literacy campaigns, and the standardization of immigration and labor issues.” Salma Fatima, op. cit., p. 4. THE FAILURES The failures of the Arab League have been greater than its successes. The organization has been severely criticized by Arabs and non-Arabs alike for its lack of unity and major deficiencies. Allaf (2008) has mentioned that “Arab summits have mostly been opportunities to prove the cliché that ‘Arabs agree to disagree’ in everything” Rime Allaf. (2008). The Arab Summit: Success Measured by Attendance. Saudi-US Relations Information Service. http://www.saudi-us-relations.org/articles/2008/ioi/080320-summit-allaf.html (accessed 25 Jan 09), p. 2. Saleh (2005) has written that “most summits have tended to conclude with the adoption of watered-down resolutions which leaders seem to forget the moment they walk out of the meeting hall.” Heba Saleh, op. cit., p. 1. Bhaduri (2004) have said that “contradictions and discord have plagued the Arab League, older than the United Nations, almost since its inception in 1944.” Aditi Bhaduri. (2004). Arab League Turns On Itself. Asia Times Online. http://antiwar.printthis.clikability.com/pt/cpt?action=cpt&title=Arab+League+Turns+On+Itself.html (accessed 23 Feb 09), p. 1. The periodical Arab News, in an editorial in 2006, mentioned that “if success can be quantified in terms of man hours spent talking, the League must be the most successful organization on earth. It can talk ad infinitum on any issue.” Arab News. (2006). Editorial: For Stronger Arab League. http://www.arabnews.com/services/print/print.asp?artid-79915&d=29&m=8&y=2006.html (accessed 23 Feb 09), p. 1. Other scholars and politicians have voided the same concerns. Mayton (2008) has pointed out that the Arab League has “proven largely ineffective in addressing any of the multitudes of problems plaguing the region for the greater part of the last half-century. Peace talks between Israelis and Palestinians are stumbling. Syria and Saudi Arabia are at loggerheads over the Lebanese presidential crisis, and the killing in Darfur continues unchecked.” Joseph Mayton, op. cit., p. 1. In 1987, former US Secretary of State Cirus Vance, told an audience of diplomats and journalists at the National Press Club in Washington that the “Arabs have never united neither for war nor for peace.” Nicola Nasser. (2006). The De-Arabization of the Arab League. Global Research. http://www.globalresearch.ca/PrintArticle.php?articleID=2902 (accessed 29 Jan 09), p. 2. Dr. Gehad Auda, a well-known Arab scholar and the director of the Emirates Centre for Strategic Studies and Research in Abu Dhabi, has described the Arab League as “weak and fragmented,” and has questioned its ability to play a significant international role. To the meeting of the League in Riyadh in 2007, Lebanon sent two rival delegations. Asa-El Amotz. (2007). The Jerusalem Post, April 5. http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1173879253307&pagename=JPost%FJPArticle.htm (accessed 23 Feb 09), p. 1. At this meeting, Saudi King Abdullah recognized the lack of cohesion of the Arab nations when he said that “Arab reality has never been so distant from unity… it is we, the leaders in the Arab world, who did not know how to handle these problems.” Asa-El Amotz, op. cit., p. 1. Throughout the history of the Arab League, there have been internal conflicts between Syria and Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Qatar, Fatah and Hamas, the Arab states and Iran, inside Iran itself, and a few others. The organization also failed “to prevent Iran from interfering in the affairs of Lebanon, the Palestinian Authority and Iraq.” Singer, op. cit., p. 2. In 1990, the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq was the occupation of one Arab country by another, an act of aggression which violated the principles of the organization, but at an emergency summit only 12 out of 20 states present condemned the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. BBC News. (2008). Profile: Arab League. http://newsvote.bbc.co/uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2.hi/middle_east.html (accessed 11 Feb 09), p. 1. The organization has in existence a joint defense treaty which was signed in 1950, but which has been ignored in multiple occasions. In 1994, the Arab League condemned the Gulf Cooperation Council’s decision to end the secondary and tertiary embargo against Israel, insisting that only the Council of the Arab League can make such a policy change, and member states cannot act independently on such matters. CNN, op. cit., p. 1. All the members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates) are also members of the Arab League. Gulf Corporation Council. (2008). http://www.arab.de/arabinfo/gcc.htm (accessed 26 Feb 09), p. 1. The Arab League also was unsuccessful in taking steps to end the humanitarian crisis in Sudan, because it was unable to apply military and economic pressure against Sudan, a member state. It has been reported that over 50,000 people have died and that about 1.2 million people were forced from their homes by the government-backed Janjaweed militias in February 2003. Cam McGrath, op. cit., p. 1. August 2004, at their foreign minister meeting in Cairo, the organization opposed any form of sanctions against Sudan, in fact, rejecting UN Resolution 1556. In this UN resolution, adopted with 11 votes and the abstentions of China and Pakistan, the UN Security Council demanded the government of Sudan to “disarm the Janjaweed militias, apprehend and bring to justice its leaders and their associates who had incited and carried out violations of human rights and international humanitarian law, as well as other atrocities in the country’s Darfur region”. UN Resolution 1556. (2004). http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/sc8160.doc.htm (accessed 27 Feb 09), p. 1. Individually, some Arab nations have pledged funds to help the refugees, such as Saudi Arabia, which offered 10.7 million dollars, and Syria, Kuwait and Egypt which also began to airlift food shipments and medical assistance, Rime Allaf, op. cit., p. 2. but as in the situation of the Palestinians, this economic aid is very small compared with what is needed. Although the Arab world has had its share of instability and internal problems, it has not established a peacekeeping force to deal with those problems. The only effort in this direction was made in 1976, at the summit in Cairo, which authorized the formation and deployment of an Arab peacekeeping force, formed mainly by Syrian and Lebanese to deal with the internal crisis in Lebanon. Rime Allaf, op. cit., p. 3. In 2003, the Arab League was as divided as the rest of the world in relation to Iraq. At the organization’s meeting of foreign ministers in February 16-17, “they reaffirmed that no Arab state should become involved in a military strike against Iraq.” The fact that at the same time some Arab states were already hosting more than 100,000 troops in bases around Iraq did not seem to matter very much. The Voice of America. (2003). Arab League Splits on Iraq Crisis Message. http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2003-02/a-2003-02-a7=a7-Arab.cfm (accessed 21 Jan 09), p. 1. In 2003, the League voted 21-1 in favor of a resolution demanding the immediate and unconditional removal of US and British soldiers from Iraq, with Kuwait casting the lone dissenting vote. David Singer, op. cit., p. 2. The League tried to, but has been unsuccessful in the implementation of an economic boycott against American companies trading with Israel. The organization created a Central Boycott Office, located in Damascus, to place such firms in a “black list”, but because each country has to make a decision about how to implement the directive, the most important traders among the Arab nations have found ways to circumvent the stipulation. In addition, this prohibition also conflicts with the obligation of the Arab League member states which also are members of the World Trade Organization (WTO), which are committed to treat products of Israel on a Most Favored Nation basis. The League also has been criticized because it has been constrained by the legitimacy of some of its state members. Wittes (2001) reminds us that “most of these leaders are autocratic leaders, have their own rivalries which has impeded cooperation.” Tamara Wittes. (2001). Middle East Institute. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/o103/28/i_ins.oo.html (accessed 24 Jan 09), p. 6 In 2005, an Arab Parliament was established but restricted to social, economic and cultural issues. David Singer, op. cit., p. 2. Many critics have pointed out the cynicism of the organization’s leaders of creating a democratic institution, a parliament, when the large majority of the Arab governments are undemocratic. CONCLUDING COMMENTS One of the failures of the Arab League is that they have to take decisions by consensus, and the Arab world has always been divided. In an organization that operates by consensus the single dissenting vote of one of the members is enough to avoid agreement. Article VII of the Charter of the Arab League says that “unanimous decisions of the Council shall be binding upon all member states of the League; majority decisions shall be binding only upon those states which have accepted them.” Charter of the Arab League. (1945). http://lexicorient.com/e.o/texts/political/arab_league_charter.htm (accessed 23 Feb 09), Article VII. BBC News, op. cit., p. 2. Therefore, it is relatively easy for any resolution to fail. In an organization where the membership has been divided, this has hampered the ability of the organization to pass unanimous resolutions and address the many important issues facing the Arab world. Before, during the Cold War, the Arab nations were either within the sphere of influence of the United States or of the former Soviet Union. Today, the organization remains deeply divided. The Arabs are only united in their support of the Palestinian people. In relation to any other issue, the organization is unable to reach consensus. Another failure is the organization’s inability to define terrorism in a way that is compatible with the generally understood definition of this term. The Arab Convention for the Suppression of Terrorism adopted by the Council of Ministers of the Interior and the Council of Arab Ministers of Justice in Cairo in April 1998 defined terrorism as not including “all cases of struggle by whatever means, including armed struggle, against foreign occupation and aggression for liberation and self-determination” (Article 2). Fortunately, the organization rejected an appeal by Osama bin Laden to join in a holy war against the West. In 2001, the secretary general of the 22-member Arab League, in a meeting in Damascus, dismissed an appeal by the international terrorist. People’s Weekly World. (2001). Arab League: no to bin Laden, November 10. http://www.hartfodrd~hwp.com/archives/51213.html (accessed 24 Feb 09) p. 1. The nations of the Arab League speak only one language and most of them practice the same religion. However, the organization has been unable to speak on behalf of the Arab nations with a single voice. It has also failed to address the grave economic, political and social problems emerging within the Arab nations. Amotz (2007) mentioned that “the Arab League’s real problems should be that 250 million Arabs’ combined GDP is smaller than Korea’s while their illiteracy rate is among the world’s highest and their women are the world’s least employed.” Asa-El Amotz, op. cit., p. 2. The same author added that the Arab world has yet to have its first independent university, newspaper, trade union, court of law, parliament or municipality. Amotz is correct in his assessment. The Arab League has had only few successes to justify its existence. The Arab leaders like to talk with each other and get together to condemn Israel because this is the only important issue about which they can all agree. However, even in its declared support of the Palestinian people, the organization’s stand has been more rhetorical than practical. While it is true that some of the oil-producing Arab nations have made great financial contributions, before to the PLO and today to the Palestinian Authority, and that the League itself has done the same, the amount of these contributions has not raised the standard of living of the Palestinian people or reduced its poverty or social problems. In addition, some Arab countries have deeply resented the large number of Palestinian refugees within their territories. If the League and the Arab nations really had wanted to help the Palestinians they could have done so much more effectively and efficiently. REFERENCES Allaf, Rime. (2008). The Arab Summit: Success Measured by Attendance. Saudi-US Relations Information Service. http://www.saudi-us-relations.org/articles/2008/ioi/080320-summit-allaf.html (accessed 25 Jan 09). Amin, Rula. (2001). http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/o103/28/i_ins.oo.html (accessed 24 Jan 09). Amotz, Asa-El. (2007). The Jerusalem Post, April 5. http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1173879253307&pagename=JPost%FJPArticle.htm (accessed 23 Feb 09). Arab League. (2001). Final Statement from the Arab Summit in Amman, 27-28 March, 2001. http://www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/league/summit0103.htm (accessed 30 Jan 09). Arab League. (2002). Beirut Declaration March 28, 2002. http:www.al-bab.com/arab/docs/league/communique02.htm (accessed 2 Feb 09). Arab League. (2008). http://www.arabji.com/ArabGovt/ArabLeague.htm (accessed 5 Feb 09). Arab News. (2006). Editorial: For Stronger Arab League. http://www.arabnews.com/services/print/print.asp?artid-79915&d=29&m=8&y=2006.html (accessed 23 Feb 09). Barsky, Robert B. & Kilian, Lutz (2004). Oil and the Macroeconomy since the 1970s. Journal of Economic Perspective, Vol. 18, No. 4. http://www.sais-jhu.edu/faculty/sandleris/Macro/Readings/R_Oil_and_the_Macroeconomy.pdf (accessed BBC News. (2008). Profile: Arab League. http://newsvote.bbc.co/uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2.hi/middle_east.html (accessed 11 Feb 09). Bhaduri, Aditi. (2004). Arab League Turns On Itself. Asia Times Online. http://antiwar.printthis.clikability.com/pt/cpt?action=cpt&title=Arab+League+Turns+On+Itself.html (accessed 23 Feb 09). Charter of the Arab League. (1945). http://lexicorient.com/e.o/texts/political/arab_league_charter.htm (accessed 23 Feb 09). CNN. (2004). Disappointment and Disagreement at the Arab League. March 28. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/o103/28/i_ins.oo.html (accessed 24 Jan 09). Fatima, Salma. (2007). Failure of Arab League: Between Rational Choice Theory and Neo Functionalism. Middle Eastern Affairs. http://middleeasternaffairs.suite101.com/article.cfm/failure_of_arab_league (accessed 30 Jan 09). Gulf Corporation Council. (2008). http://www.arab.de/arabinfo/gcc.htm (accessed 26 Feb 09). Mayton, Joseph. (2008). Is the Arab League Still Viable? Middle East Times. http://www.metimes.com/International/2008/03/12/is_the_arab_league_still_viable/1219.html (accessed 25 Jan 09). McGrath, Cam. (2004). Arab League Failing Over Darfur. Global Policy Forum. http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/sudan/2004/0821aleague.htm (accessed 24 Jan 09). Nasser, Nicola. (2006). The De-Arabization of the Arab League. Global Research. http://www.globalresearch.ca/PrintArticle.php?articleID=2902 (accessed 29 Jan 09). People’s Weekly World. (2001). Arab League: no to bin Laden. November 10. http://www.hartfodrd~hwp.com/archives/51213.html (accessed 24 Feb 09). Saleh, Heba. (2005). Summits that Showcase Arab Disunity. BBC News. http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/43765.html (accessed 10 Feb 09). Singer, David. (2007). The Arab League, Apple Pie, and Indigestion. The International Analysts Network. http://www.articlesbase.com/print/112862 (accessed 24 Jan 09). The Jordan Times. (2001). The Final Communiqué Issued at the Conclusion on Wednesday of the Arab League’s 13 Session Held at the Summit Level in Amman, April 1. http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/51/209.html (accessed 23 Feb 09). The Voice of America. (2003). Arab League Splits on Iraq Crisis Message. http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2003-02/a-2003-02-a7=a7-Arab.cfm (accessed 21 Jan 09). UN Resolution 1556. (2004). http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/sc8160.doc.htm (accessed 27 Feb 09). Wademan, Ben. (2001). CNN Correspondent. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/o103/28/i_ins.oo.html (accessed 24 Jan 09). Wittes, Tamara. (2001). Middle East Institute. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/o103/28/i_ins.oo.html (accessed 24 Jan 09). ABOUT THE AUTHOR Biographical Sketch Roberto Miguel Rodriguez Roberto M. Rodriguez is President of Proton Investments Incorporated, located in Minnesota. Previously, he held managerial posts at Tennant Company, Palm Beach Beauty Products, CTC Incorporated, and Conwed Plastics, all in Minnesota. Presently, he is also Professor of International Relations at Euclid University and Professor of Mediation, Arbitration and Negotiation at Novus University. Also, he was Cuban Ambassador in Cairo, Egypt. He holds a Ph D in Educational Policy and Administration from the University of Minnesota (1998), and a Juris Doctor (2006) and Doctor of Juridical Sciences (2008) from Northwestern California University School of Law. He also holds Master degrees from all of the following institutions: University of Minnesota (Business Administration, 1981; Business Taxation, 1992; Public Health, 1993; Education, 1994; Arts: Educational Policy and Administration, 1995; Liberal Arts, 1997; Agriculture, 2005); the University of Saint Thomas (Software Systems, 2002); Iowa State University of Science and Technology (Professional Agriculture, 2002); Americus (Economics, 2003); the University of the State of New York (Liberal Studies, 2003); California State University Dominguez Hills (Humanities, 2004; Negotiation, Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding, 2009); Athabasca University in Canada (Integrated Studies, 2004; Distance Education, 2009); Texas Christian University (Liberal Arts, 2006), Central Michigan University (Science in Administration, 2007); the University of Alabama (Human Environmental Sciences – Interactive Technology, 2007); Novus Law School (Legal Letters, 2007); American Military University (Political Sciences, 2008; International Relations, 2009; Intelligence Studies, 2009; National Security Studies, 2010; Space Studies, 2011); Troy University (Science in International Relations, 2008); University of Malta (Contemporary Diplomacy, 2010); Charles Stuart University (Australia) (Sustainable Agriculture, 2011). He is currently pursuing a Doctorate in Political Science at SMC University (Switzerland) and a Master of Laws in International Business Law at the University of Liverpool (United Kingdom). He speaks Spanish, French, Portuguese, and Russian. He is a member of Golden Key International Honor Society, the Alpha Epsilon Lambda of the University of Alabama, the National Scholars Honor Society, The Honor Society of Agriculture Gamma Sigma Delta, and others. He is listed in the Wall of Tolerance in Montgomery, Alabama, “honoring those who are taking a personal, public stand against hate, injustice and intolerance, and who are leading the way toward a more just America.” He received the Capps Capozzolo Award for Academic Excellence from the University of Southern Colorado, the American Medal of Honor from the American Biographical Institute; the International Peace Prize from the United Cultural Convention in Washington, DC, and the Medal of Honor for Intellectual and Vocational Excellence from the International Biographical Center in Great Britain. He is listed in Marquis’ Who’s Who in America, the International Biographical Center in Great Britain, Strathmore’s Who’s Who Registry, Cambridge’s Who’s Who, and the American Registry of Outstanding Professionals. He can be reached at [email protected] or [email protected] or [email protected] PAGE \* MERGEFORMAT 1