Positivism

Positivism? By Tor G. Jakobsen Theory of science and methodology are the pillars on which a social scientist stand when conducting research. Succinctly stated, ontology can be said to be the study of reality, or simply the science or philosophy of being, while epistemology is the study of the nature of knowledge. The former is concerned with the nature of being, while the latter deals with the nature and scope of knowledge. Your ontological position is decisive for the logic behind the methods scientists employ. There are two main scientific traditions, and you as a student of the social sciences choose one of these based on your ontological position.  These are positivism and constructivism, and are decisive for the logic for which you base your choice of methods on (this logic is called methodology).   Positivism Positivism in general refers to philosophical positions that emphasize empirical data and scientific methods. This tradition holds that the world consists of regularities, that these regularities are detectable, and, thus, that the researcher can infer knowledge about the real world by observing it. The researcher should be more concerned with general rules than with explaining the particular. This tradition can be traced back to Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). In his work Siderius Nuncius (The Starry Messenger) (1610) he made systematic observations of the Moon, the stars, and the moons of Jupiter. His methods stood in contrast to the prevailing approach of that time, that advocated by Aristotle and the Church. Francis Bacon (1561–1626) In the same century Francis Bacon introduced a combination of induction and experiment into science as he wished to combine experience with record keeping, and thus rejected the deductive method of the time. Francis Bacon, and later John Locke and David Hume, provided the basic framework for the modern naturalist tradition. Based on their works theorists have found fuel to their claim that there exists a real world independent of our senses. Modern scientists following the naturalist tradition argue that the regularities of this real world can be experienced through systematic sense perceptions. Auguste Comte (1798–1857) is regarded as one of the founders of modern sociology. He coined the term sociologie, derived from the Latin words socius (companion) and -ology (science). Comte’s epistemological argument was consistent with that of his naturalist predecessors, that is, scientific knowledge about the real world comes from empirical observation. He also drew a distinction between empirical and normative knowledge. Information or knowledge that was not empirical was not considered by Comte to be knowledge about the real world, and thus fell outside the scope of science.   Methodology – The Hierarchy of Methods The positivist tradition permits the scientist to choose from a certain “tool box” of methods when investigating the real world. This is denoted as the methodology of the discipline, and consists of its methods, rules, and postulates. Methodology can be understood as the logic behind the methods we chose, that is, the choice of analytical strategy and research design which underpins substantive research. A positivist approach provides us with a hierarchy of methods. Experiments are considered ideal because of their ability to determine causality. However, this method is often difficult to employ in the social sciences due to practical and ethical issues. Statistics is a second best approach, well-suited for making generalizations. Comparative methods, as well as case studies are primarily used for theory testing/building.   Further Reading Hay, Colin (2002). Political Analysis: A Critical Introduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave. Moses, Jonathon W. & Torbjørn L. Knutsen (2012). Ways of Knowing: Competing Methodologies in Social and Political Research. 2nd ed. New York: Palgrave. Tags: method, research Related Posts Determining Causality → The J-curve – James C. Davies’ Theory of Revolutions → The New Health Module in the European Social Survey → The Logic behind Statistical Inference – Sample Theory, Population Size, and Stochastic Model Theory → Pingback: The Positivist Approach – jasonbtw Introduction Positivism is a logical system based on direct, systematic observation. This approach was influenced by the scientific discoveries made during the 18th and 19th centuries. This research tradition lead to the development of methods that concentrate on producing supposedly objective data, usually in the form of statistics. This is based on the belief that behaviour in the social world follows certain laws that are discoverable using empirical quantitative methods as used by the natural sciences. So positivism is the method of science. This method particularly impressed 19th and early 20th century sociologists such as Compt and Durkheim. They witnessed the growing ability of the natural sciences to understand and predict the workings of the natural world and believed that if there were basic laws or relationships between phenomena in the natural world similar laws and relationsh ips must be discoverable in the social world. The approach The essence of the positivist approach to social life is expressed in Durkheim's idea: 'The first and most fundamental rule is to consider social facts as things.' What this means is that people's behaviour is governed by external stimuli (their ideas and feelings are irrelevant) and therefore such behaviour can be objectively observed and measured. Sociology can develop theories based on direct observation of human behaviour. Durkheim also provides what was one considered to be the classic example of this approach in his study of suicide. The act of suicide was, claimed a product of social forces external to the Durkheim individual. So sociologists following this positivist approach use scientific methods to gather empirical data. Objectivity To do this they try to achieve objectivity. Objectivity is sought in order to produce unbiased results. Such objectivity has to be an ideal, as clearly it cannot be obtained. The British sociologist, Ray Pawson, in trying to explain the usefulness but unattainability of objectivity likens it to personal hygiene. Perfect personal hygiene is unattainable but that does not mean we should not wash. We attempt to be as clean as we can! It should be made clear that the location of objectivity is in the carrying out of research. Clearly in selecting what to research any researcher is following a personal interest, or the interest of the person or organisation paying for the research. Max Weber (1958; orig. 1918) made the distinction between selecting a research topic that is value-relevant, and conducting research that should be value-free. One way of reducing the distortion produced by personal values is replication, repetition of the research by other investigators. To this extent objectivity is sought at the level of the academic community rather than in an individual piece of research. Despite this, there are serious doubts as to whether the scientific approach is a useful, or even sensible way of studying humans. The claims Knowledge exists independently of whether people knew it or not.The scientific task was to discover (find) this knowledge. The scientific task was to discover (find) this knowledge. It is assumed that there are laws that govern the operation of the social world and that these can be discovered. Social behaviour is seen as a result of external pressure acting on relatively passive people. That it possible, and desirable to study humans in approximately the same way that natural science investigates the physical world. It is assumed that there was such a thing as absolute truth and that it can be used (once obtained) to create a better society.