Archaeology of Buddhism: Recent Discoveries in South Asia

contents List of Figures ix List of Tables xxi Foreword g.l.W. samarasinghe Introduction sanjay garg xxiii xxv Abbreviations xxxix pArt 1: country reports on recent discoveries 1. mes Aynak: recent discovery of a Buddhist Archaeological site in Afghanistan Khair Muhammad Khairzada 3 2. recently discovered Archaeological Buddhist sites in Bangladesh Md. Ataur Rahman 27 3. Archaeology in Bhutan Karma Tenzin 53 4. Archaeologies of Buddhism and its landscape setting in central india: he sanchi survey project Julia Shaw 61 5. Buddhist heritage of gujarat in the context of recent findings at vadnagar Atul Tripathi 89 6. Archaeological evidence and evolution of Buddhism in rajasthan Neekee Chaturvedi 113 7. shifts in the status of Buddhism in haryana: some relections Neelima Dahiya 129 8. recent Archaeological discoveries and Ancient Buddhist settlements of varanasi Vidula Jayaswal 153 9. recently explored Buddhist monuments at k_rmilā Adhi_s_thāna: its implications Anil Kumar 169 10. monastic centre of sirpur: Analysing the stylistics of harshagupta vihara Subash Khamari and Vishi Upadhyay 183 11. newly discovered Buddhist heritage of the Baramulla district (kashmir) Sonia Jasrotia 197 Contents vi 12. Archaeological research on Buddhism in the maldives Shiura Jaufar 207 13. Archaelogical excavations of a monastery at kaashidhoo (maldives) Hawwa Shaheen, Aishath Sanya, Abdul Maniu Abdul Samad and Aishath Ageedha Hassan 211 14. Archaeological test-excavations on the maldive islands (1983-1984) Ismail Nasru and Ahmed Zameer 219 15. Archaeology of Buddhism: recent discoveries within the koliya republican region of nepal Prakash Darnal 223 16. An overview of Archaeological research in the gandhara region: pre- and post-independence period Fazal Dad Kakar 239 17. discovery of Buddhist Archaeology of gandhara and its development Tauqeer Ahmad Warraich 245 18. Buddhist traditions in rock Art of sindh Zuliqar Ali Kalhoro 253 19. recent excavations of some signiicant Stupas in sri lanka Senerath Dissanayake and Nimal Perera 271 pArt 2: revisiting STUPA 20. he Stupa as narrative-in-Place: he dialectics of Stupa and rock Art in the landscapes of central india L. Lamminthang Simte 285 21. Antiquity of the Stupas Prathapachandran S. 299 pArt 3: Buddhist ArchAeology And the society 22. he Archaeology of Buddhist monastic hospitals Leelananda Prematilleke 305 23. surgical instruments at the Alahana parivena hospital in polonnaruwa Arjuna Aluwihare 317 pArt 4: ArchAeology of Buddhist monAsteries 24. he relationship between Buddhist monasteries and trade guilds in india and sri lanka K.W.C. harangani 329 Contents vii 25. stone-paved terrace of the Anuradhapura jetavana stupa: A study about the people who contributed in laying slabs Piyatissa Senanayake 333 26. simple cave dwellings and mansions of royal standards for the Buddhist Sangha in Ancient sri lanka: An epigraphical overview Malini Dias 341 pArt 5: mApping Buddhist ArchAeologicAl sites 27. cultural cartography: prospects and perils Pratapanand Jha 347 28. mapping the contours of a Buddhist World: An online database of geo-referenced Buddhist monasteries, 200-1200 ce T. Matthew Ciolek and Stewart Gordon 355 29. recently discovered Archeological sites showing evidence of Buddhism in mullaitivu district in northern sri lanka: A study using geo-informatics tools Uditha Jinadasa, Wasana Premachandra, Kalpa Asanga, I.P.S. Nishantha, P.M.R. Priyadarshani and Tarindi Ranchagoda 369 pArt 6: Buddhist ArchAeology, Art And Architecture 30. Art history and Archaeology of Buddhism in early historic north-west india (first century bce-hird century ce): recent trends and methodologies Chandreyi Basu 387 31. he Buddhist Art and Architecture at Zar dheri mansehra, hazara Zain ul Wahab 399 32. Buddhist complex of nimogram swat, pakistan: its history, classiication, Analysis and chronology Badshah Sardar 411 33. hitherto unknown Buddhist metal images and Stupa from mainamati, Bangladesh Mokammal H. Bhuiyan 449 34. he two statues of tara Deshika van Haght 463 pArt 7: culturAl geogrAphy of the Buddhist ArchAeologicAl sites 35. sacred sites, identity and embedded meanings Diwakar Kumar Singh 473 viii Contents 36. sculptural style as a parameter for deriving a chronological index for Buddhist caves in Western maharashtra (c. first century bc-c. hird century ad) Ajit Kumar 481 37. values, valorization, and the ‘package’: he conservation of early Buddhist heritage-sites of central india Prerana Srimaal and L.L. Simte 501 38. pedigree and deviations: tracing the Antiquity of relic Worship among the early Buddhists with special reference to relic deposits and its interrelatedness with coetaneous Buddhist religious Architecture in south Asia D.P. Tewari and Tishyarakshita Singh 515 39. Archaeological evidence of the cultural relations between Ancient sri lanka and china Priyantha Jayasingha 533 40. historical Archaeology at the somawathiya sacred Area in north central province, sri lanka R.M.M. Chandraratne and Dilan Chathuranga Ranaweera 547 List of Contributors 557 Index figures 1.1. An overview of the Aynak mountain – (a) view shows the eastern part of the Aynak mountain, and (b) view from north showing the south east and western part of Aynak mountain 1.2. top of the mes Aynak mountain during the excavation – view from the north, 2012 1.3. overview of the tepe shah site after further excavations 2012 1.4. remains of iron ore on the slope and eastern part of Aynak mountain, which could have been the workshop area, 2012 1.5. silver plate with the head of shapur ii found at the Aynak mountain, 2012 1.6. A slag trench showing a slag high, 2011 1.7. slag trench, 2011 1.8. Aerial view of the Baba Wali settlement, c. 2011 1.9. jewellery hoard, 2011 1.10. (a) sitting statue of bodhisattva made of schist stone, from Baba Wali village, 2011; (b) standing Buddha without head made of schist stone, from the western part and bottom of tepe shah, 2012 1.11. (a) painted and gilded statuette depicting a scene from the Dipankara Jataka, made of schist stone (third-ifth century ce), from mes Aynak; (b) rear view, 2012 1.12. Aerial view of site no. 13 (Baghcha ghondi) showing the stupa court, 2012 1.13. (a) half part of the stupa; (b) signs of destruction by looters; (c) floor design, site no. 13 (Baghcha ghondi), 2013 1.14. overview of kamar ghari sangchen (site no. 45), located on the southern part of the Aynak mountain, 2012 1.15. kamar ghari sangchen (site no. 45): preliminary map, 2012 1.16. A local worker cleaning a statue of the seated Buddha inside one of the niches, kamar ghari sangchen (site no. 45): preliminary map, 2012 1.17. Stupa from kamar ghari sangchen (site no. 45) with lat stone loor (fourth-seventh centuries ce), 2012 1.18. coin hoard found under the wall of the monastery from site no. 45, 2012 1.19. gul hamid village before excavation; inset shows signs of rampant looting, 2009 1.20. (a) remains of statues in the chapel at gul hamid monastery, 2009; (b) head of the statue discovered at the gul hamid monastery, 2009 1.21. (a) and (b): Wall paintings from gul hamid monastery, ifth-seventh century ce, c. 2010-11 1.22. overview of kairiyat tepe, 2011 1.23. central stupa with stupa court at kairiyat tepe, 2012 1.24. gilded clay igure of seated Buddha in dhyana mudra (meditation posture), without hands and painted in red colour, in the central room on kairiyat tepe, 2012 3 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 9 9 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 15 15 16 17 18 19 x List of Figures 1.25. Big clay Buddha (more than 6 m high) from one of the chapels at kairiyat tepe, 2010 1.26. Wall paintings (fourth-seventh centuries ce) at kairiyat tepe, 2010 1.27. sassanid gold coins (fourth century ce) found at kairiyat tepe, 2010 1.28. sassanid silver coins found at kairiyat tepe, 2010 1.29. Aeriel view of shamar tepe, 2011 1.30. medium stone stupa with three Buddha niches and a staircase on the south part of the stupa, shamar tepe, 2012 1.31. pottery shards found from diferent sites of mes Aynak, 2012 1.32. stamped pottery with the heads of local kings, and animal designs found from diferent sites of mes Aynak, 2012 1.33. east-facing view of the chinese compound from top of the Aynak mountain, 2013 2.1. mahasthangarh, Bogra (c. sixth century bc) 2.2. Wari-Bateshwar, narsingdi (ifth century bc) 2.3. Biharial vihara, rajshahi (ifth century ad) 2.4. Bhitargarh panchagarh (ifth century ad) 2.5. Bharat-Bhayna, jessore (ifth century ad) 2.6. Bhasu vihara (sixth century ad) 2.7. sitakot vihara, dinajpur (ifth century ad) 2.8. he palace of raja harish chandra, savar, dhaka (sixth century ad) 2.9. gokul medh, mahasthan (sixth century ad) 2.10. Bihara-dhap, Bogra (seventh century ad) 2.11. halud vihara, naogaon (eighth century ad) 2.12. rupban mura, comilla (sixth-seventh centuries ad) 2.13. Queen mainamati palace mound (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 2.14. itakhola mound (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 2.15. kutla mura, comilla (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 2.16. Boja vihara, comilla (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 2.17. Ananda raja vihara, comilla (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 2.18. salban vihara, comilla (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 2.19. rupban kanya vihara (seventh-eighth centuries ad) 2.20. paharpur vihara, naogaon district (eighth century ad) 2.21. satyapir Bhita, paharpur (eleventh century ad) 2.22. chaprakot vihara, rangpur (eleventh century ad) 2.23. ramakot vihara, chittagong (eleventh century ad) 2.24. pandita vihara, chittagong district (ninth century ad) 2.25. jagaddala mahavihara, naogaon (tenth-eleventh centuries ad) 2.26. latikot mura, comilla (seventh-tenth centuries ad) 2.27. vikrampuri vihara, munshiganj (ninth-tenth centuries ad) 3.1. Aeriel view of drapham dzong archaeological site 3.2. drapham dzong site 3.3. drapham site, year 2007, before clearing 3.4. drapham site, year 2008, after clearing 19 20 21 21 22 22 23 23 24 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 34 35 36 37 38 39 39 40 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 46 47 48 48 49 54 55 55 56 List of Figures 3.5. 3.6. 3.7. 3.8. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. 5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. 5.7. 5.8. 5.9. 5.10. 5.11. 5.12. 5.13. 5.14. 5.15. 6.1. 6.2. drapham site, year 2008, after clearing finds from the drapham dzong excavation Bones finds (pottery) map of india showing key Buddhist sites and early historic urban centres sanchi survey project: site distribution (habitational settlements, Buddhist sites and reservoirs) map of sanchi hill and archaeological complex, including dam below map showing components of Buddhist sites: monastery types, stūpas, elements of fortiication map of Buddhist sites in the sanchi area according to earliest building phase (sg level), and prehistoric sites (rock-shelters and stone tools) he development of the ritual landscape: building phases id-vii (sg level) settlements phases id-vii (sg) and Buddhist sites (hilltop monastic, urban and mixed ritual contexts) map of gujarat map showing the important indus civilization sites including that of the gujarat region A loat representing the gujarat state rolls past during the republic day parade in new delhi, on 26 january 2011 – state government’s initiative to project gujarat as a Buddhist tourist destination A round stone-box with a lid, containing the relics unearthed in 1963 from the Buddhist stupa, devnimori, in north-east gujarat, with Brahmi inscriptions bearing the year 127 (c. 375 ce) terracotta seated Buddha, from the Buddhist stupa at devnimori, north-east gujarat (fourth century ce) Chaitya cave and vihara, sana Buddhist caves, c. second century ce, sana, gir hills, junagadh ground plan of the group of caves near Bawa pyara matha, junagadh entrance of the chaitya at khambalida (central saurashtra) lanked by two large-sized sculptures of Bodhisattva padmapani on the right and vajrapani on the left and is surrounded by attendants plan of the Buddhist uparkot caves, junagadh Bodhisattva image (third-fourth centuries ce) from mathura with inscription in Brahmi script on its pedestal found at vadnagar general view of the excavated monastery cross-section showing elevation of the monastery, vadnagar votive stupas near the monastery in the recently excavated Buddhist complex (a) mutilated Buddha head; (b) depicting a Buddhist tale he state of rajasthan highlighted in the map of india (a) Bairat (b) kholvi (c) Bhandarej xi 56 57 57 58 62 63 67 71 75 80 83 89 90 92 96 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 114 118 118 118 List of Figures xii 6.3. 6.4. 6.5. 6.6. 6.7. 6.8. 6.9. 6.10. 7.1. 7.2. 7.3. 7.3. 7.4. 7.5. 7.6. 7.7. 7.8. 7.9. 7.10. 7.10. 7.11. 7.12. 7.13. 7.14. 7.15. 7.16. 7.17. 7.18. 7.19. 7.20. 7.21. 7.22. 7.23. 8.1. 8.2. 8.3. 8.4. 8.5. 8.6. Bairat: he circular shrine Bairat: monastery cell kholvi: multi-storeyed cells kholvi: Chaitya, image of the Buddha kholvi: Stupa Bhandarej: railing coping stone irst ce, front and back view Bhandarej: railing pillar lalsot: details of a pillar map of kuru janpada: cities, towns and villages of haryana region a. Stupa mound at chaneti (before restoration) b. Stupa mound at chaneti (undergoing restoration) a. topra Ashokan pillar at firozshah kotla b. topra Ashokan pillar at firozshah kotla Ashokan figure in hissar fort Ashokan pillar at idgah in fatehabad railing post from hathin railing post from Bhadsa fragment of crossbar from lalpur a. kushana stone danpatra b. kushana stone danpatra a. lion capital, two-winged lion b. khokrakot lion capital, showing yaksha and yakshi Buddha kanakmuni from Brahmanvas gandhara Buddha from jhajjar terracotta bodhisattva from sugh terracotta tablet showing Buddha from sugh a. railing pillar from Bhuna b. central panel of other side of the railing pillar from Bhuna Buddha head from rohtak terracotta bodhisattva head from Agroha remains of a shrine from Agroha a. remains of stupa from kurukshetra b. remains of stupa from kurukshetra Bronze image of Buddha from hansi Buddha head from rohtak Buddha head, Adbadri Buddha head from taraori lion capital of Ashokan pillar, sarnath museum preaching Buddha, sarnath museum stone carving in process, with collection of stone blocks, lallapura, varanasi view of icon-making centre, lallapura, varanasi general view of excavations at stone carving workshop, kotwa chiselling loor of kushana period, kotwa 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 130 133 133 135 135 136 136 137 137 138 139 139 140 140 141 141 142 142 143 143 143 143 144 145 145 146 146 146 147 154 154 155 156 157 158 List of Figures 8.7. 8.8. 8.9. 8.10. 8.11. 8.12. 8.13. 8.14. 9.1. 9.2. 9.3. 9.4. 9.5. 9.6. 9.7. 9.8. 9.9. 9.10. 9.11. 9.12. 9.13. 10.1. 10.2. 10.3. 10.4. 10.5. 10.6. 10.7. 10.8. 10.9. 11.1. 11.2. 11.3. 11.4. 11.5-6. 11.7. 11.8-9. 11.10. 11.11. 13.1. 13.2. view of ancient quarry, chunar hills sandstone patia being transported by trucks, chunar view of blocks of sandstone on the slope of chunar hills sandstone block submerged in the river ganga, chunar sandstone block inscribed in mauryan kharoshti script, chunar sandstone block inscribed in mauryan Brahmi script, chunar map locating Ashokan pillars and rock edicts shaft of Ashokan pillar at lauriya-nandangarh early historical remains in lakhisarai religious centres of early medieval Bihar inscription on the pedestal of Buddha sculpture from rajounā Architectural remains and A=mla from rajounā first phase: sculptures of umā-maheśvara and vi_s]nu second phase: sculptures of phase two Buddha and sūrya hird phase sculptures of ga]neśa and mahi]sāsuramardinī pūr]neśvarī durgā and kālabhairava durgā eye copy of inscription from the pedestal of Buddhist deity photograph of remains of stūpa at chāliyā parvat ghosī-ku]n]dī stūpa. durgā from rāmpur Archaeological site of sirpur, chhattisgarh plan of harshagupta vihara a. ornate gateway b. erotic igures on doorjamb decorative patterns central courtyard Annexe Buddha in sanctum Panchatantra episode decorative pattern paraspora stupa, Baramulla rajavihara, Baramulla Chaitya, Baramulla excavated site, ushkura first mound (on the right bank of river jhelum), Zehenpora (Baramulla) presumably three-tier stupa of Zehanpora second mound, Zehanpora (Baramulla) inscribed stone found on the second mound, Zehenpora (Baramulla) hird mound, Zehenpora (Baramulla) cowrie shell deposit. About 62,000 were found in the corner of the light of stairs of north ruin ii he 16-sided structure (ruin XXXiii) xiii 160 161 162 162 163 163 165 167 171 172 172 174 174 175 175 177 177 177 178 179 180 185 186 187 188 188 189 190 191 192 192 199 199 200 201 202 202 203 203 204 212 212 xiv 13.3. 13.4. 13.5. 13.6. 13.7. 13.8. 15.1. 15.2. 15.3. 15.4. 15.5. 15.6. 15.7. 15.8. 15.9. 15.10. 15.11. 15.12. 15.13. 15.14. 15.15. 15.16. 15.17. 15.18. 15.19. 15.20. 15.21. 15.22. 15.23. 15.24. 15.25. 18.1. 18.2. 18.3. 18.4. 18.5. 18.6. 18.7. 18.8. 18.9. 18.10. 18.11. 18.12. List of Figures he circular well discovered during excavations circular platforms, probably a relic shrine (ruin Xlii) skeletons discovered during excavations cracked ruins covered in moss and mould Boundary well built around the excavated area ruin XXiii some important archaeological sites in kapilavastu, lumbini and nawalparasi lumbini Western gate of tilaurakot structure of kanyamai Bhusparhsa Buddha from kanyamai head of male from kanyamai female deity from kanyamai trench of Bpr-1 trench of Bpr-2 terracotta bull from Bpr-ii stone female sculpture, Bpr-ii stone ganesh, Bpr-ii stone shree lakshmi, Bpr-ii terracotta dabber from Bpr-iii Wattle & daub, Bpr-iv posthole, Bpr-iv ramagrama stupa exposed after excavation (1999-2000) terracotta ring well, pdr-i painted grey ware, pdr-ii trench of pdr-iii kushana terracotta igurine excavation at khoksar, saptari terracotta Buddha from khoksar, saptari terracotta siddha, khoksar A Brahmi inscription brick, dhando chaitya Stupa image at gaptar rock art site, nari valley Stupa petroglyphs at pipal kumb in nari representaion of a stupa with pillars at chuchar dhoro, nari valley (1) Stupa image at kalri, nari valley Stupa image at chit rock-art site, nari valley tracing of a stupa image at chiti rock-art site, gaj valley Stupa image with decorative ornaments at chiti, gaj valley representation of multi-tiered stupa at Zahargani hal, gaj valley Stupa images at seeta dath, seeta valley Stupa image at shaho kumb, seeta valley Stupa image at sor dako, mazarrani valley Stupa image at karo dako, mazarrani valley 213 214 214 215 215 216 223 225 225 227 227 227 228 229 229 230 230 230 230 231 231 231 232 233 234 234 234 235 236 236 237 256 256 257 258 258 260 260 261 262 262 262 263 List of Figures 18.13. 18.14. 18.15. 18.16. 18.17. 18.18. 19.1. 19.2. 19.3. 19.4. 19.5. 19.6. 19.7. 19.8. 19.9. 20.1. 20.2. 20.3. 20.4. 20.5. 20.6. 20.7. 20.8. 20.9. 22.1. 22.2. 22.3. 22.4. 22.5. 22.6. 22.7. 22.8. 22.9. 22.10. 22.11. 22.12. 23.1. 23.2. 23.3. 23.4. representation of so-called vihara at chiti, nari valley representation of the fortiied stupa at chiti, nari valley he petroglyph of shrine of three kushana deities at loi dan, gaj valley representation of dharmachakra at loi diref, makhi valley drawing of a treasure of vase in lower khashani dhoro, taki valley representation of a left facing swastika at lower khashani dhoro, taki valley Stupa-shaped reliquary of gold from deliwala he bronze reliquary Wrapped with textile sandagiri stupa in 2002 neelagiri stupa before excavations in 2011 he excavations of neelagiri stupa A limestone receptacle shaped like a stupa dome he gold stupa reliquary A crystal reliquary location and overview map of the sites overview map of saru maru monastic complex Approach leading to the main stupa at saru maru monastic complex lakhajuar from the main stupa at talpura talpura from lakhajuar rock-art panel view of the main stupa at saru maru monastic complex from the rock-edict site Bagwanpaga rock-art panel at saru maru monastic complex sheer clif edge at Bagwanpaga, saru maru monastic complex view of lakhajuar from a distance he monastic hospital at mihintale (sri lanka) plan of the monastic hospital at mihintale (sri lanka) Alahana parivena complex at polonnaruva topography of the Alahana parivena complex at polonnaruva plan of the Alahana parivena complex at polonnaruva outer court of the Alahana parivena complex at polonnaruva Attached toilet and bath at the Alahana parivena complex at polonnaruva a. medicine trough b. medicine trough: elevation and plan grinding stones storage vessels micro-balance (polonnaruva) a. spoon b. probes polonnaruwa: he hospital skeleton he stone medicinal trough that provides archaeological evidence that the building was a hospital An oblong grindstone, used for making medications A circular grindstone used for making medications xv 264 265 266 267 268 269 272 274 274 275 277 277 279 280 280 290 290 291 292 292 293 294 294 295 306 307 308 309 310 311 311 312 312 313 314 314 315 315 318 318 319 319 xvi 23.5. 23.6. 23.7. 23.8. 23.9. 23.10. 23.11. 23.12. 23.13. 23.14. 23.15. 23.16. 23.17. 25.1. 25.2. 25.3. 25.4. 25.5. 23.6. 27.1. 27.2. 28.1. 29.1. 29.2. 29.3. 29.4. 29.5. 29.6. 29.7. 29.8. 29.9. 29.10. 29.11. List of Figures slaked lime containers Arecanut cutters. Arecanut was chewed with betel leaves and tobacco for relaxation A spoon: a very non-speciic object Weighing scales and pans Weighing scales and case metal applicators for applying medications or cosmetics around the eye? probes – known to have been used to sound cavities large scissors of which there are several examples – of the kind used to cut cloth for bandages and dressings smaller scissors – to be itted with wooden handles – perhaps used for cutting tissue A lance – a type of instrument used for ‘stabbing’ to open tissues very quickly to drain pus from an abscess or cut through the perineum (between the anus and the scrotum) for stones in the urinary bladder. forceps with very strong jaws, as perhaps might used for removing dead bone or extracting tooth forceps with a more delicate structure that perhaps have been used to handle tissues like skin or intestine A scalpel to be used with a wooden handle jetavana stupa some inscribed stone slabs on a stone-paved terrace inscription of the lay devotee Baga, who paved two stone slabs he inscription of lord Avaragana Aba sen inscription of samanun who gave ten gold coins for laying stone slabs inscription mentioned about the lady kotti’s donation map of indian subcontinent highlighting ancient kingdoms selected archaeological sites of orissa oline and online digital tools and environments involved in creation and maintenance of the mBm database and mBm digital maps Archaeological sites, mullaitivu district in northern sri lanka Archaeological sites with evidence of Buddhism, mullativu district in northern sri lanka types of monuments/sites with evidence of Buddhism, mullativu district in northern sri lanka nmu 48, stone beds, punchi kiriibbanwewa nmu 48, dripledge cave, punchi kiriibbanwewa nmu 13, entrance to a building, monastery complex in kanniyar kovil nmu 06, Buddha statue, udiyakuruppukulam nmu 16, guard stone from kokavil nmu 09, architectural piece, Alankulum muthiyankattukulum nmu 01, stupa mound in padanaghara ruins of stupas, mullativu district in northern sri lanka 320 320 320 321 321 322 322 322 322 323 323 323 323 333 334 336 337 338 339 348 351 359 371 372 373 374 374 374 375 375 375 375 376 List of Figures 29.12. current condition of the archeological sites with evidence of Buddhism, mullaitivu district in northern sri lanka 31.1. Ashoka rock edict at mansehra 31.2. plan of archaeological site Zar dheri 31.3. object 1: Buddha in abhaya-mudra 31.4. object 1: relief panel 31.5. object 3: relief panel (b) 31.6. object 4: relief panel (c) 31.7. object 5: relief panel (d) 31.8. object 6: jamb of false niche (a) 31.9. object 7: jamb of false niche (b) 31.10. object 8: jamb of false niche (c) 31.11. object 9: jamb of false niche (d) 31.12. object 10: jamb of false niche 31.13. object 11: Buddha is sitting on an elevated place in abhaya pose 31.14. object 12: he relief panel of cakravartin 31.15. Archaeological site of Zar dheri, district mansehra 32.1. dipankara jataka 32.2. Bodhisattva maitreya in tushita heaven 32.3. Birth and seven steps of siddhartha 32.4. Birth and seven steps of siddhartha 32.5. Birth and seven steps of siddhartha 32.6. first meditation of siddhartha 32.7. great departure of siddhartha 32.8. great departure of siddhartha 32.9. exchange of clothes with the hunter 32.10. Brahma and indra entreat the Buddha to preach 32.11. symbolic representation of the first sermon 32.12. turning the Wheel of the law 32.13. ofering of the handful of dust 32.14. indra’s visit to the indrasala cave 32.15. Adoration of Buddha 32.16. Adoration of Buddha 32.17. two miracles of Buddha in front of kashyapa 32.18. conversion of kashyapa 32.19. subjugation of nalagiri elephant 32.20. taming of the White dog 32.21. ofering of Bowls 32.22. standing Buddha 32.23. standing Buddha 32.24. seated Buddha 32.25. seated Buddha xvii 377 399 401 403 403 404 404 404 404 405 405 406 406 406 407 408 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 433 434 435 xviii 32.26. 32.27. 32.28. 32.29. 32.30. 32.31. 32.32. 32.33. 32.34. 32.35. 32.36. 32.37. 33.1. 33.2. 33.3. 33.4. 33.5. 33.6. 33.7. 33.8. 33.9. 33.10. 33.11. 36.1. 36.2. 36.3. 36.4. 36.5. 36.6. 36.7. 36.8. 36.9. 36.10. 36.11. 36.12. 36.13. 36.14. 36.15. 36.16. 36.17. 36.18. 36.19. List of Figures Buddha head Buddha head Buddha head standing Bodhisattva maitreya standing Bodhisattva standing Bodhisattva on a bracket narrative relief with two scenes Amorini under chaitya arches human igures under carinated arches naked heracles Winged Atlas two Atlases in a frieze location of mainamati Archaeological sites at mainamati padmapani, salban vihara, mainamati, Bangladesh padmapani, salban vihara, mainamati, Bangladesh shakyamuni/Akshobya, salban vihara, mainamati, Bangladesh Backside of figure 33.5. Stupa, salban vihara, mainamati, Bangladesh Stupa, Ashrafpur, narsingdhi district, Bangladesh Stupa, salban vihara, comilla, Bangladesh Stupa, jhiuri, chittagong district, Bangladesh kutila mura, comilla, Bangladesh Dvarapala yaksha in Bhaja, cave 2 king prasenajita’s visit of Buddha Kulavaka Jataka, cave 22 Yakshi, Bhaja, cave 12 Bharavahaka yaksha and the winged horse, pitalkhora Dvarapala yaksha plinth of cave 4 with sculptures dwarf bowl bearing yaksha Mithunas, pitalkhora Mithunas, nadsur Mithunas, kondane Amohini panel Bodh-gaya panel Bodh-gaya panel figures from Bhutling cave 40 figures from Bedsa figures from karle figures from karle figures from karle 436 436 437 438 439 439 440 441 441 442 443 444 449 451 452 454 455 455 457 458 458 458 459 482 482 483 483 484 484 485 485 486 486 487 488 488 489 490 490 491 491 492 List of Figures 36.20. 36.21. 36.22. 36.23. 36.24. 36.25. 36.26. 36.27. 36.28. 36.29. 37.1. 37.2. 37.3. 37.4. 37.5. 37.6. 38.1. 38.2. 38.3. 38.4. 38.5. 38.6. 38.7. 38.8. 38.9. 39.1. 39.2. 39.3. 39.4. 39.5. 39.6. 39.7. 39.8. nasik cave no. 10 nasik cave no. 3 Torana, nasik cave no. 3 nasik cave no. 4, human igures astride elephants Mithunas, kuda cave no. 6 Mithunas, kuda cave no. 6 kanheri cave no. 3, yaksha and naga kanheri cave no. 3, mithuna igures kanheri cave no. 3, mithuna igures kanheri cave no. 3, mithuna igures A robber’s hole at saru maru, panguraria village, district sehore sanchi, main stupa satdhara, smaller stupa sonari, main stupa A view of the main stupas at satdhara a. Stupa 2 at saru maru stupa complex, pangoraria village (m.p., india) in january 2011 b. Stupa 2 at saru maru stupa complex, pangoraria village (m.p., india) in march 2011 War of relics, back of western gateway, middle section, sanchi drona dividing the Buddha’s relics, second-third centuries ad, north-West frontier, pakistan map showing the distribution of the Buddhist sites in south Asia from where relic caskets have been reported relic caskets and images of the saptamanushi Buddhas kept inside it, sopara steatite relic casket from sonari relics in gold and silver caskets, Ambaran devnimori reliquary and its contents lalitgiri relic casket and its inner content he reliquary recess with the pyxis-shaped relic casket visible in situ from the vicinity of stupa no. 23, Butkara, swat region, pakistan sri lanka’s location as a central point in the indian ocean sri lanka map showing the difusion of chinese ceramics and other artefacts chinese porcelain-ware unearthed from Abayagiriya and mahavihara excavations (2002-9) tang and song chinese ceramics in sri lanka – glazed pottery, celadon, white ware, and changsha types of tang dynasty ware (kettle, jar, bowl, basin) a and b. types of song dynasty bowls a and b. Blue and white and polychrome ware chinese copper coins found in sri lanka xix 493 494 494 495 495 495 496 497 497 498 501 507 508 509 510 512 512 516 517 518 520 521 521 522 523 525 533 535 536 535 537 538 539 540 xx List of Figures 39.9. ming dynasty chinese stone slab inscribed trilingual inscription 39.10. a. deliwala kotavehera at rambukkana b. Buddhist reliquary covering 39.11. a. sigiri frescoes (ifth-eighth centuries ad) b. ‘…sina-pata beji e rana-vana’ eighth century sigiri graiti 39.12. twelfth-century ‘sath mahal prasadaya’ polonnaruwa, sri lanka 39.13. he ‘Wild gees’ pagoda (ad 652) at Xi-annin western china 40.1. macro-location of the somawathiya archaeological site 40.2. micro-location the excavated area at the somawathiya archaeological site 40.3. West section of the excavation. A brick pavement in the layer no. 5 dates back to the Anuradhapura period 40.4. West section of the excavation. A brick pavement in the layer no. 1 dates back to the polonnaruwa period 40.5-6. A brick pavement in the layer no. 1 dates back to the polonnaruwa period 40.7-8. A brick pavement in the layer no. 5 dates back to the Anuradhapura period 40.9-10. hand drawing of the excavation site 541 542 542 543 543 543 544 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 tables 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 10.1. 10.2. 38.1. marshall’s phasing at sanchi summary of phasing at vidisha based on ive excavation seasons he sanchi survey: phasing and dating criteria religious endowments to Buddhist establishments in chhattisgarh spatio-temporal dimension of monastic structures, sirpur table showing the distribution of Auspicious symbols in the Garbhapatras (relic-chambers) of sri lanka 40.1. identiication of layers at snAe-2010 64 68 69 184 194 527 551