Eastern European Youth Cultures in a Global Context

Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Contents List of Figures vii Notes on Contributors viii Introduction Matthias Schwartz and Heike Winkel 1 Part I Reconsidering Generational Change 1 The End of Childhood and/or the Discovery of the Tineidzher? Adolescence in Soviet and Post-Soviet Culture Catriona Kelly 21 2 Youth Cultures and the Formation of a New Political Generation in Eastern Europe Ken Roberts 45 3 Fast Forward to Capitalism? Accelerated Youth in Post-Socialism Herwig Reiter and Christine Steiner 64 4 Revival without Nostalgia: The ‘Dizel’ Movement, Serbian 1990s Cultural Trauma and Globalised Youth Cultures Jovana Papović and Astrea Pejović 81 5 Symptom of the Loser and the Melancholy of the Post-Soviet Generation Tamara Hundorova 94 Part II Popular Belongings: Subcultural Places and Globalised Spaces 6 ‘Rap on Rap Is Sacred’: The Appropriation of Hip Hop in the Czech Republic Anna Oravcová 111 7 Flaming Flares, Football Fanatics and Political Rebellion: Resistant Youth Cultures in Late Capitalism Dominik Antonowicz, Radosław Kossakowski and Tomasz Szlendak 131 8 Everything Feels Bad: Figurations of the Self in Contemporary Eastern European Literature Matthias Schwartz 145 v Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 vi Contents 9 ‘Bright Reference Point of Our Youth’: Bondy, Podsiadło and the Redefinition of the Underground Alfrun Kliems 161 Part III Reshaping Political Activism: Between Rebellion and Adjustment 10 Fallen Vanguards and Vanished Rebels? Political Youth Involvement in Extraordinary Times Félix Krawatzek 177 11 ‘To Serve like a Man’ – Ukraine’s Euromaidan and the Questions of Gender, Nationalism and Generational Change Sabine Roßmann 202 12 The Conception of Revolutionary Youth in Maksim Gor’kii’s The Mother and Zakhar Prilepin’s San’kia Matthias Meindl 218 13 ‘Polittusovka’ – An Alternative Public Space of Young Politicians in Contemporary Russia Anna Zhelnina 235 Part IV Contested Agency: Civic Engagement and Everyday Practices 14 Youth Cultures in Contemporary Russia: Memory, Politics, Solidarities Elena Omelchenko and Guzel Sabirova 15 Public Discourse and Volunteer Militias in Post-Soviet Russia Gleb Tsipursky 16 Battlefield Internet: Young Russian SNS Users and New-Media State Propaganda Vera Zvereva 17 ‘Flashy’ Pictures: Social Activist Comics and Russian Youth José Alaniz 253 271 293 316 18 Youth in the Post-Soviet Space: Is the Central Asian Case Really So Different? Stefan B. Kirmse 335 Index 361 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Introduction Matthias Schwartz and Heike Winkel In early 2015, about one year after the overthrow of the old regime in Kiev, after the Russian annexation of the Crimea and the outbreak of war in Eastern Ukraine between separatists supported by Russians and Ukrainian troops, a significant youth initiative arose in Ukraine: students from universities and colleges all over Ukraine compiled a video message for their fellow students at universities in Russia. The widely distributed video contained a number of scenes, each showing several student groups gathered around different speakers giving short speeches. In an effort to oppose the narrative of a Ukrainian ‘fascist’ threat which dominates the public discourse in Russia, the speakers in the video evoked the spirit of the Maidan protests, presenting themselves as revolutionaries. They called on their Russian contemporaries to not rely on Russia’s official mass media reporting on the events taking place in Ukraine, but instead to be critical and seek objective truth about the situation. It did not take the Russian studentship long to answer the public address in the form of similar video messages, and more groups from other Russian and Ukrainian universities joined them, with video clips in support of or in opposition to the official Russian media perspective pouring in from Crimea, Lugansk, Lviv and Moldova. All of these video messages were recorded in the same manner, designed in the same style and presented different perspectives on the events.1 Of interest here is the ways in which these video messages function as means of youth intervention and youth self-representation in the Russian– Ukrainian propaganda war. All of the young people shown in the clips are dressed casually and neatly and make an engaged, assiduous, cheerful impression. In their appeal, the pro-Ukrainian students conjure a longestablished Soviet-style notion of youth, stating that students in both countries stand for ‘progressive motions, the strength and future of a nation’, and that they were counting on their fellow students’ solidarity.2 In the Russian video, this motif is taken up to underscore the idea that students are their nations’ ‘best representatives’.3 In terms of content, each side represents the official version of the conflict supported by its respective government, 1 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 2 Introduction while the emphasis on youth was meant to grant their statements a specific authenticity. However, a closer look at the clips reveals that the ideal evoked in these messages is ambiguous. The Ukrainian students appear to be the heirs of their fellow students who fought for democracy in the Orange Revolution in 2004. Back then, after the collapse of the socialist societies in the region, many had hoped that the young people would at last complete the political transformation into a better world for which their parents had fought. Yet these political upheavals failed in one way or another, and in comparison to the diverse rebellious crowd at the Maidan, with its self-organised units and sectors, improvised armour and weapons, highly imaginative disguises, and uncompromising deeds, the young students in the video look as gentle as lambs. Moreover, these staged and thoroughly planned video messages present a progressive youth that is totally conformist to political strategy, managed by policy-makers on both sides of the conflict. There is no spirit of rebellion or self-assertion against an older generation, against state institutions or other authorities present in these statements. We see young adults acting as agents of political mainstream and civil affairs rather than a generation of youth that is willing to think and act differently than their parents’ generation. This is not only symptomatic for the role that young people played during the ‘revolution of dignity’ in Ukraine 2013–2014, which was originally initiated by students who were soon pushed aside by other social groups and activists, but also of great significance in a broader perspective. These video messages shed light on the fact that the notion of youth itself has undergone substantial change over the last decades. The book takes precisely this finding as a starting point in order to take a closer look at the meanings of youth cultures in Eastern European societies. It operates on the assumption that the conformist youth who appear in the videos and present themselves as loyal to their respective government might be seen as exemplary for the broad majority of young people in post-socialist countries, despite the fact that the videos are obviously staged. Therefore its focus is not on scandals with public appeal initiated by rebellious youngsters, on dissident counter-cultures or artistic breakings of taboos, carried out by what seems to be a very small minority. Radical art collectives such as Voina and Pussy Riot or the women’s rights advocates from Femen may be impressive examples of young activists who gain attention worldwide, but they are not representative of the cultural practices, political engagement, public belongings and social networks – of the distinctive self-images, codes, fashions and imaginary communities – that most young people in Eastern Europe are part of. In order to achieve a closer understanding of Eastern European youth cultures today, we want to suggest a focus on everyday routines and imaginary belongings that incorporate and transform regional, transnational and global influences and tendencies. Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Matthias Schwartz and Heike Winkel 3 Eastern European youth cultures have undergone significant transformations between the Soviet period and today. The new generations growing up a quarter of a century after the breakdown of state socialism have knowledge of communist regimes and the Cold War only from schoolbooks, movies or the memories of older friends and family members. One might therefore ask if the adjective ‘post-socialist’ is still applicable to these young people. At the same time, the neo-liberal market economy and globalisation have reshaped post-socialist societies even more fundamentally than Western European ones who did not have to cope with regime changes in parallel with new economic and globalising forces. The change to Eastern European societies has been not only fundamental, but has also taken different directions in different states: most of the post-socialist countries have joined the European Union, while some have had to cope with civil wars and separatist movements, including the former Yugoslavian countries as well as Moldova, Georgia and Ukraine, whereas Belorussia and Russia have chosen a more authoritarian way. In light of these heterogeneous development paths, many scholars object to the region-based term ‘Eastern Europe’ because it undermines a differentiated approach to the diversity of experiences and implies the existence of a homogeneous entity that in reality is rapidly vanishing. The book takes up precisely these scholarly reservations in order to more thoroughly analyse youth cultures in Eastern Europe in a globalised world. In the following paragraphs, we will discuss in more detail the challenges that arise in regard to the study of youth cultures in Eastern Europe before giving an outline of the volume’s structure and objectives. Redefining Eastern Europe The designation ‘Eastern Europe’ has a long history, starting in the age of Enlightenment, when the region was originally constructed in western discourse as a distinctive backward area of the Continent. The region was later firmly established as a threatening communist bloc during the Cold War (Wolff, 1994; Chernetsky, 2007; Todorova, 2009), and the term was never used as a positive self-definition. As mentioned above, in the 25 years since the fall of the Iron Curtain, the region has diversified significantly, but this did not mark the end of Eastern Europe as a joint research field in western academia. The common social and cultural heritage of the socialist era is still more or less present, as are the consequences of its downfall, such as rapid privatisation, the economisation of public goods and contested political systems. At the same time, Eastern Europe, like other world regions, is deeply influenced by globalisation processes. Recent research has been reflecting on these developments, pointing out the particulars of the evolution of Eastern Europe in this context. Proponents of the so-called transition theory Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 4 Introduction have put forward the thesis that the crash of state socialisms was received mainly as a liberation from economic and political constraints and marked the beginning of a steady catching-up process for countries that aspired to first-world status politically, economically, socially and culturally. In this framework, people from Eastern Europe were regarded as successors and imitators of their western paragons. Other theorists regarded even the demise of state socialisms as a result of cultural globalisation and not as a culmination of internal forces (Ther, 2014). The authors of this volume aim to take these research conclusions one step further. Beyond the controversial matter of whether the transition experience is dominantly influenced by internal (post-socialist) or external (global) factors, whether it has an intimidating or motivating effect on the population, this volume takes into account its uniqueness to civilisation. The crash of socialism in Eastern Europe coincided with the increase and acceleration of globalisation processes. This caused peculiar overlaps and interactions of effects and developments that differ with regard to certain realms of experience. When confronted with an unsettling globalised world in which conventional values and understandings are being challenged, people from Eastern Europe encounter these challenges with a vast amount of experience of living in countries with unstable political structures and social institutions, precarious economic perspectives, and uncertain moral and cultural ties. What the so-called transformation theory regarded as a transitional phenomenon specific to post-socialist Eastern European societies, are in fact realities that many industrial countries are now facing in times of global finance crises and EU austerity programmes. Southern European countries such as Spain, Greece or Italy, where we observe extremely high youth unemployment and youth migration, are just some examples of this situation. Therefore, the integration of the Eastern European experience into the field of youth studies can be used to gain a deeper and more differentiated understanding of the challenges that countries in the East as well as in the West face in times of globalisation. Rethinking youth Our understanding of youth cultures has been deeply affected by shifts in the common notion of the meanings of youth itself. Global developments after the end of the Cold War questioned the widely accepted understanding of youth as a limited transitional chapter of life between the end of school education and the beginning of steady employment, which is a rather specific understanding of the term, typical for the post-war period in Europe and North America (Wyn and White, 1997; Heath and Walker, 2012). Young people in a global world can no longer rely on a pre-set interim social status. In times of radical global change that results in multiple instabilities and uncertainties, life trajectories become increasingly complex, and so does Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Matthias Schwartz and Heike Winkel 5 the transition to adulthood. In academic research, this finds its reflection in an intense epistemological and methodological discussion, which aims to achieve a better understanding of the complexity of young people’s life and of ‘youth’ as a life stage. Sue Heath and Charles Walker have given an excellent account of the methodological innovations that new research can build upon within this field (Heath and Walker, 2012). In particular, recent studies have begun to examine the consequences of globalisation for the transition to adulthood in a cross-cultural perspective (Walther, 2006; Dolby and Fazal, 2008). Such research challenges the notion of youth as a ‘force of renewal’, established as early as 1904, when George Stanley Hall coined the phrase ‘storm and stress’. This notion has deeply informed social and cultural studies, which recognised the transnational existence of a life-stage distinguished by a strong wish to oppose established structures and to promote social and cultural change (Gidley, 2001). Lately, it has been increasingly questioned with regard to non-western cultures outside Europe and with regard to changing social premises (Hodkinson and Deike, 2007; Chandra, 2009). Regarding post-socialist Eastern Europe, this concept of youth seems to be particularly inadequate, not only because of the different status of young people in socialist societies (Riordan, 1989; Kelly, 2007; Beacháin and Polese, 2010), but precisely because of the aforementioned sweeping social changes that the countries have gone through over the last decades (Slowinski, 1999; Mitev, 2004; Róbert and Bukodi, 2005; Kuhar and Reiter, 2012; Kirmse, 2013). The work by Hillary Pilkington and her colleagues on cultural globalisation and Russian youth cultures (Pilkington et al., 2002), is a ground-breaking example of this more differentiated understanding of globalisation with regard to the Russian case. While on the one hand acknowledging strong West–East and core–periphery dynamics of cultural globalisation, Pilkington and her co-authors denied the total homogenisation of all regional differences in the wake of it. Instead, the authors described multiple ways of targeted and selective adoption of global cultural products into the local context. Pilkington then suggested that ‘Russia’s response to globalisation continues to throw up challenges to western hegemony’ (Pilkington et al., 2002, p. 226), precisely because of its understanding of the role it is playing in this process (see also Pilkington et al., 2010; Gololobov et al., 2014). Recent research efforts examine these diverse effects that globalisation has on young people in different countries, including Eastern Europe (Bagnall, 2005; Blossfeld et al., 2005). These effects are not necessarily aggravating. Ken Roberts (2002) suggests, for example, that globalisation did not necessarily make young people’s lives more insecure and immature. Instead, he argues, precisely because Eastern European youth conceived the transition as a liberation opening up new opportunities in individual freedom, mobility, education and welfare, they were eager to explore, and were, in fact, in an advantaged position compared to their western counterparts. Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 6 Introduction This argument opens up a further perspective for an unbiased reassessment of the Eastern European youth’s experience, acknowledging their proactive role, without conceptualising their life-stage as pre-set by certain social, cultural and imaginary conditions (see also Kovacheva, 2000; Kovachev and Chrisholm, 2002). This volume wishes to expand these research efforts to redefine Eastern Europe and to rethink youth and seeks to contribute to a more differentiated re-evaluation of cultural and political participation that some recent studies have begun to engage in (Loncle et al., 2012). This will serve a broader scope of perspectives, as Eastern European youth cultures refer to different patterns, traditions and understandings of participation than their western counterparts, grounded either in communist traditions or in dissident subcultures, for example. Vice versa, conformism or disaffection with politics or everyday life was regarded differently in Eastern Europe than in western countries. Starting from such re-evaluations of the Eastern European region and the conditions of youth in a globalised world, the book focuses on the cultural practices of young people in a broad sense. As used in this volume, ‘culture’ refers to the ways people make sense of common experiences, to strategies of identity building in a political, civic and social field, and to certain behavioural practices of acting, forms and significance of public participation. Accordingly, the volume emphasiaes four perspectives on youth cultures in Eastern Europe, outlined in four parts. Reconsidering generational change Part I features contributions that offer reflections on the way the notion of youth as an agent of change underlying the traditional concept of generations, coined by Karl Mannheim, is challenged in the Eastern European context. In ‘The End of Childhood and/or the Discovery of the Tineidzher?’ (Chapter 1), Catriona Kelly starts with a historical perspective by examining representations of childhood and youth in Soviet propaganda, arts and personal experience, which are typical for socialist concepts of youth. She works out a remarkable contradiction of a high visibility of youth, on the one hand, and an unspoken prohibition on the representation of puberty and adolescence on the other. It becomes apparent that in Soviet culture, youth is more an ideological concept symbolising vigour, power, vitality and future than a biological and sociological transition phase, connoted by the word ‘teenager’. In doing so, Kelly suggests that the Soviet experience can be used to challenge the western concept of youth as a distinct life phase determined by a high degree of individualisation and estrangement from established norms and institutions. From this perspective, socialist models of youth mobilisation cease to be seen as just a deviation from some western authentic ideals of youth. Instead, they shed light on some tendencies we Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Matthias Schwartz and Heike Winkel 7 can observe in post-socialist Eastern Europe that are also typical for contemporary post-industrial globalised societies in general, where individual career-building leads to an acceleration of life trajectories that challenges the possibility of maintaining a period of juvenile freedom and unconstrained experience. Ken Roberts, Christine Steiner and Herwig Reiter tackle these changed post-socialist life trajectories in more detail in arguing that generational experiences are becoming much more situation-dependent and less foreseeable. In ‘Youth Cultures and the Formation of a New Political Generation in Eastern Europe’ (Chapter 2), Roberts offers a macro-analysis of the effects that transformation processes in the wake of the crash of state socialist systems had on young people in Eastern European and Middle Asian countries. He reflects on the particular situation young people had to cope with in undergoing a double transformation: their personal puberty paralleled with the political transitions experienced by post-socialist societies, which have no historical precedent, from state-communism into (nominally) democratic members of the global market economy. From the perspective of research, this raises the question whether western sociology’s concepts and theories of youth are able to comprehend these novel circumstances. Roberts’s general conclusion is that they are, and that the notion of political generations is exemplary in this regard. Post-1989 Europe experienced increased and intensified processes of individual dis- and reorientation that undermined the process of generation building. While the generation of 1989 can be defined by a somewhat homogeneous shared experience, the heterogenic developments in the following period brought about a high degree of pluralism in regard to young people, with various degrees of estrangement from and engagement in their countries’ politics. Yet as Roberts reminds us with regard to the twentieth-century Western European experience, this disaffection of young people with political activism may undermine confidence in and the legitimacy of existing political elites and their policies as well. This, however, might give way to the development of a new political generation, which creates new policies and brings forth political change. Christine Steiner’s and Herwig Reiter’s chapter ‘Fast Forward to Capitalism? Accelerated Youth in Post-Socialism’ (Chapter 3), complements Ken Roberts’s macro-sociological perspective with a comparative empirical analysis of two young men from Lithuania and East Germany, two countries that shared several decades of real socialism before entering very different societal trajectories of establishing institutions and cultures of capitalist market democracies. The authors suggest that young people showed a great ability to adapt to the conditions of accelerated change by being extremely flexible in creating fast and steady career paths. The concept of accelerated youth they are proposing brings an innovative feature to the transformation paradigm by rejecting the idea of Eastern European youth as trying to catch up with their western contemporaries. In addition, ‘accelerated youth’ Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 8 Introduction may serve as a scientific tool to describe not only Eastern European experiences, but youth biographies in a contemporary globalised marked economy in general. In any case, it adds to the reconsidering of Eastern European youth cultures the important notion that the majority of young people undergo this age period without being part of political movements, social organisations or (sub)cultural scenes. The last two chapters of Part I look more closely at the cultural implications of these non-political life trajectories and how they change the notion of what Mannheim would have called ‘generation in actuality’ and ‘generational consciousness’, which nowadays constitutes itself in ‘unconscious’ traumatic ways. Papović and Pejović deal with the ambivalent relationship between mainstream und underground cultures in two successive postsocialist generations of young people. In their contribution ‘Revival without Nostalgia: The “Dizel” Movement, Serbian 1990s Cultural Trauma and Globalised Youth Cultures’ (Chapter 4), they provide an analysis of the revival of Dizel as a movement that developed in the post-war Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the 1990s and served as an embodiment of the country’s nationalist ideology. Its members promoted a Mafioso fashion style, listened to the newly constituted music genre ‘turbo-folk’ and ideologically mobilised Serbian nationalistic stereotypes against others in former Yugoslavia. About ten years later, in the post-Yugoslavian Serbia of the new century, Dizel had an enormously successful revival amongst youth and became a sort of ‘mainstream subculture’. Papović and Pejović undertake an analysis of the reasons for this comeback and show how the estrangement with politics in actuality not only shifts the perception and performance of cultural legacies, but also enables popular cultures to transform ideological narratives. Following the general dynamics of floating youth styles and fashions in a globalised present, youth cultures thus unconsciously may contribute to the failure of a local – in this case Serbian – society to cope with the cultural trauma caused by the wars. Tamara Hundorova develops a similar argument in regard to the vanishing constellations that might constitute a ‘generational experience’. In her chapter ‘Symptom of the Loser and the Melancholy of the Post-Soviet Generation’, she analyses the trans-generational effect of post-Soviet trauma in contemporary Ukrainian literature, as evidenced in the symptomatic literary character of the ‘loser’. The loser’s ‘sick body’ emerges as a widespread phenomenon in Ukrainian youth prose during the 2000s, and characterises how the post-Soviet generation identifies itself. As a symptomatic phenomenon, the loser indicates the presence of a direct link between social collapse and an individual’s somatic states, and simultaneously stages the crisis of communication between generations, characteristic of post-socialist youth. The melancholy connected to the sick body prompts characters to adopt the mask of the loser, reflecting ressentiment, homelessness and a reluctance to enter the adult world. The loser thus in a way appears to be the inverted Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Matthias Schwartz and Heike Winkel 9 mirror image of ‘accelerated youth’, when even dramatic political events such as the ‘Orange Revolution’ or the ‘Euromaidan’ are unable to constitute a common ‘generational consciousness’, because, similar to the Dizel movement, the loser perceives ‘generational change’ as just another extravagant game of traumatic post-socialist experiences. Popular belongings: Subcultural places and globalised spaces Part II analyses forms and functions of popular youth cultures in the postsocialist realm. This includes the emergence and development of local formations, participation in and resistance against the forces of globalised trends, the engagement with western popular youth cultures as well as the role of former underground dissident subcultures in the contemporary context. The first two chapters present globalised youth cultures such as hip hop and football fanatics and show how their local belongings and subcultural codes and practices are reshaped in relation to mainstream culture and commercial business. Anna Oravcová’s analysis in ‘ “Rap on Rap Is Sacred”: The Appropriation of Hip Hop in the Czech Republic’ (Chapter 6), gives insight into the practices, styles and attitudes of this fairly new post-socialist subculture, dating its origin back to 1993. Based on in-depth interviews with Czech rappers, content analysis of their lyrics, and participant observation, this chapter explores the different forms of appropriation of hip hop in the Czech Republic and thereby contests the notion of simple mimetic cultural imports from the USA into the post-socialist realm, instead emphasising a highly self-confident approach with regard to local standards and needs. Oravcová outlines the discourse evolving around the proper mode and status of hip hop music as mainstream or underground culture. Authenticity becomes the crucial discursive tool in these debates of who is or is not a ‘true’ hip-hopper. However, Czech hip hop is for the most part performed by white middle-class men who mostly depict quite traditional and stereotypical notions of femininity and masculinity, especially in the form adopted by right-wing organisations. At the same time, however, political activists, social workers and educators are trying to spread hip hop among Roma youth in order to reach out to them. By doing so, members of the Czech hip hop culture engage in exactly the same discussions that we find in the West about the question of the authenticity of youth subcultures in the wake of their commodification and commercialisation. Football as a site of subcultural practice is also subject to rapid commercialisation. In their chapter ‘Flaming Flares, Football Fanatics and Political Rebellion: Resistant Youth Cultures in Late Capitalism’ (Chapter 7), Dominik Antonowicz, Radosław Kossakowski and Tomasz Szlendak explore the phenomenon of football fanatics in the light of rapid political, economic and cultural modernisation, with a particular focus on the rapid Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 10 Introduction transformation of Polish football caused by the organisation of the Euro2012 championship. The authors examine football fanatics and their rebellious subculture as a form of resistance in the period of late capitalism. To characterise this change, the authors introduce the concept of social ‘archipelagos’, which, in contrast to traditional subcultures, describe a much shallower, less engaging and softer notion of belonging that refers to lifestyles rather than values. By doing so, the chapter explores various aspects of the clash between traditional football subculture dominated by working-class youth, the fragmented subworlds in archipelagos, and the transnational forces of commercialisation that have ‘colonised’ football since the beginning of the 1990s. While overall youth’s social space is fragmented into various distinctive lifestyles, the football stadium remains one of the few places in which many different young people share their subcultural belongings together. The subsequent chapters provide a closer look at these fragmented belongings in a globalised world, which occur when traditional subcultural codes of authenticity or resistance fail to constitute distinctive underground heroes or rebellious subjectivities. In ‘Everything Feels Bad: Figurations of the Self in Contemporary Eastern European Literature’ (Chapter 8), Matthias Schwartz offers an analysis of Eastern Europe’s frustration prose by young authors born in the 1970s and 1980s, written in the first decade of the twenty-first century in Poland, Russia and Ukraine. What is common to most of their literary protagonists is a general feeling of bewilderment, desperation and loneliness that dominates their daily lives, which in Poland, for instance, was discussed within national media as being typical of the so-called Generation Nothing. Through an analysis of the literary works of Dorota Masłowska, Mirosław Nahacz, Irina Denezhkina and Serhiy Zhadan in particular, the chapter shows that their heroes feel bad because of a double paradoxical figuration of the self: on the one hand, they still long for the ideals of young outsiders, of rebels without a cause and of the angry, wild men and women canonised in western pop culture, but at the same time the heroes’ re-enactments of globalised modes, styles and subcultures do not fit into the post-socialist reality of social fragmentation and the neo-liberal market economy they live in. Frustration prose thus serves as a means to articulate the ambivalent feelings and to offer imaginary negotiations and reinventions of adolescent identities. Alfrun Kliems presents another case of the shifting notion of underground belongings and subcultural subjectivities in a globalised world in ‘ “Bright reference point of our youth”: Bondy, Podsiadło and the Redefinition of the Underground’ (Chapter 9). She offers an analysis of Jacek Podsiadło’s essay Podróż dzi˛ekczynno-błagalna, totalna i realistyczna do świ˛etych relikwii Egona Bondy’ego (A Grateful Pilgrimage in the Style of Total Realism to the Holy Relic of Egon Bondy) (2008), reading it as a fictionalised reflection on the continuity and discontinuity between the underground and pop culture, both of which figure here as potentially subversive forms of Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Index Note: Locators followed by the letter ‘n’ refer to notes. acceleration, see social acceleration Act on Mass Events Security, 137, 139 Ad Marginem press, 218 adolescence cinematic portrayal of, 30–1 in lived experience, 36–8 physical side of, 29–30 in the post-Stalin era, 27–33 tineidzher, 33–5 Afanasyev, Yuri, 190 Afrika Bambaataa, 112, 117 Akishin, Askold, 318 Aksenov, Vasily, 27 Alekseeva, Lyudmila, 186 alienation, 78 aliens and Polittusovka, 247 All-Russian Association of People’s Patrols’ (Vserosiiskaya assotsiaciya druzhin), 276, 279, 280 Amadeus, Rambo, 83 American hip hop culture, 121 anarchist marches of 1994-1995, 220 Anarchy in the UKR (Zhadan), 150 Andel (Angel) (Topol), 168 Andrukhovych, Iurii, 100 Andrusiak, Ivan, 95 Angel Mafia, 127n10 Ankersmit, Frank, 106 anti-capitalism, 257 anti-electoral protests, 249–50 anti-fascism, 257 anti-feminism in Euromaidan protest movement, 211–12 anti-feminist graffiti, 211 Antinacionalizam (Jansen), 91n4 Apokalypsa (Apocalypse), 122 Arab Spring, 294 Arendt, Hannah, 99, 236 Argumenty i Fakty, 194 Asanova, Dinara, 30 Asarov, Mykola, 202 Aseev, Georgy, 31–2 atomised society, 134 authenticity defined, 115 hip hop, 115–18 authoritarian welfare state model, 64 Avangard Krasnoi Molodezhi (AKM) (Vanguard of Red Youth), 192 Babintseva, Natalia, 318 baby boomers, 57 in western Europe, 58 Balter, Boris, 27 Bandera, Stephan, 302 Banderists, 302 Baranczak, Stanislaw, 163 Baranov, Lev, 189 The Bathing of the Red Horse, 27 Bauman, Zygmunt, 281 Beat Generation, 104 Beat Street, 111 Begi za mnoi (Follow Me) movement, 186 Belgrade, 54 Belkovsky, S., 304 Berlin Wall, 64 Besy (Dostoevsky), 229 big bang effect, 64, 76–8 Bigg Boss, 118 Big mak (Big Mac) (Zhadan), 145, 150 Binsvanger, Ludwig, 105 Birk, Bodo, 317 ‘black hundred’ (chernosotentsy) paramilitary groups, 272 Bohomolez, Olha, 213 Bokhan, Sergey, 280 Bolshevik Party, 272 Bolsheviks, 178 Bondarenko, Vladimir, 219 361 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 362 Index Bondy, Egon, 11, 163–4 early life, 163 literary appropriation, 167–8 poetics, 164 Bonnie and Clyde, 167 A Book for Parents (Makarenko), 26 Bourdieu, Pierre, 230 Boys Running Out of a Water-Course, 27 Braidotti, Rosi, 98 Brasseur, Caroline, 317 ‘Brate minli’ (Dear Bro’), 85 Brave New World (Huxley), 147 Brezhnev, Leonid, 33, 179, 349 BRICs (Brazil, Russia, India and China), 59 ‘brigades of police assistance’ (brigady pomoshchi militsii), 272 British Council, 316 bruLion, 162, 171 Brynykh, Mykhailo, 101, 104 Bucholtz, Mary, 319 ‘businessman’ type rap music, 127n8 Bykov, Dmitrii, 224 BZhD (Ushkalov), 101, 102–3 capitalism, shock-therapy, 179 The Catcher in the Rye (Salinger), 34 catch-up modernisation, 64 Center of Contemporary Art Vinzavod, 316 Central News, 89 Centre for Youth Studies, 257 Chang, Lukrecius, 117, 120 Chaozz, 119 Chernenko, Konstantin, 181 childhood phase of life in Soviet Union, 22–4 choice biography, 68 A Chronicle of Military Actions (Akishin), 318 Chuprov, V., 255 cinema, and adolescence sexuality, 30–1 Civic Chamber of the Russian Federation, 296 civic engagement, 256 solidarity approach, 13–14 youth culture and, 13–16 Civil Assistance, 328 Civil War, 178 Clark, Katerina, 222–3, 227 Codex of Marriage, the Family, and Care for Children, 23 cohorts of East Europeans, 58 Cold War tensions, 181 collectivism, 257 ‘Colour Revolution,’ 177, 184, 194 Medvedev and, 179–81 Putin and, 179–81 comic books, 319 comics from around the world for respect and props, 320–2 commodification, 116 Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), 349 communication face-to-face, 240 mediated, 240 communism, 49, 272 collapse of, 55 Communist Initiative, 33 Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), 178 plenary session of, 178 XIX Party Conference of, 190 Communist Party of the USSR, 255 Communist Party raids, 254 conscious rap music, 121 conservative gender ideologies, 339 consumerism, 257, 260, 351 contemporary youth opposition, many shades of, 190–3 Cool Kids of Death, 146 Cossack patrol groups, 271 Coupland, Douglas, 82, 97 Crewní skupina, 117 Crimea annexation by Russia, 1 The Crime that Changed Serbia, 87 cultural globalisation, 5, 340–2 cultural trauma defined, 88 Serbia, 88–90 culture Eastern Europe, 51–4 Serbian, and transition, 89 culture shock, 70 Czaplinski, Przemyslaw, 162 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Index Czech Republic ethnicity and hip hop, 113 gender and hip hop, 122–4 hip hop subculture, 111–19 mainstream vs. underground hip hop, 114–19 rap music, 119–22 right-wing extremism and rap music, 124–5 Daj mne! (Denezhkina), 145, 152 Danylenko, Volodymyr, 95 Dayton Agreement, 84 Deineka, Aleksandr, 27 De la Negra, 121, 127n10 Democracy in America (de Tocqueville), 131 Democratic Opposition of Serbia (DOS), 88 Denezhkina, Irina, 152 Depeche Mode (Zhadan), 150 depersonalised politics, 240 Deresh, Lyubko, 101, 104, 150 Detektor, 123 de Tocqueville, Alexis, 131 Diederichsen, Diedrich, 168 digital communication technologies, 295 Diktatura, nacija, globalizacija (Dictatorship, Nation, Globalisation) (Djurkovic), 84 ‘Dima Yakovlev Law,’ 237 Diuk, Nadia, 177 Dizel’ movement birth of, 81 end of, 81 as a field of political articulation, 83–5 and music, 83–5 Nike Air Max trainers and, 86 revival of, 81–2, 85–7 subculture, 85, 86 DJ Fatte, 117, 119 Djindjic, Zoran, 86 DJ Kool Herc, 112, 117 Djurkovic, Misa, 84 Dobrokhotov, Roman, 191–3 Dochki-materi, 37 donor-funded associations, 350 Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 229 ‘Drawing The Court’ (Risuem Sud), 326 363 Dr Iggy, 84 Drózdz, Mateusz, 137 Drugaia Rossiia, 220 drug trafficking, 263 Dvizhenie protiv nelegalnoy immigratsii (DPNI) (Movement Against Illegal Immigration), 192 Eastern Europe career groups, 49–50 changes after 1989, 46–8 cohorts, 58 countries’ international agreements, 54 culture, 51–4 economic cultures, 48–51 generational change, 6–9 globalisation and, 3–4 labour markets, 48–51 new political generations, 57–60 political participation and, 51–4 private education in, 50–1 redefining, 3–4 transition theory and, 3–4 Western theories and concepts, 54–7 youth cultures in, 2–3 East Germany, 65 controlled acceleration in, 72–6 as European Union member, 65 Generation Zero, 72 German Unity problems, 66 post-socialist transformation, 65 Eco, Umberto, 219 economic cultures career groups, 49–50 Eastern Europe, 48–51 economic inequalities, 178 Edinaya Rossiya (United Russia), 191 education image of, 239–41 Polittusovka and, 239–41 Education Act, 56 educational feminism, 209 Ekstraklasa, 140 Ektor, 123 Elektronnyi plastylin (Electronic Plasticine) (Brynykh), 101, 104 eLKa, 122 EMI, 119 Enlightenment, 3 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 364 Index Ermakov, Igor, 318 Erofeev, Andrei, 326 The Escape (Velitov), 323, 325 ET – Electro Team, 83 Euro2012, 136 Euromaidan protest movement, 203 anti-feminism in, 211–12 images of women in, 205–6 new gender concepts in, 206–11 Euromaidan protests, 12 Europe post-socialist transformations, 64 European Union (EU), 15, 45, 202, 301, 304, 311, 316, 329, 344 integration, 59 membership by Eastern European countries, 52 Eurovision Song Contest, 207 EU-Russia Cultural Co-operation Initiatives Programme, 322–3 Evoluce vedomí (Evolution of Consciousness), 121 extreme individualism, 352 Facebook, 295 face-to-face communication, 240 see also communication Fadeev, Aleksandr, 219 Fantová, Jana, 317 fascism, 185, 229 Faskhutdinova, Tatyana, 329 Fathers and Sons (Turgenev), 222 Federation Council, 185 The Female Faces of Revolution, 205 Femen, 204, 212 feminism, 203, 212 FIFA, 138 50 khvylyn travy (50 Minutes of Grass ) (Karpa), 101, 102 flares banning bu UEFA, 139, 140 as a symbol of rebellion, 139–42 Flaubert, Gustave, 230 Foggy Fogosh, 117 football, 9–10 stadium and Poland politics, 135–7 football fanatics and banning of flares, 139 cultural practice, 141 Poland, history, 132–3 vs. the government, 137–9 Forbidden Art (Lomasko and Nikolaev), 326 Forgotten Songs About What’s Important, 260 Foucault, Michel, 21, 278 Fraser, Nancy, 236 French student riots, 191 Frustracja: Mlodzi o Nowym Wspanialym Swiecie, 147 Fulbright Ukraine, 205–6 Fursenko, Andrei, 184 Gagarin, Yuri, 261 ‘Games of Thrones,’ 312 Gavrilovic, Ivan, 84 Gazeta Wyborcza, 146 gender concepts in Ukrainian society, 203–5 equality, 203, 207, 257 Euromaidan protest movement and, 206–11 and hip hop, 122–4 inequality, 213 gendered social roles, 213 ‘Generacja Nic’ (Generation Nothing), 146 generational change, 6–9 generational identity, 94 in Ukrainian literature, 95 generational solidarity, 95 Generation P (Pelevin), 96, 179 Generation Praktikum (‘generation internship’), 344 Generation R, 82 Generation T, 82 generation theory, 256 Generation X, 82, 97 generation Y, 58 generation Z, 58 Generation Zero, 14, 72, 294–6, 308 ghettos, 120 Gimn demokratychnoi molodi (Hymn of the Democratic Youth) (Zhadan), 145 Gipsy, 120 Gipsy.cz, 120 glasnost, 178, 187 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Index glass of water model of sexual relations, 24, 39n8 Glazunov, 301 Global Gender Gap Index Ukraine in, 204 globalisation, 256, 336–41, 345–6 cultural, 5 Eastern Europe and, 3–4 youth culture and, 3, 4–6 glocalisation, 113 The Godfather, 87 Goethe-Institut Moscow, 316 Golubovic, Kristijan, 84 Goodbye, Lads (Balter), 27 Góra, Konrad, 171 Gorbachev, M. S., 178–9, 182, 187, 190, 273 Górecki, Tadeusz, 132 Gor’kii, Maksim, 12, 218–19, 225 government-social-engineering schemes, 284 government-sponsored collective associations, 282 graffiti, 115 ‘graphic reportage’ (graficheskiy reportazh), 327 Gravett, Paul, 317 Grazian, D., 115 ‘Great Family,’ 224 Griesinger, Wilhelm, 104 Gulin, Igor, 327 Hahn, G. M., 178 Half-Way to the Moon (Aksenov), 27 Hall, George Stanley, 5, 56 Hänninen, Ville, 317 ‘hashtag clogging,’ 298 Havel, Vaclav, 104 Heath, Sue, 5 Hebdige, Dick, 85 Herasymyuk, Vasyl’, 97 Herbert, Zbigniew, 163 Himmler, Heinrich, 162 hip hop, 9 authenticity, 115–16 birth of, 112 and clothing style, 115 and gender, 122–4 and graffiti, 115 mainstream vs. underground, 114–19 365 Rytmus, 115 and tagging, 115 as a transnational youth culture, 112–13 uses of, 116 Hip-Hop in Europe, 113 Hip Hop Kemp, 111 hippies, 254 Hitler, Adolf, 302 Holert, Tom, 171 Holoborod’ko, Vasyl’, 97 Holocaust, 94 household-based production, 339 How the Steal was Tempered (Ostrovski), 326 Hundorova, Tamara, 146 Huxley, Aldous, 147 Idiot, 119 Idushchie bez Putina (Walking without Putin), 190 Idushchie vmeste (Marching Together) movement, 183, 297 Il’insky, Igor, 179 illegal immigration, 263 ‘I Love the Nineties’ festival, 86 Ilyinsky, I., 255 individualism, 257 industrial fans, 136 institutional acceleration impact on Lithuania, 67–72 social acceleration and, 69 intergenerational tensions, 353 international agreements, 54 International Monetary Fund, 54 International Women’s Day, 202 Internet, in Russia aggression and humour, 306–8 battle for Runet, 296–300 case of ‘Crimea Is Ours,’ 300–2 description of the study, 295–6 overview, 293–5 propaganda in new media, 308–10 working with the language of description, 302–6 Invalidní sourozenci (Bondy), 163 Ioganson, Boris, 27 Iorsh, Aleksei, 318, 321 Iron Curtain, 3 Islam, 345 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 366 Index Islamic activism, 337 Isova, Maria, 322 Ivanov, Aleksandr, 218 Ivanovic, Ivan, 85 Ivan the Terrible, 237 Izdryk, Iurii, 100 Izvestiya, 31, 181–2 ‘Jak Jinak,’ 123 Jansen, Stef, 91n4 Jaric, Isidora, 82 Jeffries, M. P., 116 Juice, see Ivanovic, Ivan juvenile sexuality, 24 Juventus Turin, 132 Karpa, Irena, 101, 102 Kataev, S. L., 188 Kato, 119 Kazakhstan social and economic polarisation in, 348 Khabarovsk militia group, 277 Khikhus (Pavel Sukhikh), 316, 318, 320 Khodorkovsky, Mikhail, 326 Khrushchev, Nikita, 272–3 Khryushi protiv (Piglets Against), 186 Kill Bill, 167 King, Beatrice, 25 Kislorod (Oxygen) (Vyrypaev), 103 Komiksisty (Russian comics artists), 318 KomMissia comics festival, 15, 316–17 Komsomol, 40n23, 179, 181, 187, 272 demise of the, 33 failures of, 11–12 questionnaire, 27 socialisation, 182 survey, 29 XX Congress of, 183 youth in, 181–3 on youth life-stage, 56 Komsomol operational brigades (Komsomol’skie operativnye brigady), 273 Komsomol’skaya Pravda, 185 Kon, I., 255 Kopyt, Szczepan, 171 Korean youth culture (K-pop), 259 Kornhauser, Julian, 163 Korotich, Vitali, 190 Kostenko, Dmitry, 220 Kostunica, Vojislav, 86 Kovaleva, A., 255 Kozhevnikov, Igor, 318 ‘Krása zeny,’ 123 Kristina Potupchik (‘Krispotupchik’), 296 Krokodil, 178 KRS-One, 117 Kryshtanovskaya, Olga, 299 Kuhr-Korolev, C., 178 Kul’t (Cult) (Deresh), 101, 104 Kurbin, C. E., 123 Kyrgyz Republic, 54 Kyrgyzstan capitalist market conditions in, 355 intergenerational tensions in, 353 labour migration in, 349 religious preachers and movements in, 353 sex in, 353 social and economic polarisation in, 348 labour markets Eastern Europe, 48–51 labour migration, 336, 349–51 The Lads, 30 Laocoon (Veller), 37 Lechia Gdansk, 132 Legko li byt’ molodym?, 188 Leningrad Prospekt, 192 Lennon, John, 103, 104, 149–51 Lent, John, 320 Lenta.ru, 300 lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) rights, 212, 237, 247 Levinson, A., 300 L’Histoire de la sexualité (Foucault), 21 Limonka, 221 Limonov, Eduard, 186, 218–19, 221, 225, 246 Lipovetskii, Mikhail, 219, 228 Lisovsky, V., 255 literary autism, 99 literature Denezhkina, 152–3 Nahacz, 153–6 portraying the frustration of Polish youth, 145–9 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Index youth, and post-Soviet identity, 98–9 Zhadan, 149–51 Lithuania, 65 institutional acceleration impact on, 67–72 post-socialist transformation, 65 youth transition system in, 66 Lomasko, Viktoria, 318, 326–9 Looking West, 262 loserdom, 103 Lukov, V., 255 Luzhkov, Jurii, 274 Lysheha, Oleh, 97 Lyubtsev, Yuri, 189 Mafia Records, 121 mainstream hip hop described, 117 hip hop authenticity, 115–16 vs. underground hip hop, 114–19 Majk Spirit, 121 Makarenko, Anton, 26, 31 Makarenko, Oleg, 296 Maliszewski, Karol, 163 managed democracy, 55 Mannheim, Karl, 6, 57–8, 284 generational identity, 94 market economy, 64, 254 Maslov, Nikolai, 318 Maslowska, Dorota, 147 May Day demonstrations, 222, 227 McAlister, Matthew, 325 MC Gey, 119 McHammer, 84 MC Metodej, 121 Mead, Margaret, 37, 56 media image of, 239–41 Polittusovka and, 239–41 Russian youth and, 15 mediated communication, 240 see also communication Medvedev, Dmitry, 181, 186, 297 and ‘Colour Revolution,’ 179–81 use of militia and, 284 youth as political vanguard and, 181 melancholy, 104 Merton, Robert, 88 Militarev, Viktor, 184 militarism, 257 367 Miloserdie (Compassion), 188 Milosevic, Slobodan, 81, 84 Milosz, Czeslaw, 163 Mironenko, Viktor, 182 Mironov, Sergey, 185 Mochanov, Oleksiy, 207, 210 modern sport, 136 modern youth solidarities discourse contexts of, 258–64 Molodaya Gvardiya (Young Guard), 183 see also Nashi (Ours) movement ‘moral panic,’ 274 moral panicking, 254 Morozov, Alexander, 304 Morris, Paul D., 227 Moscow Centre for Prison Reform, 327 Moscow city people’s patrol base (Moskovskii gorodskoj shtab narodnykh druzhin), 274 Moscow Institute of International Relations, 191 ‘Moscow Spring,’ 189 Moscow State University, 189 Moscow University of Printing Arts, 327 The Mother (Gor’kii), 12, 218–32 after Stiob, 219–21 chronotopic construction of a controversial novel, 226–9 conception of revolutionary youth in, 218–32 transformation of a revolutionary martyr into an apocalyptic ‘rebel without a cause,’ 221–6 Motivace k cinum (Motivation to Action), 121 ‘Moudrost hip-hopu,’ 117 MTV, 84 Mukhina, Elena, 32 music and Dizel’ movement, 83–5 ‘turbo-folk,’ 83 and Yugoslavia breakup, 83 My!, 193 myth of Berehynia, 205 Nahacz, Miroslaw, 146, 153–6 Narcostop, 263 Nas, 117 Nasha pobeda, 185 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 368 Index Nashi (Ours) movement, 180, 183, 246, 262–3, 297 youth and, 183–7 see also Molodaya Gvardiya (Young Guard) Nashi patriotic slogans, 262 Nashi youth patrols, 283 Natasha Nesterova on a Garden Bench, 27 National Bolshevik Party (NBP), 218–20, 224, 229 National Bolshevist Party, 12 National Center of Contemporary Art Yekaterinburg, 316 National Corpus of the Russian Language, 34 National Endowment for Democracy, 177 ‘national feminism,’ 205, 213 nationalism, 203, 257, 353 National Strategy Institute, 184 NATO, 54 Natsional-sotsialisticheskoe obshchestvo (National Socialist Movement), 193 Navalny, Alexei, 300 Nazi rap, 124 Nedelya, 31, 32 neformaly youth and, 187–90 Nemtsov, Boris, 186 Nemyrych, Iurko, 100 neo-fascism, 316 Nesterov, Mikhail, 27 new political generations, 57–60 Eastern Europe, 57–60 Mannheim on, 57 New Realism, 221 New Sincerity, 221 ‘New Wave’ (Nowa Fala), 163 ‘Night of Women’s Solidarity’ campaign, 212 Nikolaev, Anton, 326 Nitzsche, Sina, 113 Nival, 310 nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), 180 Novaya Gazeta, 185 Novy prostor, 119 Nowy Nurt, 163 obobshchenie (‘specific practices of communication’), 319 Oborona (Defence), 191, 193, 246 Obozov, Mikhail, 190 obshchestvennaya palata (public chamber), 180 Obshchina (Community), 188 ‘Oci boje duge’ (’Rainbow Coloured Eyes), 84 October Revolution, 27, 181 ‘offended patriotism,’ 262 Ogonek, 190 Oleg Makarenko (‘Fritsmorgen’), 296 Olha Kobylianska Women’s Hundred, 205–6 The Olsen Gang, 167 Onyshko, Olha, 205 opinion makers, 91n4 Orange Revolution, 2, 9, 12, 183, 185, 190–3, 202–3, 297, 304, 311 Orion, 118 Orthodox Church, 271 Osh, Kyrgyzstan category of ‘post-socialist youth’ and the case of, 346–55 everyday life and cultural globalisation, 340–2 everyday life in, 338–40 experiences of youth towards global convergence, 342–6 introducing, 337–8 mass violence in, 338 Osiem cztery (Nahacz), 146, 153–6 Ostrovski, Nikolai, 219, 326 ‘The Other Russia’ movement, 246 ‘Our Revolution,’ 184 pacifism, 257 Pamyat’ (Remembering) movement, 188 Panuhnik, Ruslana, 209 participants in Polittusovka, 244–6 Parubiy, Andriy, 210 patriotic education, 261 patriotic programmes, 262 patriotism, 203, 264 Pavlovsky, Gleb, 184, 189 Paw królowej (Maslowska), 147 Pelevin, Viktor, 96, 179 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Index ‘People’s Patrols – A Forgotten Traditional Form,’ 278 perestroika, 177 and new freedoms, 178–9 youth and, 178 Perverziya (Perversion) (Andrukhovych), 100 Petrov-Vodkin, Kuz’ma, 27 Phillips, S. D., 203–4, 210–11 Pilkington, Hillary, 5 Podnieks, Juris, 188 Podoroga, Valerii, 99 “Podróz dziekczynno-blagalna, totalna i realistyczna do swietych relikwii Egona Bondy’ego,” 10 Podsiadlo, Jacek, 10–11, 161–2 early life, 162 literary appropriation of, 167–8 and poetics of the underground, 164–5 writing style, 162–3 Zycie, a zwlaszcza smierc Angeliki de Sancé, 165–7 ‘poet’ type rap music, 127n8 Poklonskaya, Natalia, 309–10 Poland, 52 alcohol ban and mass events, 138 consumer culture among youth, 134–5 football fandom in, 132–3 football stadium and politics, 135–7 government vs. football fanatics, 137–9 industrial fans, 136 social archipelagos, 134 youth, 133–5 Poliovi doslidzhennia z ukraïns’koho seksu (Zabuzhko), 100 Polit-gramota discussion club, 13 ‘Polit-gramota’ (Political Literacy), 235–8 polit-gramota.ru, 241 political activism, 11–13 Eastern European countries and, 53 Euromaidan protests, 12 Orange Revolution, 12 political change youth and, 187–90 political participation Eastern Europe and, 51–4 politicians views of Eastern European youth on, 53 369 politics depersonalised, 240 image of, 239–41 Polittusovka and, 239–41 Polittusovka, 235–50 aliens, 247 ‘alternative’ and the specificities of youth, 238–9 community/solidarity/public and, 242–4 development of the public space, 247–8 image of the traditional institutions (politics, education, media), 239–41 overview, 235–6 participants, 244–6 ‘Polit-gramota,’ 236–8 professional socialisation, 241–2 public space as a resource centre, 249–50 Polkowski, Jan, 163 post-socialist transformations East Germany, 65 in Europe, 64 Lithuania, 65 social acceleration, 65 post-Soviet generation, 96–8 asocial attitudes, 104–5 extravagance and, 105 post-Soviet homelessness, 105–6 post-Soviet Russia public discourse and volunteer militias in, 271–2 post-traumatic adaptations, 88 Potkin, Aleksandr, 192–3 Potupchik, Kristina, 296 practical schools, 121 ‘pragmatic feminism,’ 205 Prago Union, 119 Pravoe delo, 247, 249 predatel.net, 306 premature puberty, 35 Prilepin, Zakhar, 12, 218, 220, 223, 225, 230 rhetorical strategy of popular sentiment, 219–21 ‘Prime World’ online game, 310 pro-European protest movement, 202 professional socialisation, 241–2 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 370 Index pro-governmental internet propagandists, 306 pro-Kremlin movements, 180 Przekrój, 171 PSH, 118 puberty, 23 in early Soviet Union, 24–7 public space development of, 247–8 as a resource centre, 249–50 Pulka, Tomasz, 171 punks, 254 Pussy Riot protests, 2, 266, 299 Putin, Vladimir, 178, 180–3, 220, 297, 304 and ‘Colour Revolution,’ 179–81 Ukrainian crisis and, 304–5 youth and, 178 youth as political vanguard and, 181 racism, 316 ‘Radio Television Serbia,’ 89 Raleigh, Donald, 281 rap music, 9, 116 ‘businessman’ type, 127n8 conscious, 121 Czech Republic and Roma community, 119–22 ‘poet’ type, 127n8 and right-wing extremism, 124–5 ‘trueschooler’ type, 127n8 rappers, 116 Rasputin, Valentin, 29–30 Reagan, Ronald, 181, 189 Red Blood (Ermakov and Kozhevnikov), 318 Red Guard militias, 272 Rekreatsii (Recreations) (Andrukhovych), 100 religious fundamentalism, 353 ‘Respect: Comics from Around the World,’ 15 ressentiment, 102 Rest, 117, 119 retreatism defined, 88–9 Serbian official politics and, 88–90 Revolta, 121–2, 123 revolution of dignity, 2 Revolution of Dignity, 207 Rhyme Street Squad, 117 RIA Novosti, 300 right-wing extremism and rap music, 124–5 Ritzer, George, 113 Robert, Kenneth, 222–3 Rodionov, V., 255 ‘rodstvo’ (kinship), 225 Roma community and Czech rap music, 119–22 discrmination against, 120 and hip hop, 121 and practical schools, 121 ‘Romano Hip-Hop,’ 120 Romanov, Panteleimon, 24–5, 33 Romeo and Juliet, 29 Rosa, Hartmut, 65 ‘Rosmolodezh,’ 296 Rossiya molodaya, 276, 277, 279, 280, 283 Rozumnyi, Maksim, 95 Ruchkin, B., 255 Rudol’fio (Rasputin), 29–30 The Rules of Art (Bourdieu), 230 Rumyantsev, Dmitry, 193 Runet, 293, 294, 296–300 Lenta.ru, 300 RIA Novosti, 300 Russia, 177 accession of Crimea to, 294 annexation of Crimea, 1 response to globalisation, 5 sociological work carried out in, 351–2 Ukraine and, 1 Russian Army, 305 Russian comics social activism in, 326–9 Russian nationalism, 218 Russian National Unity (Russkoe natsional’noe edinstvo), 220 Russian Orthodox Church, 258, 261, 324 Russian Run, 263 Russian State Duma, 299 Russian Union of Youth, 33 Russian volunteer militias external benefits, 276–9 history and context for, 272–4 internal benefits, 279–82 overarching developments in, 274–6 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Index public discourse and, 271–2 as a topic of debate, 282–4 ‘Russian Winter,’ 193 Russian youth comics from around the world for respect and props, 320–2 complications, 322–6 extremism, 318–20 media and, 15 social activist comics and, 316–29 social media and, 14 Russian youth experience current agenda of western subcultural/postsubcultural debate and, 257–8 Rytmus, 115 Saakashvili, Michail, 186 Said, Edward, 301 Sakharov, Andrei, 190 Sakharov Museum and Community Centre, 326 Salinger, J. D., 34 Samodurov, Yuriy, 326 San’kia (Prilepin), 12, 218–32 chronotopic construction of a controversial novel, 226–9 rhetorical strategy of popular sentiment, 219–21 transformation of a revolutionary martyr into an apocalyptic ‘rebel without a cause,’ 221–6 Scarface, 87 scarf boys (szalikowcy), 133 Scheler, Max, 102 Scott, James, 284 S.C.U.R (South City Underground Rappers), 117 Second World War, 94, 301, 302–3 See You in the Obituary, 87 selling out concept, 118 A Sentimental Education (Flaubert), 230 Serbia cultural politics, 89 cultural production, 89 cultural trauma, 88–90 decrease in gross domestic product (GDP), 86 ‘Dizel’ movement, 81–2, 83–5 Generation R, 82 Generation T, 82 Generation X, 82 popular culture, 83 socio-political affairs in, 88 ‘turbo-folk’ music, 83 Seryoga (rapper), 341 Sestra (City Sister Silver) (Topol), 168 sex education, 31 Sex in the Soviet Union (Shtern and Shtern), 32–3 sexuality adolescence, and cinema, 30–1 juvenile, 24 sexual maturity, and age, 23 Shankly, Bill, 135 Sheregi, F. E., 319 Shevchenko, Olena, 209 Shevelev, Pavel, 326 Shield, 263 Shlapentokh, V., 178 shock-therapy capitalism, 179 Shtern, A., 32–3 Shtern, M., 32–3 Shtundera, Hryts’, 100 Siniavskii, Andrei, 222 skinhead movement, 263 Slavic mythology, 228 ‘Slova místo zbraní,’ 121 Smith, Sidonie, 317 Snob, 35 Sobaki v kosmosi, 150 social acceleration, 65, 69–70 characteristics, 76 modern western societies and, 76 social activism in Russian comics, 326–9 social activist comics Russian youth and, 316–29 social anthropology, 336 social archipelagos, 10 football culture as, 135 social capital, 256 social change social acceleration and, 65 and youth, 64–5 social inequality, 254 social integration, 78 socialisation, professional, 241–2 socialism, 181, 225 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 371 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 372 Index Socialist Realism, 27, 219, 224, 226, 255, 326 socially excluded Roma localities, 121, 127n9 social media political activism and, 16 Russian youth and, 14 social networking websites, 294 social parasitism, 254 Social Realism, 218 social stratification, 78 socio-cultural phenomenon, 95 ‘Soiuz Sozidaiushchikh’ (The Union of Creators), 218 Sokolov, Mikhail, 220 Sokolov, Roman, 324 solidarity approach youth culture and, 13–14 ‘sovereign democracy,’ 193 Soviet sociality, 253 Soviet state socialism, 260 Soviet-themed vintage cafés, 260 Soviet Union breakdown of, 179 childhood phase of life, 22–4 collapse of, 33, 94 Criminal Code of 1926, 22 juvenile sexuality, 24–7 modernisation of, 178 puberty, 24–7 sexual maturity and age, 23 youth phase of life, 22–4 Soviet Young People Vote for a Happy Youth, 27 SPIDInfo, 33 spirit of terraces, 136 Stalin, Joseph, 178, 272 Stalinism, 224 Stal’ (Steel) movement, 263 Stasiuk, Andrzej, 146, 162 State Duma, 255, 263 state socialism, 254 ‘state treason,’ 299 stilyagi, 178 StopHam, 263 Stop kham (Stop Boor), 186 storm and stress, 5 Street Cypher, 126n2 Strepy, 117 subcultural membership, 127n7 subcultural places, 9–11 sub/cultural youth groups, 254 subculture defined, 114 Dizel’ movement, 85, 86 hip hop, in Czech Republic, 111 Nike Air Max trainers and, 86 subsistence anxiety, 74 Sundiev, I. Y., 188 Surkov, Vladislav, 184, 186, 283 Suvereno, 121 Svoboda, Richard, 164 Svobodná mládez (Free Youth), 124 Swietlicki, Marcin, 162, 171 Syndrom Snopp, 120 Szafraniec, K., 134 Sztompka, Piotr, 88–9 tagging, 115 Tajikistan social and economic polarisation in, 348 Technotronic, 84 teenage pregnancy, 32 Terkessidis, Mark, 171 A Ticket to the Stars (Aksenov), 27 Time for Love, 32 Timofey, Lev, 190 tineidzher (teenager), 21, 33–5 Titushki troops, 206 Topol, Jáchym, 168 ‘total realism’ (totální realismus), 163 transition theory, 3–4 transnational youth culture hip hop as, 112–13 trauma post-totalitarian, 96 theory and sociology of, 94 Trebjesanin, Zarko, 82 ‘The Trial of a Pioneer,’ 24–5 Trial of a Pioneer (Romanov), 33 trivial nationalism, 262 troika Klitschko, 202 Trubetskoi, Paolo, 37 trudnyi vozrast, 34 The True History of Skinheads (Iorsh), 321–2, 325 ‘trueschooler’ type rap music, 127n8 Tsvetkov, Aleksei, 221 ‘turbo-folk’ music, 83, 91n7 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Index Tusk, Donald, 137 tusovka, 263, 264 Twitter, 298 ‘200 na sat’ (200 mph), 84 ‘2000- ers’ (dvotysiachnyky), 95 Two Tonnes of the Best Young Poetry, 95 Tymoshenko, Yulia, 213 Ty Nikdy, 117, 119 Udaltsov, Sergei, 192 UEFA, 138–9 flares, banning of, 139 Ukraine, 54 EuroMaidan, 106 gender concepts in Ukrainian society, 203–5 in Global Gender Gap Index, 204 post-modernism, 100 revolution of dignity, 2 Russia and, 1 Ukrainian Euromaidan, 106 Ukrainian Insurgent Army, 302 Ukrainian society (classic) gender concepts in, 203–5 Ukrainian Women Foundation, 205 Ukrainian youth prose and literary autism, 99 underemployment, 344 underground hip hop hip hop authenticity in, 117–18 selling out concept, 118 vs. mainstream hip hop, 114–19 underground writing, 162–3 Bondy, Egon, 163–4 farewell to, 169–72 Podsiadlo, Jacek, 161–5, 167–8 ‘The Union of Creators,’ 220 Union of Russian Orthodox Banner-Bearers (khorugvenostsy), 324 United Russia, 245, 247 ‘Jabloko,’ 247 ‘Polit-boi,’ 247 ‘Pravoe Delo,’ 247, 249 United Russia Party, 240 ‘Unknown Stories from the Life of Lyonya Rodin,’ 329 ‘Ur-Fascism,’ 219, 230 Ushkalov, Oleksandr, 101 Ushkalov, Sashko, 101, 102–3 373 value hierarchy, 255 Vashe obshestvennoe televidenie (VOT) (Your Social Television), 248 Veles, 318 velikaya otechestvennaya voina (Great Patriotic War), 181, 185 Velitov, Alim, 323–4 Veller, Mikhail, 37 Verkhovna Rada, 213 video messages, 1–2 from Russian students, 1–2 from Ukrainian students, 1–2 Vidzor, Yury, 30 Viva TV, 84 VKontakte, 242, 295, 302, 305 Vladimir 518, 118–19 Voina, 2 Volodin, Vyacheslav, 186 Voronov, Yuri, 36 Votstsek & Votstsekurgiya (Izdryk), 100 VseDoma, 262 Vucic, Aleksandar, 88 Vyrypaev, Ivan, 103 Walesa, Lech, 132 Walker, Charles, 5 Wandachowicz, Jakub, 146 wartime songs, 185 Web2.0, 296 web bots, 298 Weitzer, R., 123 western individualism, 353 Western theories and concepts, 54–7 youth life-stage transitions, 56 What?!, 324–5 Wild Style, 111 winding the cotton (sex game), 36 Wloch, Malgorzata, 138 Wojna polskoruska pod flaga bialo-czerwon (Maslowska), 147 womanhood, 204 women activism of, 204 images of, in the Euromaidan protest movement, 205–6 see also gender Women Faces of Maidan, 205 ‘Women of Maidan,’ 205 The Woodpecker Doesn’t Get Headaches, 30 working-class politics, 222–3 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 374 Index World Bank, 54 ‘World of Warcraft,’ 312 World Trade Organisation, 54 Wu Tang Clan, 117 XIX Party Conference of the CPSU, 190 Yakemenko, Vladimir, 183, 186 Yanukovich, Viktor, 190, 202, 204, 300, 304 Yarosh, Dmitry, 211 Yashin, Ilya, 191, 193 Yatsenyuk, Senya, 202, 308 Yeltsin, Boris, 264, 302, 352 The Young Guard (Fadeev), 219 Young Guards, 245 youth ‘alternative’ and the specificities of, 238–9 as builders of communism, the messiahs and the hope of all progressive mankind, 255 category of ‘post-socialist youth’ and the case of Osh, 346–55 celebration of, 23–4 conceptualisation of issues in post-Soviet era, 255–7 deceived vanguard and silenced rebels, 194 experiences towards global convergence, 342–6 and extraordinary times, 178 as hope, 254–5 inspiring political change, 187–90 introducing Osh, 337–8 in the Komsomol, 181–3 Nashi movement and, 183–7 neformaly and, 187–90 in opposition, 187 perestroika and new freedoms, 178–9 from perestroika to Putin, 178 phase of life in Soviet Union, 22–4 Poland, 133–5 as political vanguard, 181 in the post-Soviet space, 335–55 and post-totalitarian trauma, 96 problematisation of, 254 rebels with a cause, 187 shades of contemporary youth opposition, 190–3 and social change, 64–5 symbolising the disintegration of political power, 181–3 systemic objectification of, 254 as a threat, 254 as a victim, 254 victimisation of, 254 youth cultures civic engagement and, 13–16 in Eastern European societies, 2–3 forms and functions of, 9–11 globalisation and, 3, 4–6 neo-liberal market economy and, 3 political opinions of, 53 solidarity approach and, 13–14 youth cultures in contemporary Russia current agenda of western subcultural/postsubcultural debate and Russian youth experience, 257–8 discourse contexts of modern youth solidarities, 258–64 overview, 253–5 post-Soviet conceptualisation of the youth issues, 255–7 youth literature, and post-Soviet identity, 98–9 youth solidarities, 257, 258 youth subcultures, 265 youth transition system in Lithuania, 66 YouTube, 310 Yugoslavia breakup and music, 83 newly composed folk music, 91n6 Yurchak, Aleksei, 182, 221 Yurchak, Alexei, 305 Yushchenko, Viktor, 302 Zabuzhko, Oksana, 100 Zagajewski, Adam, 163 Zeffirelli, Franco, 29 Zhadan, Serhiy, 95, 97, 145, 149–50 Zielinski, Roman, 132 Zizek, Slavoj, 98 Zolotarev, Viktor, 188 Zulu Nation, 112, 117 Zycie, a zwlaszcza smierc Angeliki de Sancé (Podsiadlo), 165–7 Copyrighted material – 9781137385123 Eastern European Youth Cultures in a Global Context Edited by Matthias Schwartz, Heike Winkel Ebooks available The demise of state Socialisms caused radical social, cultural and economic changes in Eastern Europe. Since then, young people have been confronted with fundamental disruptions and transformations to their daily environment, while an unsettling, globalized world substantially reshapes local belongings and conventional values. In times of multiple instabilities and uncertainties, this volume argues, young people prefer to try to adjust to given circumstances than to adopt the behaviour of potential rebellious, adolescent role models, dissident counter-cultures or artistic breakings of taboo. Eastern European Youth Cultures in a Global Context takes this situation as a starting point for an examination of generational change, cultural belongings, political activism and everyday practices of young people in different Eastern European countries from an interdisciplinary perspective. It argues that the conditions of global change not only call for a differentiated evaluation of youth cultures, but also for a revision of our understanding of 'youth' itself – in Eastern Europe and beyond. Matthias Schwartz is a Research Associate at the Centre for Literary and Cultural Research Berlin, Germany. His research interests include the cultural history of Russian and Soviet adventure literature, science fiction and popular sciences; Eastern European youth cultures, memory cultures and cultures of affect; and contemporary literatures in a globalized world. Heike Winkel is a Research Fellow and lecturer at the Institute for East-European Studies at Freie Universität Berlin, Germany. Her research interests include the Stalinist Soviet Union, contemporary Russian and Czech literature and culture with a focus on identity politics, mnemonic aspects of literature, and intersections of history and literature. Available from selected booksellers or online at www.palgravehighered.com AU/NZ: w w w .palgravemacmillan.com.au CAN: w w w .raincoast.com USA: [email protected]