The Letter of James: Practical Wisdom for Everyday Life

1 THE LETTER OF JAMES: PRACTICAL WISDOM FOR EVERYDAY LIFE Gregory Linton, Ph.D. Professor of New Testament Johnson University Knoxville, TN Within the New Testament canon are several groups of writings that share similarities, so through the centuries, Christians have given labels to these various groups. The Synoptic Gospels consist of Matthew, Mark, and Luke, which share a similar outline of Jesus’ ministry and contain much of the same material. The Pastoral Epistles of Paul refer to three letters that were written to Paul’s associates to provide pastoral instruction. The General Epistles, or Catholic Epistles, refer to seven letters that will be the focus of our next three lectures. The term “Catholic” in this context means that they are not addressed specifically to a person or a congregation and are intended to circulate widely among the churches. Altogether, these seven letters are shorter than Paul’s Second Letter to the Corinthians. Several early Christian writers referred to various individual writings as “catholic,” but our first written evidence for the term “Catholic Epistles” applied to a group of writings appears in Eusebius around A.D. 320. He numbers seven books in that group. He lists James at the beginning, and of the remaining six he mentions only Jude. The earliest evidence for the complete order of the General Epistles appears in A.D. 367 in the 39 th Paschal Letter of Athanasius, and his order is the same as we know it today. Letters by the brothers of Jesus serve as bookends to the group. The order of the letters was probably influenced by the reference in Gal 2:9 to James, Peter, and John, the pillar apostles of the Jerusalem church. 1 Over time, the term “catholic” also signified their authoritative or canonical status. In early Greek manuscripts of the NT, the General Epistles follow Acts, which indicates that Acts and the General Epistles were originally bound together. In two of our best-preserved 2 manuscripts, Codex Vaticanus (4th cent.) and Codex Alexandrinus (5th cent.), Acts and the General Epistles precede the letters of Paul. Athanasius followed this order when he listed the books of the NT canon. This order would give the letters by these pillar apostles higher status than those by Paul. In contrast, Eusebius listed these letters after Paul’s letters and the Letter of Hebrews, and that order is also found in a letter written by Jerome in A.D. 394. This order was fixed in the Vulgate, a Latin translation carried out under Jerome’s supervision, and so it has remained the canonical order to this day. 2 Unfortunately, placing them after Paul’s letters had the effect of relegating them to a minor status as the writings that were left over after the really important stuff. Even today, the Revised Common Lectionary includes very few selections from James, 1 Peter, 2 Peter, and Jude. David R. Nienhaus and Robert W. Wall have observed that “modern criticism has effectively marginalized these letters and has even attempted to secure their relative unimportance when their theological contribution is weighed against the presentations of the Gospels or of the Pauline corpus.” 3 Again, they say that “the CE [Catholic Epistles] are offered up as the leftovers of the NT, an optional plate of ‘other writings’ to be consumed, should one desire, after the main courses of Gospel and Paul.” 4 The formation of this collection of letters in the 3rd and 4th centuries probably developed in response to the collection of Paul’s letters. Robert W. Wall has suggested that “the Catholic Epistles provided a fuller picture of Christian discipleship that included not only the Pauline insistence upon a professed faith ‘within works’ (e.g., Rom 9:30-10:13), but now complemented it with the Pillars’ emphasis upon a ‘faith that works.’” He notes that “the two letter collections aim at a fuller expression of how people must respond to God.” 5 Elsewhere, he and David Nienhaus have argued that James was included in the canon to serve as a corrective to distortions of Paul’s message. He shows that Origen used James “to keep believers from concluding that 3 Paul is advocating justification by ‘faith alone’ without the corresponding evidence of a holy life.”6 Briefly, we will consider what these seven letters have in common, and then we will focus on the Letter of James. The General Epistles share three similarities in terms of genre, audience, and purpose. First, as the name suggests, they all belong to the genre of “epistle” or “letter.” Each is written by one person to a group of recipients. Second, these seven letters are “general” in nature. Unlike Paul’s letters, they are not addressed to the church in a specific city or addressed to a specific individual, although 3 John is a possible exception to this. These letters served as circular letters that were passed around a region from city to city, from church to church. Third, they share a common purpose, which we will trace through these seven letters. The recipients of these letters were an oppressed and marginalized minority in the Roman Empire. They felt pressure from two different directions. First, they felt pressure from outside the church. Their Jewish neighbors and relatives pressured them because they felt they were apostates. They encouraged them to return to the true religion, so some believers were tempted to return to the safety and comfort of their Jewish heritage. Local civic authorities were suspicious of new religious cults, especially those that were reluctant to share in the enthusiasm of worship for the emperor. Second, they felt pressure from inside the church. Teachers were offering new, alternative interpretations and understandings of the faith that conflicted with the apostolic teaching they received. Some believers found these new teachings attractive enough to depart from the faith and ethics that they had been taught at their conversion. To reduce the pressures they felt, some believers compromised, assimilated, and diluted their faith. 4 These letters were written to bolster the faith and ethical purity of these wavering believers. They served to warn and instruct them about the true nature of the faith and the consequences of departing from it. The key quality that each writer sought to instill in his readers was perseverance, but the authors adopted different literary and rhetorical strategies to persuade and instruct their readers. The next three lectures will focus on the strategies adopted by each letter. The Letter of James Author. The Letter of James is an appropriate place to begin our study because it may have been one of the earliest of the writings of the New Testament. It most likely was written in the decade of the 50s, the same decade when Paul wrote his letters. Some think it was written even earlier in the late 40s. The author identifies himself as Jakōbos, which is translated into English as “James.” Like many Jewish men of the time, he was named after the father of the twelve tribes of Israel. The name Jacob occurs 42 times in the NT with reference to five different men. Although some have argued that the book was written falsely under the name of James, many scholars agree that the author should be identified with Jesus’ brother, who did not believe in him during his ministry (Mark 3:21, 31-32; 6:1-4). Paul records that Jesus appeared to him after his resurrection (1 Cor 15:7), which probably led to his conversion. He became the leader of the church in Jerusalem after Peter departed the city in AD 44 (Acts 12:17). 7 In Acts, he is given the title “elder” (presbyteros). Twice, Paul referred to him as an “apostle” (1 Cor 15:7; Gal 1:9), and when Paul listed the “pillars” of the Jerusalem church, he listed James first (Gal 2:9). The Jewish historian Josephus recorded James’s death at the hands of the Jewish leaders in AD 62. Recipients. To understand what motivated James to write this letter, we have to consider who the recipients were and what situations they faced that challenged and threatened their faith. 5 In verse 1, James identifies the recipients as “the twelve tribes in the Diaspora.” Some have proposed that the letter was originally a Jewish document written in the name of the patriarch Jacob before the time of Jesus. A later believer Christianized the book by inserting two references to Jesus (James 1:1; 2:1), and it was then mistakenly believed to have been written by the Christian leader James. However, this implausible theory ignores the many echoes of Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount that permeate the writing. Ralph Martin, for example, has identified 33 echoes of the Gospel of Matthew in James. 8 Although the name Jesus appears only twice, the book contains 35 allusions to Jesus. For example, in four places, James uses the title “Lord” to refer to Jesus (1:1; 2:1; 5:7a-8). The reference to the twelve tribes indicates that his readers were Jewish Christians. “Diaspora” alludes to the dispersion of the Israelites after the conquests by Assyria and Babylon. Descendants of the Israelites who lived outside their historic homeland were referred to as the Diaspora. In James’s usage, it may allude to those Jewish Christians who were forced to leave Jerusalem and Judea after the martyrdom of Stephen (Acts 8:1). These Jewish converts were Hellenists, which means that Greek, not Aramaic, was their native language. They originally lived in the provinces and had moved to Judea to be closer to the temple. Many of them returned to their points of origin as they fled the persecution, and Antioch in Syria was one popular destination for many of them (Acts 11:19). James’s readers were Jewish Christians who lived outside Palestine in the eastern Mediterranean regions. Occasion. The letter does not seem to address specific problems that were unique to a particular congregation, as 1 Corinthians does, for example. James addresses the kinds of circumstances that his readers may currently encounter or may encounter in the future. Karen H. Jobes proposes that “James was addressing the broad and general situation of his readers at that 6 moment rather than a particular local crisis or event. That situation involved poverty, persecution, strained relationships—especially between the rich and poor—and questions about the nature of faith and its relationship to good deeds.”9 We know that, during the decade of the 50s, the eastern Mediterranean world suffered a series of famines. The economic difficulties caused by these famines resulted in a separation between rich and poor; consequently, James deals with issues of social justice in this book. Unlike other books that we will study, James does not address any false theological teachings that were drawing people astray. Rather, he is concerned that their behavior is not consistent with their profession of faith. I. Howard Marshall concludes that “the primary purpose of this letter is not evangelistic, doctrinal or polemical but rather pastoral, as the writer displays his pastoral concern for the readers and exhorts them to show spiritual care and love for one another.”10 Genre. How did James decide to encourage and exhort his readers who faced this situation? He wrote a practical, sermonic letter in which he reminded his readers of proper ethical conduct that must be maintained despite the pressures they faced. Sophie Laws has rightly described this letter as “the most consistently ethical document in the New Testament.” The primary quality that he sought to inculcate in them was “wisdom.” Karen H. Jobes has summarized the essence of the Letter of James in this way: “The letter is concerned with how to live wisely under the new covenant, especially when facing trials and temptations.” 11 The letter deals with practical and social aspects of Christianity. It offers practical teaching that has relevance for everyday life. James reminds his readers that their Christian faith has practical implications for every aspect of their lives. 7 James had to select a genre, a model or pattern of writing, that could accomplish these goals, but scholars are not agreed on which genre he was following. Based on the author’s selfdesignation as “servant of God” in the first verse, some have suggested that he presents himself as an OT prophet. However, his letter does not seem to follow the pattern of a prophetic book. Some point to the fact that more than half the verses in the book contain imperatives; therefore, they propose that he was following the model of a Greco-Roman moral exhortation or paraenesis. Some interpreters narrow this down further by suggesting that the letter bears similarities to protreptic discourse, which exhorted those who held a certain philosophy or belief to behave consistently with that philosophy. Others look for a more Jewish model, and so they propose that he was emulating Jewish wisdom literature, such as Proverbs, Sirach, and the Wisdom of Solomon. Others point to the disjointed structure of the book and suggest that it is a collection of sermons that James had preached. Some interpreters, including Peter Davids, Ralph Martin, and John Painter, have proposed that these sermons were collected by an editor after James’s death, but no compelling evidence supports this view. Another proposal is that James followed the model of a “diaspora letter.” These letters were written by leaders of ancient Judaism to displaced Jews to offer them hope and consolation and to exhort them to covenant faithfulness. Examples of such letters are Jer 29:1-23; The Epistle of Jeremiah; 2 Macc 1:1-9; 1:10-2:18; and 2 Apocalypse of Baruch 78-86. According to Acts 15:22-29, James had sent such a circular letter to Gentile believers in Antioch, Syria, and Cilicia in A.D. 48. According to Jobes, the purpose of the Letter of James is to “provide spiritual instruction and exhortation on matters critical to the unity and life of the Christian community,” and she says that James does this “by arguing that Christian wisdom is a life lived in obedience 8 to God’s law as revealed by Israel’s prophets (starting with Moses) but as that law has been transposed by the life and teachings of Jesus Christ.”12 It is difficult to categorize this letter in only one genre. The author seems to draw elements from different literary types in order to persuade his readers to a life of wisdom and obedience to God. Themes. To achieve his purpose of exhorting his readers to covenant faithfulness, James discusses a number of relevant topics:            Call to wisdom Exhortation to perseverance in trials Relationships between rich and poor Favoritism The role of deeds in the life of faith Restraint of one’s speech Discord in the community The illusion of being in control Swearing oaths Prayer for healing Exhorting those who have gone astray Although this list of topics seems somewhat disjointed, one key word seems to tie them together—namely, wisdom. Sophia is mentioned four times in the letter (1:5; 3:13, 15, 17), but it is the value that underlies all the other instructions. James is applying wisdom to these topics in order to develop wisdom in his readers. Wisdom is practical in nature, not theoretical or speculative. Wisdom means knowing what God requires of a person and living every moment in light of God’s purposes and values. This knowledge is required especially in situations that test our faith; therefore, James encourages his readers in the fifth verse of the letter to ask God for it if they lack it. Wisdom is not merely the accumulation of human knowledge but a gift that God can bestow in order to provide practical guidance to the lives of his people. Mariam J. Kamell has argued that “James 9 sees all of Christian life as originating from and through God’s grace. His confidence in God as the divinely generous giver of everything we need undergirds all of his ethical imperatives.” 13 Giving is a consistent attribute of God, and the supreme gift that God gives is wisdom. The practical nature of wisdom is emphasized in 3:13 where James asks the rhetorical question: “Who is wise and understanding among you?” His answer emphasizes practical living: “Show by your good life that your works are done with gentleness born of wisdom.” In 3:14, he describes actions that contradict wisdom: envy, selfish ambition, boasting, and falsehood. In 3:15, he explains that these actions belong to wisdom that is earthly, unspiritual, and devilish. This kind of wisdom contrasts with the wisdom that comes from above, wisdom that originates with God and is granted by God to those open to receiving it. In 3:16, he describes the practical outcome of this earthly, devilish wisdom—namely, “disorder and wickedness of every kind.” In contrast, verse 17 says that “the wisdom from above is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, willing to yield, full of mercy and good fruits, without a trace of partiality or hypocrisy” (3:17). That list of qualities bears resemblance to the “fruit of the Spirit” described in Galatians 5, and so interpreters have suggested that James is using the concept of wisdom to describe the activity of the Holy Spirit. Nowhere in his letter does he explicitly refer to the Holy Spirit, but James’s concept of wisdom has parallels with Paul’s teaching about the Spirit, as Karen Jobes has observed: “In James, wisdom endows the believer much as the Spirit does in Paul’s writings. It is graciously given by God, endowing the Christian with virtues that allow a way of life that both sustains one’s faithfulness to Christ through the trials of his life and prepares one to stand before God’s judgment in the afterlife.” 14 Notice also that wisdom has a social, communal character. It is not primarily a private, personal virtue given for one’s own benefit. Wisdom from above builds up other people and 10 promotes harmony in the community, whereas earthly wisdom is focused on the self and results in social disorder and disrupted relationships. Another concept in the Letter of James related to wisdom is “the perfect law.” In 1:25, he refers to “those who look into the perfect law, the law of liberty.” By referring to the perfect law, he is indicating that the Old Covenant has been fulfilled and has reached maturity in the New Covenant instituted by Jesus. It is “perfect” (teleios) because it is the goal of Christian discipleship. The perfect law is another way of referring to “the word of truth,” which he mentioned in verse 18 as giving birth to us. The word of truth probably refers to the message about Jesus but also includes the teachings of Jesus that permeate James’s letter. According to Karen Jobes, “James sees the moral concepts that Jesus taught as the transposition of the law of Moses forming the basis for Christian life under the new covenant, a moral life that through behavior expresses faith in Jesus as the Messiah and new Lawgiver.” 15 In 1:21, James also describes this perfect law or word of truth as “the implanted word that has power to save your souls.” Again, we see God’s giving nature here. He has planted the word in us as a seed that will bear fruit leading to salvation. This concept of the implanted word reminds us again of the Holy Spirit whom God planted in our hearts to produce righteousness in us (Rom 8:1-11). James redefines the perfect law as “the law of freedom.” This perfect law is characterized by freedom, but freedom does not mean license to sin. Instead, in 2:12 he says that the law of freedom will be the standard by which we will all be judged. We will not be judged favorably if we look into the perfect law and do not act on it. James says in 1:25 that the law of freedom will be effective only if one perseveres. If we do not persevere in keeping the perfect law, then we 11 will be judged without mercy because the very character of the law is mercy. The Greek word for “persevere,” paramenō, means to “stay in the same place.” One should not wander away from the perfect law to other teachings and lifestyles. One should be steadfast, immovable, consistent. In 1:23-24, he describes the person who looks in a mirror and then walks away and forgets what he looks like. He compares this to the person who hears the word of truth but then does not put it into practice. Therefore, looking into the law of liberty must be followed up by perseverance. His readers should not be hearers who forget but doers who act. And if they act on the perfect law, if they put the word of truth into practice, then he promises that they will be blessed in their doing. James’s emphasis on works as the outcome of faith is consistent with Paul’s teachings. David R. Ninehaus and Robert W. Wall argue that “the stress on ‘good works’ as the effective moral yield of receiving God’s grace brings out in bold relief a point made elsewhere in the Pauline canon, most effectively in Rom 12:1; 2 Cor 9:8; and Eph 2:8-10. The net result is to correct a dangerous misreading of Paul, which demonizes good works as somehow subversive of the sinner’s dependency on Christ’s death for salvation.”16 In 5:7-12, James reminds his readers that perseverance is possible if they keep their focus on the future. Just as Paul constantly based his ethics on eschatology, even so James pointed to the future outcome to motivate his readers to ethical living in the present. In this passage, James exhorts his readers to be patient and strengthen their hearts, for the coming of the Lord is near. He reminds them of the example of the prophets who spoke in the name of the Lord. They too were patient in suffering. He also reminds them of the example of Job, who was patient in suffering. Because they know the Lord is compassionate and merciful, they can be assured that he will come to vindicate his suffering people. Similarly, in 1:12 he uses eschatology to motivate 12 them to persevere: If they endure temptation, they will receive the crown of life that the Lord has promised to those who love him. Perhaps, another way that James refers to the wisdom from above or the perfect law is “the royal law” (2:8). This supreme law that summarizes all other laws may serve as the unifying theme that ties together all the seemingly disconnected teachings in this letter. For James, the royal law forms the basis for Christian ethics and morality. This echoes Jesus’ teaching when he once was asked to name the greatest commandment. Instead, he chose two: love God and love your neighbor (Matt 22:39; Mark 12:31; Luke 10:27). James picks up on the second commandment, which was drawn from Lev 19:18 and presents it as the commandment that underlies the other commands. It is a “royal” law because it was handed down from the King Jesus. It is a law suitable for those who belong to the Kingdom of God. Because the command to love one’s neighbor is “the royal law,” one of the worst infractions against that law is favoritism, which he warns against in 2:9-11. If you love your neighbor as yourself, you cannot treat one neighbor better than the other simply because the one neighbor is wealthier or more powerful. In his day as in ours, this attitude would be revolutionary, counter-cultural, and transformational. James goes on in his letter to apply the law of love to other topics that affect human relations, such as evil speech, oppression of the poor, false oaths, and failure to persevere under trials. James’s view of love as fulfilling the law is remarkably consistent with another writing in the decade of the 50s, Paul’s Letter to the Romans. In Rom 13:8-10, Paul also teaches that the command to love one’s neighbor fulfills the law. Did Paul borrow this idea from James? Did James borrow it from Paul? Did they both get it independently from the teachings of Jesus? Perhaps, this teaching that originated with Jesus was so fundamental to the faith and practice of 13 his followers that it had been widely disseminated and passed on from convert to convert. How James viewed wisdom is also revealed by the opposite attitude that he warns against. The opposite of being wise is being “double-minded” (Jas 1:7-8; 4:8). The Greek word dipsychos may have been coined by James, since it appears here for the first time in the Greek language. It means to be two-faced or to have a dual personality. The double-minded or divided person tries to keep all options open. The prophet Hosea had warned that a divided heart made the people ripe for destruction (Hos 10:2). The attitudes and actions of such a person are unstable, inconsistent, vacillating, indecisive, and unreliable. James says that such people cannot make up their minds to do what is right (1:6), and they act insincerely (3:17). The person with a dual personality tries to be a friend of God and a friend of the world at the same time, but these relationships are incompatible. The world consists of the values and priorities that people unconsciously adopt from their culture, but these are inevitably at odds with God’s values and priorities. Therefore, James asserts that “friendship with the world is hatred toward God” (4:4). This is why he says in 1:27 that true religion is keeping oneself unstained by the world. In contrast to the double-minded person, God himself is single-minded. In 1:5 where James says to ask God for wisdom, he says that God gives to all generously. The Greek adverb haplōs means to be “single,” “simple,” “sincere,” “straightforward.” God gives without reservation or hesitation. He does not stop to think about it; he just does it. He does not doubt or waver or second-guess his generosity. Again in 1:17, James says that with God there is “no variation or shadow due to change.” God does not shift and alter as the moon does when it goes through its phases. James wants his readers to imitate God in his single-mindedness. 17 14 The wise person is a unified, integrated person. The wise person sees with one eye, thinks with one mind, acts with one heart. Instead of keeping all options open as the double-minded person does, James’s readers are to put all their eggs in one basket. For James, spiritual maturity means to have a wholehearted devotion to God. This wholeheartedness or single-mindedness is put to the test in trials, and this is why James says to ask God if you are lacking wisdom. In Jewish literature of the time, wisdom was considered “the means by which the persecuted righteous person endures persecution (4 Macc 7:17-18).” 18 James concludes his letter in 5:19-20 by imparting a mission to his hearers. When a believer sees another believer starting to become double-minded and wavering from the truth, he or she bears the responsibility to reach out and bring that wandering brother or sister back to the word of truth. Rescuing the wandering brother or sister will save that person’s soul from death. A greater responsibility cannot be imagined. Conclusion. Because James emphasizes the practical nature of the wisdom that he seeks to impart, his letter is still very relevant for us today. [21] I know of no better summary of James’s teaching than the one offered by Frank J. Matera: The word of truth about Jesus Christ, which is the implanted word of the gospel, has made those who embrace it members of the eschatological people of Israel, the twelve tribes of Israel that have been restored by the gospel. The goal of this eschatological people is perfection, which comes from faithful endurance and perfect observance of the law of liberty. Such people live as a community of the wise because they have received the gift of wisdom from the Father of lights. They express their religion in deeds that accompany and testify to their faith in Jesus Christ. They are aware that the Lord is near and that the Judge is at the door. When God’s judgment takes place, there will be a further reversal of fortunes in favor of the poor and oppressed. 19 Here are some questions for discussion. (1) Why do Christians fail to live consistently with their faith? How can James help us do that? (2) How are James’s teachings compatible with 15 Paul’s teachings? (3) How does the “royal law” affect the way that we relate to Christian brothers and sisters? To unbelievers? 16 Endnotes 1 John Painter, “James as the First Catholic Epistle,” Int 60.3 (2006): 245-7. 2 F. F. Bruce, The Canon of Scripture (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1988), 197-210, 225-9; Robert L. Webb, “Epistles, Catholic,” ABD 2:569-70 3 David R. Nienhuis and Robert W. Wall, Reading the Epistles of James, Peter, John & Jude as Scripture: The Shaping and Shape of a Canonical Collection (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2013), xv. 4 Ibid., 8. 5 Robert W. Wall, “Catholic Epistles,” NIDB 1:573. 6 Nienhuis and Wall, Reading the Epistles, 26-27. 7 For a defense of the view that a follower collected and edited the teachings of James after his death, see James D. G. Dunn, Beginning from Jerusalem: Christianity in the Making, Vol. 2 (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2009), 1123-9. 8 Ralph P. Martin, James, WBC 48 (Waco, TX: Word, 1988), lxxiv-lxxvi. 9 Karen H. Jobes, Letters to the Church: A Survey of Hebrews and the General Epistles (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011), 161. 10 I. Howard Marshall, New Testament Theology: Many Witnesses, One Gospel (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 630. 11 Jobes, Letters to the Church, 150. 12 Ibid., 166. 13 Mariam J. Kamell, “The Implications of Grace for the Ethics of James,” Biblica 92, no. 2 (2011): 275. 14 Jobes, Letters to the Church, 211. 15 Ibid., 194. 16 Nienhuis and Wall, Reading the Epistles, 55-56. 17 17 Elsa Tamez, The Scandalous Message of James, trans. John Eagleson (New York: Crossroad, 1990), 48-50. 18 Frank Thielman, Theology of the New Testament: A Canonical and Synthetic Approach (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005), 501. 19 Frank J. Matera, New Testament Theology: Exploring Diversity and Unity (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007), 369-70.