CELTA Pre-Course Task

CELTA Pre-Course Task © UCLES 2004 Contents Introduction 1 Section 1 Learners and Teachers, and the Learning and Teaching Context 2 Section 2 Language Analysis and Awareness 6 Section 3 Language Skills: Reading, Listening, Speaking and Writing 21 Section 4 Planning and Resources 26 Section 5 Developing Teaching Skills and Professionalism 28 Introduction The aim of this task is to introduce you to some of the areas covered on the CELTA course and to provide you with the opportunity to prepare for the course. The tasks should be completed on a separate sheet, and you may be asked to submit it at the start of the course. Although you may be asked to submit your completed task at the start of the course, it will not be graded or taken into account as part of your coursework. The tasks should be thought about and completed in the order they are presented, but you are not expected to complete the pre-course task at one sitting. It would be more beneficial for you to work on the task in a number of sittings over a period of time. You may find one of the following grammar books useful for reference: Aitken, R - Teaching Tenses (Nelson) Bolitho, R & Tomlinson, B – Discover English – 2nd edition (Macmillan) Leech, Cruickshank & Ivanič – An A-Z of English Grammar & Usage (Longman) Murphy, R – English Grammar in Use (CUP) Parrott, M – Grammar for English Teachers (CUP) Swan, M – Practical English Usage (OUP) Swan, M & Walter, C – How English Works (OUP) Thornbury, S – How to Teach Grammar (Longman) If you wish to do some additional reading before the start of the course, the following books may be of interest: Gower, Walters & Philips – Teaching Practice Handbook – 2nd edition (Macmillan) Harmer, J. – How to Teach English – 3rd edition (Longman) Kenworthy, J – Teaching English Pronunciation (Longman) Lewis, M & Hill, J – Practical Techniques for Language Teaching (LTP) Riddell, D - Teaching English as a Foreign/Second Language (Teach Yourself) (Hodder Arnold H&S) Scrivener J – Learning Teaching (Macmillan) There are five sections to the task, with each section focusing on a specific topic area from the CELTA syllabus. These are the units on which candidates are assessed during the course: Unit 1 – Section 1 Learners and teachers, and the learning and teaching context Unit 2 – Section 2 Language analysis and awareness Unit 3 – Section 3 Language skills: reading, listening, speaking and writing Unit 4 – Section 4 Planning and resources Unit 5 – Section 5 Developing teaching skills and professionalism ________________________________________________________________________________ 1 Section 1 Learners and Teachers, and the Teaching and Learning Context A Teaching and learning contexts Types of contexts Because English language teaching and learning takes place around the globe, there can be many different learning/teaching contexts: • one-to-one lessons/lessons in groups • monolingual/multilingual groups • closed/open groups • full-time/part-time courses • learners with little or no previous formal education • mixed/similar ability groups • mixed/same gender groups • large/smaller classes • day/evening classes • teachers with English-speaking/non-English-speaking backgrounds Notes on the groups: Monolingual The students all speak the same first language, e.g. the students all speak Spanish. Multilingual The students all speak different first languages. Closed The students usually all come from the same institution and no other learners join their group e.g. A group of Japanese college students all go to an English-speaking country or businessmen from one country study in the same group. And we could consider other variables such as jobs, interests, reasons for learning English, and so on. It is a good idea to find out about these factors before you teach your first class, as it will have an effect on your planning. Task 1 1. In what context will you be doing the CELTA course? 2. Do you know what context you will be teaching in after you finish the course? ________________________________________________________________________________ 2 B The learners’ cultural, linguistic and educational backgrounds Adult learners Teaching adult learners is generally very different from teaching younger learners. Our approach will need to take into account the characteristics of adult learners. Task 2 1. Think about why you decided to teach adults. 2. Think about what you, as an adult, bring to this learning situation. 3. Look at your answers to questions 1 and 2 and use these ideas to help you to write down what characterises adult learners. Finding out about learners When adult students arrive in a school or college, they are usually given a placement test and then grouped roughly according to their language level. In order to teach them successfully, you need to find out about them as people and learners. Task 3 1. What would you want to find out about a group of learners that you had to teach so that you could plan your lessons? 2. How would you find out? C Motivation Motivations for learning English Learners are sometimes learning a language for personal reasons or, very occasionally, out of interest or for self-growth. However, most learners are learning a language as a means to other ends. As a teacher you need to help learners move towards their goals. Extrinsic motivation is motivation from factors outside the classroom, such as the reasons for learning English. Learners often learn English: • to gain access to employment • to be able to study and research in English • to be able to pass public exams in an English-speaking country • to be able to live in an English-speaking country • to socialise with neighbours • for career, status and job prospects • to involve themselves in their children’s schooling _________________________________________________________________________________ 3 to be able to understand English films, TV and songs to find out more about the people and culture of English-speaking people to be able to read English literature because of pressure from family to gain citizenship • • • • • Adapted from Hedge, T. (2000) Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom Oxford: OUP pp. 22-23 Task 4 If you were teaching a group of learners, each of whom had different motivations for learning English, which learners would be the most challenging in terms of motivation? D The qualities and skills of a good language teacher Learners expect to find in their teachers someone with whom they can work comfortably and someone with the skills to enable them to achieve their goals. Task 5 Look at the list of qualities and skills that a teacher might have. Which do you think learners most often rate in the top five? • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • has a sense of humour has a calm presence builds rapport is approachable knows how to listen well to students trusts learners is patient respects individuality gives clear information and feedback knows about language and learning inspires confidence is sensitive to learners as people paces lessons to match the learners is methodical and well-organised plans well can be authoritative without being distant is always learning and developing is enthusiastic and inspires enthusiasm is friendly is honest empathises with the learners does not complicate things unnecessarily is sensitive to the culture and backgrounds of the learners Adapted from Scrivener, J. 1994 Learning Teaching Macmillan/Heinemann pp 7-8 _________________________________________________________________________________ 4 Section 2 Language Analysis and Awareness A Grammar Section A of this unit aims to: • • • • • • highlight the value of explicit grammatical knowledge in English language teaching identify different word classes clarify the distinction between lexical and auxiliary verbs highlight different verb forms clarify the construction of different verb phrases illustrate the relationship between grammatical form and meaning. Overview A lot of negative connotations surround the word ‘grammar’. They are often associated with learning experiences in English language or second language classes when we were at primary or high school. Task 6 Make a list of associations you have with the word ‘grammar’. (They may not all be negative!) Grammar is sometimes perceived as being something abstract and difficult associated with the analysis of very long sentences. While it is possible for a teacher to create this impression, grammar is something that we use every day whenever we speak or write. Simply put, grammar is a ‘system’ that we use to express meaning. When we have a thought that we want to articulate in spoken or written form, we use the system of grammar to encode our ideas so that others will understand them. We also use the vocabulary and pronunciation systems to add to meaning. Many of us speak and write English extremely well without having any explicit knowledge of grammar. However, native speakers do have implicit knowledge of grammar and use it correctly. Task 7 Look at the following sentences and decide which are correct. Write a correct version of the examples that are incorrect. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. We’ve been looking for you for ages. I’ve been to the movies last night. He often come late. They were waiting by the fountain. Can I have a coffee black, please? People with 12 items or less can queue here. A clear indication of our implicit grammar knowledge is our ability both to distinguish between correct and incorrect language, and to be able to correct what is incorrect. However, to work as an effective _________________________________________________________________________________ 5 English language teacher, we need to develop good explicit language knowledge. This means we do need to build up our knowledge of grammar. Task 8 Provide a list of reasons why English language teachers need to know about grammar. In doing so, try to give some thought to the learners’ perspective. Word class One of the first steps in developing explicit awareness involves familiarising yourself with the component parts of the grammatical system. We need to know what different grammatical class words belong to. In other words, are they nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs etc.? We need to know their word class (another term for this is part of speech). Grammar reference books can help you with this. However, good dictionaries are another source of this information. Task 9 Identify the underlined words in the following dialogue. Use a grammar reference book or a dictionary to help you with this if necessary. A: What are you(1) looking at? B: Well, it’s a(2) photograph of something very close up, but(3) I can’t work out what it is. A: Yes, it’s quite(4) abstract(5), isn’t it? B: Yes. It could(6) be one of those(7) things for(8) unblocking a sink. A: Oh, you mean(9) a plunger(10). Types of verbs Much of the study of grammar centres around verbs and the way they behave in combination with each other. The reasons for this are that verbs help us convey a lot of information about states, actions, time and attitude and involve many subtleties of meaning that learners of English find quite challenging. We can look at verbs as belonging to two broad categories: lexical and auxiliary. Lexical verbs contain some sort of meaning and can stand alone. Therefore, in the sentence I love chocolate ice cream, the verb love is lexical: it has meaning and does not need another verb to help it in any way. However, other verbs fulfil the purpose of acting as a help or support to lexical verbs and are called auxiliary. For example, in the following sentence He’s watching TV at the moment the verb is (contracted with he to make he’s) performs the role of helping the main verb watch to make the present progressive tense and has no independent meaning of its own. Auxiliary verbs can help make tenses that contain more than one verb. They can also be used to create negative and interrogative (or question) forms. For example, to make the sentence He lives _________________________________________________________________________________ 6 here negative, we need to add auxiliary does as well as not i.e. He doesn’t live here. In order to create a question, we add does and alter the word order i.e. Does he live here? Task 10 Decide if the underlined verbs in the following sentences and questions are lexical verbs or auxiliary verbs. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. He watches TV for at least two hours every evening. What are you looking for? They aren’t going to come. What does he want? They haven’t been here before. He was waiting on the corner. There are three auxiliary verbs that have the function of creating different forms: be, do and have. (Remember that be has different present and past forms: am, are, is, was and were.) However, all three can also function as lexical verbs as well. In the sentence They didn’t arrive on time the verb do (in its past form did) has the function of an auxiliary verb to help create the negative form. However, in the sentence I did my homework last night the verb do (again in its past form did) functions as a lexical verb that carries meaning. Task 11 Decide if the underlined verbs be, do and have have an auxiliary or lexical function in the following sentences and questions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. I had a bad headache yesterday. When do you get up each day? How long have you been learning English? I did it without thinking. We do some exercise every morning. Have you had them long? I was hoping for a quick answer. Are they still here? When be, do and have are used as auxiliaries, they do not really have any meaning as such. However, there is another group of auxiliary verbs that do carry some meaning: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should and must. These are known as modal auxiliary verbs. Modal auxiliary verbs are similar to other auxiliary verbs in that they cannot stand alone. Therefore, we cannot say I must on its own as it does not convey a clear message to someone listening to the conversation. However, if we add the lexical verb go (I must go) then the utterance is more complete and makes sense. (Of course I must on its own is perfectly possible as a response, as is the case with other auxiliary verbs). It is also worth noting that I must go contains more meaning than I go. The must adds a sense of obligation or necessity. _________________________________________________________________________________ 7 Task 12 All of the following sentences (1-5) contain modal auxiliary verbs that are underlined. Match the meaning of the modal verb to the definitions below (A-E). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. You should see a doctor as soon as you can. You may go now, thank you. This letter must be from Frank – he’s the only one who hasn’t written so far. I can’t play the piano very well. We could go out, but I don’t know if I’m in the mood. A. B. C. D. E. Ability Logical deduction Advice Possibility Permission Verb forms All verbs have a base form. This is the form of the verb when nothing extra is added. In the following sentence: Listen more carefully! ‘listen’ is the base form of the verb (in this case it is being used as an imperative). Sometimes we add letters to verbs in order to change the form. In the following sentence: He mostly listens to jazz these days. an –s has been added to the base form of ‘listen’ in order to create the 3rd person singular of the present simple tense. Task 13 Match the underlined verb form examples to the correct definition. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. I worked until 7 o’clock last night. They’ve been seeing a lot of each other lately. She lives not far from here. You have to try harder. It was handed to me as I was leaving. verb form base form 3rd person –present simple tense past tense form past participle form -ing form _________________________________________________________________________________ 8 Most of these forms have more than one use. For example, -ing forms can be present participles when they act as a verb as in the following sentence: I’m working as hard as I can. However, they can also be used as gerunds when they act as a noun as in the following example: Walking is good for your health. Past forms and past participle forms can be regular or irregular. Regular past forms and past participle forms are identical as –ed is added to the base form to create both forms. For example: base form work past form worked past participle form worked However, this changes if the verb is irregular. For example: base form make give past form made gave past participle form made given Note that with some irregular verbs, the past form and the past participle form are the same (make above), while others have different past and past participle forms (give above). It is not possible to look at the base form of a verb and determine whether it is regular or irregular. Native speakers know this information implicitly, while learners of English usually have to memorise lists of irregular verbs. Task 14 Think of the past form and the past participle forms of the following verbs. Which are regular? Which are not regular? hear think go do take drink help steal arrive Verb phrases When we speak, we mix and match different verb forms of both auxiliary and lexical verbs in order to create different verb phrases. These choices are sub-conscious. For example, we can combine the base form have with the past participle of be
been together with the -ing form of a lexical verb in order to create a verb phrase that describes an action that began in the past and continues until the present: I have been waiting here for half an hour. In this sentence have and been are both auxiliary. Alternatively, we can combine the modal should with the base form of have and the past participle of a lexical verb in order to create a verb phrase that can be used to criticise someone. You should have studied much harder for the exam. In this sentence should and have are both auxiliary. While the choices are sub-conscious, they generally follow a pattern. _________________________________________________________________________________ 9 1. Tense past or present? They give … or They gave … 2. Modal yes or no? They give … or They can give … 3. Perfect aspect yes or no? They give … or They have given … 4. Progressive aspect yes or no? They give … or They are giving … 5. Voice active or passive? They give … or They are given … We can include many different elements. For example, They have been giving out brochures combines present tense with both the perfect and progressive aspects to create the present perfect progressive. In the example, I was given this brochure the past tense combines with the passive voice to create the past passive. Task 15 Identify the different elements (past, present, modal, perfect, progressive, passive) underlined in the following verb phrases. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. I was hoping to see you. They might have got home by now. We have tried to help. They were being questioned at length. I saw it coming. This time next week you will be lying on a beach. While we have focused on these different elements in terms of identifying their form, it is worth remembering that these changes also affect the meaning of the verb phrase. So far, we have called these combinations verb phrases. In many grammar reference books, English language course books and other materials, they are often known as tenses. Therefore, each verb phrase can be labelled with a tense name for ease of identification. Look at the following example: I’m studying really hard at the moment. The auxiliary verb am (from be) is in the present tense, while the -ing form of the lexical verb study indicates a progressive form. They combine to create what is known as the present progressive tense (often called the present continuous). Here is another example: Her jewellery has been stolen. The auxiliary have is in the present tense; it combines with be (been – past participle form) to indicate the passive voice; been also combines with a second past participle stolen to indicate the perfect aspect. The three combinations create the present perfect passive tense. _________________________________________________________________________________ 10 Task 16 Identify the tense names of the underlined verbs in the following sentences. You will most likely need to refer to a grammar reference book to help you. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. I am having a really good time. We stopped doing that years ago. She lives somewhere near here. We had been for a drink before we met him. These computers are made in China. You will have been here for 2 days by then. It happened as I was driving home. I have been feeling unwell for a while. Grammar and meaning Different tenses have a variety of uses or meanings. In most cases, tenses give us some indication of time reference. For example in the sentence: I played squash with Liz yesterday afternoon. the use of the simple past with the verb played signals that the action took place in the past. However, there is not always a one-to-one relationship between tenses and the time they refer to. For example, in the following question: What if I wanted to go now? the simple past is used, but the time reference is now, the present. In this example, the simple past has been used to emphasise an idea of hypothesis. The speaker is speculating on a scenario that is different from the real present. Therefore, in the above question, we can say that the simple past has been used to show distance from reality rather than distance from the present. Task 17 The following examples of language contain different tenses which are underlined. The name of the tense is also given. Decide what the time reference of each example is and remember that the time reference may not match the tense name. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The sun was shining brightly in the sky. (past progressive). They’ll have finished work on the bridge by then. (future perfect simple) She’s been working in the garden all morning. (present perfect progressive) Have you got a minute? I was wondering whether we could have a word. (past progressive) They own most of the land around here. (present simple) Present progressive In order to explore grammatical meaning in more detail, we will look at one example: the present progressive tense. _________________________________________________________________________________ 11 Task 18 • • What auxiliary verb is used to create the present progressive? What is the form of the lexical verb of the present progressive? The following dialogue contains examples of the present progressive. (N.B. the numbers at the beginning of each line are used for ease of reference). 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A: What are you up to? B: Can’t you see? I’m studying. A: But it’s the weekend. Boring! B: Yeah, well, I’ve got to. A: Why’s that? B: I’m doing a really intensive course at the moment. In line 2, the present progressive is used to talk about an action that takes place in the moment of speaking. Speaker B has a book in her hand and is studying. By contrast, the example of the present progressive in line 6 refers to time around the moment of speaking. The dialogue takes place during the weekend and speaker B is clearly not at school when she indicates that she is following a course. The action of doing the course is something that is happening in speaker A’s life, even if she is not attending the course in the moment of speaking. Despite the small differences in meaning between the two examples, it is possible to note similarities in meaning. Both actions suggest an idea of on-going duration and both can be perceived as actions of limited duration. It is not expected they will continue forever. Task 19 Look at the following mini-dialogues below and decide the time reference or use of the underlined examples of the present progressive. A: How about going to a movie this evening? B: I can’t. I’m meeting Judy for a drink. A: Where’s Tony? B: I don’t know where he’s got to. A: He’s always running late. A: It was late at night and dark and I was on my way back to the hotel. Suddenly, I find I’m walking down the street all on my own and I can hear the sound of footsteps … In order to determine the use or meaning of tenses, it helps to look at them in context, even if it is a question of two lines of conversation. The sentence I’m meeting Judy for a drink clearly has future time reference in the above dialogue. However, look at the following dialogue that takes place in bar: A: Richard! How are you? What are you doing here? B: I’m meeting Judy for a drink. (B nods in the direction of a table where Judy is sitting.) In this context, the present progressive is being used to talk about an action that takes place at the moment of speaking. _________________________________________________________________________________ 12 Task 20 What is the problem with the following examples? 1. 2. 3. 4. B He’s having a brother and a sister. I’m liking this ice cream. What are you thinking of your new job? This sauce is lacking salt. Vocabulary Section B of this unit aims to: • • highlight different aspects of the meaning of words clarify key features of word formation. Words and dictionaries When we come across words that we do not know the meaning of, we often look in dictionaries to find out the meaning. Dictionaries can be a useful source of information about words for native speakers and learners of English. Task 21 Make a list of what extra information dictionaries can provide about words apart from the meaning. It would be a good idea to refer to a dictionary to help you. While you might have a reasonably good understanding of words in English, using a dictionary can provide you with a deeper knowledge of words and how they are used in spoken or written language or both. Dictionaries are an invaluable tool for an English language teacher. Meanings Learners of English usually like learning vocabulary because words often generate clear meaning even when they are unsure of the grammar. A non-native speaker who goes into a café and says Coffee please will most likely succeed in obtaining a cup of coffee despite the fact he or she did not say Can I have a cup of coffee please? However, while words are powerful and useful units of meaning, they can sometimes be problematic. Many words have more than one meaning and sometimes defining exactly what a word means can be complex. Task 22 In the following sentences, there is a vocabulary error of some kind. Identify and describe the problem. 1. He’s the highest person in the family by more than 2 centimetres. 2. I think I’ll go to bed now. I’m feeling a little enervated. _________________________________________________________________________________ 13 3. It is an extremely good essay. The ideas in it are original and pretentious. 4. Her grandfather gave her a loving slap on her face. 5. Every day I like to go footing after work. It’s good exercise and it helps me to relax. When thinking about the meaning of words in English, we often need to consider different aspects of meaning. The first thing to think about is what the word means. In other words, what is a simple definition of the word as we would find in a dictionary. This is the semantic meaning. We might also need to think about how we would typically use this word. For example, is it a formal word, a neutral word or a less formal and more colloquial word? For example, in sentence 2, enervated is a more formal word than tired and sounds strange in an everyday conversation. This is what is called the register of the word. With some words it is important to think about whether the word has a positive or negative meaning. For example, in sentence 3 above, we can say that pretentious has a more negative meaning than the word clever. This is what we call connotation. Finally, it is sometimes useful to think what words go together with other words. In sentence 1 above, high does not go together with people. It is more typically used with buildings. It is better to use the word tall when talking about people. This is known as collocation. Task 23 In the following sentences, you can find the following examples of collocation: 2 verb-noun collocations; 1 verb-preposition collocation; 1 adjective-noun collocation; 3 adverb-adjective collocations. Underline and identify these different examples. Note: some sentences contain more than one collocation. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Not only was he nice, but he was also strikingly handsome. After he got up, he made his bed and did some housework. It was absolutely fabulous! They both really depend on each other. Their farewell at the airport was highly emotional. She was caught in a vicious circle. To summarise, in order to be able to say we know the meaning of a word, we need to think about the following: • • • • semantic meaning register connotation collocation _________________________________________________________________________________ 14 C Phonology Section C of this unit aims to: • • • • clarify key terminology associated with pronunciation highlight the role phonology has to play in English language teaching exemplify the relationship between sounds and phonemic script illustrate stress in individual words. Overview Phonology is another term for pronunciation. Phonology is related to the ‘noises’ we produce when we speak English. This includes not only individual sounds, but also different rhythms and the way our voices rise and fall. Task 24 Match the terms 1-3 with the definitions A-C. 1. stress 2. phoneme 3. intonation A. the music of our voices B. giving emphasis to one syllable C. an individual sound It is important to focus on phonology in the classroom because it can lead to breakdowns in communication between non-native speakers and native speakers, or between two non-native speakers conversing in English. Task 25 Match the problems 1-3 with the outcomes A-C. 1. an individual sound is mispronounced 2. a request is made with very flat intonation 3. the wrong syllable is stressed in a word A. the word is incomprehensible B. the listener might understand ‘bin’ when the speaker wanted to say ‘pin’ C. the speaker can sound arrogant and demanding Individual sounds In any language we can identify a set of meaningful sounds (vowels and consonants) that we call phonemes. For example, the vowel sounds in the words 'pin' and 'pen' are different phonemes; the consonants at the beginning of the words 'pet' and 'bet' are likewise phonemes. _________________________________________________________________________________ 15 English spelling is quite confusing for native speakers and foreign learners alike. The following words all end with the letter '-ough', but are all pronounced differently: enough, through, thorough, cough. This means it is important to think of the pronunciation of English in terms of phonemes rather than letters of the alphabet. We often use special phonemic symbols to represent the sounds in English. Many foreign learners are familiar with these symbols and use them as a tool for learning the pronunciation of new words. They are also commonly found in most learners’ English-English dictionaries. English language teachers also need to be familiar with them. Below is a list of English phonemes with an example word beside each one. The letter(s) underlined indicate the sound referred to. Vowels - monothongs (single sounds) / i… / heat / u… / glue / ø… / door /e/ pen / å… / start / ±… / girl  Vowels – diphthongs (double sounds) /ˆ/ /¨/ /Å/ /æ/ /√/ /W/ hit put hot cat shut cup of tea – the weak ‘schwa’ / ˆW / / ¨W / / W¨ / / aˆ / / eˆ / / øˆ / / ´W / / a¨ / day boy hair now /b/ /d/ / dΩ / /˝ / /v/ /∂/ /z/ /Ω / /n/ /h/ /r/ /j / bend dog join gold very that busy television nice happy red yacht beer pure go pie Consonants /p / /t/ / tß / /k/ /f/ /† / /s / /ß/ /m/ /˜/ /l/ /w/ pet team cheap kite fight think see sheep man ring light wet Using these symbols we can write complete words using phonemic script. Look at the following examples (and note that words written in phonemic script are written between slanting lines): / mæn / / pˆn / / tßi…k / / ri˜ / / mætW / man pin cheek ring matter / k√p / / mi… / / ßi…p / / jes / / br√∂W / cup me sheep yes brother _________________________________________________________________________________ 16 Task 26 What are these words? 1. / ∂eW / 2. / sa¨† / 3. / læn˝wˆdΩ / 4. / pi…sfWl / 5. / j√˜ / 6. / kø…l / 7. / s±…tß / 8. / ˆkweˆΩWn / 9. / ߨ˝W / Word Stress All words of two or more syllables in English have word stress. The stress can be marked by putting a box (or circle) over the vowel sound in the stressed syllable. For example: ‫ٱ‬ individual ‫ٱ‬ responsibility ‫ٱ‬ effect Task 27 Where does the stress fall on the following words? 1. guarantee 2. cavalry 3. mechanisation 4. language 5. retreat 6. speculative 7. success 8. balance 9. identity 10. articulate (adjective) There are few hard and fast rules that govern word stress. One rule that does work is that words ending in –ion (e.g. station, election, division etc.) have stress on the syllable immediately before the –ion syllable. This is the case even for quite long words: ‫ٱ‬ industrialisation Task 28 1. Mark the main stress on the words in the following 'word family'. Why do you think nonnative speakers often experience problems with these words? photograph photography photographer photographic 2. Mark the stress in the following pairs of words. Can you identify a pattern? to record / a record to present / a present to increase / an increase to import / an import _________________________________________________________________________________ 17 Weak forms The most common vowel sound in English is the sound found in many unstressed syllables. It is called the 'schwa' and is denoted by the symbol / W /. /W/ father For example: The first syllable is stressed. The second syllable is unstressed and contains the weak sound. Task 29 Underline the / W / in the following words: mother forget announce tonight notable mention patrol indicative _________________________________________________________________________________ 18 Section 3 Language Skills: Reading, Listening, Speaking and Writing A Reading Ways of reading When we read in our first language, we deploy a variety of reading skills depending on the nature of the text that we are reading. This means we do not read a bus timetable in the same way that we read a question in an exam we are sitting. When we read a bus timetable, our eyes scan the text in order to find an appropriate departure or arrival time, while we are likely to read the exam question in great detail to ensure that we have understood and interpreted it correctly. Task 30 Think of all the texts you have read so far today and comment on the way in which you have read these texts. Typically, native speaker readers deploy different reading sub-skills when they approach texts. We do not do this as a conscious process, but we do it spontaneously in reaction to the type of text we are reading. Common terminology associated with reading sub-skills is as follows: Scan reading
when you read to find a specific piece of information Skim/gist reading
when you read to get the overall idea of a text Intensive/detailed reading
when you read to get a lot of information from a text Reading to infer
when we read to understand a writer’s implicit message in a text Task 31 Below are some different text types. Think about which of the above reading sub-skills we would use to read these texts. 1. 2. 3. 4. An academic article we need to read for an essay we are writing. A telephone directory. The editorial of a newspaper on a topic we care about a lot. An advertisement for a job that might be suitable. When people read in a language that is not their first language, they often forget to use appropriate language skills and will read all texts in a great deal of detail. They are also likely to overuse bilingual dictionaries, pausing in their reading every time they find a word they do not understand. Task 32 • What problems are there with this way of reading? _________________________________________________________________________________ 19 B Listening Ways of listening Learners often comment that they find reading texts easier than listening to texts. (‘Text’ here means anything from a conversation overheard to a radio news broadcast.) Task 33 • Make a list of reasons why you think non-native speakers might find listening more challenging than reading. As is the case with reading, we do not always listen to everything in the same way. The way in which we listen is determined by what we are listening to, our motivation for listening and where we are listening. For example, you might be on a bus listening to two people gossiping about a work colleague who you do not know. In this situation, you are likely to tune in and out of the conversation or ignore it all together. However, if you recognise the name of their colleague and the gossip sounds particularly interesting, you are likely to listen more carefully (unless you feel it would be socially inappropriate to do so). Task 34 • Think of three different situations in which you listened today. Make a note of who you were listening to, your motivation for listening and describe how you listened. All of the above suggests that listening is similar to reading in the way that there are different subskills that we use when we listen. We can more or less use the same labels: • Scan listening • Skim/gist listening • Intensive listening • Listening to infer meaning Task 35 Match the above listening sub-skills to the following listening texts. 1. A lecture for a course you are taking at university. 2. A sales pitch for a computer that doesn’t really interest you. However, you are at work and you can’t just walk out. 3. Announcements at a train station when you are waiting to hear the time of the next train to your destination. 4. Instructions from your boss for a new task that is critical for your job. 5. An interview with someone who is famous and whose political opinion you would like to find out about. 6. A radio programme on a topic that is mildly interesting for you. _________________________________________________________________________________ 20 C Speaking Ways of speaking When we ask about someone’s ability in a second language, the usual way of checking this is by saying “Do you speak …?”. This suggests that spoken language is seen as the most important of all the language skills. Often learners who have studied English for two years (or more) in their home countries are still not able to really speak English. They will often complain by saying that their previous learning was very grammar-focused and that they are not very ‘fluent’ in English. Task 36 • Think about this disparity between 2 years’ study of a language and a lack of ability to speak. Why do you think this happens? While grammar is important, students need to learn how to activate their passive grammatical knowledge by way of oral practice of grammar. At the same time, they need to be able to practise speaking fluently without worrying too much about grammar. The aim is for them to focus on the message and on communicating effectively. Task 37 Look at the following examples of learner language and decide whether the student has managed to communicate successfully or not. 1. 2. 3. 4. Could I please have a ….? (learner gesticulates, indicating he is unsure of the word) You come my house tonight? (said with rising intonation) Yesterday good time. Next week we see, no? (learner smiles) A: How long have you been in New Zealand? B: I stay here 5 weeks. Most native speaker oral interaction can usually be described as transactional or interactional. Transactional communication takes place when you want the person you are addressing to do something as a result of the communication. For example, you may want to find out information, buy a product or get feedback on some kind of task that you have performed. Conversely, interactional communication fulfils a more social role. You may just want to chat with a friend or make small talk with a colleague. Task 38 Decide if the following descriptions of conversations are transactional or interactional. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. You ask a colleague if s/he would mind helping you with something. You offer to collect your neighbour’s mail while s/he is away on holiday. You comment on the weather to an acquaintance at a bus stop. You visit a friend and spend time admiring and talking about his/her garden. You participate in a university group tutorial that is useful for an essay you are writing. You go out with your boss and other colleagues for a drink and a chat after work. _________________________________________________________________________________ 21 Some learners are unsure of the value of doing speaking fluency activities in the classroom. They feel that the teacher should closely monitor and correct their spoken language at all times. When teaching groups of between 10 and 20 learners who will sometimes work in pairs and small groups during the lesson, this kind of monitoring and feedback is sometimes difficult on a practical level. At the same time, there is also value for learners in having speaking fluency practice. Task 39 • D Make a list of reasons why you think speaking fluency practice could help learners’ language development. Writing Differences between written and spoken English Spoken and written English differ in many ways. It is not possible to say that written language is just spoken language written down. Conversely, spoken language is not like some kind of oral script that is already ‘written’ in our heads. It is tempting to say that written language is more organised than spoken language. However, applied linguists would dispute this and say that spoken language merely has different organisation from written language. Some people say that written language is more formal than spoken language. However, a text message sent from a mobile phone (written language) is likely to be far less formal than a parliamentary debate (spoken language). Task 40 Which of the following characteristics would you associate with spoken language (S) and which with written language (W). 1. 2. 3. 4. Includes gesture and facial expression to back up the message. Uses punctuation to make the content easier to understand. Includes hesitation devices and fillers such as ‘yeah’, ‘umm’, ‘ah’ etc. The communicator usually gets immediate feedback from the person they are communicating with. 5. Is usually pre-prepared, although e-mail and text messages often are not. 6. Uses pauses, stress and intonation to show where ideas begin and end. 7. Is spontaneous and planning usually takes place in the moment of communicating. 8. Suggests that meaning is static in the communication, although open to interpretation. 9. The communicator may never find out what the person he is communicating with thinks of his message. 10. Includes headlines, different type sizes and colours to enhance the content. 11. Is usually smooth-flowing. 12. Involves negotiation of meaning between the communicator and the person they are communicating with. Writing also involves many micro-skills such as correct letter formation (orthography), spelling and punctuation. _________________________________________________________________________________ 22 Task 41 Look at the learner errors in the sentences below. Identify the mistakes and try to decide why the learner made these mistakes. 1. 2. 3. 4. She through the ball hard so it hurt when I court it. My brther livs in Swedn. However, hard I try it never works. first of all he invited me to sit down after that he offered me a coffee I was very surprised by his politeness These skills can be particularly challenging for learners whose first language does not have a Roman script, for example, Arabic and Chinese speakers. Task 42 1. Look at the samples of learners’ writing below and identify the difficulties encountered by these learners and other learners whose first language do not have a Roman script. 2. Suggest some activities that teachers can use to help students to develop basic writing skills. _________________________________________________________________________________ 23 Section 4 Planning and Resources A Planning and preparation Preparation and planning are important parts of a teacher’s role. Lessons are more likely to be effective if the teacher has thought through the various aspects of the lesson beforehand. It is also important to create a written lesson plan as a guideline for what should happen in a lesson. On the CELTA course you will be asked to plan for your teaching in cooperation with other trainees. You will be required to produce a written plan for most of the lessons you teach. The lesson plan Lesson plan formats are varied. Most plans contain some of the points below: 1. Lesson aims/learning outcomes what the learners should be able to do by the end of the lesson 2. Anticipated problems and solutions areas you think may cause difficulty for your learners and your solutions 3. Personal aim some area of your teaching you want to improve in this lesson 4. Stage a part of the lesson 5. Procedure what students/teacher are doing at any particular stage of the lesson 6. Interaction pattern the direction of the communication (teacher to students/students to students) 7. Stage aim the reason for doing this stage of the lesson and how it relates to the overall aim of the lesson Task 43 Below are some extracts from lesson plans. Decide which part of the lesson plan (1-7 above) they may come from. Extract Probably from a. I’d like to smile more and create a better rapport today. b. Students _ Students in pairs c. By the end of the lesson students will be able to use a range of adjectives to describe someone’s personality. d. Teacher hands out text and gives a different set of questions to each group. e. Some students may find the pronunciation of several words quite difficult. I must make sure I use lots of repetition. f. To get students interested in the topic of the listening text. _________________________________________________________________________________ 24 B Resources In your teaching situation you will have some resources available to you. The range will vary and depend on where you are teaching. Below is a list of possible resources you may be able to use. Match them to their uses. Task 44 Resource Can be used for 1. Published coursebook a. Encouraging students to expand their vocabulary and to find out about new words on their own 2. Cassette or CD player b. Developing students’ ability to read real texts 3. Newspapers in English c. Giving students work which can be tailored to their individual needs 4. Internet d. Developing students’ ability to listen to authentic speech 5. Overhead Projector (OHP) e. Finding information on a particular topic area and developing reading skills 6. Whiteboard f. 7. TV/radio g. Developing students’ listening skills with specially prepared or real materials 8. Teacher’s own materials h. Writing down new words for students to focus on, making the form, meaning or pronunciation features of a language area clear 9. Dictionaries i. Developing students’ language and skills in a structured way and allowing them to review at home Showing pre-prepared work on a large screen for clarity _________________________________________________________________________________ 25 Section 5 Developing Teaching Skills and Professionalism A Developing Teaching Skills In the Teaching Practice sessions on the CELTA course you will be encouraged to develop different teaching skills and you will need to demonstrate competence in managing and organising the learning environment. Teacher language Depending on the group you teach, your learners will have different levels of language skills. At all levels it is important to think about your own language use in the classroom. This is because you serve as an example of the language they are trying to learn – you provide a language model, so it is important to be accurate. In addition, you will need to grade or modify your language so that learners will understand the language you use to manage the classroom, mainly in the form of instructions. Task 45 Below are some instructions given by teachers. In each case the group of learners had difficulty following the instructions. For each one write: • • Why do you think the difficulty occurred? How could you give the same instruction in a more effective way? 1. Jot that down. 2. I wonder if you’d mind just looking at question number 4 and then if you could just answer it. 3. I’d like you to read the text on page 4 and answer the first three, then compare your answers with the person next to you. After that write a short summary of the story and discuss this with your partner. 4. Look at the question at the bottom of the page and think about an answer. Managing the learning environment Learners will often bring to your lessons strong views about how they want to learn and how you should teach. It is important that you listen to these views, but balance them with the views of the other students and with your own knowledge about teaching and learning. Some of the issues that may arise could be: Pair/group work As language is about communication, you maximise communication in the classroom by including some activities that learners do in pairs or small groups. You also use pair/group work to promote peer teaching, where learners help each other and reinforce their own learning. Some learners may be resistant to pair/group work, perhaps because they are used to a more teacher-centred approach, where all communication is through the teacher. They may also not want to work with certain individuals in the class or they may feel that they won’t learn when they are not talking directly to the teacher. _________________________________________________________________________________ 26 Learning styles In general, we process information in three ways, in an auditory way (through hearing it), in a visual way (through seeing it) or in a kinaesthetic way (through doing something physical with it). Everyone has a preference for using one of these ways when learning, though we often use more than one. Your learners will be keener to do activities that correspond to their learning style. For example, learners who process information in a visual way will be happier working with texts and relating language to pictures and mental pictures. They may be less comfortable with a listening exercise. Use of learners’ first language Many learners’ previous language learning experience may have been in monolingual classes, where the teacher also spoke the learners’ first language. Using the learners’ first language can be a useful tool for teaching and learning and many coursebooks suggest that learners use translation. On the other hand, it can also make the learner dependent on translation and at a loss, for example, when a language point arises where there is not a one-to-one translation with the first language. Also, in a multilingual classroom it would be impossible to expect the teacher to know all the languages represented! Task 46 Imagine you are the teacher of the students who made the comments below. How would you respond to them? 1. I don’t want to work in a group because I will only learn mistakes from other students. 2. I wish you could translate more words into my language. 3. Please don’t ask me to work with that student. I don’t like people from her country. 4. Could we just talk in class and not use any books? Organisation of the classroom One of the things you plan as a teacher is how you organise the physical environment of the classroom – desks, chairs, students, equipment, etc. How you organise the physical environment can have a significant impact on how effective your teaching and learning activities are. If, for example, you are planning something where students work in groups, it will help if all students in the group have eye contact. This may mean moving the seating so that they are facing each other. If you have a learner who has difficulty reading something on the board, you may need to ensure that this learner is seated near the board at all times. _________________________________________________________________________________ 27 Task 47 Below is a description of an activity you might use in a language learning classroom. Read it and describe: • • • how you would arrange the classroom to carry out the activity (position of desks, chairs, students and teacher) what resources you could use to make the activity more effective (pictures, real objects, handouts, music, etc.) any problems about the organisation of the activity that you could anticipate. Information gap role play Half of the students will play the role of assistants working at an information desk. They will have information about a range of computer courses at different prices and with different numbers of hours and different times. The rest of the students will be given the task of finding the most suitable course for the character they have been given. The students have 20 minutes to ask the assistants about their courses and agree a transaction. Dealing with language When you deal with language in the classroom, you will deal with meaning, form and pronunciation. Learners often have difficulty understanding the core meaning of new words and structures. You will need to be able to make the meaning clear. It is important to avoid long explanations, as this can confuse learners, who are then trying to process your explanation as well as understand the particular language area they are having difficulty with. If possible, you should demonstrate meaning by using visuals, making comparisons and contrasts, getting them to deduce from examples and, in general, giving the language a context (through situations and examples). When learners encounter difficulties with pronunciation, there may be different reasons. They may be unable to discriminate between similar sounds or stress patterns (the part of a word or sentence with more emphasis when spoken). Strategies for helping students include: showing them how a sound is produced, repetition of the sound, comparing similar sounds and practising discrimination, beating out stress by clapping, showing stress visually by highlighting what is stressed. _________________________________________________________________________________ 28 Task 48 You notice that your students have been confusing certain areas of language. You decide to have a lesson focusing on these different areas. Describe how you would make the differences clear to your students. Try to avoid long explanations and use as many different ways as possible (pictures, stories, diagrams, miming, etc). • Different meanings 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Slim / thin To wink / to blink I used to get up early / I am used to getting up early Nervous / upset 4 weeks ago / 4 weeks before • Different pronunciation 6. I do it / I’ll do it 7. Read (present tense) / read (past tense) 8. Put / putt 9. Record (noun) / record (verb) 10. Live (verb) / live (something happening now) B Developing skills Your learners will also be developing the skills of reading and listening (receptive skills) and speaking and writing (productive skills). You will help them by using activities which practise and develop the various sub-skills (see section 3 for definitions). It is clearly important that the activities you provide have a task which relates to the skills you wish to develop. If you are developing learners’ ability to read for specific information, for example, they must know beforehand what information they are looking for. Task 49 Below are descriptions of two activities used by teachers. In 1 the teacher was trying to develop students’ reading skills; in 2 the teacher was trying to develop the students’ speaking skills. Neither activity was very successful. Read the descriptions and: • explain why you think the activities were not very successful in developing the students’ reading/speaking skills • describe two activities (one for reading, one for speaking) that you think would develop those skills. _________________________________________________________________________________ 29 1. Reading The teacher explained that the text was about looking after the environment. The text was handed out and each student was asked in turn to read parts of the text aloud. They were all able to do this. Then the teacher asked some questions about the content of the text. Only one or two students were able to give an answer. One student said that he hadn’t understood anything in the text and most of the other students agreed. 2. Speaking The teacher wrote the topic “Living in the city” on the board and said this would be the topic of today’s discussion. The class were asked to give their opinions. One student said he didn’t like living in the city and another student said he did. These two students had a brief discussion while the other students listened. The teacher asked some of the other students their opinion, but none responded with more than the fact that they agreed/disagreed. The teacher decided to abandon the discussion. The students said they would be happy to write something about it for homework. C Professionalism As a teacher you have a range of responsibilities not always clearly related to teaching and learning. You are required to comply with your school/college’s requirements and these may range from the lesson plan format you use to a dress code! You will also be responsible for ensuring that you uphold the school/college’s equal opportunities policy, so that all learners have equal access to learning. Once you have completed the course, there are numerous opportunities for you to continue to train and develop as a teacher. The English Language Teaching profession has a number of professional organisations, which operate worldwide. There are also higher-level qualifications which you can do once you have gained more experience. These include the DELTA (Diploma in English Language Teaching to Adults), also offered by Cambridge ESOL. Task 50 Consider how the following form part of a teacher’s professionalism: • confidentiality • setting standards • punctuality • course planning/review • record keeping • assessment • curriculum development • pastoral care • team work • relationship with students • cultural awareness • self-development • school/college policies and rules (including equal opportunities and health and safety) • membership of/contribution to professional bodies • ESOL and teacher training research and development world-wide _________________________________________________________________________________ 30