The Electromagnetic Universe Paper9 On the Nature of Light.docx

The Electromagnetic Universe: Paper 9 : On the nature of light By Dilip D James M.Sc., A(mus)T.C.L. (Lond.) Abstract We live in an age where the concept of atoms, molecules and sub-atomic particles are a part of everyday life, yet disconcertingly, many of the laws of physics that we use today were formulated in the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries when the idea of atoms had not even surfaced on the consciousness of man. In many cases this omission is not important but in a majority of others the overlooking of these fundamental aspects is debilitating to the cause of science. Everyone knows, from experience that it is not possible to walk through walls, the reason for this is the electrostatic repulsion that takes place between the electrons in the atoms in our bodies and the electrons in the atoms in the wall. The very fact of walking is made possible due to the forces of electrostatic repulsion. Sadly these concepts have not been applied to things such as the propagation of waves. Here for the first time, waves are treated as particles moving through a medium as waves. For the first time the Gestalt Aether Theory on the Nature of Light is put on a sound mathematical basis and a new mathematical concept entitled the Planckian method is introduced. The present day state of Physics: The present day state of physics is regrettable; the science of physics is undergoing a period of stagnation; no fundamental new phenomena have been discovered and no verifiable ideas have emerged on the nature of matter. Quantum mechanics is now in a state of crisis with constantly modified versions of matter represented as undetectable miniscule vibrating strings that exist in many unobservable hyper-dimensions that can travel back and forth between interconnected parallel universes. Obviously these ideas are far from possessing epistemic meaning as represented by human experience. For instance string theory speaks quite casually of space possessing 10500 dimensions. This is a concept so ridiculous as to defy the human psyche itself. The present situation represents a failure to address more basic flaws in the foundations of physics. This failure of physics to advance in a positive direction may be attributed to the adoption of several norms in scientific thinking that serve to ameliorate rather than explain. One of the main contributory factors to this state of things is the willingness to accept a lack of rigour in solutions, too many problems have been settled with an ad hoc approach based on intuition and clairvoyance rather than on substance. This has led to a tolerance of ad hoc assumptions that are in violation of the laws of physics and of observed phenomena and of data based on experience. A totally new approach to physics is needed. Gestalt Aether Theory provides a paradigm shift in our thinking about physical phenomena that raises the solutions out of their medieval origins and into the modern age. Many assumptions made in the 17th, 18th and 19th Centuries about fundamental physical properties and their causes are found to be faulty or erroneous or represent only half the truth. These ideas have been replaced and rationalised with more modern thinking. Gestalt Aether Theory uses a fluidic mechanical solution. Euclidean space and Cartesian co-ordinates are utilised rather than imaginary numbers in Riemann and Minkowski space. This is a task that given the glaring inconsistencies in present day physics should in all fairness have been undertaken many years ago, unfortunately the spectacular successes of physics in the twentieth Century, especially the astounding strides made in nuclear energy and the exploding of the atom bomb, have made the questioning of any accepted axiom in physics a perilous undertaking. Fortunately, with the passage of time, this iron grip on the minds of physicists seems to be relaxing and it is possible to raise objections and offer alternate explanations without being the object of immediate censure. In this paper a complete explanation of the Gestalt Aether Theory of light is given including its mathematical and philosophical basis. It is important to understand that this paper deals with electromagnetic radiation belonging to light and both higher energies such as gamma rays are excluded as are radio waves and the long infrared. This is because both gamma rays and radio-waves have a different genesis than light and are produced by a different mechanism. The Aether: While evolving a mathematical basis for Gestalt Aether Theory a completely new approach; a paradigm shift in thinking is necessary. The problem is divided into two definite sections namely the field hitherto known as the Aether represented by Ψ. When considering the Aether (Ψ) one of its most important physical properties is a property that was commented on by Greek philosophers more than two thousand years ago, this was the physical property of permeability. The Aether field (Ψ) was absolutely permeable to all forms of matter, even massive objects like the sun and the planets could pass through the Aether field without giving rise to the slightest discernible disturbance. Yet, the permeability of the Aether was not considered at all by modern physicists, it was a property of the Aether that was left out of calculations in experiments to detect the Aether and theoretically was completely ignored. Modern physicists, with an arrogance common to the human psyche, could not believe that a substance could exist that was absolutely permeable to all forms of matter and undetectable by their equipment. The great conceit of the late 19th and early 20th century seems to have been that they were so far advanced in the sciences that anything that could elude their instruments could not by definition, exist. This is a great pity because as history has repeatedly demonstrated over the ages, things that were thought not to exist turned up with disconcerting regularity. Take the question of air, for thousands of years people could not believe that a substance such as the atmosphere existed and that almost all life forms on earth were completely dependent on the existence of this atmosphere for life. Again, people believed that the earth was flat, how absurd after all was it to think that we lived on a sphere. What would prevent our falling off that sphere, which is a rounded surface? People also obsessively believed that heavier than air objects could never fly. It is this mentality that seems to have served as the barrier that blocked out all thoughts of a substance that could be permeable to all forms of matter. Today we know that such substances do exist in nature as is shown by the existence of neutrinos. It is estimated that about sixty-five billion neutrinos pass through every square centimetre of our skin every second without undergoing any interaction whatsoever. If the question of permeability had been investigated or at least put on the shelf as unsolved, sooner or later it would have been realised that practically the only forms of matter that could permeate every radiation. Atoms are notoriously choosy about the energies they require at any particular time, but one form of energy that would pass straight through atoms without the slightest interaction would be extremely low energy photons possessing energy on the order of 10-40J . Once this possibility is taken into account the existence of such a ‘virtual photon’ field becomes increasingly possible. It is already assumed by physicists, going by the numbers and doing some fairly elementary calculations, that something like a neutrino Aether must exist and that this virtual neutrino Aether had its origins in the early stages of the Universe and permeates the entire Universe. The case for a ‘virtual photon’ field that had a similar genesis would be much stronger than that for a ‘virtual neutrino’ Aether. If the physical property of a substance that was absolutely permeable to all forms of matter had been taken seriously it goes without saying that the null results of the Michelson & Morley experiment would not have caused such a furore in science. The equipment used by Michelson & Morley for their experiment would have been absolutely permeable to the Aether making the detection of the Aether by the equipment impossible. It would be like a person trying to lift themselves up by their socks. To continue an enumeration of the physical properties of the ‘virtual photon’ field (Ψ) it goes without saying that the (Ψ) is considered to occupy the whole of space and permeates the entire Universe. It is homogenous in the sense that it possess the same density at any point in the Universe, yet it can also be considered to be particulate in nature since every ‘virtual photon’ occupies a definite point in space, possesses a definite though infinitesimal energy and is distinct from every other ‘virtual photon’ in the Universe, in this regard. The Ψ may be said to be a stationary field of particulate type matter possessing a dipole character and occupying distinct positions in space and thus resembles the classical notion of a field. A classical field is a physical quantity, represented by a number or tensor, that has a value for each point in space.  Although the individual ‘virtual photons’ that constitute the field are more or less fixed in their position they possess rotational degrees of freedom that allows them to rotate in 360 degrees. The physical structure possessed by both ‘virtual photons’ and ‘real photons’ is that of an electromagnetic dipole, as such, the structure lends itself to the joining up of photons in both vertical and axial orientations. When joined up in series the energy of the field is in the direction to the orientation of the field and in parallel the energy is orthogonal to the direction of the field. This is the main difference between parallel and series orientation. Photons joined up in series, orientation along vertical axis. Photons joined up in parallel, axial orientation. Every element of the field Ψ has 360 degrees of freedom, these degrees of freedom are expressed as points on the surface of a unit sphere: This can be re-arranged as a function : A function of (x,y) is a rule which gives one specific value of z for each pair (x,y). So it is necessary to define two separate functions z1 and z2 z1 represents the top half of the sphere and z2 represents the bottom half of the sphere. The particulate matter of the field (Ψ) namely, ‘virtual photons’ each is possessed of a distinct electromagnetic energy amounting to 10-40J, this electromagnetic energy allows the ‘virtual photons of the field (Ψ) to accurately detect when a photon of specific energy has been emitted by an electron causing all of the ‘virtual photons’ along its line of propagation to line up in the direction of propagation of the energy of the ‘real’ photon. The energy of the real photon then travels along the line of aligned ‘virtual photons’ of the field. This orientation of the field (Ψ) due to polarisation also serves to explain why light does not flow backwards, energy travels along the oriented lines of photons from a strong potential to a weaker potential. The question of why light does not travel back towards the source has been unanswered since the time of Huygens, quantum mechanics, as with so many other problems, merely ignores the problem. Thus the outlining of the properties of the field (Ψ) constitutes the first half of a description of Gestalt Aether Theory. The Structure of the Photon: The second half of the description of Gestalt Aether Theory consists of ‘real’ or individual photons. Mathematically these can be designated as units of energy, but such that the energy does not constitute a flow of continuous energy as has hitherto been thought to be the case but rather of a packet of energy possessing a very definite and distinct energy equal to e = hf where e equals energy, f is the frequency and h is planck’s constant. The energy possessed by a photon is its identity and is preserved throughout its lifetime. It is with some amazement that the realisation dawns that although the photon occupies such a central position in physics, little thought has been given to its structure or origin. Where does a photon come from? What does a photon look like? These unanswered questions are the result of opting for vague unsupported explanations on wave particle duality. It has been conclusively proven over and over again with physical experiments, observations and collected data that photons are emitted due to accelerated electrons, yet surprisingly quantum mechanics has never followed these findings through to their conclusions. Why does an accelerated electron give rise to photons? This question is partially answered by saying that excited electrons emit photons to mediate their energies, but if this is so, how do the photons turn into waves, which is the prevailing explanation, and vice-versa? Further, where do these photons come from? Are they made out of thin air? Do they come into being as needed? These questions are important in themselves but an even more important question is why were these questions not addressed in the first place? In formulating the Gestalt Aether Theory it was decided to move away from the statistical methods favoured by quantum mechanics to explain natural phenomena with its heavy dependence on arcane mathematical formula dealing in imaginary numbers and multiple dimensions and to follow the path of logical arguments; namely observation, hypotheses, experiment and theory, used prior to the development of quantum mechanics. This followed the path of Crick and Watson in formulating a new physical model for the structure of DNA that depended on observation, evaluation and detection of data rather than on a purely theoretical approach. First the observed properties of the photon came under intense observation and study. The properties of the photon were tabulated and examined for how they could fit a physical or mechanical model that would account for all of the observed properties of the photon. The observed properties of the photon were noted to be as follows:- The photon has no mass. The photon is never at rest, from the moment it is emitted it is in movement. The photon always travels at a constant speed namely 299,792 km/s, the speed of light in a vacuum. The photon is electrically neutral. The photon follows the inverse square law of dispersion and hence travels like a wave in a medium. The photon maintains its energy or identity intact over huge distances. The energy of an individual photon never changes and never dissipates, this gives it the quality of a particle. The photon exists as trillions of different frequencies, wave-lengths and energies. Radio waves also possess the same properties of the photon although they are huge in wave-length, a 60Hz radio-wave has a wavelength of 5,000,000 m. All photons have their genesis in electrons. A photon has the characteristics of both a wave and a particle. These were the properties of the photon that had to be considered when devising a new structural model. The reasoning behind the creation of this photon model were as follows: Since the electron is a unit of electrical energy, what could be more natural than that it regulates its energy by emitting or absorbing pulses of electrical energy? These pulses of energy might take the form of bands of energy that become electrically polarised. This model of the photon has to be considered very, very carefully. Not only is the fact that the tiny electron with a classical radius of 10−13cm has to produce an incredible range of photons, trillions and trillions of possible energies, frequencies and wavelengths under consideration but also the fact that quantum mechanics treats each of these trillions and trillions of frequencies, wavelengths and energies as individual wave-particles. Is this conjecture that each individual photon has an independent existence tenable? If it is true that every photon has an independent existence then the question that must be asked is, how is it possible? What is the mechanism by which these photons are produced in such an astonishing array of frequencies, wavelengths and energies? Where are these photons stored? How are they accessed? How do they know when they will be needed? These are the types of questions that quantum mechanics either cannot answer or deems to be below consideration. Thought should now be given as to which theory is more acceptable. The quantum mechanics theory, which is the accepted mainstream theory of physics today and which chooses to completely ignore the subject of where, when, why and how electrons emit photons or the new theory suggested by Gestalt Aether Theory that photons of different energies and wavelengths are formed as the result of electrons mediating their energy by emitting pulses of energy that form into a stable configuration that we know of as photons. Elaborating on the Gestalt Aether Theory on the formation of photons: The electron is a charged particle; could it be possible that it mediates its energy by emitting or absorbing pulses of electric energy? On giving the matter thought it seems that the notion that the electron emits pulses of electrical energy is a distinct possibility because it puts the electron in charge of what energies to absorb or emit. Using such a stratagem, it is possible for the electron to emit extremely accurately metred amounts of energy. For instance using this model of energy transfer it would be possible for an electron to accurately determine between photon energies differing by even fractions of an electron volt. Thus by adopting this method of energy transfer and bestowing on the electron a method of accurately mediating its energy through the emission of electrical pulses which take on the form of a stable configurations has the result of allowing an electron to easily and without undue effort to emit or absorb trillions and trillions of photon combinations, each with its own unique frequency, wavelength and energy. Apart from the ability of the electron to produce all of these trillions upon trillions of photon frequencies, wavelengths and energies is also the advantage that such photons made up of electrical pulses can be formed and emitted or absorbed by the electron extremely fast, in time intervals on the order of <10-15s . Photons are produced by the electron on demand and they are produced in prodigious numbers. To understand how the electron emits bursts or pulses of electrical energy to construct a photon see the image below: A natural result of the bands of electrical energy emitted by the electron is that polarization will take place with the first bursts of emitted electrical energy being stronger than later ones. This order of emission, strong pulses first followed by weaker pulses, results in polarisation and the configuration of a di-pole solenoid formation that is electrically neutral. Apart from this structure the fact that the bands of energy emitted by the electron are separated by a di-electric means that these bands of energy can act as a capacitor and preserve their energy almost indefinitely. Look at the picture below to get an idea of how polarisation and the capacitor like formation may look like in a photon.: Thus there now emerges a model of the photon that possesses a structure that Has no mass. Is electrically neutral. Can preserve its energy (identity) almost indefinitely Always travels at c. Is both wave and particle simultaneously. Is easily emitted and absorbed by electrons. Follows the inverse square law of dispersion. Consists of all electromagnetic radiation from radio-waves with a wavelength of 5000 Km to photons with a wavelength of a few nanometres. In other words here is a model of the photon that fulfils all of the properties that a photon is supposed to possess. Even more important is the fact that this is a model of the photon that follows extremely closely Max Planck’s discovery of energy quanta or the identification of electromagnetic radiation as being composed of discrete individual packets of energy. This is all very well but how does this photon propagate? As referred to earlier in this paper, Gestalt Aether Theory believes that the whole of the Universe is permeated by a ‘virtual photon’ aether. What are these ‘virtual photons’. They are exactly the same as the photons whose structure is discussed above, except that they possess such low energies on the order of 10−40 J that they for all purposes don’t exist, they are undetectable. Thus they are absolutely permeable to matter and vice-versa, no atom can have any use for photons of such low energy, as a result the photons of the virtual photon aether can pass through matter as if it didn’t exist, the virtual photon aether can pass through a planet like Saturn or the sun as if it to all purposes did not exist! Thus according to Gestalt Aether Theory, the Universe is filled with these virtual photons which to all purposes are almost stationary electromagnetic di-poles. Because of this electromagnetic property of the virtual photon aether, when a real photon is emitted by an electron, the photons of the virtual photon aether line up in the direction of the propagation of the real photon forming a line whose ends rest on the shoulders of infinity and the energy of the real photon travels along this line of aligned virtual photons. This is much the same as when a line of metal filings aligns with a magnet. It is important to note that it is the energy of the real photon that travels along the line of virtual photons and not the photon itself. As the real photon travels forward it disperses energy laterally also, so that dispersion takes place according to the inverse square law. Here is what both a real photon and a virtual photon might look like: According to Gestalt Aether Theory the frequency of the photon is not an abstract term as postulated by quantum mechanics but a real property of the photon. This means that when speaking of a frequency of 600 THz it is assumed that the electrons in an atom are oscillating at this particular frequency or reflecting off the nucleus according to the classical laws of mechanics, at approx. 6 x 1014 times a second. There are many ways in which atoms get excited and begin to emit photons. If a substance is heated using chemical energy such as through being put into in a coal or oil furnace the atoms will get excited and begin to emit electromagnetic radiation in the form of photons. Mechanical energy such as that caused by frictional forces can also give rise to the emission of electromagnetic radiation. Finally there is reflected radiation which also works on the same principles as previously described, photons being emitted in accordance with the frequency and energy with which electrons are radiated. These emitted photons will all be emitted by individual electrons in a continuous manner dependent on the energy and frequency of the emitted photons, forming rays of connected photons (rays of light). The direction in which any single ray of light is emitted will be dependent on the physical conditions governing the emission. If the same conditions and positions are maintained the ray will point in a single direction, if however, there is any change in the conditions or positions governing the emission of photons the rays of light will shift according and re-orient to the prevailing parameters. It is interesting to note here that proof of this mode of emission of photons in continuous lines or rays is offered up by Planck’s original experiment with black body radiation. Planck had discovered that for every temperature there was a single dominant frequency of radiation. Consider what this means. It means that radiation is not haphazard with any electron emitting any frequency but that it was dependent on the energy (heat) being applied and with the greatest photon density being centred around the associated applied heat or energy. This is why the single electron in the hydrogen atom can emit such an astonishing range of frequencies. The electron in the hydrogen atom emits photons of a given frequency for a given temperature (heat). If this had not been the case and if electrons emitted photons at random with no fixed energies involved and no direct photon energy to applied energy (heat) relationship, it would demonstrate that energy was continuous rather than discrete. It would also make it impossible to identify any particular spectral line. The energy of each individual photon is exactly the same as that of all the other photons of that frequency, this makes for a strong case for photons being emitted sequentially by electrons at the rate of the frequency of the emitted photons. Coulomb Forces: The Universe we live in is mainly composed of a little matter surrounded by vast tracts of empty space. The nearest star to us, Alpha Centauri, is 4.36 light years or 41.3 x 1012 Km away (Forty one point three trillion kilometres). Even travelling at one million and eighty thousand kilometres an hour (one thousandth the speed of light) it would take 4365 years for a space ship from earth just to reach Alpha Centauri and if the return journey were included would take twice as long. Similarly on the scale of the very small, atoms are composed of 99.9999996% of empty space. These are fascinating figures but what do they mean to us in terms of everyday life. Given the huge amount of empty space in atoms it means that we should be able to walk through walls with no problem at all. The fact that we can’t do this is due to the existence of Coulomb or electrostatic forces. Electrons are attracted to protons but are repelled by other electrons. The wall is made up of atoms that contain electrons; similarly our own bodies are also made up of atoms containing electrons. When two electrons approach close to each other they repel each other. So as we approach close to the wall the electrons repel each other and it is impossible to force our way through the wall. The very fact of walking is governed by these forces, electrostatic forces gives rise to something called ‘molecular adhesion’ where the attractive forces between molecules causes them to stick together. Without these frictional forces it would be impossible to walk, with nothing to push against no motion would be possible. The Anatomy of a Water Wave: Think about a wave caused by the dropping of a stone into a still pool of water. What is really taking place? We notice that when the stone is dropped into the water it causes a disturbance that spreads out as a circular wave. Experiment and observation have shown that when such a wave is created, no material substance moves, instead it is the energy caused by the dropping of the stone into the water that travels outwards. The molecules of water involved in this transfer of energy stay in the same place although they might oscillate or move up and down. Gestalt Aether Theory states that all energy is electromagnetic in nature. How does this explain the creation and subsequent motion of the wave of water? When the stone or pebble is dropped into the pool of water, the electrons in the atoms of the stone interact with the atoms in the molecules of water, creating an oscillatory motion. The valence electrons in the atoms of the stone are briefly attracted to molecules in the water causing a frictional force before the downward gravitational pull breaks this attraction. The net result is that the stone imparts an oscillatory motion to the molecules of the water. These molecules in turn push against molecules of water in proximity to them and pass on the motion. In this way the motion imparted to the molecules in contact with the stone is passed on creating a wave effect. What is interesting here is that we know that the disturbance caused by the stone is isotropic, or spreads equally in all directions, we are also aware that as the wave moves out from the centre point that its intensity reduces by the inverse square of the distance travelled. This means that the rotational movement imparted to the water molecules through interaction with the stone, is not only transferred in radial lines out from the centre but that the rotational molecular force is also transferred axially. So that as the distance from the centre increases, the waves not only form circles of increasing diameter but that the process also involves the involvement of greater and greater number of molecules as the area over which the energy is imparted is increased and an accompanying reduction in energy density corresponding to the inverse square of the distance travelled by the wave. Therefore the inverse square law is not some random relationship related to distance, energy and time based on geometrical configuration but is directly related to the initial energy being distributed among an increasing number of individual molecules. Another interesting factor is the fact that the energy involved in the initial disturbance by the stone is directly related to the distance that the wave will travel. It would be false to assume that the wave would travel for infinite distances. The energy of the wave as has been demonstrated, follows the inverse square law, as such it is apparent that the initial energy imparted to the water molecules which is a finite amount of energy is being reduced in proportion to the distance the wave travels. Therefore there will come a time when the energy of the water molecules is reduced to such an extent that it gets sublimated into the ambient energy of the water. If sufficient space is available for the wave to spread out the energy of the wave will be sublimated. What happens when the force imparted to the water molecules is very small, in that case the wave that is created will also travel a limited distance. Robert Hooke (1635 – 1703) was a physicist of note. The equations that he used to describe the motion of a wave is still very much in vogue today: The manner in which energy is imparted to the water molecules by the passage of the stone through the water can described using Hooke’s law: , [1] Where δij is the Kronecker symbol, σm is the mean stress, where Y is the Yang modulus, ν is the Poisson ratio, G is the shear modulus, λ is Lame constant, θ is the volume change coefficient. The definition of θ is θ = ε11 + ε22 + ε33 = . The generalized Hooke’s law Eq.(1) can also be written as sij = 2Geij , [2] where sij is the stress deviator, eij is the strain deviator. For the Newtonian-fluid, we have the following constitutive relation , [3] where sij is the stress deviator, deij/dt is the strain rate deviator, η is the dynamic viscocity. Since water behaves like a Hooke-solid therefore differentiate both sides of Eq.(2) and obtain [4] A combination of Eq.(5) and Eq.(4 ) gives [5] The process of how a wave propagates can be described by the wave equation. The wave equation is a hyperbolic partial differential equation. It typically concerns a time variable t, one or more spatial variables x1, x2, …, xn, and a scalar function u = u (x1, x2, …, xn; t), whose values could model, for example, the mechanical displacement of a wave. The wave equation for u is {\displaystyle {\partial ^{2}u \over \partial t^{2}}=c^{2}\nabla ^{2}u} where ∇2 is the (spatial) Laplacian and c is a fixed constant. The Laplacian of a function f at a point p, is (up to a factor) the rate at which the average value of f over spheres centered at p deviates from f(p) as the radius of the sphere grows. This equation describes the displacement of a wave with regard to time , note the constant c which in this case is the velocity of the wave. So waves in water travel at a constant speed determined by the properties of the medium, in this case water. The point of interest is that when Hooke was investigating this phenomenon in the 1600’s, atoms had not yet been discovered, nor how electrostatic interactions kept everything in place. Isn’t it a cause of some astonishment that today more than 400 years later we have not evolved an explanation of how waves travel through water using a description of atoms, molecules and electrostatic interactions? Granted that Hooke’s work was brilliant but could it not have been improved upon in the intervening 400 years? Isn’t it time that the forces that allow us to walk on the pavement are the same forces that give rise to waves in water is given due attention? Similarities of waves in water with light: If the fact of the above description of a wave in water as being the translational propagation of a molecular rotational motion through a medium of water molecules is taken into account, it is found that there are great similarities with the propagation of light. To begin with the translational motion imparted to the water molecules is electrostatic in nature as is the subsequenct translational motion of the wave. In fact if the analogy is completed with virtual photons taking the place of the molecules of water, the two are eerily similar. The coulomb force imparted to the water molecules travels from water molecule to water molecule, meaning that the energy imparted to the water molecule (read water) serves as its own medium to propagate. Similarly photons also propagate through other photons (the virtual photons of the Aether). As in the case of water waves, there is no net movement of the (virtual) photons, instead the initial energy of the photon is passed on from photon to photon, spreading out according to πr2 as the geometrical area increases, in a process that is very similar as that which occurs with water molecules. The only difference being that where light is concerned, the overall intensity of the wave might be reduced according to the inverse square law but the energy (identity hω) of the individual photons in the light wave remain intact. So when considering light, an amazing picture emerges. Consider a powerful pulse of light lasting for say ten seconds. In that amount of time a massive number of photons are emitted from a source of any given size, these photons are emitted, as had previously been mentioned as rays travelling at the speed of light. So a light source consists of innumerable number of rays of light, all travelling in random directions away from the source. Yet, just as in the case of water waves, as the light energy moves forward at the speed of light it also imparts its energy to virtual photons in contact with it orthogonally on either side, promoting them into exact copies of itself possessing the identical energy as the original photon. Thus light travels not only radially but spreads out orthogonally. The translational motion of light in an orthogonal direction to its direction of travel is governed by the speed of light. For instance, in one nano second light would have travelled 10 cms in its direction of travel, in the same time light would have spread out over an area of 102 x π = 314 sq cms. Each of the ‘promoted photons in that 314 sq cm area, form new rays of light that travel in the same direction as the original ray of light. This is how light obeys the inverse square law of propagation. Thus the whole of the space in the cone where the light rays travel is occupied by light. It is isotropic in nature. Just as in the case with a water wave, no space in its path of travel is left empty. In the case of a water wave the transfer of energy from water molecule to water molecule can be considered superficial, whereas in the case of light the whole energy of the photon is transferred to neighbouring ‘virtual photons’ promoting them to real photons. This signifies that the distance that the light travels, given that it follows the inverse square law, must experience the same decrease in intensity as it travels further from the origin as a water wave. How far it will travel depends on the number of photons that have been radiated. An analogy to a water wave would be that the energy imparted to the water molecules would be dependent on how many molecules were involved in the initial disturbance, the involvement of a greater number of molecules resulting in a greater amplitude and the resultant wave travelling a greater distance. Waves: What are waves? Waves are a means of transferring energy or information from one place to another. What are electromagnetic waves? Almost from the time that man first became acquainted with the forces of static electricity and magnetism, there were thought to be two distinct and separate types of fields. These were the electric field and the magnetic field. Yet both of these fields possess extremely similar properties. For instance in both cases the electric and the magnetic, like poles repel each other while unlike poles attract. Further both electric and magnetic fields can be detected by the lines of force that are generated and which can be traced using iron filings. The main difference between the two fields that an electric field can exist as a monopole, while a magnetic field can never be found as a monopole. Apart from this difference it is impossible to differentiate between the electromagnetic field around a wire carrying a current and that around a permanent magnet. More important is the fact that no permanent magnet exists that has not at some time or other been subjected to an electric current. Natural magnets or lodestone are formed when electricity in the form of lightning flows through them. When Maxwell derived his wonderful equations it was on the premise that there were two distinct and separate fields the electric and the magnetic. Yet what if all of these premises were wrong? Given the huge amount of evidence that they are intimately related, a magnetic field is never found without the presence of a magnetic field and vice-versa, it is a possibility or even more likely a probability that what we see as two distinct and separate electric and magnetic fields are in fact manifestations of a single field. Even Einstein had taken heed of this possibility. In his paper on Special Relativity he states: Take, for example, the reciprocal electro-dynamic action of a magnet and a conductor. The observable phenomenon here depends only on the relative motion of the conductor and the magnet, whereas the customary view draws a sharp distinction between the two cases in which either the one or the other of these bodies is in motion. For if the magnet is in motion and the conductor at rest, there arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet an electric field with a certain definite energy, producing a current at the places where parts of the conductor are situated. But if the magnet is stationary and the conductor in motion, no electric field arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet. In the conductor, however, we find an electromotive force, to which in itself there is no corresponding energy, but which gives rise—assuming equality of relative motion in the two cases discussed—to electric currents of the same path and intensity as those produced by the electric forces in the former case. A. Einstein. Einstein seems to state that what is seen is either a magnetic field or an electric field and is solely dependent on how it is observed. If this hypotheses is true and electric and magnetic forces are merely different manifestations of the same force, how could this be explained? Gestalt Aether Theory as it refers to an electric current and to an explanation of how permanent magnets are formed, gives a comprehensive answer to this question, by stating that there is but a single field which is the electromagnetic field. What has been thought of as the electric field arises when there is a disparity in charge distribution giving rise to a difference of potential, the ‘virtual photons’ of the universal field (formerly known as the Aether), are sensitive to this difference of potential and line up between the points under a difference of potential giving rise to the typical lines of force of an electric field. In this state no energy flows, all that takes place is a polarisation of the field between the two points under a difference of potential. So an electrical field represents a polarised electromagnetic field; energy is stored and static. When the difference of potential is strong enough to overcome the dielectric forces of the medium separating the positive and negative poles, as for instance in a capacitor, electrons at the negative pole emit ‘conduction photons’ that travel along the polarised lines of force towards the positive pole giving rise to an electric current. Electricity flows. Illustration showing electric monopoles with the positive pole on the left and the negative pole on the right. Illustration showing lines of force between positive and negative pole at (a) lines of force between two positive poles showing repulsive force between like poles(b) and lines of force showing field between uneven distribution of charge (c.) Lines of force around a bar magnet. Therefore according to Gestalt Aether theory, there are no separate electric and magnetic fields, there is only one, all-pervasive electromagnetic field, which is formed due to structure of the photon and the presence of the ‘virtual photons’ of the Aether. Using this idea of a single field it is possible to envision light moving as a plane wave of the form: Where is the wave vector and points in the direction of propagation. is the general position vector. ω is the angular frequency is a constant vector is a notation for field not force. In rectangular or Cartesian coordinate system Note that the constant phase surface for such waves is In the physics of wave propagation, a plane wave  is a wave whose wave fronts (surfaces of constant phase) are infinite parallel planes. The above equation defines a plane surface and hence the name plane wave. Since the field strength is assumed to be uniform everywhere it is also known as a uniform plane wave. It is not possible in practice to have a true plane wave because it would have to fill all space and thus would require infinite energy; only a plane wave of infinite extent will propagate as a plane wave. Nevertheless, the plane wave model is important and widely used in physics. The approach used in this paper will be to place emphasis on the properties of the field Ψ rather than to use the conventional definition of a plane wave to explain the propagation of light. Maxwell and the wave equation If a new theory is presented on the properties and propagation of light, it is necessary to first understand what the older theories say. As far as our understanding of electricity and magnetism go, Maxwell’s four field equations encapsulate everything we know. These equations are: Gauss’s law : Magnetic Law: Faraday’s Law: Generalised Ampere’s Law: The source free Maxwell’s equations show us that and are coupled: variations in act as a source for , which in turn acts as a source for , which in turn acts as a source for, which ... this coupled behaviour accounts for the oscillation of the electromagnetic wave according to Maxwell. In order to gain a better understanding of this behaviour it would be easier to uncouple these equations. We do this by taking the curl of each equation. Let’s begin by looking at: The curl of the left-hand side of this equation is: The simplification follows because it is restricted to the source free equations — the curl of the right-hand side is: Putting the left and right sides together, we end up with: Repeating this procedure for the other equation, we end up with something that is essentially identical, but for the magnetic field: These equations are important in defining Maxwell’s equations. Having understood how Maxwell envisioned these interacting electric and magnetic fields it is possible to see the surprising result. Equations in the form: generically have solutions of the form f = f(x ± vt), where f(u) is essentially arbitrary. These solutions represent waves travelling at speed v; the solution with x − vt represents a wave travelling in the positive x direction; the solution with x + vt represents a wave travelling in the negative x direction. Looking At Maxwell’s equation for : It is possible to see that it is a wave equation. It represents a wave travelling along the x axis with speed c — the speed of light! This kind of analysis is that brought about the realisation that light is itself an electromagnetic wave. In SI units, the wave equation is: This indicates that electromagnetic waves travel with speed : If numbers are substituted : = 8.85418 × 10−12 Coulomb 2 Newton−1 meter−2 µ0 = 4π × 10−7 Newton sec2 Coulomb −2 so, µ0 = 1.11265 × 10−17 s 2 m−2 −→ 1 √µ0 = 2.998 × 108 m/s = 2.998 × 1010 cm/s This is the speed of light! The fact that light is connected to electric and magnetic fields was first recognized from this kind of calculation. Maxwell first showed that the four equations describing electric and magnetic fields could be rearranged to form a wave equation, with a speed of propagation as given above. At the time, and µ0 were empirical quantities that were determined through careful measurements of static electric and magnetic fields — in SI units, shows up in the capacitance formula, and µ0 shows up in the inductance formula . It was found that these quantities determined the behaviour of highly dynamical fields, and demonstrated that the speed 1/ √µ0 was the speed of light! At the time, , µ0, and c were uncertain enough that the correspondence between 1/ √µ0 was not perfectly definitive. However, it was close enough that Maxwell wrote in 1864: This velocity is so nearly that of light that it seems we have strong reason to conclude that light itself (including radiant heat and other radiations) is an electromagnetic disturbance in the form of waves propagated through the electromagnetic field according to electromagnetic laws. It is largely for this reason that this whole set of equations is named for Maxwell. Maxwell’s equations not relevant to the propagation of light: Having stated the mainstream conventionally accepted view of the propagation of light, it is appropriate to point to some of the obvious errors that have been overlooked for the past almost two hundred years. Quantum mechanics describes radio-waves as being formed through the oscillations of ions in the crystal lattice of the electrical conductor through which a current is being passed and also at the same time attributes radio-waves to the movement of electrons in the wire carrying a current. If we look at Maxwell’s equations we realise they describe a charge (electrons) flowing in a wire, giving rise to alternating electric and magnetic fields. The equations can therefore be taken as being explanatory for the propagation of electricity in a wire and also for how electromagnetic radiation (radio-waves) from a wire spread and propagate. However, what is not realised is that light does not propagate in this manner; as a sequence of moving charges. Light is the direct emission of a photon by an electron. Therefore Maxwell’s equations do not, in fact should not, be applied to light and its propagation. While Maxwell’s equation’s might as a limiting case ( they do not for instance explain the discrete or particulate nature of electromagnetic radiation) describe the fields surrounding a conductor of electricity or the waves (radio-waves) emanating from the wire (as in an antenna) Maxwell’s equations fall far short of describing how light is produced or of how it propagates. In fact numerous experiments in spectroscopy have demonstrated unequivocally that electromagnetic radiation possessing frequencies of visible light and above is emitted directly by electrons. Therefore Maxwell’s equations do not apply. Further as had been mentioned beforehand in the section on the Aether, the very existence of separate electric and magnetic fields is under question. Gestalt Aether Theory of the field: Beginning with the hypothesis (1) that the universe is filled with a continuously distributed material, consisting of ‘virtual photons’ which possess the same physical structure as normal photons but have very low energies on the order of 10-40 J. (2) That this continuously distributed material had its origins at the time of the Big Bang and permeates the whole of the Universe. Using these two hypothesis a start may be made towards the elucidation of a new Aether theory. Thus there is a move away from Minkowski space time and back to a 3D Euclidean space, in which time is closely related to the concept of space but maintains a separate identity as opposed to the space-time continuum of Albert Einstein. Thus we now have a classical definition of a field in which every point in 3D space is represented by a physical entity. This definition automatically rules out both Special and General relativity and no further reference will be made to these two theories. Similarly quantum mechanics with its use of the Schrodinger wave function and the resultant multiple dimensions that it involves is also ruled out and has no further place in this dissertation. It is now apparent that the definition of a field becomes extremely important in the propagation of light and electromagnetic radiation. As an analogy to this idea of a field consisting of ‘virtual photons’ think of a wave travelling through water, here the medium is the molecules of water and the wave itself consists of a disturbance to the molecules in the immediate vicinity of the disturbance, the energy of which disturbance is transmitted through the molecules of water creating a wave. In the same way electromagnetic radiation (photons) might be thought of as being transmitted through a sea of photons. Hence the concept of a field and its definition becomes increasingly important in Gestalt Aether Theory. Here we are dealing with Euclidean space or . Note the more general notation of has not been used because we are interested in projecting vectors in 3 Dimension and not in multiple dimensions as the usage of space would denote. Euclidean space encompasses the two-dimensional Euclidean plane, the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry and was named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid of Alexandria. Three-dimensional space is a geometric setting in which three values (called parameters) are required to determine the position of an element (i.e., point). This is the informal meaning of the term dimension. In physics and mathematics, a sequence of n numbers can be understood as a location in n-dimensional space. When n = 3, the set of all such locations is called three-dimensional Euclidean space. It is commonly represented by the symbol ℝ3. This serves as a three-parameter model of the physical universe (that is, the spatial part, without considering time) in which all known matter exists. In this classical example, when the three values refer to measurements in different directions (coordinates), any three directions can be chosen, provided that vectors in these directions do not all lie in the same 2-space (plane). Furthermore, in this case, these three values can be labelled by any combination of three chosen from the terms width, height, depth, and length. In mathematics, analytic geometry (also called Cartesian geometry) describes every point in three-dimensional space by means of three coordinates. Three coordinate axes are given, each perpendicular to the other two at the origin, the point at which they cross. They are usually labelled x, y, and z. Relative to these axes, the position of any point in three-dimensional space is given by an ordered triple of real numbers, each number giving the distance of that point from the origin measured along the given axis, which is equal to the distance of that point from the plane determined by the other two axes. Another way of viewing three-dimensional space is found in linear algebra, where the idea of independence is crucial. Space has three dimensions because the length of a box is independent of its width or breadth. In the technical language of linear algebra, space is three-dimensional because every point in space can be described by a linear combination of three independent vectors. It is this model that will be used to describe the Gestalt Aether Theory and neither Riemann space nor Minkowski space have any part in an accurate description of the working of the Gestalt Aether Theory. Here the Aether or the ‘virtual photon field is represented by the symbol Ψ. To begin with the virtual photon field can be described as a collection of co-ordinates in 3D space : and Next it should be remembered that each of these co-ordinates points is a virtual photon possessing a dipole structure: Each of the dipoles in the coordinate system is also a vector that can orient itself in any direction: Each of the dipole coordinate points (virtual photons of the Aether Ψ) has multiple points of freedom. This can best be expressed as originating at the origin of a unit sphere: A sphere is defined mathematically as the set of points that are all at the same distance r from a given point, but in a three-dimensional space. From the above it follows that : The coordinates of the unit sphere are all elements of Ψ and therefore are a subset of the Aether field Ψ ,they represent the degrees of freedom of each point (virtual photon) in the field Ψ. Since each point in the field is a dipole it is subject to polarisation in the direction of propagation in the form of degrees of freedom corresponding to the points on a unit sphere. Thus the virtual photons of the virtual photon field (Aether) Ψ do not physically participate in the translation of energy, they remain in the same place; they undergo polarisation and the energy travels along the line of polarised ‘virtual photons’. The old conception in systems such as quantum mechanics, where the photon is a particle, that will travel through space indefinitely or till it encounters an obstruction, is here replaced by energy traveling through a medium of virtual photons Ψ. So far we have been dealing with the virtual photon field or Aether bearing the symbol Ψ that permeates the entire Universe and serves as the medium through which electromagnetic radiation travels. It is time now to consider real photons. ‘Real photons’ have the same physical structure that ‘virtual photons’ do but possess measurable energy. As far as photons in the visible range are concerned, they are emitted directly by excited electrons. The symbol that will be used for real photons is Ep . When a real photon is emitted: The virtual photons of the field Ψ line up in the direction of propagation of the real photon, forming a line whose ends rest on infinity. The energy of the real photon travels along this line of aligned (polarised) virtual photons at c which is a constant and the speed of light in the medium. Let: Then: Therefore Wherever the Aether Ψ comes into contact with the real photon the Aether Ψ is an element of the real photon . There is a polarised line of virtual photons with a charge sign at each point: , The speed of light is c This system represents a stationary polarised line of continuous charged medium. The continuity equation is satisfied. The ends of each polarised line rest on infinity. Let = incremental in the direction orthogonal to the direction of Then within the limits of : where i = 10-6 , n = 10-10 Then: The above follows from the dimensions of λ. Therefore as the energy of the real photon propagates through the virtual photon Aether medium Ψ it spreads according to the inverse square law, while the identity of the individual elements of remain intact over all the space with which it interacts. It is now possible to see the many advantages of this approach which I have named Planckian maths, wherein space or the vacuum itself is loaded with attributes, such as presence of infinitesimal charge (10-40 J), property of di-polarity, degrees of freedom, ability to transfer energy and so on. In fact the presence of these attributes of the vacuum is precisely the reason that Maxwell was able to measure and find attributes such as permeability and permittivity in a ‘vacuum’ which by definition indicates a lack of substance. Thus empty space or the vacuum is loaded with physical attributes and energy in the form of photons merely interacts with those attributes, travelling at c through the medium. Just like any other wave its speed is governed by the attributes of the medium it is travelling through. By contrast the normal approach to the ‘vacuum’ is to define it as an aseptic three dimensional affine space, that is well described by co-ordinates but whose form almost demands the use of multiple dimensions. As had been mentioned at the beginning of this paper, string theory openly talks about the possibility of 10500 dimensional space, which from a purely aesthetic point of view, is worse than not having a theory at all. The interesting point that arises from the above manner of propagation is that the energy is concentrated in the final area of the cone shape. The energy in the cone itself would be a function of (a) how much power is being emitted and (b) the duration for which the energy is being emitted at the source. This is analogous to the manner in which signals from distant space craft such as the Voyageur space craft are emitted reach earth and pass on and cannot be recovered. For this reason the same message is transmitted continuously over a short period and then re-transmitted after a space of time, so that any signal lost during reception of the first signal might be retrieved from the second signal. Solved problem: One of the key calculations in any wireless design is range, the maximum distance between transmitter and receiver for normal operation. Calculate the maximum distance D that a radio signal could travel given that the sensitivity S of the receiver was 10-10 mW . The problem could be solved as follows:= p = power in watts = 100mW, a = area , D = 9 Km, S = sensitivity of receiver Suppose that there is a multivariable function such that: D(p,a) = y = 1/x2 and the aim is to maximise the value of D using this function And there is another function such that: S(p,a) = y = x2 = b = 10-12 = b So the aim is to get the maximum possible value of D(p,a) ……...M* Given the constraint that S(p,a)…………… b* where Gradient of D is a proportional to the Gradient of S and λ is a proportionality constant. Setting the gradient of the lagrangian to zero and fixing the variables in place such that: D = (p.b) = λ Then if λ* is given some arbitrary value such that: Then: D = 17,660 m Proof: Evaluating the gradient of the Lagrangian: Here because p*, a* = 0 When the Lagrangian is evaluated at this point it represents the maximum value Therefore : Simarly: D(p*, a*) = M* Deriving the derivative of the Lagrangian with respect to b Using the multivariable chain rule: Therefore the lagrange multiplier λ or proportionality constant is a function of b The problem could be much more simply solved using the dB system: Let the power of the transmitter be 20dB and the sensitivity of the receiver be =-100dB and the frequency of the transmission be 2.45 GHz then path loss equals: (20-(-100) = 120dB The distance that the signal can travel in kilometres can then be calculated as: 10(120 – 32.44- 62.24)/20 = 12.66 Km Here 120 is the path loss of the signal, 32.44 is the free space loss and 62.24 is half the wavelength (dipole length) of the transmission. If the sensitivity of the receiver is increased to -110 then 10(130 - 32.44 - 62.24)/20 = 17.66 Km. Different types of mathematics are suited for different types of problems. The lagrangian, the Hamiltonian and the Euler form of mathematics are more suited to the kind of mathematics used by quantum mechanics where multiple dimensions are routinely used. Multiple dimensions as opposed to degrees of freedom would not fit so easily into classical mathematics. Frequency, reflection and refraction: There remain two facts about the propagation of light to be elucidated, the first has to do with the frequency. It has been proved with no room for doubt over the past almost one hundred years and our experience with atomic clocks that electrons are capable of oscillating at high rates. For instance the Caesium 133 atom used in the Caesium atomic clock possesses a valence electron that vibrates at the rate of exactly  9,192,631,770 Hz corresponding to the energy difference between the two hyperfine states. This leaves, or should leave, little doubt in any reasonable person that electrons have the ability to oscillate or vibrate at the very high frequencies demonstrated by visible light frequencies and above of 1014 Hz and above. If due recognition is given to this fact it becomes apparent that when light is emitted it is not done in single units but as lines of aligned photons, all possessing the same frequency, wavelength and energy and all moving in a single direction in a single line or ray. The second fact that has to be elucidated is that of the direction in which photons are emitted. So far no attention has been given to this aspect of light (apart from Kepler’s observations more than 600 years ago!). The fact is that light does follow Kepler’s observations on reflection where the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface of the mirror all lie in the same plane. Furthermore, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence.  In 1621 Willebrod Snell put forward his laws for the refraction of light. He found a relationship between the path taken by a ray of light in crossing the boundary or surface of separation between two contacting substances and the refractive index of each.  Obviously all of these laws are valid today but where does that leave us viz-a-viz photons? The answer may lie in the observation made earlier that the emission of photons is linked to frequency. If this is the case then both Kepler’s and Snell’s observations would hold good because it means in effect that we are no longer dealing with single photons but with rays (directed linked together lines) of photons. Reflection: Classically, reflection is described as the change in direction of a wave-front at an interface between two different media so that the wave-front returns into the medium from which it originated. Common examples include the reflection of light, sound and water waves. The quantum explanation of the reflection of light is based upon this observation but is an attempt to explain the phenomenon on the level of individual atoms. The quantum mechanics explanation for the reflection of light: The quantum mechanics explanation for the reflection of light seems to favour the fact that light waves ( which on average can be taken as being 500 nm) are too massive to be absorbed by any single atom or electron. Therefore in the case of reflection light behaves like an electromagnetic wave. Visible light is about 500 nm, while typical atomic diameters are on the order of 0.5 nm to be generous (citation for carbon is 0.2 nm) and an electron is even smaller at 10-7 nm. So from this point of view the rough properties of the surface can't be resolved. The oscillating electric field from incoming light is agitating the electrons in the silver mirror coating at its frequency of oscillation. Those electrons, which are accelerating back and forth at frequency of the incoming electromagnetic wave, radiate light of the same frequency as the incident light in all directions.  The light from all the different electrons on the surface interferes destructively in most directions (and cancels out the incoming wave in the silver), but interferes constructively in the direction of specular reflection, yielding the famous angle of incidence equals angle of reflection result. Because the outgoing wave is related by symmetry to the incoming wave, the light headed toward your eye is to all intents and purposes the same as that from the objects that were the sources of the incident light, but the apparent sources are in a  different position. For a single atom, the light can be emitted in any random direction. It's only from a surface that reflection takes place. The light from each photon can still potentially reflect at all angles from each atom on the surface, and the photon can actually interact with any of the atoms with a certain probability. Since the atoms are all arranged in a particular pattern, a flat plane, most of the possible paths end up canceling each other out. Only one path is reinforced: the one by which the angle of reflection is the angle of incidence. The process of reflection is coherent − the same photon is bouncing off all the atoms at once, and you only get constructive interference when the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence. The condition is that the surface is smooth on the scale of the wavelength of light, so that the light can excite each atom independently, and coherently add up all their contributions. The reader should note that this is the same exact explanation that quantum mechanics uses to explain the propagation of an electric current in a wire. It does not really explain much, even Dr, Richard Feynman's explanation given in his lecture series/book is not sufficient, as he only assumes that light does reflect ('turn around and go back') in order to expound his path integral theory. The crucial question is why does light have the propensity to turn around in the first place. The Gestalt Aether Theory on the reflection of light: It can be seen that the quantum mechanics argument is that the average wave-length of light is about 500 nm while the size of an atom might be 0.5 nm and the size of an electron is 10-7 nm (0.0000001 nm) as such it should be obvious that any such huge wave front is going to react, not with an individual atom but with a whole collection of atoms forming a surface. If this view is taken it once again raises huge problems. It has been indisputably proved, over and over again, that electrons change their energies (orbits) by emitting or absorbing photons of certain frequencies. When the question of size of the wave (photon) is brought into the equation, how is it resolved? Does the electron emit the photon (wave) as the result of an energy collective of all the atoms in its vicinity pooling their oscillations so that such a wave is released or what? It is confusing. On the other hand the Gestalt Aether Theory that I have proposed offers a solution that deals with such situations by stipulating in clear and crisp terms that the individual electron (yes individual electron and not electron cloud) emits and absorbs individual photons. How? The Gestalt Aether Theory on the reflection of light follows the principle that electromagnetic waves, as used in the classical sense of Maxwell's equations, do not exist. All of the electron's interactions are mediated by photons. Therefore GAT maintains that reflection is due to the continuous and sustained absorption and emission of photons at the frequency of the incoming light. How does this happen? Look once again at the process of the formation of a photon as elucidated by Gestalt Aether Theory. When the electron needs to change its energy it emits or absorbs pulses of electrical energy, these pulses of energy constitute the photon: The pulses of energy are polarised resulting in the formation of a solenoidal electromagnetic field around the photon: The pulses of energy separated by a dielectric lends to the photon the attributes of a capacitor and therefore of being able to preserve its energy intact for a long time. Thus the wavelength has nothing to do with the size of the photon or of its physical dimensions, which remain the same as when the photon was first formed. Apart from that consider the fact that these photons are emitted by electrons therefore they consist of a tiny energy core surrounded by a much larger dipole electromagnetic field. Thus since these photons are of such a size that they can be emitted by electrons it follows, since they maintain their energy intact and therefore maintain their size, that they can also be absorbed by electrons. Further the wave or dipolar electromagnetic field surrounding the core energy of the photon serves as a tag to identify the photon's energy to an assembly of atoms, the photon will then home in on an atom that requires that particular energy, leaving alone all of other atoms. So, discrete energy absorption and emission through photons, is the order of the day, no waves. The photon is identified by its energy. This property of the photon being able to maintain its energy (identity) intact is the distinguishing feature of Gestalt Aether Theory. Thus when a photon approaches an atom its energy is communicated to the electrons in the atom through its energy field, it is then either rejected or absorbed. If it is absorbed the process is achieved as easily as when it was emitted. There is no question of a photon being too big to be absorbed by an electron. The question does not arise, and individual photons are absorbed by individual electrons as easily as they are emitted without any problems arising because of their structure. The absorption process happens in reverse to that of emission with the electron absorbing the bands of energy of the photon. The absorbed photon is the same size as the emitted photon. So the process of absorption is as follows. The photon identifies itself to the electrons within the atom through its energy field, if the atom requires that energy it is absorbed by an electron, if not it is rejected. It is unanimously accepted that the electrons in an atom (the atom as a whole) can only absorb those energies accessible to it all other photon energies will be rejected. So some photons will be absorbed while others will pass through the atom without any interaction. Both quantum mechanics and standard theory have theorised that when a photon is absorbed by an electron in an atom, the electron re-emits the photon at a random direction and time. GAT states that this assumption that electrons in the atom emit photons in random directions and at anomalous times is completely false. GAT states that the absorption and emission of photons by the atom is closely regulated. GAT explains this interaction as follows:- When a photon is absorbed by an electron in an atom, the absorption is governed by the physical laws of the conservation of energy and momentum prevailing in classical physics. Thus when an electron absorbs an incoming photon it balances the force of recoil against the massive nucleus of the atom. What is seldom taken into account is the size of an electron as compared to the size of the nucleus. On average the electron is 2000 times smaller than a proton (nucleus of hydrogen atom) translating this into figures means that if the electron is one inch across, the nucleus would be more than 166 feet across, this is a massive difference in size. So great is this difference in size that the nucleus can for all purposes be treated as a perfectly flat, massive and smooth plane surface against which the electron recoils on absorbing or emitting a photon. Thus when an electron absorbs a photon, it recoils from the surface of the nucleus. What neither quantum mechanics nor standard theory seem to have taken into account is that the electron might recoil from the massive nucleus, not in a random fashion as has hitherto been surmised, but following the laws of plane geometry. Look at Fig a : Here it is possible to see that an electron occupying the nth shell in an atom absorbs a photon that is incident at a certain angle to the normal, the force of recoil bounces the electron off the nucleus at an angle identical to and on the same plane but opposite to the incident angle, on reaching the nth shell, the electron re-emits the absorbed photon and the same path is followed in reverse so that the electron again ends up in its original position, where it absorbs another photon and the process repeats. This process takes place at the rate of several hundreds of trillions (1012) times per second for as long as the atom is being irradiated under the same conditions. Thus not only are photons absorbed in accordance with their frequency but are also emitted ( in the case of reflection) at the same frequency and the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. Refraction The process of refraction is as previously stated a function of the refractive index of the new medium that light enters. However, taking into account the actual atomic and molecular make-up of the new medium, it is possible that refraction is also related to the change in velocity of light as it enters a new medium and the longer path that results. Photons being absorbed and emitted as they travel through a denser medium. The significant fact that once again lends credence to the presence of an Aether is that once light exits the denser medium, it once again travels with the speed of c. This is similar behavious to that of all waves in a medium. 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