THE BOISI CENTER PAPERS ON RELIGION IN THE UNITED STATES

THE BOISI CENTER PAPERS ON RELIGION IN THE UNITED STATES An Introduction to Christian Theology Thoughtful, constructive interreligious dialogue depends not only upon the openness of the dialogue partners to diverse perspectives, but also upon a reliable foundation of correct information about the various beliefs being discussed. For those who desire a basic understanding of the tenets of Christian faith, this paper offers a brief history of Christianity and summarizes the central Christian beliefs in God, Jesus Christ, the Trinity, the Bible and authority, sin and reconciliation, sacraments, spiritual practices, and ethical living. INTRODUCTION This paper provides a primer on the basics of remain in the background of how Christianity is Christian theology as it is understood in the perceived and practiced in the United States; American context. It explains the major beliefs or frequently, these details may not even be familiar doctrines that are generally accepted by all to American Christians themselves. Nevertheless, Christians while also highlighting the theological some knowledge of these particulars is essential diversity of the Christian churches. In other words, to although all Christians adhere to the doctrines Christianity. ground an accurate understanding of discussed here, various groups of Christians often interpret these doctrines differently. These This paper thus provides an important disagreements usually have historical roots; thus, complement to the other papers in the Boisi Christianity’s is Center series. In particular, since religious beliefs inseparable from its doctrinal development. For and religious practices always inform one another, this reason, the paper gives an overview of reading this paper together with the paper on Christianity’s before Religious Practice in the United States is moving into a discussion of the major Christian recommended. The paper begins with a brief beliefs. historical outline of the beginnings and major historical historical development development divisions of Christianity. It then summarizes the As would be the case with any religious tradition, Christian beliefs in God, Jesus Christ, the Trinity, the complexity of Christian theology and history the Bible and authority, sin and reconciliation, cannot be explained fully in a brief paper. Many sacraments, spiritual practices, and ethical living. nuances of Christian theology and history tend to A BRIEF HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY The history of Christianity unfolds organically resurrection saved them from their sins. As their through time. It is commonly understood to begin conviction grew, they named Jesus the “Christ”— with Jesus, who was born two thousand years ago. meaning Messiah or Anointed One—according to However, because Jesus was Jewish, some date the prophecies of the Jewish Bible, the Hebrew Christianity’s roots much further back, to the Scriptures (commonly known among Christians beginnings of Judaism. To illustrate the vast as the Old Testament). This is the origin of the sweep of historical development, this section name “Jesus Christ” and led to Jesus’ followers proceeds in four parts. First, it addresses the roots being called “Christians.” of Christianity in the first through the third centuries C.E. (“Common Era,” dating from the After Jesus’ death, “Christians” became identified time it describes as a particular sect within Judaism. These Jews Christianity’s development through the Middle believed that Jesus was the Messiah foretold in Ages; Protestant their Hebrew Scriptures, whose coming they had Reformations in the 1600s and their continuing long anticipated. However, as time went on, the influence today; fourth, focusing on the United majority of Jews did not believe that Jesus was the States, it summarizes several aspects of American Messiah, and their differences with “Christian” Protestantism. Jews increased. Further, many non-Jewish people of Jesus’ birth); second, third, it explores the did come to believe in Jesus. In this way, “Christianity” gradually became The Beginnings of Christianity (1-300 C.E.) a religious movement distinct from Judaism, as it is practiced Christianity began as a movement today. within Judaism during the first century C.E. At this time, the Jewish rabbi now known as Jesus of Nazareth Over several generations, Christians compiled undertook a public teaching ministry in which he their collective memories of Jesus’ teachings and preached about the imminent coming of the sayings in various documents. Best known among Kingdom of God. As reported in the Christian these today are the four narratives of Jesus’ life, Scriptures (commonly known among Christians death, and resurrection that now appear in the as the New Testament), Jesus assembled a core Christian Scriptures, the “Gospels” of Matthew, group of twelve Jewish disciples, along with many Mark, Luke, and John. During these early years, other followers. Together they ministered to the many poor and outcast in present-day Israel and Christian communities about their belief in Jesus Palestine. Around the year 33 C.E., Jesus was as the Messiah and the way Christians should live arrested and executed by the Roman governor. and worship. The letters of the apostle Paul and a However, Jesus’ followers claimed that he rose few other authors were eventually included in the from the dead; they came to believe that he was Christian Scriptures along with the four Gospels. the Son of God and that his death and Christians debated for centuries over which 2 letters were also circulated among documents to include in their scriptures; the first unification in the fourth century under the reign known list of the twenty-seven documents now of Emperor Theodosius and through the theology accepted as the Christian Scriptures did not of Bishop Augustine of Hippo (b. 356-d. 430). appear until the year 367 CE, and it may have Almost seventy years after Constantine legalized taken even longer before Christians universally Christianity, accepted this list. Christian faith as the official religion of the Theodosius established the Roman Empire. From then on, Christianity spread rapidly. Some converted to Christianity to Further Development (300-1500 C.E.) advance in Roman society or out of fear of Roman Since their religious practices were distinguished authorities, but many converted willingly. These from Judaism only gradually, Christians of the conversions catapulted Christianity forward as a first and second centuries worshipped in small leading religion of the Roman Empire, which pockets throughout the Middle and Near East, and then encompassed most of Europe and North their religious practices differed from town to Africa. town. Moreover, Christianity was often outlawed were Shortly after Theodosius’ decree, Augustine persecuted and executed for professing their faith. became bishop of Hippo in North Africa. An adult In the year 313 C.E., the Roman emperor convert to Christianity, Augustine came to be one Constantine and of the most influential theologians in the history legalized it, virtually ending the persecutions. of the Christian church. At this time, basic Noticing that Christians disagreed with one Christian another on many important points, such as the Augustine articulated much of his theology in relationship of Jesus to God, and that these response to competing interpretations of the faith debates were causing unrest and confusion in his and to non-Christian faiths of the fourth and fifth empire, Constantine called Christian leaders centuries. Through these conflicts, Augustine (bishops) from across the empire to a council at provided significant explorations of the Trinity and Nicaea in 325 C.E. This first major council of the human sinfulness, as well as the relationship Christian churches clarified key points of theology, between church and state. Augustine’s numerous including the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus (see writings greatly influenced Christian thought discussion from under Roman law; many converted below). to believers Christianity The primary written the beliefs fifth were century still to contested, the so Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth century and beyond. contribution of this council was the Nicene Creed. More debates followed in the succeeding years, in Despite his powerful influence, Augustine did not Constantinople in 381 C.E., expanded this creed end the disputes within Christianity. At the into a longer statement of faith that members of church councils, which continued to take place many Christian churches still recite. (For the full every 50-100 years, questions about text of the creed, see Appendix.) humanity and divinity—that is, his identity as the and the second great council, held Jesus’ Son of God—proved an ongoing source of Although lively debates over key theological points controversy. As Christians from different areas of continued, the world drew on the philosophical traditions of Christianity underwent further 3 their cultures to reflect upon these questions, the The key figure of the German protest was a most marked differences arose between Christian Christian monk, Martin Luther (1483-1543). In 1517 leaders of the Latin West and those of the Greek Luther wrote ninety-five theses criticizing various East. In the year 1054 C.E., these disagreements corruptions in the church, most notably its culminated in the “Great Schism” that divided practice of selling “indulgences.” In their original Christianity into two major strands, Western and form, indulgences were gifts offered to the church Eastern. Today, Eastern Christianity includes the by repentant sinners to show their gratitude to Orthodox churches, while Western Christianity God for the forgiveness of their sins. By the early includes the Catholic and Protestant churches. 1500s, the practice had become corrupted, and it Because the Orthodox Church in America appeared that the Christian church was selling accounts for only about one percent of Christians forgiveness rather than merely accepting gifts in the United States, this primer considers only from the faithful. Luther criticized this practice for Western Christianity from this point on. de-emphasizing repentance and making Christians think they could buy God’s forgiveness. Western Christianity flourished during the High Instead, Luther preached that salvation is a gift Middle Ages of eleventh- to thirteenth-century from God that comes through faith alone upon Europe. Christianity inspired exquisite art, music, repentance for sin. Luther also objected to the and architecture. As the first universities were hierarchical structure of the Christian church, established, Christian theology became highly arguing that any Christian could interpret the systematized, most notably in the works of Bible and serve as a minister as well as any other; Thomas Aquinas (b. 1225-d. 1274). The leader of this idea is now known as the “priesthood of all the Western Christian church, the pope, was a believers.” His efforts at reform, however, met major figure in European politics. During the with resistance, and in 1522 Christian authorities fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, however, the condemned papacy lost some of its moral authority due to continued his attempts at reform, and his widespread corruption in the church, and many followers eventually formed a new Christian Christians began to question the power of Rome. group distinct from the original Western or his theological claims. Luther “Catholic” church. These Christians became The Emergence of Protestant Christianity (1500 known as “Lutherans” and remained most C.E.-Present) numerous in Germany. Today, in the United States, Lutherans are one of the larger Protestant denominations, numbering about five million. These questions eventually led to another major split within the Christian church in the early sixteenth century. What is now known as Other reformations closely followed Luther’s. The Protestant Christianity first began to emerge in most successful included the Calvinist, English, present-day Germany, where Christians protested and radical reformations; these (hence the name “Protestant”) corruption in the eventually resulted in several new churches. (As a Christian church. result of these and subsequent divisions, the movements various Christian churches are distinguished by differences in theology and worship practices and 4 as “denominations.”) The Anabaptists refused to baptize infants, instead Calvinists took their name from the French deferring baptism until people were old enough to lawyer and theologian John Calvin (1509-1564), request it. In the United States today, Quakers who fled the Catholic city of Paris to avoid and Mennonites trace their origins to Anabaptists. persecution for his religious ideas. He eventually Most have adopted a modern lifestyle, but small settled in the thoroughly Protestant city of Geneva. numbers within these denominations live in While several of Calvin’s ideas paralleled Luther’s, isolated communities, witnessing to their faith by Calvin advocated a closer relationship between dressing simply and preserving traditional ways of church and state than Luther. (For more on the living. One well-known example is the Amish relationship between church and state in the U.S., community in Pennsylvania. In the United States see the paper on Separation of Church and State.) today, groups who trace their beginnings to the Calvin’s Radical Reformation are much smaller in are now known ideas influenced many Western comparison to other Christian denominations. Europeans, including an English group known as the Puritans. The Puritans immigrated across the Atlantic in the late seventeenth century; as a These result, the United States has a strong Reformed- Anglicans, Calvinist tradition. Several present-day American original manifestations of Protestant Christianity Protestant Presbyterians, as distinct from Catholic Christianity. In response Congregationalists, and the Reformed Church in to the Protestant reformations, the Catholic America, have Calvinist roots. church groups, including four groups—Lutherans, and adopted Calvinists, Anabaptists—represent some minor reforms the and reaffirmed certain teachings, most notably at the The English Reformation began in 1529 with Council of Trent (1545-1563); this response became King Henry VIII’s decision to annul his marriage known in defiance of the pope’s orders. To justify his Structurally, however, the Catholic church has annulment in religious terms, Henry established continued until the present time in much the the English or “Anglican” church, making same form as it had in the Middle Ages; Roman himself the titular head. This church eventually Catholic churches in the United States are part of adopted a blend of Catholic and Protestant ideas; the worldwide Roman Catholic Church. as the “Counter-Reformation.” the Thirty-Nine Articles, written in the latter years the Protestant denominations continued to multiply principles of Anglican theology. In the United in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. States Drawing on and further adapting Reformation of the sixteenth today, the century, summarize Episcopalian church has ideas, additional groups such as Wesleyans, which Anglican roots. includes Methodists and some Pentecostals, The Anabaptists, whose movement is called the Restorationists, namely the Churches of Christ “Radical Reformation,” separated themselves and Disciples of Christ, and Baptists organized in more definitively from the Roman faith than the England and the United States. Baptists are now Lutherans or Calvinists. Anabaptists rejected the largest Protestant denominational group in some traditional worship practices that Lutherans the United States, with about forty-seven million and people Calvinists continued. Most notably, 5 claiming membership in American, Southern, or independent Baptist churches. (For a beliefs, while the discussion of the status in the United States of denominations do not. more evangelical religions other than Christianity, see the paper on Religious Pluralism in the United States.) Fundamentalist Christianity Contemporary Protestant Christianity in the Another term sometimes used to describe certain United States Christians—and people of other faiths, including Muslims—is fundamentalist. This term refers to In the contemporary United States, Christians people who maintain a literalist interpretation of and often described as their “fundamentalist,” “liberal,” or Christianity, fundamentalist Protestants share “conservative,” or some combination of these the evangelical emphasis on Jesus Christ but terms. Each term is controversial and freighted shun participation in American politics and with subtext. This section begins to unpack these culture. Also, they often insist upon a literal descriptions. interpretation their beliefs “evangelical,” are religious faith. of the Within Bible, American whereas other Christians understand some parts of the Bible to be symbolic or metaphorical. Not all Christian Evangelical Christianity evangelicals are fundamentalists, Christian movement known as evangelicalism. The meaning insofar as they embrace the three foundational of the term “evangelical” is commonly used to beliefs described above. In the United States today, describe Christian fundamentalists constitute a small but churches that stress are all American Protestantism is often associated with a Protestant fundamentalists but evangelicals vocal minority of the Christian population. evangelization, or converting non-Christians to faith in Jesus. As a general rule, evangelicals Liberal and Conservative Christianity stress three core beliefs: Christianity requires conversion or “rebirth” through a personal spiritual encounter with Jesus Christ; Christians Various must witness their faith to or “evangelize” sometimes characterized as liberal or conservative. Christians and non-Christians alike; the Bible is Some denominations even contain both liberal directly inspired by God. Many other Christians, and conservative groups. Generally speaking, such as Lutherans, Presbyterians, and Catholics, liberal Christians accept historical and scientific also share these three beliefs; thus, evangelicals information that calls into question the literal can be members of almost any denomination. truth of some biblical stories, while conservatives However, some denominations, such as Baptists are typically less convinced that such knowledge is and Wesleyans, are more evangelical than others, relevant to faith. For example, liberals typically such as Catholics and Lutherans. One major acknowledge the theory of evolution as a credible distinction explanation of life’s origins, while conservatives is that the denominations tend to less evangelical Christian denominations are also formal adhere to a literal interpretation of the biblical doctrine as similar in importance to the three core account of creation. In contrast to conservatives, emphasize liberals also tend to display more openness toward 6 cultural attitudes about social problems and hold conservative tendencies. Clearly, the distinctions a more positive view of human nature. go far beyond the simple division between Catholic and Protestant. Nevertheless, basic American Christianity contains similarities in theology and practice remain; the many next section explains these. denominations that can be grouped according to evangelical, fundamentalist, liberal, and BASIC CONCEPTS IN CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY Given this brief history of Christianity, one can This imagine the difficulty of summarizing the basics understanding of the sacraments, as will be of explained in a later section. Christian theology. Yet Catholics and is evident particularly through their Protestants are all Christians, and they do share some basic and vital similarities in their religious What does it mean to understand God as both in beliefs and practices. They worship a monotheistic and beyond the world? On the one hand, God is God, manifested in Trinitarian form; they believe beyond that all humans are sinners, saved from their sin comprehension. Christians, not unlike Muslims, by the grace of God through Jesus; they profess stand in awe of the majesty and dominion of God that the Bible is God’s word; they regard worship over the earth. Christians proclaim that just as the and prayer as important; they share sacramental human eye cannot look directly into the sun, so practices; and they attempt to lead ethical lives. human beings cannot comprehend the full The following summaries of each of these points magnificence of God. On the other hand, the Bible offer an introductory but by no means exhaustive is filled with earthly analogies for God, such as a description of these core beliefs. parent, a shepherd, a woman searching for a lost direct human experience and coin, a king, and even a mother hen. So Christians also believe God loves humanity like a shepherd God tending a flock or a parent caring for children. The Christians believe in a God who is omnipresent. challenge for Christians is to maintain a balanced This God is understood as both immanent, or view of God as both in and outside of the world—to present within the world, and transcendent, remember that although they believe God cares having an existence far beyond the world and for them tenderly as a mother, God also remains a beyond human imagination and experience. mystery beyond their comprehension. Thus, Christians believe that individual persons and Christians commonly feel reverence, love, and groups can enjoy a personal relationship with God, trust towards God: they recognize God’s wondrous but that God always remains a mystery beyond majesty, yet they are also grateful for God’s human understanding. Catholics and Protestants merciful and intimate concern for them and the share this view of God, although Catholics often entire world. stress God’s immanence more than Protestants. 7 Christian perceptions of God come primarily from Christianity. These documents describe the early the scriptures. The Hebrew Scriptures represent communities’ faith in the message of Jesus’ God as Lord of all, the one true deity of the cosmos. ministry and how they spread this message. The Christian Scriptures continue to emphasize the monotheism of the Hebrew Scriptures, The Christian Scriptures report that there was no describing God as underived and unsurpassable. consensus about who Jesus was during his In the Gospels, for example, Jesus teaches only human lifetime, even among those who knew according Christians him. Although, even during his ministry, his emphasize God’s reign over all that is. In doing so, disciples are sometimes portrayed as believing he they believe they are faithful to the scriptures was the Messiah and the son of God, other people (both Hebrew and Christian) and to Jesus’ thought he was a prophet or simply a great teachings. Indeed, according to Christian tradition, teacher. In a gradual process that began during sin is defined as turning away from God. Jesus’ ministry and continued for many years after to God’s authority. his death and resurrection, his followers came to Alluding to Jesus, however, raises questions about believe that he was the son of God. The gradual the Christian claim to monotheism. Christians development of this belief is evident in the are distinguished from other monotheists by their Christian belief in Jesus as the divine son of God. Non- documents that describe the worship practices of Christians correctly ask: if Christians believe that early Christian communities. As noted, the Jesus is the son of God and worship him as God, earliest Christians were Jews who continued to how can they claim to be monotheists? The believe answer, for Christians, is found in the doctrine of Christians the Trinity. To understand the Trinity, it is best understand Jesus’ promise, recorded in the first to consider the Christian belief in Jesus as Gospels, that he would continue to be with them human earliest even when they could no longer see him, and that Christians’ understanding of Jesus was what he would send his spirit to them as well. Gradually, prompted the development of the doctrine of the through much prayer, worship, and discussion, Trinity. Christians came to believe that God was now with and divine, because the in Scriptures their and other monotheistic remembered and historical God. These struggled to them in three distinct ways: the “Father” or God of the Hebrew Scriptures, Jesus the Son, and the Jesus Christ Spirit. Christians’ beliefs about Jesus are based in and other historical artifacts and Centuries passed before Christians officially documents. Since few of these other documents decided that they could believe that Jesus was contain information about Jesus, most knowledge divine without sacrificing their belief in one God. comes from the Christian Scriptures. As noted, How could this be? At the great councils of Nicaea, the four Gospels tell the story of Jesus’ life and Chalcedon, and beyond, Christians determined ministry, Christian that Jesus was both fully human and fully divine. Scriptures includes letters written by the apostle They argued that only God could save humans, but Paul and others from the first generations of only a human should pay the debt owed to God for scripture while the rest of the 8 The Trinity sin. Thus, they came to believe that Jesus experienced the fullness of human existence— including birth, life, and death—yet was also While the above subsection explains how the early divine. Christians respect Jesus’ mother Mary as Christians’ experience and memories of Jesus led the “Mother of God” because she gave birth to them to believe that God was present with them in God’s own son. Christians believe that God three ways, the doctrine of the Trinity remains became human in Jesus to provide access to God’s one of the most difficult points of Christian grace, and Christians view Jesus as the ideal theology to explain. Again, according to this human being, the full revelation of God’s plan for doctrine, God is one being who is revealed to humanity. Because of their faith in Jesus, human beings in three ways: Father, Son (Jesus), Christians believe that God is with them, loves and Spirit. In light of this assertion, Christian them and saves them from sin and death, and will monotheism is easily challenged. If the God of the raise them to eternal life. In the end, Jesus’ Hebrew Scriptures is God, and Jesus is God, and simultaneous divinity and humanity is a mystery the Spirit is God, how can Christians claim to that Christians confess in faith, although they believe in one God and not three? cannot fully explain it. In light of their encounters with Jesus, the early Christians also believe that Jesus brings God’s Christians—who forgiveness of sin to humanity. Christians call this monotheistic roots—came to believe that the “salvation” or “atonement.” “Salvation” means trinitarian nature of God was compatible with that sin is taken away and people are reconciled monotheism. They remembered, as recorded in with God. While all Christians believe that Jesus the Christian Scriptures, that Jesus had a unique accomplished this, no consensus has been relationship with God, whom he called his father; reached among Christians about how exactly he that Jesus had promised to be with them even did so, as the scriptures describe it in various ways. after he was no longer visible to them; and that For example, the word “atonement” usually refers Jesus had said he would also send his Spirit to specifically to the belief that it was Jesus’ death on them. Christians believed the Spirit did come to the cross that accomplished the taking away of them at Pentecost, an event chronicled in the sins; the cross thus symbolizes both human guilt Christian Scriptures. As time went on, Christians and God’s mercy. However, some Christians object also began to notice that several passages in their to “atonement theology” on the grounds that it scriptures could be interpreted as describing portrays God as a cruel and irresponsible parent, distinctions within God. For example, the Gospels condemning a child to a horrible death. These instruct Christians to be baptized “in the name of Christians prefer to emphasize Jesus’ teaching the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.” and healing ministry as reconciling people with In this way, over several centuries, the doctrine of God tragedy the Trinity slowly took shape. As noted above, it perpetrated by sinful people, not intended by God. was first officially formulated in the creed of the Despite these differences, all Christians believe Council of Nicaea in 325 and developed further at that through Jesus, God saves them from sin and Constantinople in 381. and consider Jesus’ death a promises them eternal life. 9 maintained their Jewish The Bible and Church Authority Of course, the councils did not end debate over the Trinity. Given that the idea is difficult to comprehend, Christians have explained it with Catholics and Protestants alike view the Bible as varying degrees of success. At times it has the revealed word of God and the primary degenerated into a belief in God as three distinct authority for Christian life and worship. All divine beings or as one God revealed in different Christians respect the ability of individual persons ways at different times. Such conceptions of the to read and interpret the Bible for themselves, but Trinity have given rise to charges of polytheism. In they do so in various ways. On the one hand, general, Christian theologians have succeeded Protestant churches tend to follow a central better at saying what the Trinity is not than at principle of the sixteenth-century Reformations in explaining what it is. Briefly, however, the three assigning persons can be described as follows: Christians to interpret the Bible for themselves. God the the absolute other authority hand, individual “Father” is the creator of all that is; God the “Son” On is Jesus, who became human and came to earth; emphasizes that individual Christians who are God the “Spirit” is the wisdom of God whom Jesus reading the Bible should also consider the long sent to be with humans after he left the earth. tradition of church interpretation of scripture. Theologians and mystics have understood these When three persons of the Trinity to have various names. interpretation of the Bible, further exploration of The most commonly used are Father, Son, and each one’s notion of church is needed. This section Spirit; others include Creator, Redeemer, and gives a general account of the theology behind the Sanctifier, and Mother, Daughter, and Wisdom. different Christian churches. (For a description of considering the to Catholic Catholic and church Protestant the varieties of religious worship and expression In sum, the Christian view of the Trinity is that among Christians, see the paper on Religious the one eternal God is manifest in three ways. Practice.) Christians believe that God has one nature, and that nature is to be relational; thus, the three Generally speaking, Protestants view church as a divine “persons” are believed not only to exist in group of Christian believers who come together to Christians’ experiences of God but also to worship God and support each other in their correspond to real distinctions within God. How efforts to live a Christian life. Scripture serves as exactly this works remains a mystery. A common the final spiritual authority of the church; it is way to understand the Trinity is by analogy. For interpreted individually by each member as well example, consider the several roles a single as collectively by the group. According to Luther’s woman may occupy. She may be a daughter, a wife, principle of the priesthood of all believers, any and a mother. In each of these roles, she functions individual may be called forth by the community differently in relationship to the people around to serve as its spiritual leader or pastor. The pastor her. She remains one woman, yet at the same is not assumed to have a special understanding of time, real differences in her own personhood the Bible compared to the other church members. correspond to her various roles. Similarly, for Since they understand church as a particular Christians, the one eternal God is three persons community of believers, Protestants—especially sharing one divine nature. evangelical 10 Protestants—tend to read and interpret the Bible as relevant to their current of the individual parishes, decide who will serve as situation with less attention to how it has been priest for each parish. The bishop of Rome is interpreted in the past. known as the pope, and he serves as the symbolic head of the worldwide Catholic church. As the Some Protestant churches, such as Lutherans, “first among equals,” the pope is considered to be Methodists, and especially Episcopalians, proceed the successor of Peter. Catholics do not worship formally in training and assigning their leaders. the pope—only God is worshiped—but they do In the Episcopalian church, which as noted is hold the office of the papacy in very high esteem theologically a blend of Catholic and Protestant because it symbolizes the unity of the worldwide principles, leaders succeed one another in a Catholic church. formal fashion similar to that of the Catholic church. This “apostolic succession” is connected As noted, like Protestants, Catholics believe that theologically back to Peter, one of Jesus’ closest any Christian can read and interpret the Bible. followers who is now considered the first bishop of However, Rome (i.e., the pope). In these Protestant churches, understanding of the church as a community that as in the more evangelical churches, the includes all believers, even those who have died, emphasis in scriptural interpretation is usually on contemporary interpretations of scripture take its present meaning, not on a tradition of past into account past interpretations. The Catholic interpretation. However, they do have a long tradition of successive church leadership dates history of scholarly biblical interpretation. A back to before most people were literate, when difference is that when major disagreements over only priests and bishops could actually read and scriptural these had to interpret the Bible for the people. Often denominations will call general meetings to these interpretations were written down and have discuss them, whereas less highly organized been preserved as the collective wisdom of the evangelical churches are more likely simply to church. Because official church leaders and those split and form new churches along these lines. trained in church history and theology have a interpretation arise, in accordance with the Catholic broad knowledge of this historical tradition of In contrast to most Protestants, Catholics define scriptural interpretation, their opinions also carry church as a much larger community. For Catholics, weight with individual Catholics as they read the church includes not only the believers in a scriptures. Thus, the Catholic church has a long particular faith community, but also all Catholics tradition of scriptural interpretation. around the world and even all believers who have died and whose souls are believed to be with God. In the end, however, the Catholic church The Catholic church has a very formal training or emphasizes the final authority of the individual “ordination” process for its leaders; its leadership conscience. It teaches that individual Catholics consists of a hierarchical structure of priests, who who sincerely pray and study the scriptures should lead individual parishes, and bishops, who lead all follow their consciences regarding the parishes in a given region (for example, all the matters, even if they disagree with church leaders Catholic parishes in eastern Massachusetts are and even if—as sometimes happens in extreme headed by one bishop). Bishops, not the members circumstances—this 11 leads to spiritual their excommunication from the church. This option of Protestants profess “the priesthood of all legitimate disagreement with church leaders is believers” and stress contemporary interpretation called “dissent.” Depending on the issue and on of the Bible, while Catholics and some Protestants who is dissenting, church leaders treat dissent as also respect the long tradition of scriptural more or less of a problem. For example, many interpretation, including the teaching ability of Catholics disagree with the church’s official church leaders and theologians. The authority position on the issue of birth control, and this has and legitimacy of a Protestant church or leader not been considered serious enough to merit often correlates only to adherence to the Bible, punishment. However, a few American bishops while for Catholics, tradition is an important part have attempted to discipline prominent Catholic of both biblical interpretation and the appointing politicians who deviate from the church’s strict of church leaders. anti-abortion stance. The tradition of dissent shows that although Catholics place more weight While all Christians understand the Bible as the than Protestants on church tradition as an authority for Christian life, they differ over the important part of scriptural interpretation, all question of the Bible’s “inerrancy.” Representing Christians ultimately rely on the Bible and their the far ends of the spectrum are Catholics and consciences as the final spiritual authority in fundamentalist Protestants. Catholics believe the living the Christian life. Bible was inspired by God but composed by various people over many centuries, so they view Traditional Catholic teachings derive from and inconsistencies and contradictions as a result of are interdependent with scripture. Catholics human regard the sacred writings of the Bible as the Catholics, the challenge is to determine which inspired word of God, written by humans who passages are directly relevant and which must be were guided by the Holy Spirit. For Catholics, the reinterpreted. Fundamentalist Protestants believe Bible is not free from human error, yet it that God’s inspiration of the scriptures means that nevertheless constitutes the record of God’s everything recorded in them is literally true and revelation and design for the world. Catholic free from error, or “inerrant”; they consider the tradition helps distinguish the divine elements Bible to be directly applicable to contemporary life. from the human elements in the Bible. For Evangelical, conservative, and liberal Protestants instance, Catholics (and most Protestants) now fall between these two extremes. Evangelical and interpret the biblical justification of slavery as a conservative Protestants typically understand the function of a past historical era, and they are Bible as inspired by God, with any apparent errors certain that slavery is contrary to God’s will. In this representing way, tradition provides guidance for Catholics. struggle to understand; liberal Protestants tend to fallibility or mysteries cultural that change. humans For must see inconsistencies as due to human error and cultural change. In sum, both Protestants and Catholics believe that the church is composed of humans gathered together to confess their faith in Jesus and worship God. All Christians agree that the Bible is the primary authority for Christian life. Most 12 as the “Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Sin and Reconciliation Justification,” which was published by the In accordance with their reading of the Bible, Lutheran and Catholic churches, show that this Christians believe that human beings were particular difference is being resolved. originally created in the image of God, meaning Sacraments that they were completely good. However, people used their free will to turn away from God, following their own desires rather than God’s will. In Christian worship, sacraments are ritual This gave rise to a universal human tendency practices that are believed to bring people into toward evil that Christians call “original sin”; tangible individual sinful acts are believed to be rooted in understood as visible signs of God’s grace. When a this condition. Despite their sinfulness, Christians sacrament is performed, prayers are said and believe humans are still the image of God; elements such as water, wine, bread, and oil may Catholics hold a more optimistic view than be Protestants about the extent to which the image sacraments, while Catholics, in accordance with remains present. Although humans retain a their greater emphasis on God’s immanence, tremendous capacity for good, the tendency celebrate seven. Almost all Christians observe the towards sin often outweighs the impulse towards sacraments of baptism good. This leads to a universal human need for Catholics, salvation from sin and reconciliation with God. confirmation, union with God. Sacraments used. Protestants usually celebrate the other and five matrimony, are two Eucharist. For are holy confession, orders, and anointing of the sick. Thus, sacraments often Christians understand reconciliation with God as mark important epochs in a Christian’s life. This something accomplished by Jesus and accepted by section describes the sacraments of baptism and the Christian in faith. As noted in the section on Eucharist. Jesus, his life, death, and resurrection reveal God’s love and mercy. And as the Reformations stressed, Baptism celebrates a person’s entrance into the forgiveness of sins (also called justification) also Christian family. In some denominations, such as comes from God as a gift; it has nothing to do with Catholicism human achievements. Catholics and Protestants baptized share this view of justification as a free gift offered performed when the person requests it. According through Jesus and accepted in faith. While all to the Christian Scriptures, the tradition of Christians also agree that faith should lead to baptism began with Jesus, who, following a Jewish living a Christian life, or performing “good custom, was baptized with water at the start of his works,” they sometimes disagree about the ministry. Since then, Christians have been relationship of faith and works. In particular, baptized to symbolize their new identity as God’s Catholics have children as they commence lives as Christians. At emphasized the need to grow in faith by doing a baptism, the person being baptized—or, if an good works, while other Christians such as infant, the person’s parents—affirms his or her Lutherans have stressed the distinction between belief in the Trinitarian God. Water is then faith and works. However, recent documents such sprinkled on the person’s head, or the person may and evangelical Protestants 13 and Lutheranism, people are as infants; in others, baptism is be fully immersed in water, to symbolize the body and blood or actually become Jesus’ body and washing away of sin. The baptized person enters blood. the Christian life as a new creature, freed from Reformers had diverse understandings of the original sin. This freedom is not experienced fully Eucharist. Luther taught the Real Presence of in earthly life; Christians do not claim that they no Christ in the Eucharist but declined to speculate longer sin after baptism. Rather, they are about exactly what this meant. Anglicans held that confident that God forgives their sins, and with Christ was present in the bread and wine “in a faith in their reconciliation with God through heavenly sense,” while Calvin maintained that Jesus, they try to perform only good works. When the sacrament served simply to remind believers they fail, they remember God’s forgiveness as of Jesus’ death. Meanwhile, Catholics retained the symbolized at their baptism and try to do better. medieval doctrine of transubstantiation, the idea In particular, the sixteenth-century that the bread and wine are transformed into The Eucharist, usually known among Protestants Jesus’ body and blood. Today, while as the Lord’s Supper or communion, is the second Protestants and Catholics observe the Eucharist, sacrament Christians celebrate regularly. In most Protestant churches teach that the bread and Catholic churches the Eucharist is celebrated wine somehow symbolize Jesus’ presence; the daily, while may only Catholic church, here interpreting the Bible more celebrate it every week or once a month. The literally, still teaches that the bread and wine Eucharist is usually celebrated within the context mysteriously become the body and blood of Christ. Protestant churches both of a worship service; it reenacts the final meal Jesus ate with his followers before his death. The In addition to baptism and Eucharist, the other Christian Scriptures report that at this meal, five sacraments celebrated in the Catholic church which was a Jewish Passover feast, Jesus broke are reconciliation (confession and forgiveness of bread and raised a cup of wine. He declared that sins), confirmation (the adult decision to remain the bread and wine were his body and blood, given part of the church), marriage, holy orders or to his followers for the forgiveness of sin, and he “ordination,” and anointing of the sick. These instructed the disciples to eat and drink in this sacraments mark major milestones in the life of manner in memory of him. Accordingly, in faith. Christian worship, the minister (pastor or priest) milestones and even use similar terms to describe takes bread and wine, repeats the words Jesus them, but they do not consider these events to be spoke, and invites all believers to consume the “sacraments.” This practice dates back to Luther, bread and wine in remembrance of Jesus. who Many Protestants emphasized the also mark individual’s these direct relationship with God over the role of church leaders. Christians have long debated about whether the Eucharistic bread and wine only symbolize Jesus’ 14 CHRISTIAN SPIRITUAL PRACTICES: WORSHIP AND PRAYER Communal worship—informal or formal services sermon. Christian worship services usually last during which Christians gather to offer praise and between sixty and ninety minutes but may be thanksgiving to God—is central to all Christian longer or shorter. (For more on Christian worship denominations. Communal worship may occur practices, see the paper on Religious Practice in throughout the United States.) the week, but Catholics and Protestants usually attend services on Sunday mornings. The style of these services differs Because Christians believe in a personal God who greatly among the denominations. listens to individuals, and because Jesus instructs his followers to pray in the Christian Scriptures, The Catholic Mass is a liturgical celebration that Christians pray to sustain their relationship with includes songs of praise, formal prayers, readings God. Prayer takes many forms, including the from the Hebrew and Christian Scriptures, a talk ritualized prayers of worship services, personal by the priest interpreting the scriptures called the prayer, group prayer, and even Bible study. Prayers “sermon” or “homily,” the recitation of the may be silent or spoken aloud; contemplative, Nicene-Constantinopolitan the nonverbal forms of prayer are also practiced. sacrament of Eucharist. The Mass is often Intercessory prayer, asking others to pray on one’s described as “high church” because of the strict behalf, is also common. For Catholics, as noted, organization of the liturgy, the formal prayers, the church includes all believers, even those who and the ceremonial robes worn by the priest. have died; therefore, Catholics sometimes ask Creed, and saints, including Mary, the mother of God, to Protestant worship ranges from “high church” to “intercede” with God on their behalf. Among all “low church” forms. Lutheran and Episcopal Christians, the Lord’s Prayer or “Our Father,” services are quite similar to the Catholic Mass, which Jesus teaches his disciples to pray in the while evangelical worship often consists more Gospels, is the most-recited prayer. (For the text of simply of singing, a scripture reading, and a the Lord’s Prayer, see the Appendix.) ETHICAL CHRISTIAN LIVING How do these fundamentals of Christian theology Jesus teaches in the Gospels that Christians are to transfer into action in the lives of Christians? The love God and to love their neighbors as themselves, answer is complex, for the multiple expressions of whether the neighbor be friend or enemy. Christian faith give rise to various understandings Christians do not always succeed in following this of the ethical Christian life. In general, however, command; however, it is manifested in the 15 Christian ideals of vocation, justice, insufficient income or satisfaction; when injustice and prevents a person from undertaking her or his missionary activity. proper vocation, that injustice should be resisted. Again, however, from the Christian perspective, Vocation the complexities and burdens any work that of work Like everyone else, Christians must work to earn a notwithstanding, serves the living, and most do not have jobs in churches. Yet neighbor and the common good can also serve vocation refers to the idea that people serve God God. through their everyday work. How does the Justice ordinary labor of Christians relate to their spiritual lives? Put simply, Christians believe that any work that serves the neighbor and the The command to love one’s neighbor also community—the “common good”—also serves captures the primary ethical position of Christians. God. Virtually any labor can become an extension As noted, this ideal, which Christians strive for but of Christian faith. The work of doctors, lawyers, often fail to reach, comes from a scriptural and politicians has no greater spiritual value than command of Jesus. The Gospels record Jesus’ own that of carpenters, trash collectors, and cab drivers; love for his neighbors and his concern for justice: what matters is their faithful exercise for the Jesus cares for the poor, the sick, and the outcasts benefit of others. This idea extends to Christians’ of society, and he speaks out against the political, personal lives as well; Christians have an social, and economic circumstances that worsen obligation to serve relatives and friends charitably their plight. Christians today are called to imitate and responsibly. Of course, Christians do not Jesus, working to transform the world through always remember to conceive of their work in this love and advocacy for justice, as they themselves fashion and sometimes adopt the idea that certain have been transformed by the love and forgiveness kinds of work are inherently more valuable. But of God. the Christian idea of vocation is that any good Christians recognize that their efforts to emulate work, done well, serves God. Jesus will always fall short, but this does not Christians also use the word “vocation” to refer to excuse them from striving to obey this ethical the work for which a person seems particularly imperative well suited, due to their abilities. Vocations are circumstances in which they find themselves. For not always easily determined nor are they always example, Christians should respect the dignity of easy. Many people spend much of their lives trying every human being by trying never to exploit to identify their talents and how best to use them. persons, groups, or nations as means to an end. Moreover, like anyone else, Christians do not And when conflict arises—whether it is an always enjoy their work; sometimes, for reasons argument between two people or the possibility of beyond of international war—Christians should always education, skill level, or physical ailments—they exhaust all nonviolent options of reconciliation. are engaged in unsatisfying jobs. The Christian Because Christians, like all people, are not perfect, understanding of vocation does not excuse they do not always live up to this “love principle” their immediate control—lack 16 as well as they can in the and they are not always just in their actions and God and eternal life, they are eager to share their attitudes. Nevertheless, they are obligated to try. faith with everyone. At its best, Christian evangelism is an act of love—the ultimate Missionary Activity obedience to the command to love one’s neighbor. The Christian life is also distinguished by Christian evangelism often causes controversy. missionary activity, also known as evangelism. In Non-believers and adherents of other faiths—and the Gospels, Jesus commands his followers to even spread the good news about God to the whole perceive world. Christians believe this task is ongoing. The arrogant, often with good reason. Christian task of spreading the Gospel intertwines with the missionary activity has even become associated Christian understanding of vocation and justice. with Western imperialism, also with good reason. Exercising one’s vocation and working toward As a result, there is no consensus about the most justice model the Christian faith for non- appropriate and respectful way to introduce non- Christians, and as such they constitute a form of Christians to Christianity. Yet the Christian indirect evangelism. However, “evangelism” is desire to spread the faith is not unique. Most of usually associated with direct efforts to tell non- the major religious traditions of the world have Christians about Jesus in the hope of converting attempted to increase their ranks through various them to the Christian faith. Because Christians forms of missionary activity. some Christians evangelism as themselves—tend self-righteous to and believe that Jesus is the way to reconciliation with CONCLUSION The goal of this paper has been to familiarize the important challenge for all people of faith is to reader of learn about religions different from their own. Christianity and the basic theological tenets of Meeting that challenge may be the surest path to this peaceful coexistence among people of different with religion. the historical Further development exploration of these faiths. concepts is encouraged. In today’s world, an 17 APPENDIX The Lord’s Prayer (“Our Father”): Our Father, who art in heaven, hallowed be thy Give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our name. debts as we forgive our debtors. Thy kingdom come, thy will be done on earth as it Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from is in heaven. evil. Amen. The Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381 C.E.): We believe in one God, he suffered death and was buried. the Father, the Almighty, On the third day he rose again maker of heaven and earth, in accordance with the Scriptures; of all that is, seen and unseen. he ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father. We believe in one Lord, Jesus Christ, He will come again in glory to judge the living and the only Son of God, the dead, eternally begotten of the Father, and his kingdom will have no end. God from God, light from light, true God from true God, We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of begotten, not made, life, who proceeds from the Father [and the Son], of one Being with the Father; who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and through him all things were made. glorified, For us and for our salvation who has spoken through the prophets. he came down from heaven, We believe in one holy, catholic, and apostolic was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin church. Mary We acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of and became truly human. sins. For our sake he was crucified under Pontius We look for the resurrection of the dead, Pilate; and the life of the world to come. Amen. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING In order to provide an accessible introduction to religion in the United States, this paper has been produced without footnotes and with few direct quotations from secondary literature. It nevertheless reflects the influence of a wide range of scholarly arguments. This annotated bibliography presents a complete list of the texts to which this paper refers, as well as a number of other resources with further 18 information about the topics discussed. Comments following each citation indicate the nature of the text and, where applicable, the extent of the paper’s reliance upon it. Books and Articles Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica, 5 volumes. Christian Classics, 1981. Augustine. Confessions. Henry Chadwick, trans. Oxford University Press, 1998. Augustine. The City of God. Modern Library, 1994. The Bible. Recommended translations are the New American Bible, New American Standard Bible, or New Revised Standard Version. Some versions offer helpful material in addition to the text; for example, the Catholic Study Bible (Oxford, 2006) contains extensive reading guides that give background and context for each book. Calvin, John. Institutes of Christian Religion. John T. McNeill, ed.; Ford Lewis Battles, trans. Westminster John Knox, 1960. Detailed overview of Christianity from its origins to the present. Chadwick, Henry. The Early Church. Penguin, 1993. Gonzalez, Justo. The Story of Christianity. Prince Press, 1999; originally published in two volumes by HarperSanFrancisco, 1984/85. Overview of the first five centuries of Christian history. Lynch, Joseph. The Medieval Church: A Brief History. Longman, 1995. Overview of Christianity during the medieval period. Corrigan, John, and Winthrop Hudson. Religion in America. Prentice Hall, 2003. Overview of Christianity in the United States from 1607 to the late twentieth century. Flannery, Austin, ed. Vatican Council II: Constitutions, Decrees, Declarations. Costello, 1996. [Vatican II documents also online at http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/index.htm] Gonzalez, Justo, and Zaida Maldonado Perez. An Introduction to Christian Theology. Abingdon, 2002. Introduces theology topically (by major doctrines) from a Protestant perspective. Lewis, C. S. Mere Christianity. HarperSanFrancisco, 2001. A classic presentation of the “essentials” of Christian faith for non-Christians. Classified as “apologetics,” meaning that it argues for the reasonableness of Christianity. Luther, Martin. Martin Luther: Selections from His Writings. John Dillenberger, ed. Anchor, 1958. McGrath, Alister. Christian Theology: An Introduction. Blackwell, 2001. Introduces theology topically (by major doctrines) from a Protestant perspective. Noll, Mark. Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. Baker Academic, 2000. Brief overview of Christianity from its origins to the present. Placher, William. A History of Christian Theology: An Introduction. Westminster John Knox, 1983. Introduces the development of Christian theology chronologically (as it developed through history) from a Protestant perspective. Placher, William, ed. Readings in Christian Theology, Vol. I: From Its Beginnings to the Eve of the Reformation and Vol. 2: From the Reformation to the Present. Westminster John Knox, 1988. Rausch, Thomas. The College Student’s Introduction to Theology. Michael Glazier, 1993. Introduces theology topically (by major doctrines) from a Roman Catholic perspective. Simons, Menno. Complete Writings. Herald Press, 1956. 19 This project was made possible by a grant from Carnegie Corporation of New York. The statements made and views expressed are solely the responsibility of the author.