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DIALOGIC COMMUNICATION:
BEYOND CONTROL TOWARD CO-CONSTRUCTION
Conference Proceedings
Conference Chairs
Rossella C. Gambetti and Edoardo T. Brioschi
Conference founder
Philip J. Kitchen
Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan (Italy)
April 3-4, 2014
© 2014
EDUCatt - Ente per il Diritto allo Studio Universitario dell’Università Cattolica
Largo Gemelli 1, 20123 Milano - tel. 02.7234.22.35 - fax 02.80.53.215
e-mail: [email protected] (produzione); [email protected] (distribuzione)
web: www.educatt.it/libri
ISBN edizione elettronica: 978-88-6780-087-2
Questo volume è liberamente disponibile per il download nell’area EDUCatt Freebooks (www.educatt.it/libri/freebooks)
CONTENTS
1.
Advertising track (p.1)
An organizational outcome model of interactive advertising
Gender and perceptual dimensions of TV-advertising
Implementing Knowledge Management for Effective Communication
Solutions: An Analysis of Communication Agencies in Turkey
International Marketing Myopia: Advertising Typologies in Services
2.
Responsible and ethical communication track (p.16)
A three way comparison of perceptions of the role and effectiveness
of charity content marketing: The views of fundraisers, consultants,
and donors
Branded Sustainability Programmes: platforms for collaboration and
co-creation
Business ethics revisited: the effects of business ethics on consumer
perceptions, the mediating effect of brand equity and the
relationship with the willingness to buy
Deception on the Internet: Consumers Knowledge and Perception of
Potentially Misleading Practices
I
3.
Communication across cultures (part 1) track (p.29)
Combining Personal Relationships and Relationship Marketing to
Attract and Retain New Customers
Discovering India’s Three Levels of Luxury Consumption
Does integrated corporate communication improve market
performance? Insights from the Spanish tourism sector
Rejuvenating a Quintessential Brand – The Legend of Royal Enfield
4.
Crisis and internal communication track (p.43)
Advertising’s effect on getting employees “on board”
Employee Communication Behaviours for Dialogic Communication:
Theoretical Explanations and Field Evidence
The effects of social media on brand attitude and WOM during a
brand crisis: the case of Barilla
When the online firestorm goes mainstream – A content analysis of
print and online news media
5.
Communication and intangible assets (part 1) track (p.58)
Conceptualising the corporate brand as a socially owned asset: A
critical contemplation
How does reputation win trust? - A customer-based mediation
analysis
The role of multi-stakeholder identities in individuals’ perceptions of
corporate reputation: Evidence from Russia, Bulgaria, Italy and
Australia
The state of play of corporate identity research: progress, change and
further developments
6.
Social media communication track (p.73)
II
Dialogic Communication through Social Media: How Turkish NonProfit Organizations (NPOs) Use Facebook to Build Relationships?
Implementing and managing social media marketing within SMEs
Industry and agency views of social media: issues implementing
dialogic communication for organisations of the digital age
Social Media in the CSR Communication: a theoretical framework
7.
Product placement, celebrity endorsement, and content marketing
track (p.91)
Examining the significance of content marketing. New approach in
digital marketing or management fashion?
Product placement and celebrity endorsement impact on consumer’s
behavior: an empirical investigation
Storytelling or story-managing? Museum marketing and content
creation in FIBAC’s conception
Understanding Meaning Transfer in Celebrity Endorsements: A
Qualitative Exploration
8.
Designing consumer experience track (p.104)
Augmented in-Store Experience: a preliminary study
Dimensions of the user digital experience on social networking sites:
the case of luxury brands’ fan pages
Should it be Green or Not? Investigating what Constitutes
Prototypical Packaging Design for Organic Food
Speaking of brands: post-modernising the narrative approach to
brand management
The influence of website design, culture and language on perceived
web usability, satisfaction and perceived risk online
III
9.
Communication and performance track (p.122)
Defining and measuring corporate orientation to dialogue: the
development of an index for digital media
The applications of Video analytics in marketing: from data to value
based information
The Audible Corporation: Quantitative Findings of Corporate Auditory
Identity Management from the UK
The effect of high arousal advertising design on brand recall and ad
recall
10.
Communication and intangible assets (part 2) track (p.139)
An interdisciplinary approach to Italian museum reputation
development: Bohem’s spiral revisited for FIBAC’s project
Examining the influence of corporate website management on
corporate reputation, e-loyalty and identification: a research agenda
Stakeholder engagement as a contested dialogic territory: an
interpretive glance
Understanding the relationship between the communicated political
brand identity and understand political brand image of David
Cameron’s UK Conservative Party
11.
Communication across cultures (part 2) track (p.156)
From Control to Collaboration: Navigating the Collaborative Turn in
Brand Management –A South African Perspective
Perception of Consumer loyalty of Foreign Brands. Georgian case
Representations of Japanese Companies’ Corporate Environmental
Communication
Empirical Evidence of Consumer Based Brand Equity in Emerging
Economics: The Case of Egyptian Banking Sector
IV
INTRODUCTION
We live in an era of information democracy and worldwide interactive
communication, in which any individual, institution, organization,
association or group of people can establish communication exchange with
any other individual, group, institution or organization, using all the different
communication touch points available online or offline in fast, direct and
cost-effective ways. In such an era, corporate and marketing
communications become extraordinarily powerful strategic assets to
understand, connect with, listen to, and engage all company stakeholders,
including customers and consumers. In the effort to build company identity
and foster strong individual and corporate brands along with a positive and
enduring corporate reputation, communication needs to be creative,
meaningful, up to date, transparent, empathetic, participatory, sustainable,
and relevant for all customers and stakeholders.
To develop and maintain these features over time, communication needs to
be part of the strategic decision-making of top management and brand
management, and be managed by open-minded, multidisciplinary,
passionate professionals, driving dialogic and peer-to-peer communication
processes, sensing the corporate environment for opportunities and
threats, discovering and leveraging on all stakeholder and customer touch
points to engage and interact with them.
The focal point of the 2014 CMC Conference lies in exploring current and
future challenges relevant to the adoption of a dialogic approach to
corporate and marketing communications. What does it mean for
communication to be genuinely dialogic and truly interactive? How can
communication overcome sender-biased models of message delivery?
How can communication adopt a stakeholder-centric approach? How can
V
dialogic communication sustain corporate intangible assets? What are the
ethical challenges of dialogic communication? How can dialogic
communication be evaluated?
The 19th International Conference on Corporate and Marketing
Communications is the locus for scholars, educators, and practitioners
seeking to promote and advance knowledge in the field of Corporate and
Marketing Communications.
VI
1
Advertising track
1
c
c
The paper proposes a model to analyze the impact of interactive advertising
of employers on employees. Employees like consumers also come across
with the advertisements of their own employers and process and evaluate
them, most likely in a more detailed and involved fashion than consumers.
Advertising research is full of papers demonstrating the importance of
marketing communication to consumers’ brand beliefs, evaluations, and
consequently purchase and/or recommendation decisions. Having a
stakeholder-centric approach requires taking all stakeholders into account.
However, empirical and conceptual work investigating how employees
respond and evaluate advertisements of their own employers is fairly
limited. Studies note that marketers are still overlooking an important
internal or ‘second audience’; i.e. their own employees. As such, the model
suggested serves to answer not only this need but also the need of crossdisciplinary research by connecting many areas of advertising research into
its components, along with many areas of organizational behavior.
Keywords: conceptual paper, interactive advertising, internal marketing,
employee, employer, cognitive processing, organizational outcomes
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6
!"
The primary objective of this paper is to establish, demonstrate and evaluate
the usefulness of an ad perception framework, composed of three perceptual
dimensions developed from cognitive film theory (Grodal 1997; 2009). To
that end, the article briefly summarizes the main approaches in the
framework. Next, an empirical study, aimed at demonstrating and evaluating
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differences in ad perception, suggesting that there may be subtle but
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results are discussed in relation to theoretical and pragmatic implications.
Keywords: advertising; gender; advertising effect; advertising perception
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Research, 53(2), 147-170.
7
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Heath, R. and Stipp, H. (2011) The Secret of Television’s Succes: Emotional Content or
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Højbjerg, L. (2000) Fortælleteori 2 ,København: Akademisk Forlag.
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MacKenzie and Lutz, R.J. (1989) An Empirical Examination of the Strcutural Antecedents
of Attitude Towards the Ad in an Advertising Pretesting Context. Journal Of Marketing
Vol. 53(April), pp. 48-65.
8
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Processing Strategies. Journal of Consumer Research , Vol. 18, No. 1 (June), pp. 63-70.
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Commercials: A New Approach. Journal of Advertising Research, May/June, p. 7-18.
Wells, W. D. (1989) Lectures and Dramas, in Cognitive and Affective Responses to
Advertising, Patricia Cafferata and Alice m. Tybout, eds. (Lexington, Mass.: Lexington
Books).
Wells, W.D. (1971) A Reaction Profile for TV Commercials. Journal of Advertising
Research, Vol . 11(6) Dec.
9
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Knowledge has become one of the most essential assets and valuable
resources that provide competitive advantage for organizations. Competitive
success depends on two basic principles: First, companies should learn from
their mistakes and successes. Second, they have to take advantage of their
expertise and experiences that helped them achieve success. In other words,
it is crucial for companies to manage their knowledge assets to distinguish
themselves from their competitors. According Dalkır (2011), being often
based on experience, knowledge is subjective, highly contextual and is
beyond data or information. Knowledge management (KM) goes far beyond
developing simple information systems (Raghu and Vinze, 2007). Managing
knowledge must be developed consciously as is the case with other strategic
asset in terms of obtaining its benefits as Chesbrough et al. (2006, 26)
stated: “the use of purposeful inflows and outflows of knowledge to
accelerate internal innovation”. Schultze and Stabell (2004, 551) define the
notion of KM “as the generation, representation, storage, transfer,
transformation, application, embedding and protecting of organizational
knowledge”. Therefore, it is important to identify knowledge formation and
adaptation in the organization. Unless knowledge is produced, captured,
shared, distributed and owned collectively within an organization, it can
have little or no value in relation to improving performance, creating
innovative solutions and generating/sustaining competitive advantage.
Studies focusing on knowledge management approaches offer some
common phases such as knowledge creation, storage and retrieval,
distribution and application (Davenport and Prusak 1998; Alavi 2000;
Martensson 2000).
10
As in other fields, knowledge is also gaining in import in today’s
communication world where information flows from many different
sources. Effective and efficient communication solutions necessitate
deriving “useful information” from the general mass of data and converting
it to use-able knowledge. Communication services are business-to-business
services those generate creativity, are highly intangible, competitive and
carry high risks. Thus, managing and selling knowledge are considered as
the essential functions of communication efforts.
Clients of communication agencies place great importance on specialization,
and to processed, construed data - i.e. information and knowledge - and
require creative solutions to achieve their communication objectives. Hence,
knowledge is one the most essential assets for agencies especially those that
need to design unique communication campaigns. Since finding creative
communication solutions necessitates harmonic and collaborative team
work, it is also important to understand how data gathered from different
sources are used by different departments in terms of knowledge exchange
inside said communication agencies. Thus, agency success requires effective
knowledge management which is as important as knowledge creation.
Knowledge management relies on collaboration between a wide variety of
contributors ranging from individuals and groups to developed technologies
in an organization (Raghu & Vinze, 2007). Similarly, communication
agencies try to obtain information using different resources and varied
research processes which enable them to utilize both external and internal
knowledge to create innovative and creative solutions.
Our previous research (Misci & Uzuno lu, 2008) mostly focused on
advertising and media agencies’ knowledge management process drawing
on data gathered by in-depth interviews from the industry with 14
representatives from 10 agencies. The results revealed that “all the
participant agencies use KM somehow, although they are not consciously
aware of the steps and the processes” (Misci & Uzuno lu, 2008: 523). We
have concluded that “sharing and use of information within agencies,
finding creative, innovative and efficient ideas and solutions and capturing
best practices can be accomplished through the KM process” (Misci &
Uzuno lu, 2008: 524), and agencies can gain a competitive advantage by
putting knowledge into application.
11
The collaboration of different parties in developing communication
solutions requires on-going dialogue in order to create, store, share and
apply knowledge. Today, one of the important information sources that ease
the collaboration is digital technologies providing new platforms that
facilitate the flow of data and information via social networks, digital
monitoring and server reports, and digital interactions for both agencies and
advertisers free from space and time. Considering this, our further study
focuses on digital communication agencies to identify how they find
solutions for client communication problems by using data gathered from
different sources.
The qualitative approach adopted is predicated on in-depth interviews with
representatives from digital communication agencies. The target number of
interviewees to contact is 15 and the interviews will be extended until
repetitive themes emerge (Carson et al., 2001). Interviewing expertrepresentatives will provide a practical context in support of the theoretical
framework, and would lead to a better understanding of the issue from the
practitioners’ viewpoints. Interview questions will be based on the
Knowledge Management Process developed by Alavi (2000) and will
include the four phases of knowledge creation, storage and retrieval,
distribution, and application in order to explore the following research
questions:
− What are the main information sources of digital communication that
agencies access in terms of knowledge acquisition and creation?
− How is gathered information stored and retrieved?
− How is knowledge shared externally (i.e. clients) and internally
(employees)?
− How is knowledge used to develop creative solutions for communication
problems?
References
Alavi, M. 2000. “Systems For Managing Organizational Knowledge”. Accessed December
12. http://www.trg-inc.com/resources/electronic_alavi.pdf
Carson, D., G. Audrey, P. Chad, and G. Kjell. 2001. Ethnography and Grounded Theory. In
Qualitative Marketing Research edited by D. Carson, A. Gilmore, C. Perry and K.
Gronhaug 146–157. London: Sage.
Chesbrough, H. W., W. Vanhaverbeke, and J. West 2006. Open Innovation: Researching a
New Paradigm. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
12
Davenport, T. H., and L. Prusak. 1998. Working Knowledge: How Organizations Manage
What They Know. Boston: Harward Business School Press.
Dalkır, K. 2011. Knowledge Management in Theory and Practice. USA: The MIT Press.
Martensson, M. 2000. A Critical Review of Knowledge Management As a Management
Tool. Journal of Knowledge Management. 4, 204-216.
Misci, S., and Uzuno lu, E. 2008. Knowledge Management in the Field of Advertising:
How Advertising and Media Agencies Manage Knowledge? Proceedings of 9th European
Conference on Knowledge Management: Eckm 2008, UK: Academic Conferences Limited,
515-524.
Raghu, T. S., and A.Vinze. 2007. A Business Process Context for Knowledge Management.
Decision Support Systems 43, 1062-1079.
Schultze, U., and C. Stabell. 2004. Knowing What You Don’t Know? Discourses And
Contradictions in Knowledge Management Research. Journal of Management Studies. 41
(4), June, 549-573.
13
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Following a half century of debate, and with the broad acceptance of a
‘middle of the road’ position, the issue of standardized versus localized
approaches in international advertising campaigns continues to attract
interest (see, for example, Okazaki and Taylor, 2006; Fastoso & Whitelock,
2007). However, the focus of most empirical international advertising
research concerns U.S. corporations marketing goods, or content analysis of
advertisements for products in different markets. Little research, though, has
focused upon international advertising approaches used by U.S.
multinational service companies.
This working paper aims to determine the types of standardized creative
advertising approaches used by U.S. multinational service companies,
identify obstacles that may impede
standardization of advertising
campaigns if desirable, and to examine connections between the use of
creative advertising approaches and company’s sales volumes, and between
the use of creative advertising approaches and companies length of business.
Opportunities in international markets for consumer goods and services
abound. New consumer markets are booming in China and other Asian
countries, India, Latin America, and Eastern Europe as their economies
expand, in some cases massively. In addition, consumer tastes in more
mature markets of the industrialized world are now sophisticated and
complex (Cateora, Gilly and Graham, 2013). Along with challenges,
competition among multinational companies has intensified due to
increasing liberalization of trade, creation of regional economic integrations,
advances in transportation, communication and information technologies,
and uninterrupted flows of goods and services in a relatively peaceful world
(Czinkota & Ronkainen. 2012; Keegan & Green, 2012).
Over the past decade, and by way of example, the U.S. has witnessed I
exports of its commercial services climb 4% while those of Germany fell
14
2% and France’s dropped a full 7% in 2012 (World Trade Organization,
2013). During the same year, American exports of services reached
US$649.346 billion, resulting in a US$206.82 billion trade surplus.
Marketing and promotion are major beneficiaries of this level of economic
activity, although estimates on the size of global advertising expenditures
vary. These markets need to be given fuller attention as the types of
advertising strategies may be capable of improvement.
References
Cateora, P., Gilly, M., & Graham, J. (2013). International marketing, 16th ed. Boston:
McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Czinkota, M.R., & Ronkainen, I.A. (2012). International marketing, 10th ed. Mason, OH:
Cengage Learning.
Fastoso, F., & Whitelock, J. (2007). International advertising strategy: The standardisation
question in manager studies: Patterns in four decades of past research and directions for
future knowledge advancement. International Marketing Review, 24(5), pp. 591-605.
Keegan, W.J., & Green, M.C. (2012). Global marketing, 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Okazaki, S., & Taylor, C.R. (2006). Towards an understanding advertising standardisation
in the European Union: A theoretical framework and research propositions. In Diehl, S., &
Terlutter, R., (eds.), International Advertising and Communication: Current Insights and
Empirical Findings, pp. 440-454. Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universitäts-Verlag.
World Trade Organization (2013). Trade to remain subdued in 2013 after sluggish growth
in 2012 as European economies continue to struggle. Geneva, Switzerland: Author, online
at http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres13_e/pr688_e.htm.
15
2
Responsible and ethical
communication track
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Although the topic of content marketing has received extensive coverage in
the practitioner marketing literature, academic research into content
marketing has been sparse. The work in progress outlined below compares
views about the uses and value of content marketing held by members of
samples of content senders, their consultants, and content recipients within a
sector, UK fundraising charities, that employs content marketing
extensively (see Cahalane, 2013; Miranda and Steiner, 2013). Content
marketing involves the creation and sharing of valuable but often free-to-use
content in webpages, blogs, e-newsletter, podcasts, videos, white papers,
apps, virals, tweets, Facebook communications, magazine or online TV
channels, etc. (Hilpern, 2013 p.38). According to a number of authorities
(see Wehmeier and Raaz, 2012 for details) content marketing has become a
key strategic tool for managing stakeholder relationships. Hilpern (2013)
estimated that content marketing could account for at least £900 million of
UK marketing expenditures in 2013. The practitioner content marketing
literature routinely suggests that there exist a number of key objectives for
content marketing; namely search engine optimisation, impression
management, creation of transparency in communications, and maximising
the attainment of viral distribution of content. Search engine optimisation
(SEO) leading to high search ranking is often regarded as a primary aim of
content marketing (Hart, 2002; Wenham et al., 2003; Clark, 2013) on the
basis of the fact that the majority of internet users only examine the top ten
websites on a search engine results list, with only one per cent searching
beyond page three (Zhang and Dimitroff, 2005). Search engine rankings
algorithms match relevant content to user queries. Hence, content is an
‘especially important’ criterion applied to the determination of results page
rankings (Onaifo and Rasmussen, 2013 p.104). A charity might invest
17
substantial resources in maximising its results page ranking, so it is a matter
of considerable interest to know whether donors to a charity really care
about the charity’s search result position. Gay et al. (2007) notes that just
because most people only browse the first two or three pages resulting from
a search, this does not necessarily mean that they regard top positions as
important (implying in the present context that top positions may not induce
individuals to give).
Impression management involves efforts to create, protect, repair, maintain
or alter an image held by an audience (Schniederjans et al. 2013). The aim is
to control outsiders’ opinions or impressions by manipulating the content of
the information presented during interactions (Leary and Kowalski, 1990;
Hooghiemstra, 2000). An organisation engaging in impression management
will discerningly present information about its accomplishments while
omitting less favourable information. However, the recipients of content
designed to create favourable impressions of an organisation might not
appreciate the material delivered. They may suspect that important
information has been omitted, that facts have been embellished, and,
according to Bozemon and Kacmar (1997), may feel ingratiated and
manipulated. Many studies have concluded that consumers hold more
favourable attitudes towards organisations with transparent business
practices (see Bhaduri and Ha-Brookshire [2011] for details of relevant
investigations). Benefits claimed for organisational transparency include the
creation of a favourable atmosphere for public relations (Eggert and Helm,
2003), feelings of identification with an organisation (Bertot et al., 2010),
trust (DiStaso and Bortree, 2012), and an improved reputation (Bhaduri and
Ha-Brookshire, 2011). Problems are that transparent information is freely
available to competitors; that as more and more information becomes
accessible it becomes increasingly difficult for consumers to judge which
elements are valid and useful (Christensen and Langer, 2009); and that
because individuals’ perceptions of transparency are subjective (Eggert and
Helm, 2003), then opinions vis-à-vis the optimum amount of transparency
will vary from person to person (Jiang et al., 2009). Also, donors might not
be impressed by organisational attempts at transparency. They might not
believe the ‘transparent’ information that is transmitted, might consider it to
be a form of advertising, or might not find the information that is provided
to be useful. Organisations increasingly attempt to create compelling
content they hope will improve the chances of a message ‘going viral’,
18
(Hinz et al., 2011). Berger and Milkman (2012) found that high
probabilities of viral distribution were associated with the inclusion in
content of high-arousal positive and emotional evocative messages;
avoidance of deactivating messages (e.g., those invoking sadness, anger,
awe or anxiety); and the presentation of useful, interesting and surprising
information. It is relevant to note however that donors might resent being
pressured into passing on messages. Donors may assume that certain
messages have been sent by agents, may feel ‘used’, and might regard
messages that are clearly intended to encourage virality as ‘digital spam’
(Woerndl et al., 2008).
To address these issues, questionnaires are being (i) sent to heads of
marketing in the UK’s top (by income) 1000 charities and to a list of the
chief executives of around 300 content marketing agencies, and (ii)
administered face-to-face to a sample of charity donors approached at
random in street location in various districts (some prosperous, some
deprived) of Greater London. (The target donor sample size is 800, this
work being undertaken by graduate students trained and paid for the task.)
Section one of the questionnaires sent to charities asks for information about
a charity’s size, age and sector, and whether it uses a content marketing
consultant and/or employs dedicated marketing staff. Agencies are being
asked whether they specialise in charity clients. Subsequent sections
examine the respondent’s perceptions of the importance of transparency,
SEO, etc. The questionnaire administered to charity donors begins with
routine queries concerning the donor’s age, income category and education,
intensity of use of social media, amount given to charity in the previous year
and frequency of giving. Donors are then asked for their views on the
importance of transparency, the use of impression management, etc., within
content, using the same questions (suitably adapted) as are given to charities
and agencies. Because the study is gathering some basic information on the
properties of the respondent charities and agencies (size, age, sector) and on
the characteristics of donors (age, income and education levels, intensity of
use of social media, giving behaviour) it is feasible to explore possible
connections between these variables and a participants’ views on the
importance and/or roles of transparency, etc., within a charity’s content.
Initial findings indicate that significant differences do indeed exist between
the views of, on the one hand, charity fundraising managers and their
19
consultants, and on the other the donors who give to charities, particularly in
relation to the value of SEO and organisational transparency within content.
Key words: Content marketing, non-profit organisations, search engine
optimisation, transparency, impression management, viral distribution.
References
Berger, J., and Milkman, K. 2012. What makes online content viral? Journal of Marketing
Research 49, no. 2: 192 – 205.
Bertot, J., Jaeger, P. and Grimes, J. 2010. Using ICTs to create a culture of transparency: Egovernment and social media as openness and anti-corruption tools for societies.
Government Information Quarterly 27: 264 – 271.
Bhaduri, G. and Ha–Brookshire, H. 2011. Do transparent business practices pay?
Exploration of transparency and consumer purchase intention. Clothing and Textiles
Research Journal 29, no. 2: 135-149.
Bozeman, D. and Kacmar, K. 1997. A cybernetic model of impression management
processes in organisations. Organisational Behaviour and Human Decision Processes 69,
no. 1: 9-30.
Cahalane, C. 2013. Why aren’t charities making more social media to generate cash?
Charities should make social media integral to fundraising. Guardian Professional 2 July
2013, p.1. Accessed on 4 September 2013 at www.the guardian.com.
Christensen, L. and Langer, R. 2009. Public relations and strategic use of transparency:
Consistency, hypocrisy and corporate change. In R. Heath, E. Toth and D. Waymer, eds,
Rhetorical and Critical Approaches to Public Relations. Hillsdale N Y: Routledge.
Clarke, B. 2013. The Business Case for Agile Content Marketing. Boulder, Colorado:
Copyblogger Media. www.scribecontent,com. Accessed 29 May 2013.
DiStaso, M. and Bortree, D. 2012. Multi-method analysis of transparency in social media
practices: Survey, interviews and content analysis. Public Relations Review 38: 511: 514.
Eggert, A. and Helm, S. 2003. Exploring the impact of relationship transparency on
business relationships: A cross-sectional study among purchasing managers in Germany.
Industrial Marketing Management 32: 101-108.
Gay, R., Charlesworth, A. and Esen, R. 2007. Online Marketing: A Customer-led
Approach. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hilpern, K. 2013. How to make content marketing work for you. The Marketer,
January/February 2013, pp.38-41.
Hinz, O., Skiera, B., Barrot, C. and Becker, J. 2011. Seeding strategies for viral marketing:
An empirical comparison. Journal of Marketing 75, no. 6: 18-29.
Hooghiemstra, R. 2000. Corporate communication and impression management: New
perspectives on why companies engage in social reporting. Journal of Business Ethics 27:
55-68.
Onaifo, D. and Rasmussen, D. 2013. Increasing libraries’ content findability on the web
with search engine optimisation, Library Hi tech 31, no. 1: 87-108.
20
Schniederjans, D., Cao, E. and Schniederjans, M. 2013. Enhancing financial performance
with social media: An impression management perspective. Decision Support Systems, in
press website.
Wehmeier, S. and Raaz, O. 2012. Transparency matters: The concept of organisational
transparency in the academic discourse. Public Relations Inquiry 1, no. 3: 337-366.
Woerndl, M., Papagiannidis, S., Bourlakis, M. and Li, F. 2008. Internet induced marketing
techniques: Critical factors in viral marketing campaigns, International Journal of Business
Science and Applied Management 3, no. 1: 33-45.
21
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The calls for a circular economy require businesses to adopt
CSR/Sustainability strategies ensuring collaboration with a number of
stakeholders along the value chain. The corporate communications literature
is however offering limited insights into the challenges of designing a
corporate communications strategy that will stimulate collaboration with
diverse stakeholders, and at the same time support a consistent corporate
image.
This paper provides insights into a specific symmetric corporate
communications strategy aimed at stimulating not only a balanced dialogue,
but to facilitate active collaboration and co-creation with stakeholders in a
business to business value chain.
The context for the research is the food and drink value chain in Western
Europe and is based on empirical evidence from a multiple case study
methodology involving in-depth interviews with 25 senior managers and
directors from food and drink manufacturing companies, retailers, and some
of their stakeholders.
A framework for symmetrical corporate communications is presented,
depicting the role of branded sustainability programmes as a platform for
stimulating interest, initiatives and innovation from stakeholders, whilst
ensuring a consistent corporate image.
Previous research on corporate communications strategies on CSR and
Sustainability, has seen limited empirical validation, is primarily focused on
consumers, and more importantly is lacking in advice regarding how to craft
communications that not only appeal to a multitude of stakeholders, but that
also encourage collaboration and co-creation. Thus, this corporate
22
communications framework adds confirmation and extension to previous
research and, importantly, it introduces the notion of branded sustainability
programmes as platforms for corporate communications.
23
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This research examines the influence of business ethics on customers’
perceptions and willingness to buy using brand equity as a mediating
variable. Adapting a proposal of a model involving the variables under
consideration, several hypotheses were developed and tested, based on the
existing literature. The study focuses on Dutch University Students who
have the purchase experience of both fast moving products and services.
The most appropriate methodological approach (web survey design), the
necessary research instruments and the corresponding scales of
measurement were adopted. The results indicate that business ethics affect
consumer perceptions and brand equity. In addition, results indicated an
equally strong positive relationship between consumer perceptions and
actual willingness to buy and a negative one between brand equity and
consumer perceptions. The theoretical and managerial implications of these
findings are discussed and further research directions are offered.
Keywords: business ethics, brand equity, consumer perceptions,
willingness to buy.
References
Aaker, D. A. (1996), Managing brand equity. Capitalizing on the value of a brand name,
New York: The Free Press.
Brickley J, Smith C, Zimmerman J (2002) Business ethics and organizational architecture,
Journal of Banking & Finance 26 (2002) 1821–1835.
24
Brown, Tom J. and Peter A. Dacin (1997), “The Company and the Product: Corporate
Associations and Consumer Product Responses,” Journal of Marketing, 68-84.
Brunk K (2012) Un/ethical Company and Brand Perceptions: Conceptualizing and
Operationalising Consumer Meanings, Journal of Bus Ethics (2012) 111:551–565 DOI
10.1007/s10551-012-1339-x.
Cacioppe R, Foster N, Fox M (2008) A Survey of Managers’ Perceptions of Corporate
Ethics and Social Responsibility and Actions that may Affect Companies’Success, Journal
of Business Ethics, 82:861-700.
Carroll, A. B.: (1991) ‘The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility: Toward the Moral
Management of Organizational Stakeholders’, Business Horizons 34(4), 23–32.
Dodds, W. B., Monroe, K. B., & Grewal, D. (1991). Effect of price, brand and store
information on buyers’ product evaluations. Journal of Marketing Research, 28(3), 307319.
Ethics pay for GE, eBay. (2011, March). WARC report [omitted for blind review].
Fan Y. et al (2005) Ethical Branding and Corporate Reputation, Corporate
Communications: An International Journal, Volume 10, Number 4, 2005.
Freeman, R. E., Gilbert, D. R., & Hartman, E. (1988). Values and the foundations of
strategic management. Journal of Business Ethics, 7, 821–835.
Goodyear, M. (1996), "Divided by a common language: diversity and deception in the
world of global marketing," Journal of the Market Research Society, 38 (2), 105-122.
Keller, K. L. (1998). Strategic brand management: Building, measuring and managing
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26
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While consumers have been concerned for some time about their personal
privacy on the Internet, other practices which they may not be aware of may
be as dangerous or more dangerous to their well- being. This research
examines awareness and perceptions of a number of common and
significant Internet practices that may be deceptive and harmful to
consumers. Surveys were conducted in the U.S. and Greece in an attempt to
garner an international perspective of this issue. The research concludes
that even knowledgeable and frequent users of the Internet are unaware of
practices that may be harmful to them, even though these practices are also
shown to be perceived as unethical.
Keywords: e-Advertising, Unethical practices, Internet
References
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1, 2010, A1, 23.
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Heine, Christopher, “Parents Sue Facebook Over Ads And ‘Like’ Data,” www.clickz.com,
August
27,
2010.
27
Helft, Miguel, “Google Is Top Tracker of Surfers in Study,” www.nytimes.com, June 2,
2009.
Horovitz, Bruce, “Marketers get creative targeting hard-to-reach college students,”
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Angeles times, October 12, 2011 p. B1,7
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2010.
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Wolverson, Rota , “The Human Billboard,” www.time.com, April 15, 2013.
28
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This empirical paper is based on a conceptual framework linking personal
relationships (guanxi) and relationship marketing and their impact on
customer retention. The aim of this paper is to examine the direct effect of
personal relationships through their various constructs (bonding, personal
trust, reciprocity, empathy, face, and affection) and relationship marketing
(RM) through its constructs (organizational trust, commitment, reciprocity,
communication, conflict handling and equity) on customer retention. There
is a lack of research demonstrating how these concepts work together to
help companies attract new customers and retain them.
A questionnaire derived from extant literature was completed by 305
customers of Egyptian small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The
initial findings, obtained using multiple regression analysis, indicate that
personal relationships have a significant positive direct impact on customer
retention. RM constructs have a significant positive direct effect and predict
a substantial proportion of the variance in customer retention. The findings
of this study provide useful and valuable insights for Egyptian SMEs
intending to use the personal networks of their employees and apply RM, as
using both of these concepts will improve the quality of the relationships
with customers as well as customer recruitment and retention. The paper is
of relevance to academics studying personal relationships/networks and
relationship marketing, and to marketing practitioners developing marketing
and retention strategies.
Keywords: personal relationships, relationship marketing, organizational
relationships, customer retention
30
References
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University of Hull, UK.
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66 (12): 2515–2521
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18: 2-4: 409.
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business in china?. The Academy of Management Executive 12: 64.
Tseng, Y. 2007. The Impacts of Relationship Marketing Tactics on Relationship Quality in
Service Industry. The Business Review 7: 310- 314.
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Service Quality. Journal of Marketing 60: 31-46.
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between individual and organizational levels. Journal of Business Ethics 67: 375.
31
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Luxury marketing research has moved from functional product attributes to
a democratization of luxury view and from the established to the emerging
economies based on consumer demand. Research studies have historically
focused on the brand’s and marketer’s perspectives, thus there has been little
attention to the consumer’s view of “self” and its impact on luxury
consumption. This paper presents a framework of luxury and self-using
concepts such as interdependent or outer, independent or inner and digital
self. These involve three levels of luxury consumption, i.e., conspicuous,
individual and interactive. This paper is developed from a series of studies
conducted among Indian young luxury consumers from 2011 onward.
Key Words: Levels of luxury consumption, Self Concept of Consumers,
purchase motives, Qualitative study, India
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32
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34
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35
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Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) has been considered “the
major communication development in the last century” (Kitchen and
Schultz, 2001) and is increasingly attracting academic and practitioner
interest (Kim, Han and Schultz, 2004) ever since its origins in the early
1990s (Caywood, Schultz and Wang, 1991). Despite the great corpus of
publications on IMC developed over the last two decades, theoretical
debate on the concept continues apace. Moreover, this debate involved not
only academic scholars, but also takes place in the professional context. For
example, the Association of National Advertisers regularly conducts
research on IMC with marketing and corporate communication managers
and practitioners and the last IMC research report (ANA, 2011) evidences
an optimistic view on how via integrating communication businesses can
achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. In addition, Laurie and
Mortimer (2011) highlighted the existing gap between the academics’ and
the practitioners’ views in their provocative paper “IMC is Dead, Long Live
IMC”.
The most recurrent themes of debate relate to definitional and measurement
issues and to the ongoing paucity of in-company empirical research. For
example, many authors have dropped the term marketing from ‘IMC’ and
referred to the concept as Integrated Communication (IC) (Smith, 2012a;
Smith 2012b; Christensen, Firat and Torp, 2008), or to Integrated
Communication Management (ICM) (Einwiller and Boenigk, 2012), and
Integrated Corporate Communication (ICC) (Christensen and Cornelissen,
2011; Pickton, 2004). Christensen and Cornelissen (2011) suggested that
“corporate communication conceives of itself as the integrated
communication discipline par excellence, claiming to supply an allencompassing framework for their integration” (Christensen and
36
Cornelissen, 2011, p. 388). Based on this and our review of the literature,
our definition of ICC is :
“the stakeholder-centered interactive process of cross-functional planning
and alignment of organisational, analytical and communication processes,
that allows for the possibility of continuous dialogue by conveying
consistent and transparent messages via all media in order to foster longterm profitable relationships that create value” (Porcu et al., 2013).
According to this conceptualisation, ICC is a multidimensional construct
composed of four dimensions: tactical consistency, interactivity,
stakeholder-centred strategic focus and organisational alignment.
Moreover, recent literature called for more efforts to measure integrated
communication (Ewing, 2009 and Taylor, 2010) and for robust empirical
research to assess the performance outcomes deriving from integrating
communication (Schultz, Patti and Kitchen, 2011; Kitchen and Schultz,
2009; Kliatchko, 2008 and 2009)
Based on these premises, we are modelling the influence of ICC on market
performance of organisations operating in the Spanish tourism industry. The
selection of this economic sector is due to its national and international
relevance. On the one hand, tourism is currently the industry that registers
the highest impact on domestic GDP and employment (INE, 2013). On the
other hand, according to the United Nations World Tourism Organisation
(UNWTO, 2013), Spain as a tourist destination ranks 2nd in the world, by
income (US$ 56 billion), and 4th, by number of arrivals (58 million).
To achieve the research scope, an online survey study was conducted
between April and July 2013 to Spanish businesses providing
accommodation services with 40 or more employees. As a sample frame, a
commercial listing of 969 businesses was drawn from SABI (from the
initials of its name in Spanish,‘Sistema de Análisis de Balances Ibéricos,
Iberian Balance Sheet Analysis System), the most comprehensive
businesses database which includes relevant information of over 1.2 million
Spanish companies. Top management were targetted as key respondents and
a multi-item questionnaire was developed and hosted in the Qualtrics web
platform (www.qualtrics.com).
In order to measure ICC, a new measurement instrument was developed
following an an extensive literature review and a Delphic study (Porcu, Del
Barrio-García, Kitchen, 2013). Morever, a pilot study was conducted to
purify the scale.
37
In addition, market performance was assessed by using the scale previously
proposed by Gray et al. (1998) and adapted by Reid (2005). Finally, the
questionnaire included a set of questions related to managers’ sociodemographic information (e.g. experience in the current position or similar)
and the characteristics of the organisation (e.g. number of employees).
The modus operandi of the study consisted of two steps. First, managers
were contacted by telephone to ask for their e-mail address (not included in
the database for privacy issues) and for their availability to participate in this
study. Second, a customised link to the online questionnaire was emailed to
the 524 managers who agreed to participate. A total of 180 valid responses
were obtained resulting in an 18.6% response rate (of the total population of
969 managers) and a 34.4 % of the 524 managers who agreed to participate.
A second order Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was applied using the
LISREL 8.8. software to validate the scales and assess the proposed model.
The results of the CFA indicated that the scales were valid and reliable,
thus showing adequate psychometric properties (dimensionality, reliability
and validity). Moreover, the proposed ICC-Market Performance model was
assessed, resulting in an adequate goodness of fit. The findings show that
the implementation of ICC is strongly and positively related to overall
market performance, thus we can conclude that ICC is crucial for
organisation to achieve better economic-financial results, brand-related
outcomes and higher customer satisfaction.
As a limitation, the generalisability of the results could be limited, due to the
fact that this study was carried out in a specific industry and within a
national context. However, we encourage future research to replicate this
study across other sectors and countries, with the aim of improving the
external validity of these results, reinforcing the ICC theoretical
background.
Finally, as managerial implications, we conclude that the assessment of this
ICC-Market Performance model is likely to help top management and
corporate and marketing communication practitioners in their decisionmaking processes.
Keywords: Integrated Corporate Communication, Market Performance,
Spanish Tourism, Structural Equation Modeling
38
References
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School of Journalism, Northwestern University, June.
Christensen, L. T. and Cornelissen, J. (2011), “Bridging Corporate and Organizational
Communication: Review, Development and a Look to the Future”, Management
Communication Quarterly, vol. 25(3) 383–414.
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Marketing Communication”, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol.44, March, pp. 31-45.
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communication management and communication effectiveness in medium-sized
enterprises”, Journal of Marketing Communications, 18 (5), 335-366.
Ewing, M. (2009), “Integrated Marketing Communications measurement and evaluation”,
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40
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The word “Quintessential” means the most perfect, class, archetypal,
classic, conventional, exemplary, absolute. No other word fits the
description of Royal Enfield and its brand Bullet than the word
Quintessential. The brand has generated unbelievable passion in the hearts
of the biking community over the last one hundred years. Royal Enfield has
survived as the products they make add value into the lives of its bikers.
This has translated into strong consumer loyalty for the brand which has
helped Royal Enfield and its brand Bullet to survive through the last
century. This lineage brand has always commanded the stature of authority
among bike enthusiasts, being seen as a strong man’s brand. The brand
appeals to a cross section of the audience looking for a unique brand
personality and off-roader biking experience along with its compelling
emotional appeal and commanding presence in the street. In India, the Royal
Enfield bikes are seen by the consumer as a time-tested British vintage
brand, with a characteristic “Thump Thump” sound from the exhaust and
bold chrome styling. In Europe, the brand is seen as an original and
authentic British bike.
This research paper analyzes the brand rejuvenation strategies adopted by
Royal Enfield, the role of brand positioning, brand mantra, brand
communities, brand folklore and other unconventional below the line
communication strategies adopted by the company to communicate the
brand personality and take forward its brand values to enthusiastic bikers,
ensuring brand survival in the face of stiff competition from German,
Japanese, Italian, American and Indian bikes.
Keywords: Heritage Brand, Brand Personality, Brand Mantra, Brand
Community, Brand Folklore, Unconventional
BTL Communication
Strategies, Brand Rejuvenation
41
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September, 2007, 4-7
42
4
Crisis and internal communication
track
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Consumer advertising is one of the most visible marketing tools of a
company. This means that it will reach many different stakeholders.
Academic marketing research, however, tends to focus only on one of them,
namely the consumer. Given that consumers are, in fact, the main target
audience for advertising, this focus is sound. Still, there is a growing
literature documenting the effects of consumer advertising on other
stakeholders, such as employees (e.g., Wolfinbarger-Celsi and Gilly 2010)
and investors (e.g., Osinaga et al. 2011). This research clearly shows that
consumer advertising influences perceptions above and beyond the
consumer perceptions it is primarily intended to promote. In the current
paper we investigate how consumer advertising influences one such
audience namely employees. More specifically we explore if and how
employee perceptions of consumer advertising might influence
organizational
identification
among
employees.
Organizational
identification (OI), or “the degree to which people come to see the
organization as part of themselves” (Dutton et al. 1994, p.242), is important
for companies. High levels of OI have been found to foster beneficial
employee behaviors, such as cooperation inside and competitiveness outside
the organization, as it leads employees to focus on actions that benefit the
organization a whole rather than only their self-interest (e.g., Dutton et al.
1994). Companies are, however, facing great challenges when it comes to
OI or “getting people on board” (Getting People on Board, Harvard
Business School Press, 2004). A recent Gallup study (2013) conducted in
142 countries worldwide shows that only 13 percent of employees are
engaged in their work and likely to make positive contributions to the
organizational goals. We believe that the marketing department in general,
and consumer advertising in particular, can have an important role to play in
addressing this challenge.
There is indeed a large body of literature within the marketing field that
44
addresses how organizations can get their employees “on board”. Some
related concepts are internal marketing (Rafiq and Ahmed, 2000), internal
branding (Punjaisri and Wilson, 2007), and employee branding (Miles and
Mangold, 2004). A common theme in these literatures is alignment, that is,
making sure employees share the same perceptions of the organization
internally and that there is a fit between internal and external perceptions.
Still, the role played by consumer advertising is rarely explicitly addressed
in empirically in this work.
To our knowledge, only a handful studies have investigated the role played
by consumer advertising for employees. These studies show that employees
indeed react to its company’s consumer advertising (c.f. Acito, 1980;
Hughes 2013; Wolfinbarger and Gilly 2005; Wolfinbarger-Celsi and Gilly,
2010). OI has emerged as a relevant construct within this field, and it has
been proposed, based on qualitative studies (Gilly and Wolfinbarger, 1998),
that consumer advertising can build OI. If true, this would mean that
advertising contributes to the organization beyond influencing consumers.
However, this relationship has not been empirically verified. We therefore
aim to build on emerging work by empirically testing the proposed effects
of advertising on organizational identification, using an experimental design
that allows for causality to be established.
Our study was conducted in cooperation with a large food retailer, which
allows us to study real employees and real consumer advertising. A total of
314 employees participated in the study and they were asked to express their
views on six different examples of advertising created by the company.
Each participant only saw one ad and answered questions about
organizational identification only once (either before of after seeing the ad).
The allocation to conditions was random. By varying the order of
measurement of OI and ad exposure we can a) compare the level of
organizational identification between those exposed and those not exposed
to advertising and b) explore the causal direction of ad perceptions and
organizational identification.
The findings show a significant positive influence of consumer advertising
on organizational identification. Further correlational analysis, based on
Kenny’s (1975) approach, confirms the causal direction of this relationship.
Thus, our results suggest that advertising exposure leads to increased OI,
and not the other way around. The findings also show that this effect is not
true for all ads, and that employees’ perceptions of advertising effectiveness
is a key driver of the OI effect..
45
The originality of the study is, first, that it contributes a better understanding
of employee reactions to consumer advertising, by providing empirical
support for a previously suggested (Wolfinbarger and Celsi, 1998)
relationship between advertising and OI. Second, our research complements
previous qualitative (Wolfinbarger and Celsi, 1998) and correlational
(Hughes 2013; Wolfingbarger-Celsi and Gilly, 2010) studies of the internal
effects of consumer advertising by using an experimental approach. This
allows us to establish the causal relationship between advertising and OI.
Finally, on a more general level, the present paper contributes to the
growing literature on different stakeholder reactions to consumer advertising
and adds a broader picture of how advertising contributes to organizations,
beyond influencing consumers.
Managerially, the findings suggest that advertising is an important tool in
aligning and getting employees “on board”. Thus, advertisers should take
employees into account when designing and evaluating consumer
advertising. Employees could be invited prior to a campaign, to influence
the planning in terms of, for example, key messages. Advertisers could also
pay greater attention to employee reaction after the campaign, by
conducting campaign evaluation internally – in the same way that consumer
reactions typically are measured. The latter action could also serve as a tool
for advertisers to further strengthen their accountability and influence within
the company.
Further research is called for in order to better understand the reasons for the
effects of advertising on OI. A particularly relevant question is what type of
advertising that has greater or lesser effect on OI. It would be fruitful to
include traditional measures of consumer reactions to advertising (ad
attitude, message clarity, etc.) to further understand effects on employees.
Keywords: advertising, organizational identification, internal marketing,
employees
References
Acito, F. 1980. “Employee attitudes toward advertising.” Journal of Business Research
8(4): 525–540.
Dutton, J.E., Dukerich, J.M. and Harquail, C.V. 1994. “Organizational images and member
identification.” Administrative Science Quarterly 39(2): 239-63.
46
Gilly, M.C. and Wolfinbarger, M. 1998. “Advertising's internal audience.” Journal of
Marketing 62(1): 69-88.
Hughes, D.E. 2013. “This ad’s for you: the indirect effect of advertising perceptions on
salesperson effort and performance.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 41: 118.
Wolfinbarger Celsi, M. and Gilly, M.C. 2010. “Employees as internal audience: how
advertising affects employees’ customer focus.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing
Science 38: 520-529.
47
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Employee communication behaviours are gaining growing attention because
of their contribute to company's competitive advantage. Employee
communication dialogue with managers to interpret events, with colleagues
to cooperate in formal and informal networks, and with the employer as
brand ambassadors is a key element of the co-creation of organizational
context. Most important antecedents of employee communication
behaviours encompass quality of relationships, material and non-material
benefits, coercive power and termination costs, equity of exchange, and
communication. This study shed light in particular on internal
communication strategies adopted in order to enable employees to be
strategic
communicators.
It presents findings from interviews with 32 internal communication
managers. According to interviewees, some strategies to enhance employee
communication behaviours are communication-based: creation of
communication path, development of new languages, adoption of full
disclosure style, and effective managerial communication. A relevant part of
internal communication strategies aim to affect employee attitudes and
behavioural intentions to indirectly stimulate strategic communication
behaviours. On the overall, internal communication strategies are
enablement-oriented: they rely on integration of communication with other
managerial practices, specifically human resource management, in order to
create proper organizational conditions to sustain employee communication
role for the co-creation of organizational context.
Keywords: employee communication behaviours; internal communication;
employee enablement; internal communication strategies
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51
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Brand crises endanger companies. Social media are a key platform where
stakeholders elaborate and react to crises. This research explores whether
social media audience and traditional mass media audience react differently
to a brand crisis in terms of their 1) attitude toward the brand/company and
2) word-of-mouth (WOM). As to the brand/company attitude, we argue that
stakeholders exposed to the brand crisis via social media have a more
negative reaction towards the brand/company compared to those who are
exposed via mass media. As to the behaviour, we posit that social media
exposure intensifies WOM. By analysing the Barilla crisis, the findings
suggest that the social media act as ‘multipliers’ of the reaction of
stakeholders to a brand crisis.
Keywords: social media; crisis management; brand attitude, word-ofmouth, mass media
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Coombs,W. T. and Holladay, S. J. .2012. Amazon.com’s Orwellian nightmare: exploring
52
apology in an online environment. Journal of Communication Management, 16 (3):
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Turbulence in the Blogosphere: Evaluating the Blog-Mediated Crisis Communication
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crisis communication: The Love Parade tragedy in Duisburg 2010.” Public Relations
Review
38
(3):
430–437.
Utz, Sonja, Schultz, Friederike, and Sandra Glocka,. 2013. “Crisis communication online:
53
How medium, crisis type and emotions affected public reactions in the Fukushima Daiichi
nuclear
disaster.”
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Relations
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39
(1):
40–46.
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study of Foxconn’s 2010 employee suicide crisis. Journal of Business Ethics, 117(2): 371–
386.
54
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With the emergence of Web 2.0 applications, internet users have gained
more power to express themselves and to proclaim their opinions. When
these opinions are negative, they can potentially hurt the reputation of the
attacked entity if the criticism catches the attention of many and is
distributed by a large number of people. When the negative word-of-mouth
(WOM) communication is also seized by professional journalists who report
about it in the mainstream media, the reputational threat is particularly
prevalent. In this case, the attacked entity, that may be a company, political
party or a person, faces a paracrisis. A paracrisis is a publicly visible crisis
threat, i.e. a situation that could escalate into a crisis, accusing an entity of
irresponsible or unethical behavior (Coombs and Holladay 2012).
A particular threat is the occurrence of an online firestorm, which Pfeffer,
Zorbach and Carley (2013) define as “the sudden discharge of large
quantities of messages containing negative WOM and complaint behavior
against a person, company, or group in social media networks” (p. 2).
Because journalists increasingly use internet sources for their research
(Neuberger, Nuernbergk, and Rischke 2009), the online firestorm can spill
over into the mainstream media, as has happened to Guido Barilla, CEO of
the same-named pasta company who sparked a social media firestorm after
alleged anti-gay comments (Stebner 2013), or the bank ING Diba whose TV
spot featuring basketball star Dirk Nowitzki eating a piece of boloney
incurred severe online criticism by vegetarians (Dohms and Kirchner 2012).
Our research addresses the question how journalists seize the firestorm
phenomenon and cover it in online and print mainstream media.
Specifically, the research asks which news factors lead to the coverage,
which topics are covered, which entities represent the firestorm-objects and
whether their response to the criticism is covered as well. To answer these
questions we conducted a quantitative content analysis of 11 German print
55
media and 10 corresponding online media (mixed media sample of national
quality newspapers, weekly papers and news magazines). The units of
analysis were identified by means of a keyword search in digital databases.
Search criterion was the technical term for online firestorm used in
Germany, which is “Shitstorm”. All articles containing this term within the
sample period ranging from April 2010 to October 2012 were included in
the analysis. News factors were coded drawing on the classification by
Eilders (2006). Coding of response strategies by the criticized entities was
guided by Coombs (2007).
There were a total of 564 articles containing the term “Shitstorm” published
within the sample period. About 60 per cent can be allotted to the analyzed
online media. The number of articles on the phenomenon of online
firestorms increased significantly within the sample period. While in 2010
only 8 articles could be identified, there were already 36 in 2011, and a total
of 520 articles containing the term “Shitstorm” were published between
January and October of 2012. Of all articles, 223 reported on a specific
online firestorm. Most of these 223 articles dealt with politics (38 per cent),
business (23 per cent) and culture (16 per cent). An organization (company
or political party) was in the center of 121 articles, while 102 dealt with a
person as the firestorm-object. Most of the articles were about the Pirates
Party (13), the bank ING Diba (9), and Vodafone (7). In nearly half of the
223 cases, the firestorm-object was portrayed negatively; in 42 per cent the
tone was ambivalent. In 75 of the 223 articles (34 per cent), a response
strategy by the criticized entity could be identified. This was in about equal
shares an apology or a justification. Response strategies from organizations
were covered in 37 per cent of the cases (45 of 121), while accounts from
persons experiencing an online firestorm were seized less often (30 of 102,
29 per cent). The news factors that played a role for a firestorm to be
covered by a journalist were reach, facticity, prominence and influence.
The results show that online firestorms are turning into an established topic
in German mainstream media, and that German journalists use the term
“Shitstorm” with increasing frequency. While this may also be due to an
increase in online firestorms per se, the jump from 2010 to 2012 is too
drastic to only originate from that. Interestingly, in a considerable number of
cases organizations were able to generate coverage of their responses to the
criticism. Persons that were the object of an online firestorm were somewhat
less able to do so. This may be due to the fact that organizations have a
56
more professional communications function at their disposal than the
attacked individuals.
Although the phenomenon of people vocalizing criticism and complaints
through interactive online channels is not new, the speed at which negative
WOM diffuses through social media has been reaching new levels; this
creates new challenges for corporate and marketing communications
(Pfeffer, Zorbach, and Carley 2013). Results show that account giving can
be effective when it comes to coverage on online firestorms in mainstream
media. Which strategies are particularly effective and how this affects media
audiences still remain to be tested.
Key words: content analysis, online firestorm, paracrisis, negative word-ofmouth
References
Coombs, W. T. 2007. “Protecting organization reputations during a crisis: The development
and application of situational crisis communication theory.” Corporate Reputation Review
10: 163–176.
Pfeffer, J., Zorbach, T., and Carley, K. M. 2013. “Understanding online firestorms:
Negative word-of-mouth dynamics in social media networks.” Journal of Marketing
Communications: DOI: 10.1080/13527266.2013.797778
Coombs, T. J. and Holladay, S. 2012. “The paracrisis: The challenges created by publicly
managing crisis.” Public Relations Review 38: 408-415.
Dohms, H.-R. and Kirchner, C. 2012. “Wer den Spot hat, hat den Shitstorm.“ Financial
Times
Deutschland,
Jan.
8.
https://web.archive.org/web/20120109085150/http://www.ftd.de/unternehmen/finanzdienstl
eister/: werbung-wer-den-spot-hat-hat-den-shitstorm/60150757.html
Eilders, C. 2006. “News factors and news decisions. Theoretical and methodological
advances in Germany.” Communications 31: 5-24.
Neuberger, C., Nuernbergk, C., and Rischke, M. 2009. “Journalismus im Internet:
Zwischen Profession, Partizipation und Technik. Ergebnisse eines DFGForschungsprojekts.” Media Perspektiven 4: 174-188.
Stebner, B. 2013. “Barilla pasta executive in hot water for anti-gay comments.” New York
Daily News, Sept. 26, http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/pasta-exec-guido-barillahot-water-anti-gay-comments-article-1.1468731
57
5
Communication and intangible
assets (part 1) track
58
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Over the past few years, brand preference appears to have declined,
dramatically (Schultz and Block 2012; Schultz et al. 2013). Attempts have
been made to offset that decline by developing company efforts to build
and sustain a trustworthy corporate brand capable of supporting the entire
product brand portfolio.
In this paper we posit that managing the organization as a corporate brand
may help companies differentiate their offerings and therefore regain some
of their lost brand preference through enhancing and seeking to expand their
social roles. In times of a severe decline in organizational social trust (2013
Edelman Barometer), companies which have traditionally carried out hardselling product strategies are now switching to a corporate branding
business philosophy (Biraghi and Gambetti, 2013). This enables them to
face social scrutiny and also endorse their product brands through the
development of a comprehensive and unique value proposition. Far beyond
that, the argument is made that to sustain the credibility of the corporate
brand’s bilateral promise, a societal view of the corporate brand as a socially
constructed and managed asset could and should be developed. This should
facilitate and underpin company differentiation which could restore brand
preference.
Here, we critically review the extant literature on corporate branding via
the conceptual turning points taking place in the field (i.e. corporate
marketing logic, corporate branding as a governance model and the ultimate
view of corporate branding as a societal philosophy). In doing so, we
highlight the progressive broadening of the corporate brand philosophy,
59
which has moved from a marketing focus (Laforet and Saunders 1994;
Brown and Dacin 1997; Keller and Aaker 1998; Aaker and Joachimsthaler
2000, Balmer 2001, 2009, 2011) to a pan-organizational (de Chernatony
2001; Hatch and Schultz 2001; Urde, 2003; Gotsi and Andriopoulos 2008;
Balmer and Thomson 2009; Balmer et al. 2009; Balmer, 2012) and societal
one (Gregory 2007; Hatch and Schultz, 2009, 2010; Järventie-Thesleff et al.
2011; Cornelissen et al. 2012; Melewar et al. 2012; Biraghi and Gambetti,
2013) which stretch beyond organizational boundaries. We illustrate the
challenges brought about by each conceptual milestone in corporate
branding that organizations currently face (Kitchen and Schultz, 2001;
Schultz and Kitchen, 2004). Many challenges have resulted from the
progressive managerial movement to develop corporate brands as socially
owned assets. We support our polemic by providing evidence that accounts
for how companies, in framing communications, open their corporate brand
proposition to stakeholders and to society generally.
This study, while conceptual, offers a valuable contribution by reshaping the
agenda in the corporate branding field. This is done by refocusing current
corporate brand management developments into the lively conceptual debate
that has informed the corporate branding philosophy over time. We
conceive the paper as a sense-making incubator that raises pertinent
questions, rather than providing answers. It is designed to provoke reflection
about changes in corporate activities
toward the society and its
constituencies which inform the evolution of corporate brand philosophy.
Specifically, it opens a conceptual reflection on the “traces” detected in
corporate branding practices that point to the emergence of a new societal
view of the corporate brand. This reflective process, we argue, is a first
step toward diagnosing the corporate branding practices on their route
toward the development of the corporate brand as a societal asset. We
believe the paper will stimulate lively and needed debate in both an
academic and managerial context as to whether corporate brands should
take up a more societal stance in today’s world.
Keywords: corporate brand, societal corporate branding, intangible assets,
brand preference
References
2013 Edelman Barometer, retrieved at http://www.edelman.com/insights/intellectualproperty/trust-2013/
60
Aaker, D. A.; and E. Joachimsthaler. 2000. “The brand relationship spectrum.” California
Management Review 42(4): 8-23.
Balmer, J. M. T. 2001. “Corporate Identity, Corporate Branding and Corporate Marketing:
Seeing Through the Fog.” European Journal of Marketing 35 (3/4): 248–291.
Balmer, J. M. T. 2009. “Corporate marketing: apocalypse, advent and epiphany”
Management Decision 47(4): 544–72.
Balmer, J. M. T. 2011. “Corporate marketing myopia and the inexorable rise of a corporate
marketing logic: perspectives from identity-based views of the firm.” European Journal of
Marketing 45(9/10): 1329-1352.
Balmer, J. M. T. 2012 “Corporate brand management imperatives: custodianship,
credibility, and calibration” California Management Review 54(3): 6–33.
Balmer, J. M. T., H. Stewart; and S.A. Greyser. 2009. “Aligning identity and strategy:
corporate branding at British Airways in the late 20th century.” California Management
Review, 51(3): 6–23
Balmer, J. M. T.; and I. Thomson. 2009. “The Shared Management and Ownership of
Corporate Brands.” Journal of General Management 34 (4): 15–37.
Biraghi, S.; and R. C. Gambetti. 2013. “Corporate branding: Where are we? A systematic
communication-based
inquiry.” Journal
of
Marketing
Communications,
DOI:10.1080/13527266.2013.768535 : 1-24.
Brown, T. J.; and P. A. Dacin. 1997. “The Company and the Product: Corporate
Associations and Consumer Product Responses.” Journal of Marketing 61 (1): 68–84.
Cornelissen, J. P.; L. T. Christensen; and K. Kinuthia. 2012. “Corporate Brands and
Identity: Developing Stronger Theory and the Call for Shifting Debate.” European Journal
of Marketing 46 (7/8): 1093–1102.
de Chernatony, Leslie. 2001. From Brand Vision to Brand Evaluation: Strategically
Building and Sustaining Brands. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Gotsi, M.; and C. Andriopoulos. 2008. “Corporate Rebranding: Is Cultural Alignment the
weakest link?” Management Decision 46 (1): 46–57.
Gregory, A. 2007. “Involving Stakeholders in Developing Corporate Brands: The
Communication Dimension.” Journal of Marketing Management 23 (1/2): 59–73.
Hatch, M. J.; and M. Schultz. 2001. “Are the Strategic Stars Aligned for Your Corporate
Brand?” Harvard Business Review 79 (2): 128–134.
Hatch, M. J.; and M. Schultz. 2009. “Of Bricks and Brands. From Corporate to Enterprise
Branding.” Organizational Dynamics 38 (2): 117–130.
Hatch, M. J.; and M. Schultz. 2010. “Toward a Theory of Brand Co-Creation with
Implications for Brand Governance.” Journal of Brand Management 17 (8): 590–604.
Jarventie-Thesleff, R.; J. Moisander; and P.-M. Laine. 2011. “Organizational Dynamics
and Complexities of Corporate Brand Building - A Practice Perspective.” Scandinavian
Journal of Management 27: 196–204.Kapferer, 2001
Keller, K. L.; and D. A. Aaker. 1998. “The Impact of Corporate Marketing on a Company’s
Brand Extensions.” Corporate Reputation Review 1: 356–378.
Kitchen, P. J., and D. E. Schultz. 2001. Raising the Corporate Umbrella: Corporate
Communications in the Twenty-First Century. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan.
Laforet, S.; and J. Saunders. 1994. “Managing Brand Portfolios: How the Leaders Do It.”
Journal of Advertising Research 34: 64–76.
61
Melewar, T. C.; M. Gotsi; and C. Andriopoulos. 2012. “Shaping the Research Agenda for
Corporate Branding.” European Journal of Marketing 46 (5): 600–608.
Schultz D. E; and M. P. Block. 2011. “Understanding customer brand engagement
behaviors in today's interactive marketplace” Micro & Macro Marketing (2), 227-244
Schultz, D. E., and P. J. Kitchen. 2004. “Managing the Changes in Corporate Branding and
Communication: Closing and Re-opening the Corporate Umbrella.” Corporate Reputation
Review 6: 347–366.
Schultz, D.; and M. Block. 2012. “Rethinking brand loyalty in an age of interactivity.” The
IUP Journal of Brand Management 9(3): 21-39.
Schultz, D.E.; M. Block; and V. Viswanathan. 2013. “Brand preference being challenged”,
International Colloquium on Consumer Brand Relationships.
Urde, M. 2003. “Core Value-based Corporate Brand Building.” European Journal of
Marketing 37 (7/8): 1017–1040.
62
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This paper explores the process of developing customer trust through
customer-based corporate reputation (CBR). Corporate reputation is the
perceptual evaluation of an organization by its stakeholders (Fombrun,
Gardberg, and Sever 2000). It may therefore vary for different stakeholder
groups, and, researchers should study it separately for each group (Fombrun
and Shanley 1990). This study focuses on customers due to their importance
as a major source of revenues (Walsh et al. 2009) and their influence on
marketing practices (Kotler 2011).
The study of customer trust has received considerable attention (e.g.,
Morgan and Hunt 1994; Johnson and Grayson 2005) in the extant literature,
since trust is a central construct in relationship marketing and serves as a
key benefit of CBR (Eastlick, Lotz, and Warrington 2006; Jeng 2011).
Drawing on attitude theory and the theory of customer perceived risk; this
paper aims to address two objectives. First is to compare the contribution of
the affective aspects of the CBR to consumer trust against the cognitive
component. Second is to test the mediating role of customer perceived risk
in the CBR-Trust relationship.
Researchers have conceptualised reputation as an attitude-related construct
consisting of both the cognitive and affective components (e.g., Schwaiger
2004; Einwiller, Carroll, and Korn 2010). While paying much attention to
the study of the cognitive component of reputation (e.g., Eastlick, Lotz, and
Warrington 2006; Keh and Xie 2009), they have somehow neglected the
contribution of its affective aspect towards customer trust. We should study
the affective reputation, as evidence suggests that this component works
differently from the cognitive reputation (Raithel et al. 2010).
Reputation helps customers reduce perceived risk in B-to-C relationships
(Van den Poel and Leunis 1999). Given the role of positive reputation in
mitigating the perceived risk (Lacey, Bruwer, and Li 2009) and the
63
influence of perceived risk management on developing customer trust
(Morgan and Hunt 1994), it is important to conceptualize and investigate the
mediating effects of customer perceived risk in CBR-Trust relationship.
We propose and test the following conceptual model (Fig. 1), which
represents the direct and indirect (mediated) effects of CBR on the customer
trust. Attitude theory and the research findings from the extant literature
explain the direct effects, whereas, theory of customer perceived risk
explains the mediating role of customer perceived risk in the CBR-Trust
relationship.
Keywords:
Customer-based corporate reputation; Customer trust; Customer perceived
risk; Cognitive reputation; Affective reputation
References:
Bartikowski, B., G. Walsh, and S. E. Beatty. 2011. “Culture and Age as Moderators in the
Corporate Reputation and Loyalty Relationship.” Journal of Business Research 64(9): 966972.
Chandon, P., and B. Wansink. 2007. “The Biasing Health Halos of Fast Food Restaurant
Health Claims: Lower Calorie Estimates and Higher Side-Dish Consumption Intentions.”
Journal of Consumer Research 34(3): 301–314.
Chang, S. J., A. Van Witteloostuijn, and L. Eden. 2010. “From the Editors: Common
Method Variance in International Business Research.” Journal of International Business
Studies 41(2): 178-184.
Eastlick, M. A., S. L. Lotz, and P. Warrington. 2006. “Understanding Online B-to-C
Relationships: An Integrated Model of Privacy Concerns, Trust, and Commitment.”
Journal of Business Research 59(8): 877-886.
Einwiller, S., C. E. Carroll, and K. Korn. 2010. “Under What Conditions Do the News
Media Influence Corporate Reputation? The Roles of Media Dependency and Need for
Orientation.” Corporate Reputation Review 12(4): 299-315.
Fombrun, C. J., N. A. Gardberg, and J. W. Sever. 2000. “The Reputation Quotient: A
Multi-Stakeholder Measure of Corporate Reputation.” The Journal of Brand Management
7(4): 241–255.
Fombrun, C., and M. Shanley. 1990. “What's in a Name? Reputation Building and
Corporate Strategy.” Academy of Management Journal 33(2): 233-258.
Jeng, S. P. 2011. “The Effect of Corporate Reputations on Customer Perceptions and CrossBuying Intentions.” The Services Industries Journal 31(6): 851-862.
Johnson, D., and K. Grayson. 2005. “Cognitive and Affective Trust in Service
Relationships.” Journal of Business Research 58(4): 500–507.
Keh, H. T., and Y. Xie. 2009. “Corporate Reputation and Customer Behavioural Intentions:
The Roles of Trust, Identification and Commitment.” Industrial Marketing Management
38(7): 732-742.
64
Kotler, P. 2011. “Reinventing Marketing to Manage the Environmental Imperative.”
Journal of Marketing 75(4): 132 –135.
Lacey, S., J. Bruwer, and E. Li. 2009. “The Role of Perceived Risk in Wine Purchase
Decisions in Restaurants.” International Journal of Wine Business Research 21(2): 99-117.
Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan. 2012. “Pakistan Economic Survey, 20112012, Chapter 12: Population Labour Force and Employment.” Accessed June 23.
http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapter_12/12PopulationLabourForceAndEmployment.pdf.
Morgan, R., and S. Hunt. 1994. “The Commitment-Trust Theory of Relationship
Marketing.” Journal of Marketing 58(2): 20-38.
Podsakoff, P. M., S. B. MacKenzie, J. Y. Lee, and N. P. Podsakoff. 2003. “Common
Method Biases in Behavioural Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and
Recommended Remedies.” Journal of Applied Psychology 88(5): 879-903.
Raithel, S., P. Wilczynski, M. P. Schloderer, and M. Schwaiger. 2010. “The ValueRelevance of Corporate Reputation during the Financial Crisis.” Journal of Product and
Brand Management 19(6): 389-400.
Schwaiger, M. 2004. “Components and Parameters of Corporate Reputation – An
Empirical Study.” Schmalenbach Business Review 56(1): 46-71.
Van den Poel, D., and J. Leunis. 1999. “Consumer Acceptance of the Internet as a Channel
of Distribution.” Journal of Business Research 45(3): 249–256.
Walsh, G., V. W. Mitchell, P. R. Jackson, and S. E. Beatty. 2009. “Examining the
Antecedents and Consequences of Corporate Reputation: A Customer Perspective.” British
Journal of Management 20(2): 187-203.
Zhao, X., J. G. Lynch, and Q. Chen. 2010. “Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and
Truths about Mediation Analysis.” Journal of Consumer Research 37(2): 197-206.
65
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Corporate reputation is a valuable intangible asset of organisations. It has
often been associated with a range of competitive advantages which include
enhancing a firm’s ability to attract consumers, investors and good
employees particularly during periods of economic and financial instability
(Roberts and Dowling, 2002; Gardberg and Fombrun, 2006; Rindova and
Fombrun, 1999). Corporate reputation has traditionally been conceptualised
as a collective representation of stakeholders’ impressions. These
impressions are developed over time and are associated with the firm’s
ability to deliver valued outcomes to various stakeholder groups (Helm,
2007; Walsh and Beatty, 2007). Companies with good reputations are very
often assumed to provide good jobs, services and products to employees and
customers (Turban and Greening, 1996; Michaelis, Woisetschläger,
Backhaus and Ahlert, 2008).
There is a well-established body of research work which has identified the
multidimensional nature of corporate reputation also speculating that there
are common organisational characteristics influencing the stakeholders’
impressions of a firm (Davies and Chun, 2002; Fombrun and Gardberg,
2000). While these impressions are collectively shared, they contribute to
stakeholder-specific evaluations of the attractiveness of a company (Walsh
and Beatty, 2007). As a result, scholars, in the marketing and management
fields, have begun to investigate the management of corporate reputation
according to a particular stakeholder group in order to develop stakeholderspecific communication strategies (Walsh and Beatty, 2007; Helm, 2007;
Van Hoye, Bas, Cromheecke and Lievens, 2012). Within this stream of
research there is a general consensus that stakeholder groups differ in their
expectations, values and norms and rely on corporate reputation to serve
different needs.
66
While this line of inquiry focuses on the perception of groups, social
identity theory also suggests that individuals can hold multiple identities
(Brewer and Pierce, 2005; Roccas and Brewer, 2002). This is extremely
important because individuals are also very often required to balance
different mix of identities (i.e. the identity of a consumer and that of an
employee) with this mix influencing the final perception of both tangible
and intangible assets. However, while corporate reputation has been studied
in light of the interests of specific stakeholder groups, its salience for
individuals holding multiple stakeholder identities has been almost
completely ignored.
Against this background, the primary aim of this paper is to analyse how,
and the extent to which different identities have the potential to influence
individuals’ perception of corporate reputation. We are also interested to
explore the extent to which one specific identity (i.e. the consumer identity)
may influence other identities (i.e. the employee or investor identities) in
shaping the individual’s perception of corporate reputation. We do so by
considering two commonly assumed identities - that of a consumer and job
seeker within both established (Australia and Italy) and transition economies
(Russia and Bulgaria). This is relevant because in the latter countries the
transition to market based principles has often been associated with changes
in individuals’ identities (Patico and Caldwell, 2002; Hörschelmann, 2008).
We use a within-subject experimental design build upon research on
stakeholder identity (Kleine,1997) and identity complexity (Roccas, 2002;
Brewer and Pierce, 2005) to test our main hypotheses. Consistent with this
work we define stakeholder identity as task-specific identity which drives
individuals’ intentions and behaviours towards firms. In the context of
corporate reputation this identity determines individuals’ expectations of
companies as prospective providers of products and employment
opportunities (Walsh and Beatty, 2007). The final instrument included the
20 item RQ scale (Fombrun et al; 2000) where individuals were asked to
rate the importance of these items for their intentions to purchase and take
employment opportunities with a company. The data was collected from
Russia, Bulgaria, Italy and Australia (N=1083). The initial data analysis
suggests that there are significant differences in the importance of the
reputation dimensions according to individual identities, with these
differences being less pronounced in transition countries. Specifically,
consumer identities seem to influence employee identities to a much larger
67
extent in Russia and Bulgaria than what is the case in Italy and Australia.
Russian and Bulgarian individuals seem to hold more blurred stakeholder
identities, in relation to corporate reputation, than their Italian and
Australian counterparts. The results have important implications for the
management of corporate communication strategies. Our findings indicate
that companies should differentiate their corporate communication strategies
according to the country they are operating in as well as the individual
identity they are targeting.
Keywords: stakeholder identity,
communication, social identity
corporate
reputation,
corporate
References
Brewer, M. B., & Pierce, K. P. (2005). Social identity complexity and outgroup tolerance.
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(3), 428-437.
Davies, G., & Chun, R. (2002). Gaps between the internal and external perceptions of the
corporate brand. Corporate Reputation Review, 5(2-3), 2-3.
Fombrun, C. J., Gardberg, N. A. & Sever (2000). ‘The Reputation Quotient: A multistakeholder measure of corporate reputation’. The Journal of Brand Management, 7(4):
241-255.
Gardberg, N. A. & C. J. Fombrun (2006). ‘Corporate citizenship: Creating intangible assets
across institutional environments’. Academy of Management Review, 31(4): 329-346.
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69
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Corporate identity is a construct that is notoriously surrounded by a myriad
of definitions and terms. This hard to define nature is subsequently proving
to be a hindrance to the construct’s development. This is especially so when
corporate identity is perhaps heading into increasingly exciting and
fractured times. With more platforms open for identity dissemination and
evolving needs of stakeholders (both internal and external) wishing to
become co-creators of identities, the very notion of identity is being pulled
in a multitude of directions.
Technology has had a massive impact on this. The arrival of digital
technologies has created many new opportunities for identity creation and
dissemination along with instigating behaviours in stakeholders. Behaviours
that cause them to crave more transparency, more content and more
opportunities to contribute to the identities they are being presented with.
These changing stakeholder behaviours have caused corporations to react in
different ways, and show more of their identities. In some cases though,
being reactive rather than proactive. Thus resulting in corporations adopting
new behaviours that have become large parts of their corporate identity.
This is perhaps particularly evident in CSR related behaviours. This is also
potentially a subtle way of stakeholders influencing identity. A subtle
dialogue, as opposed to an overt one.
These digital technologies are also increasing the number of platforms to
disseminate this identity from. And not only platforms, but forms
themselves. Be it an image on Instagram, a video on Vine, an interactive
app. The corporate identity now can exist amongst all of these platforms
offering a more immersive experience for stakeholders.
The non-digital world has also gone through changes as a result of online
taking precedent in many stakeholders lives. It has given rise to a love of
tangible experiences for stakeholders via experiential marketing, and thus a
focus on atmospherics and more sensory identity perspectives being
70
employed to convey identity. The corporate identity is increasingly being
enjoyed by all the senses.
The dialogues taking place are also not simply between corporation and
stakeholder, but then amongst external stakeholders themselves. Identities
are being shared around with the click of a mouse or the tap of screen. This
idea of co creation has led to more power of the identity leaning in favour of
the external stakeholders, especially evident in the form of user-generated
content.
The internal dialogue of corporations has also started going through
changes, especially with increasing use of social media as an internal
communication tool. This has also given stronger identities to the
subcultures within an organization.
Therefore, in light of these increasingly complex times it is proposed the
identity of corporate identity re-examined, stripped back to its purest form
to create a new foundation to build further research. Melewar’s 2003
taxonomy (Melewar, 2003) and Kitchen et al. (2013) will be taken as the
basis and thus used to see what new factors are major parts of the corporate
identity, resulting in a new model for the corporate identity construct.
There have been massive changes to the idea of identity, and it is time to
readdress these, reflect such changes. Hold a mirror up to the current state of
corporate identity, so that a clear progression forward be made. One that
revels in the excitingly complex times that surround corporate identity.
The research objectives would be as follows: to find from the literature the
purest definition of corporate identity, to conduct qualitative research into
what practitioners believe to be the main factors of the corporate identity
construct and to create an updated taxonomy of corporate identity that
reflects the current state of corporate identity, and pave the way for future
research.
The original value of the paper would be to update of Melewar’s taxonomy
(Melewar, 2003) to see what is seen to be integral elements of corporate
identity. A model will be created to reflect the changes that have taken place
since this original taxonomy was created. It is also an in depth look at how
corporate identity has evolved over time.
The theoretical relevance is that a stripped back version of corporate identity
shall be presented along with an updated model to show what changes have
happened to the corporate identity construct, and thus how the construct has
evolved.
71
The benefit practitioners could take from this is that it could help create
their corporate identity, and highlight what elements are impacting on it.
Therefore giving them greater control over their identity. Offering up a fully
in depth, and up to date vision of what constitutes corporate identity,
supplying a good foundation to work from.
Keywords: Corporate Identity, Brand Identity, Corporate Image, Corporate
Reputation, Organizational Identity
References
Melewar, T.C. (2003) ‘Determinants of the corporate identity construct: a review of the
literature’, Journal of Marketing Communications, 9(4), pp. 195-220.
Kitchen, P., Tourky, M., Dean, D. and Shaalan A. (2013) ‘Corporate identity antecedents
and components: toward a theoretical framework’, Corporate Reputation Review, 16 (4),
pp. 263-284.
72
6
Social media communication track
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Dialogic communication, which stems from two-way symmetrical
communication, is considered as an approach that can allow organizations to
generate sustainable relationships through the facilitation of dynamic and
interactive communication. This form of communication between
organizations and their publics is built upon two-way interaction, which
includes informing, listening and responding, thus resulting in an ongoing
connection among parties. In mid 1980s, Grunig first suggested the concept
of a two-way symmetrical communication, which encourages feedback,
response, and relationship building between an organization and its
stakeholders (Kent and Taylor 1998). However, dialogic communication
and two-way symmetrical communication are not necessarily synonymous.
Kent, Taylor and Mcallister-Spooner (2008) claimed that two-way
symmetrical communication does not actually involve responding to
stakeholders as equals, and differentiated the symmetrical model from
dialogic communication, emphasizing the latter’s focus on relationships
rather than feedback. Symmetrical communication depends on listening and
soliciting feedback, whereas dialogic communication relies solely on
building relationships.
The current evolving media landscape necessitates using both on-line and
off-line communication tools to achieve diverse relational exchange
between organizations and their stakeholders. By its very nature, social
media encourages users to contact, participate, engage and become involved
with others. Therefore, individuals use this platform not only to exchange
information but also to participate in a conversation which, in this study, we
refer to as dialogue. Social media have also received significant attention in
the communication practices of organizations. This platform enables a level
of participation in the on-going dialogue which would be much more
difficult to achieve through conventional off-line media alone. Social media
can provide various benefits for organizations; this method of
74
communication is inexpensive when compared with traditional media, and
can build stronger and more sincere relationships based on trust and mutual
understanding. As Men and Tsai (2012) stated, social media can humanize
organizations through the personal touch (Kent & Taylor 1998), using
functions such as “friends”, “like”, “follow”, “share” options. In addition,
social networks allow organizations to become more transparent among
their on-line publics by offering open and dialogic communication channels.
Building and maintaining relationships with stakeholder groups is crucial
for non-profit organizations (NPOs), which conduct most activity on a
voluntary basis. NPOs are organizations which highlight particular social
and environmental issues, promote alternative solutions, and act as the
“lawyers” or “spokespersons” of society (Scherer and Palazzo 2007, 1101).
Social media allows these organizations to generate attention and recruit the
public in order to achieve their aims. Emerging social media that facilitate
dialogic communication thus provide NPOs with interactive dimensions for
direct communication with their publics. As it has all the characteristics of
interaction, social media is considered by many scholars as an effective
channel for developing relationships. Kent (2010) identifies the main
features of social media as interactivity, interchangeability, responsiveness,
and dialogue; characteristics, which are considered to provide a range
opportunities for nonprofits, such as supporting fundraising, maintaining
contact with donors and volunteers, disseminating updated news, and
encouraging public interest in the organization.
Studies focusing on the usage of social media by NPOs have mainly
concentrated on how non-profit organizations use social networks to foster
two-way dialogues (Waters et al. 2009; Briones, Kuch, Liu and Jin 2011;
Baumgarten 2011; Inauen, Schoeneborn and Scherer 2011; Lovejoy, Waters
and Saxton 2012). Others have focused specifically on Turkish NPOs’
social media accounts (Onat 2010; Waters and Lo 2012; Özdemir 2012;
Solmaz and Görkemli 2012). However, these studies did not directly
emphasize the dialogic potential of these platforms. Addressing this gap, our
study investigates how nonprofit organizations exploit social media to foster
a dialogue with their publics. The Facebook accounts of Turkish
environmental NPOs were selected as the unit of analysis since Facebook
has the greatest number of users (32,131,260) of all social networks in
Turkey (Internet World Stats 2012). The parameters of dialogic
communication through Facebook will be derived from the studies of
related articles identified from literature review (Taylor, Kent and White
75
2001; Waters, Burnett, Lamm and Lucas 2009; Baumgarten 2011; Lovejoy,
Waters and Saxton 2012). Our research based on a content analysis of 50
NPO accounts on Facebook, aims to explore following research questions:
RQ 1: How far do Turkish environmental NPOs’ Facebook accounts
incorporate dialogic principles?
RQ 2: Which types of Facebook practices are used by NPOs in terms
of dialogic communication principles?
References
Baumgarten, C. 2011. Chirping for Charity: How U.S. Nonprofit Organizations are Using
Twitter to Foster Dialogic Communication. The Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research
in Communications 2(2), 5-14.
Briones, Rowena L., Beth Kuch, Brooke Fisher Liu, and Yan Jin. 2011. Keeping up with
the Digital Age: How the American Red Cross Uses Social Media to Build Relationships.
Public Relations Review, 37(1), 37-43.
Inauen, S., D. Schoeneborn, and A. G. Scherer. 2011. Twitter and its Usage for Dialogic
Stakeholder Communication by MNCs and NGOs. Chair of Foundations of Business
Administration and Theories of the Firm University of Zurich Working Paper Series,
Working Paper No.208.
Internet World Stats. 2012. Internet and Facebook Usage in Europe. Accessed November
20. http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats4.htm#europe
Kent, M. L. 2010. “Directions in Social Media for Professionals and Scholars.” Chap. 45 In
The SAGE Handbook of Public Relations, Edited by R. L. Heath, 643-656. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.
Kent, M. L., and M. Taylor. 1998. Building Dialogic Relationships through the World
Wide Web. Public Relations Review, 24(3), 321-334.
Kent, M. L., M. Taylor, and S. M. McAllister-Spooner. 2008. Research in Dialogic Theory
and Public Relations. In Public Relations: An Ethics Engagement Edited by R. R. Mathur.
New Delhi, India: Icfai University Press.
Lovejoy, K., R. D. Waters, and G. D. Saxton. 2012. Engaging Stakeholders through
Twitter: How Nonprofit Organizations are Getting More out of 140 Characters or Less.
Public Relations Review 38 (2012), 313-318.
Men R. L and W. S. Tsai. 2012. How Companies Cultivate Relationships with Publics on
Social Network Sites: Evidence From China and the United States, Public Relations
Review, 38(5), 723-730.
Onat, F. 2010. Bir Halkla li kiler Uygulama Alanı Olarak Sosyal Medya Kullanımı: Sivil
Toplum Örgütleri Üzerine Bir nceleme. Gazi Üniversitesi leti im Fakültesi leti im
Kuram ve Ara tırma Dergisi, 31, 103-122.
Özdemir B. P. 2012. Social Media as a Tool for Online Advocacy Campaigns: Greenpeace
Mediterranean’s Anti Genetically Engineered Food Campaign in Turkey. Global Media
Journal - Canadian Edition. 5(2), 23-39.
76
Scherer, A. G. and G. Palazzo. 2007. Toward a Political Conception of Corporate
Responsibility: Business and Society Seen from a Habermasian Perspective. Academy of
Management Review, 32 (4), 1096-1120.
Solmaz, B., and H. N. Görkemli. 2012. Use of Social Media as a New Communication
Tool: The Case of Konya Woman Associations. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler
Enstitüsü Dergisi, 28, 183-189.
Taylor, M., M. L. Kent, and W. J. White. 2001. How Activist Organizations are Using the
Internet to Build Relationships. Public Relations Review, 27(3), 263-284.
Waters, R. D., and K. D. Lo. 2012. Exploring the Impact of Culture in the Social Media
Sphere: A Content Analysis of Nonprofit Organizations’ Use of Facebook. Journal of
Intercultural Communication Research, 41(3), 297-319.
Waters, Richard D., Emile Burnett, Anna Lamm, and Jessica Lucas, 2009. Engaging
Stakeholders through Social Networking: How Nonprofit Organizations are Using
Facebook. Public Relations Review, 35(2), 102-106.
77
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In recent years, authors have pointed to the relevance of social media
technologies as a new panacea for the marketing of Small and Medium
Enterprises (SMEs) (e.g. Harris and Rae, 2010; Barnes et al. 2012;
Michaelidou et al. 2012; Stockdale et al. 2012). Putting the emphasis on the
cost advantage and the apparent simplicity of these technologies, authors
consider that social media represents a huge opportunity for SMEs.
According to Barnes et al. (2012, 688) “many of the tools of Web 2.0 are
cheap to acquire and operate, and require little technical expertise”, what
makes them particularly suitable for smaller businesses. Harris and Rae
(2010) stated that social media will have a critical role in the survival of
small firms and change the dimension of their competition with larger
businesses.
As a matter of fact, a growing number of SMEs are currently experiencing
with social media. A study of Michaelidou et al. (2011) shows that most of
them have the intention to increase their spending on social media. As a
result, for many small businesses, social media has become their largest web
presence, overtaking their corporate websites programmes (Neff, 2010).
Research on the use of social media in a SME context has been growing
since a couple of years. From this stream of literature, authors have
investigated the uses small businesses are making of social media
technologies and the benefits they could derive from such uses (Chua et al.,
2009; Rae and Harris, 2010; Michaelidou et al., 2011; Barnes et al., 2012;
Nakara et al., 2012; Persaud et al., 2012). As far as marketing objectives are
concerned, authors’ suggestions and empirical findings generally converge
towards the same set of opportunities offered by social media in a SME
context, ranging from attracting new customers to brand building, and
community management.
Nakara et al. (2012) highlight that SMEs actually use social media tools
mainly for networking, reputation building and advertising. Nevertheless,
authors point out that small firms still underuse these technologies.
78
Michaelidou et al. (2011) found that the main barrier to using social media
in SMEs derives from a lack of perceived relevance of these tools.
As interest for SMEs approaches on social media grows, researchers are
calling for further investigation into the potential of Web 2.0 and social
media technologies within small firms (Barnes et al., 2012; Persaud et al.,
2012). In particular, no research has yet investigated how smaller companies
actually implement and manage social media tools and derive the benefits
promised by researchers and practitioners alike.
The literature, mostly hogged by consultants and practitioners, is replete
with recommendations on how to implement and benefit from social media
technologies (e.g. Weber, 2009; Weinberg, 2009; Safko, 2012).
Nevertheless, most of the literature available on social media focuses on
large businesses, with little academic research studying how social media
can be adopted by SMEs (Chua et al., 2009).
In this context, it is now useful that researchers and practitioners question
the peculiarities of the implementation and uses of social media
technologies in a SME context. Indeed, the specific context in which SMEs
are operating makes the propositions found in the literature less relevant to
their peculiarities in terms of planning, resource availability (e.i. time,
money and expertise) and modus operandi. This lack of research into the
actual practices of SMEs regarding social media technologies and the
pertaining strategies provides the impetus for our study.
The objective of this paper is to analyse how SMEs are actually
implementing and managing their social media presence in the framework
of their marketing efforts. In this perspective, the research should answer the
following questions: how are social media tools implemented and managed
in SMEs? What are the different stages of their implementation? Who are
the players involved in this process? How are the decisions pertaining to the
strategy and the day-to-day management organised?
In line with the objectives of our research, Cova, Mazet and Salle (1994)
show that an exploratory approach can be valuable in bringing a better
knowledge of an underexplored subject. A multiple case study (Yin, 1991)
using the Decision Systems Analysis (Capon and Hulbert, 1975) has been
realized with a sample of 6 SMEs (in UK and in Belgium) having
implemented an active social media presence. Following the
recommendations of Capon and Hulbert (1975), our data collection is based
on a hypothetical model, built from our literature review and from
managerial recommendations. Face-to-face, semi-structured interviews have
79
been conducted with the players involved in the social media
implementation and management processes within these SMEs (ownermanager, marketing manager or employees, etc.). Data have been
complemented with managerial documents, when they were available
(copy-strategy, strategic guidelines, action plan, etc.)
The data collected are being analysed in the light of a literature review of
SMEs specificities in terms of marketing (e.g. Carson, 1990; Gilmore et al.,
2001; O’Donnell, 2011), and have allowed us to adapt the model and to
identify the different stages of the implementation and management
processes of social media strategies in the context of SMEs.
First results show that the development of social media efforts in SMEs is
rather reactive and impulsive, and their implementation does not follow a
structured and standardised process. Nevertheless, as experience with social
media increases, management becomes more organised and introduces
action plans and a distribution of specialised tasks among players. The dayto-day management of social media varies according to the size and
expertise of the SME and, in all cases, has implied an increased workload
for the owner-manager.
Interestingly, whereas marketing communication in small firms usually
relies on mere oral communication and word-of-mouth and is rather
spontaneous (Hogarth-Scott et al., 1996; Pacitto et al., 2007), the use of
social media tools by SMEs seems to make owner-managers more aware of
the notion of branding and leads them to improve their overall marketing
and communication approaches.
Keywords : social media, SME, implementation process, decision system
analysis, case study
References
Barnes D., F. Clear, R. Dyerson, G. Harindranath, L. Harris, and H. Rae. 2012. “Web 2.0
and micro businesses: an exploratory investigation.” Journal of Small Business and
Enterprise Development 19 (4): 687-711.
Capon N., and J. Hulbert. 1975. “Decision Systems Analysis in Industrial Marketing”
Industrial Marketing Management 4: 143-160.
Carson D. 1990. « Some Exploratory Models for Assessing Small Firms' Marketing
Performance (A Qualitative Approach). » European Journal of Marketing 24 (11) : 8-51.
Chua A., K. Deans, and C.M. Parker. 2009. « Exploring the types of SMEs which could use
blogs as a marketing tool: A proposed future research agenda. » Australasian Journal of
Information Systems 16 (1) : 117-136.
80
Cova B., F. Mazet, and R. Salle. 1994. “From Competitive Tendering to Strategic
Marketing: An Inductive Approach for Theory Building.” Journal of Strategic Marketing 2
(1): 29-48.
Harris L., and A. Rae. 2010. « The online connection: transforming marketing strategy for
small businesses. » Journal of Business Strategy 31 (2) : 4-12.
Hogarth-Scott S., K. Watson, and N. Wilson. 1996. « Do small businesses have to practise
marketing to survive and grow? » Marketing Intelligence & Planning 14 (1): 6-18
Gilmore A., D. Carson, and K. Grant. 2001. “SME marketing in practice” Marketing
Intelligence and Planning 19 (1): 6-11.
Neff, J. 2010. “What happens when Facebook trumps your brand site?” Advertising Age 81
( 30): 2-22.
Michaelidou N., N-T. Siamagka, and G. Christodoulides. 2011. “Usage, Barriers and
Measurement of Social Media Marketing: An Exploratory Investigation of Small and
Medium B2B Brands.” Industrial Marketing Management 40 (7): 1153-1159.
Nakara W. A., F-Z. Benmoussa, and A. Jaouen. 2012. « Entrepreneurship and social media
marketing: evidence from French small business. » International Journal of
Entrepreneurship and Small Business 16 (4) : 386-405.
O'Donnell A. 2011. "Small firm marketing: synthesising and supporting received
wisdom. » Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development 18 (4): 781–805.
Pacitto J-C., P-A. Julien, and P. Bizeul. 2007. « Les moyennes entreprises pratiquent-elles
le marketing ? Une exploration franco-québécoise. » Revue Management et Avenir (11):
119-146.
Persaud A., M. Spence, and M. Rahman. 2012. “Social Media Implementation in Small
Service Firms.” International Journal of E-Business Development 2 (2): 62-65.
Safko L. 2010. The Social Media Bible: Tactics, Tools, and Strategies for Business
Success. New-Jersey : John Wiley & Sons.
Stockdale R., A. Ahmed, and H. Scheepers. 2012. « Identifying business value from the use
of social media : an SME perspective. » Paper presented at of the Pacific Asia Conference
on Information Systems, Ho Chi Min (Vietnam), July 13.
Weber L. 2009. Marketing to the social web. New-Jersey : John Wiley & Sons.
Weinberg T. 2009. The New Community Rules: Marketing on the Social Web. Sebastopol :
O’Reilly Media.
Yin R. 2009. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. Fourth Edition. California : Sage
Publications.
81
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An organisation’s long term success depends on its ability to gain the
support of stakeholders. The ubiquity of social media and the interactive
nature of communications in the digital age are raising awareness of the
necessity of an integrated, total stakeholder view to dialogic
communications. Even though dialogic communications represent
communication par excellence, this research finds that implementing a
dialogue based approach to social media is proving to be extremely elusive
for many organisations. The empirical findings of this research explore how
marketing and communications professionals from a diverse range of
industry and agency role contexts view social media, and finds that there is
a division between how industry and agency professionals view how
organisations approach, manage, and apply social media for corporate
communication. These differences are inhibiting the ability to move beyond
control and implement dialogic communications that engage with an
organisation’s stakeholders to gain their support in the digital age.
Keywords: social
media;
stakeholder
engagement;
corporate
communication; dialogic communications; total communications; IMC;
integrated marketing communications
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The aim of the paper is to develop a theorethical framework in order to
understand which are the predictors and the outcomes related to the
adoption of the Social Media in the CSR Communication.
This question is worthy of investigation because, thanks to the literature
review about the CSR Communication, we have observed an increasing
attention towards the topic of Social Media in the CSR field. Social Media
are indeed becoming even more important in the firms’ communication
strategies.
Relying on the literature, internal and external predictors of CSR
Communication are developed. After having analyzed the relationship
between strategic/tactical CSR Communication and the adoption of Social
Media, we will gain insights about the outcomes related to the institutional,
organizational
and
individual
level
of
analysis.
In this paper, in particular, we will analyze the institutional level of analysis
by comparing the outcomes of the CSR practices highlighted by the
literature and the ones mentioned by the Social Media literature. Then we
will present the research propositions, which, in a second step of the
research, will be tested thanks to an empirical investigation.
Finally some managerial implications and streams of future research are
developed.
Keywords: Corporate Social Responsibility Communication; Social Media
Marketing; Marketing Communication; Virtual CSR Dialogs
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Product placement, celebrity
endorsement, and content
marketing track
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Purpose – Over the past five years, “content marketing” has been subject to
research being redefined and given different perspectives by several
practitioners. Despite its pervasive penetration in the marketing and
communication management world, very little has been said, however,
about “content marketing” theoretical robustness as well as its actual
significance for marketing and advertising research. This makes defining
this topic a challenging one, as there are several areas of focus depending on
which dimension it is looked (branded content, advertorial/informational
marketing, custom media, consumer engagement, etc.). However, the
different perspectives on this topic agreed on the fact that content marketing
have varied impacts on the lives of companies and customers. Actually,
“Content marketing” has been described as a new approach in digital
marketing practice able to reach a variety of marketing goals (audience
engagement, lead generation, brand awareness, customer loyalty, etc.).
Thus, the paper aims at reducing the gap between the perceptions of
practitioners and academics about “content marketing”, discussing then
main definitions, issues, benefits and barriers surrounding the concept.
Design/methodology/approach – Firstly, the paper deepens some
theoretical considerations on “content marketing”, and then the study breaks
down the key elements to critically assess the construct. At the same time,
the study presents a Delphi-type predictive survey of several experts, with
the aim of producing one view of content marketing.
Expected findings – The results will try to summarise the unique
characteristics of digital content, and associated consequences for content
marketing. Taking the discrepancy between the different meanings of
“content marketing” into consideration, the study will confirm the potential
contribution of the role played by content marketing in reshaping some
digital marketing research trends such as reproducibility and multiplicability
92
of digital content; contextual value/linking value; interactivity; customer
empowerment and engagement, etc.
Theoretical/practical implications – While academic research is moving
slowly on this topics, practitioners in the field insist they have been
implementing “content marketing” widely and successfully. The paper
details some managerial implications of the concepts based on several
selected key points and develops a research agenda of “content marketing”
issues.
Originality/value – The paper tries to give some indications on the future
development of content marketing and illustrates a virtuous circle showing
how such activities can be integrated in the overall marketing
communications strategy. Moreover, the study would like not to leave the
topic of content marketing only into practitioners and communication
experts’ hands, but to reach an integrated definition in order to allow
companies that are implementing content marketing in a systematic way to
achieve business goals and to measure their communication efforts in a clear
and effective way.
Keywords: content marketing, branded content, digital marketing, Delphi
Approach
References
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Group.
Berger, J., Milkman, K.L. 2012. What Makes Online Content Viral?. Journal of Marketing
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serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media. Business Horizons
54, no. 3: 241-251.
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Technovation, 27, no. 1-2: 47-56.
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93
Rowley, J. 2008, “Understanding digital content marketing”, Journal of Marketing
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1509/jm.12.0020.
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The purpose of this study is to analyze the impact on consumer’s behavior
through the interaction of celebrity endorsement and product placement in
electronic and entertaining media. Product placement, as well as celebrity
endorsement, is considered as very effective communication method/tool for
businesses, separately. The proposed research construct and the relative
formulated hypothesis investigate the impact of celebrity endorsement in
conjunction with product placement on consumer’s brand attitude and
purchase intention.
Keywords: product placement, endorsement, purchase intention
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95
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Propositions”, Advances in Consumer Research, 25, 357-362.
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Stories and the telling of stories have been with humankind since the
beginning of human existence (James, Minnis 2004). In every age man has
told stories; the need to tell stories, as well as the need to listen to them,
have always permeated our existence. In this sense, stories, including myths,
legends, and folktales (Reamy 2002), have been used to pass on wisdom,
knowledge, and culture for thousands of years (Sole, Wilson 2002: 1). Even
nowadays, we all continuously create and share stories of what happened,
why, and what might happen next, replete with a cast of characters, multiple
plots and drama (Bruner 1992).
The opportunity of content sharing and knowledge diffusion through
storytelling has also been considered by museums, which have started
taking into account stories as an useful asset to perform their educational
programs (Pellowski 1990). Indeed, museum storytelling is regarded as a
vehicle to recreate the intellectual and emotional framework of ancient
cultures (Di Blasio, Di Blasio 1983).
Despite the introduction in museum context, storytelling is far from
being adequately framed as a managerial asset for museum marketing and
museums may be missing the managerial implications related to the
productive use of this precious tool. The possibility to identify management
assets and tools helpful to museum practitioners has long aroused the
interest of museum managers and academic Scholars, favouring the
production of several contributions in the field of museum marketing
(Moore 2013; Lord, Lord 2009; Sandell, Janes 2007). Reduction in public
funding available to support the upkeep of museums and to fund their
acquisitions, together with the increased need for accountability, have led to
a sharper focus on the active marketing of museums, with the potential to
97
contribute to their viability (Rentschler 1998, 2002). Contributions translate
to museum field approaches previously consolidated in management
sciences, and highlight the necessary evolution in museum management,
assuming a predominantly focus on attracting visitors and developing
ongoing relationships with them and with other stakeholders. Despite the
consideration of a number of principles and tools contextualized to museum
field, storytelling has been regarded for educational purposes, and
surprisingly little is known about its managerial relevance to museums. This
seems such a lacuna, considering the managerial relevance of this asset,
which is still undiscovered.
In the opportunity of finding new ways of cultural fruition, FIBAC’s
(Innovative Fruition of Artistic and Cultural Assets) project, carried on by a
number of parties including Poste Italiane Spa, the Department of
Information Engineering, Electric Engineering and Applied Mathematics
(DIEM) and the Research Centre in Pure and Applied Mathematics
(CRMPA), both based in the University of Salerno, has defined a model for
cultural re-mediation to rethink the traditional concept of fruition typical of
museums, from the monologue to a “metalogue”, where solutions for an
innovative fruition of cultural heritage are provided.
Research objectives
Based on these assumptions, the purpose of the paper consists in
supporting FIBAC’s project in depicting the role of storytelling in museum
marketing. The process of marketing management is represented through a
contextualization of marketing models to museum peculiarities. Within this
framework, the managerial relevance of storytelling is investigated, with the
intention to study the opportunities of content creation as a museum
marketing tools. The idea is to investigate the impact of storytelling in
museum marketing activities (research, segmentation, positioning etc.) and
analyse the opportunities and the managerial implications deriving from its
application in each marketing activity.
Research method
The role of content creation in marketing activities is identified with the
support of a conceptual framework that represents marketing process in
museum context. The framework is delineated through a review of the
existing literature on the models of museum marketing (Colbert et al. 2001;
98
Bradford 1991). Authors have identified a number of differences between
industrial/commercial marketing and museum marketing, and produced
frameworks describing those differences. The frameworks provided are
enriched with a clear sequence of the circular process of museum marketing.
The narrative model identified in FIBAC’s project, based on the
difference among fibula, story and narrative, constitutes an useful reference
point to link storytelling concepts to museum marketing.
Research findings and limits
Storytelling opportunities can be seen as a valuable means to support the
process of museum marketing in different stages, both at strategic and
operative level.
Managerial implications of museum storytelling may regard namely: 1)
the definition of museum mission; 2) the characterization of museum
positioning; 3) the improvement of information diffusion about museum and
its collections; 4) the research of content about museum and its collections
provided by visitors.
Opportunities deriving from storytelling applied to museum marketing
activities are identified and described, and the role of narration is framed
ultimately within museum marketing process.
Original value of the paper
Although contributions have provided preliminary considerations on the
link between and industrial/commercial marketing (Fontana et al. 2011),
this paper represents a first attempt to contextualize the managerial
implications of storytelling to museum field. This seems particularly
appropriate as museums are seeking for tools which may improve the
sharing of content.
Furthermore, the paper provides a clear assessment of storytelling role in
museum marketing, by means of linking it to a comprehensive framework,
which depicts museum marketing process.
Theoretical relevance and managerial relevance
The theoretical relevance of the paper may be traced in the
comprehensive view of the role of storytelling in the process of museum
marketing. The clear visualization and the description of the links between
marketing activities and storytelling opportunities consent to go beyond a
99
traditional view towards a more modern and adequate conception, based on
the concept of “story-managing”. The later does not have to be considered
only a label, but a new approach in the management of content for
museums, supporting the scope of museum marketing and FIBAC’s project.
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Sole D. and Wilson D. 2002. “Storytelling in Organisations”. LILA. Harvard: Graduate
School of Education.
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Celebrity endorsements as a marketing practice is older by a century, but
still the academia and industry are investigating issues related to selection,
use and effectiveness of celebrity endorsers. Out of the three major streams
of research in in celebrity endorsements, the ‘Meaning Transfer Model
(MTM)’ has received the least attention from researchers. The present study
aims to investigate the basic components of the “Meaning Transfer Model”
proposed by McCracken (1986, 1989). A qualitative exploration of the
MTM based on four research questions formulated from a comprehensive
literature review was conducted to this end. Eight focused groups were
conducted with the audience from across India.Content and thematic
analysis was carried out on the FGD transcripts and the word association
test results. The results indicated seven themes of celebrity meaning namely
Personality, Credibility, Physical Appearance, Feelings, Performance,
Values, and Cogent Power. Most of the meanings were found to be
transferred to a brand via the endorsement. The possibility of reverse
meaning transfer and celebrity meanings changing over time were also
observed. With detailed probing, it was evident that a considerable number
of participants were consuming more than just the basic functions of the
product. The major contribution of the present study is to develop a
measurable and more applicable model of meaning transfer in celebrity
endorsements.
Keywords: Celebrity Endorsements, Meaning Transfer, Qualitative
Research, Conceptual Model, India.
101
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102
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103
8
Designing consumer experience
track
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Crucial for the competitiveness of retail systems is the multi-channel
strategy based on open trustworthy relationships, on the support of new
communication tools (e.g. social media), and on innovative devices (24/7
connections), whereby potential, processes and consumption are enhanced.
Innovative information technologies render the store a privileged area of
integration between real and digital, where brand management strategies
confront new social spaces. Furthermore, augmented reality adds ulterior
levels of information to consumer knowledge. As augmented reality
reshapes the commercial area, providing information in situ available to
potential customers when needed, so integration with mobility reshapes
mode of use and new links with users. In addition, the generation of bottomup and top-down content changes through social networking,the individual
from tryer to buyer to advertiser, thus generating greater value experiences
and, therefore, additional sales.
Keywords: augmented reality, in-store experience, diminished reality.
References
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105
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106
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For long considered as incompatible, luxury (praising extreme selectivity,
elitism and rarity) and Internet (rather associated with mass communication)
(Betchtold, 1991; Roux 1994; Nueno et Quelch, 1998), now seem to have
reached a compromise enabling the most prestigious brands to integrate
Internet tools in their communication approaches.
According to Okonkwo (2009), the coexistence of these two universes can
be considered and could be profitable for luxury brands, only if the
consumer experience is guaranteed on the website. Indeed, experience is a
core dimension of the luxury brand management (Kapferer and Bastien,
2008), and Okonkwo (2009) highlights five key elements of the website
design that brands should take care of: visuals, music, animations, usability
and customization options. The combination of these components
contributes to the improvement of the website design and atmosphere (or
“luxemosphere”, in the author's words) and, in turn, to the creation of the
user’s digital experience.
Surprisingly, once freed from their reluctance to on-line strategies, luxury
brands have quickly developed their presence on social media. Nowadays, a
vast majority of the brands accepted in the Comité Colbert have their own
“fan page” on the most famous social networking sites: Facebook. In this
framework, the idea of the user digital experience, essential to the
cohabitation between luxury and Internet, becomes a tricky issue. Indeed,
social networking platforms are usually characterized by a standardized
design which makes it difficult for luxury brands to comply with the
recommendations of the literature pertaining to the creation of the
“luxemosphere” (Okonkwo, 2009). Therefore one can question how luxury
brands manage to transfer their essence in these confined virtual
environments and ensure the consumer experience.
The literature pertaining to luxury brands strategies on social media is still
107
in its infancy and, up to now, existing research has mainly questioned the
consequences of the use of such tools. Seung-A (2012), for instance, has
studied users’ satisfaction with luxury brands' fan pages, its impact on
attitude toward brand and on purchase intentions. Kim and Ko (2012) study
the use of social media marketing among luxury fashion brands, and show
that social media activities can positively influence relationship equity as
well as brand equity and, in turn, foster purchase intentions. The user
experience, although key to the on-line strategy, has not been covered in
previous research.
The web is the domain of brand-customer interaction. A growing literature
shows how users of the Internet − and social media in particular − interact
with brands to shape and co-create them (Hatch and Schultz, 2010; Merz,
He, and Vargo, 2009; Muñiz and Schau, 2011). Brand co-creation is an
essential part of the customer experience online, because through the
Internet, “organizations have recognized that they can become part of the
customer experience” (Ind, Iglesias, and Schultz, 2013, 7). However, the
basic assumption of these studies on online interaction between brand and
customers is that the brand is a mass-produced entity that is accessible
enough to let this co-creation occur. A luxury brand is instead characterized
by its uniqueness (Wiedmann, Hennigs, and Siebels, 2007) that might make
it partly “unaccessible” to customers’ interaction and therefore closed the
usual mechanism of customer-brand interaction. For instance, Fuchs and
colleagues (2013) show that – differently from mass-produced brands –
users do not perceive benefits from co-creating luxury brands, because they
do not perceive a higher quality and an agentic feeling stemming from their
interaction with the luxury brand. In fact, “being "close" to users does not
help but rather harms luxury fashion brands, because user design hinders
consumers from signaling high status” (Fuchs et al, 2013, 76). While that
study refers to the generation of ideas for new products, it indicates a more
general effect, which is a different online customer experience when luxury
brands are considered.
In line with these considerations, our research aims at identifying the
dimensions of the user experience on the fan pages of luxury brands that
have developed their presence on the social networking site, Facebook.
If characteristics of the user digital experience have been studied in previous
research (e.g., Novak et al., 2000; Ben Nasr and Bonnefont, 2006; Djamasbi
et al., 2011; Nambisan et Watt, 2011), the peculiarities of this experience on
108
social networking sites have not been analysed yet (Kietzmann et al., 2011).
However, this is an important dimension of the way these tools can
contribute to branding, and is even more essential in the case of luxury
brands.
The exploratory nature of this research have led us to consider a qualitative
approach consisting of semi-structured interviews with users of social
networks (Poncin and Garnier, 2011), including buyers and non buyers of
luxury goods. These interviews are systematically realised after the user has
visited several “fan pages”. The data collected will allow us to answer the
main questions at the basis of this research : What are the dimensions of the
digital experience users have on luxury brands' Facebook pages? What are
the factors influencing the nature of this experience? What distinguishes this
experience from the one users have with the brand website? How this virtual
experience influences the perception consumers have of the luxury brand?
Beyond their academic interest, the findings of our research should also
bring about valuable insights for luxury brand managers and should allow
them to better understand how fan pages can contribute to the development
of a strong brand experience and how these tools can be used in complement
to luxury brands' traditional websites.
Keywords : social media, luxury, digital experience, social networks
References
Bechtold, M. 1991, « Le paradoxe du luxe », Revue Française du Marketing, 132-133 : 2-3.
Ben Nasr, I., and A. Bonnefont. 2006. « Incidence de l’expérience de visite du site d’une
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Djamasbi, S., Siegel, M., Skorinko, J., and T. Tullis. 2011. « Online Viewing and Aesthetic
Preferences of Generation Y and the Baby Boom Generation: Testing User Web Site
Experience Through Eye Tracking », International Journal of Electronic Commerce, 15
(4): 121-157.
Fuchs, C., Prandelli, E., Schreier, M., and D. Dahl. 2013. « All That Is Users Might Not Be
Gold: How Labeling Products as User Designed Backfires in the Context of Luxury
Fashion Brands », Journal of Marketing, 77 (5): 75-91.
Hatch, M.J., and M. Schultz. 2010. « Toward a theory of brand co-creation with
implications for brand governance », Journal of Brand Management, 17 (8): 590-604.
Ind N., Iglesias O., and M. Schultz. 2013. « Building brands together: emergence and
outcomes of co-creation », California Management Review, 55 (3): 5-26.
Kapferer, J.-N. and V. Bastien. 2008. The luxury strategy : break the rules of marketing to
build luxury brands, 2nd ed., Kogan Page.
109
Kietzmann, J., Hermkens, K., McCarthy, I. and B. Silvestre. 2011. « Social media ? Get
serious ! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media », Business
Horizons, 54: 241-251.
Kim, A. and E. Ko. 2012. « Do social media marketing activities enhance customer equity?
An empirical study of luxury fashion brand », Journal of Business Research, 65: 14801486.
Kozinets, R., de Valck, K., Wojnicki, A., and S. Wilner. 2010, « Networked narratives :
understanding word-of-mouth marketing in online communities », Journal of Marketing,
74: 71-89.
Merz, M.A., He, Y., and S. L. Vargo. 2009. « The evolving brand logic: a servicedominant logic perspective », Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 37 (3): 328344.
Muñiz A.M. Jr, and H.J. Schau. 2011.« How to inspire value-laden collaborative consumergenerated content », Business Horizons, 54 (3): 209-217.
Nambisan, P., and J. Watt. 2011. « Managing expériences in online product communities »,
Journal of Business Research, 64 (8): 889-895
Nueno, J.L., and J.A. Quelch. 1998. « The mass marketing of luxury », Business Horizons,
41 (6): 61-8.
Novak, T., Hoffman, D. and Y-F. Yung. 2000. « Measuring the Customer Experience in
Online Environments: a Structural Modeling Approach », Marketing Science, 19 (1): 2242.
Okonkwo, U. 2009. « Sustaining Luxury Brands on the Internet », Journal of Brand
Management, 16 (5/6): 302-310.
Poncin, I. and M. Garnier. 2011. « L’expérience 3D. Le vrai, le faux et le virtuel: à la
croisée des chemins », Management et avenir, 2 (32): 173-191.
Roux, E. 1994. « Le luxe : entre prestige et marché de masse », Décisions marketing,
1 (April): 15-22.
Seung-A, A. 2012. “The potential of social media for luxury brands management”,
Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 30 (7): 687-699.
Wiedmann, K.P., Hennigs, N., and A. Siebels. 2007. « Measuring Consumers’ Luxury
Value Perception: A Cross-Cultural Framework », Academy of Marketing Science Review,
11 (7): 1-21.
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The market for organic food products showed impressive growth rates in
2010, accounting for 59 billion US dollars (Sahota, 2012). This high growth
is underpinned by an increased availability of organic food products through
big retail chains and by following similar marketing strategies to
conventional brands. Hence, communication at the point of sale that the
product is organic is of increased importance in order to be distinguished
from conventional ones. Packaging is among those marketing tools that
contribute in brand differentiation and establish brand identity and, since
most of the food choices are made in store, it represents the only source of
information available for consumers to make their purchase decisions
(Underwood & Klein, 2002). Similarly, together with labelling, packaging
provides the means to communicate that a product is organic. Existing
literature focuses on the impact of organic packaging design attributes on
either consumers’ preferences and buying behaviour or willingness to pay
(Baik, Suk, Suh, & Kim, 2011; Gifford & Bernard, 2004). However,
information is scarce when it comes to what represents an organic food
package and which are the elements that build it up.
Toward this direction, we investigate which are the most prototypical
elements for organic food packaging. More specifically, we conduct a
content analysis of packages launched between 2008 and 2012 in four
countries (Austria, Denmark, Sweden and Switzerland) across four product
categories (butter, cereals, fruit juice and milk). We extracted the data from
the Mintel GNPD database (www.gnpd.com) and in total we analyze
packaging design of 866 products that were registered in the database during
this period. We account for a number of packaging design elements (i.e.
pack material, pack type, color and imagery) and compare their frequency of
appearance between conventional and organic food packages.
111
Results show that plastic is less likely to be used for packaging of organic
food and more likely to be used for conventional food products.
Furthermore, carton also seems to be less typical for organic food packages
than for conventional. In relation to colour, white and green are more typical
colours for organic products than for conventional. Additionally, an image
of nature is also more likely to be used for organic food packages than for
conventional ones. However, these characteristics vary across product
categories and countries.
This research provides a starting point for a better understanding of what
constitutes a prototypical organic food packaging design. Furthermore, it
provides guidelines to food brand managers on how to better choose food
packaging elements that successfully convey the ‘organic’ message. In fact,
successful communication should not only rely on verbal packaging
elements (e.g. product claims), since non-verbal elements (e.g. visual
imagery, colour) have also the power to convey the desired message
(Chrysochou and Grunert, in press).
References
Baik, M., Suk, H. J., Suh, T., & Kim, Y. S. (2011). Organic food package design
management in SMES. A conjoint analysis approach. Paper presented at the 4th World
Conference on Design Research, Delft, Netherlands.
Chrysochou, P., & Grunert, K. G. (in press). Health-related ad information and health
motivation effects on product evaluations. Journal of Business Research.
Gifford, K., & Bernard, J. C. (2004). Packaging of organic and conventional products. A
comparison. Journal of Food Distribution Research, 35 (1), 107-108.
Sahota, A. (2012). Global organic food and drink market. Paper presented at the BioFach
Congres, Messezentrum Nürnberg, Germany.
Underwood, R. L., & Klein, N. M. (2002). Packaging as brand communication. Effects of
product pictures on consumer responses to the package and brand. Journal of Marketing
Theory and Practice, 10(4), 58-68.
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According to Salzer-Mörling and Strannegård (2004, 224), the use of
narratives in brand management, as “the process of expressing core values
through the use of persuasive stories”, is inadequate and obsolete in
postmodern contexts. Arguing that postmodern consumers are active coproducers of meaning who are driven by, and oriented towards, aesthetic
and visual aspects of consumption rather than narrative ones, SalzerMörling and Strannegård (2004) search for new branding processes, which
accentuate the aesthetic dimensions of brands. However, the question is if
their critique of the use of narratives in brand management is well-founded.
We argue, that it is not narrative per se, which conflicts with the values of
postmodern consumer culture, but rather the approach, use and
understanding of narrative in current brand management that create the
contradistinction. Thus, the argument is more complex.
Rather than viewing narrative and aesthetic approaches to branding
processes as modern and postmodern respectively and hence as mutually
exclusive and contradictory, we propose that:
1) modern and postmodern approaches to brand management reflect
fundamental differences and entail different conceptualisations of
consumers and communication processes as well as relations between
senders and receivers;
2) postmodern brand management can be conceptualised and approached
from both narrative and aesthetic perspectives; and that
3) postmodern narrative and aesthetic approaches to brand management do
not mutually exclude each other but are premised upon different
assumptions of consumers as well as of what drives consumption.
Following this, our purpose is to theoretically explore the implications of
ontologically rethinking brands from a modern narrative approach to a
postmodern narrative approach in order to discuss how it differs from and
supplements a postmodern aesthetic approach to brand management. The
113
paper thus contributes to branding literature by post-modernising the
narrative approach to brand management.
Design
This paper is designed as a conceptual response to Salzer-Mörling and
Strannegård’s (2004) discussion and rejection of narratives within brand
management. We argue that they build their argument on a modern
approach to narrative, which they subsequently reject from a postmodern
stance. As an alternative to rejecting the narrative frame, we propose a reconceptualisation of narrative.
In order to explicate the notion of narrative use as articulated by SalzerMörling and Strannegård (2004), we initially outline the predominant
approach to narratives within branding literature, drawing additional
insights from classic brand management (e.g. Aaker 1996; Kapferer 1997).
We identify three dominant uses of narratives within the literature; 1) brand
characters and archetypes (e.g. Mark and Pearson 2001; Fog, Budtz, and
Yakaboylu 2005; Herskovitz and Crystal 2010) 2); brand rhetoric and
persuasion (e.g. Deighton, Romer and McQueen 1989; Padgett and Allen
1997; Chiu, Hsieh, and Kuo 2012); and 3) brand story and heritage (e.g.
Hakala, Lätti and Sandberg 2011). We demonstrate how these narrative
characteristics build on classic structuralist narratology (cf. the morphology
of Propp and the actant model of Greimas) and thus are based on underlying
premises, assumptions and ideals of modernity (cf. Brown 2006), including
the notion of narrative truth and the omniscient author. On that basis, we
challenge the idea that the discussion centres on the modality or mode of
communication, i.e. narratives versus aesthetics. Instead, we relocate the
discussion within a philosophical stance, i.e. modern versus postmodern.
The next step is therefore to explore the nature of postmodern narratives,
arguing that postmodern philosophies (Cova 1996; Brown 2006) change the
status, meanings and roles of narratives (Cohn 1999; Richardson 2002).
Consequently, new models, concepts and conventions come into play,
including new narratologies, which accentuate the contextuality, antiessentialism and non-referentiality of the narrative (Rimmon-Kenan 2002).
Subsequently, we relate these models, concepts and conventions to branding
focusing on how to conceptualise the postmodern brand from a narrative
approach and discuss what it has to offer in comparison with a postmodern
aesthetics approach. In line with Oestergaard and Jantzen (2001) who
propose that consumers are driven by different needs, wants and desires, we
114
further argue, that postmodern brand narratives subscribe to a notion of
consumers as ‘tourists’ who desire emotional and narcissistic dimensions of
brand meaning in order to perform individual identity projects (cf. Elliott
1997), whereas the aestheticized brand assumes tribal consumption practices
where consumers perform communal brand rituals in order to perform social
linkage (cf. Cova and Cova 2002). Through examples of brand and
marketing communication we highlight the value of viewing the approaches
as complementary, rather than contradictory.
Conclusively, we address the implications of the postmodern brand
narrative for brand management practice as well as branding research.
Findings and implications
This paper contributes to branding literature by exploring the philosophical
assumptions guiding the narrative approach to brands in order to revitalise
and post-modernise the use of narratives in current brand management. The
paper presents two overall conclusions:
First, a postmodern narrative approach to brand management suggests
brands to be polyphonic, polytheistic, fragmented, non-linear, incoherent
and contextual. It may therefore be argued, that a narrative approach to
brands includes more than seductive storytelling and persuasive narrative
strategies; rather, it embraces a fundamental way of making sense.
Consequently, the brand is not a container of stories to be transferred to
consumers, but part of a network of narratives within which brand meaning
is negotiated and anchored in consumer narratives. This challenges the
predominant use of narratives in brand management and propose the ideal of
corporate authored and managed stories to be replaced by notions of
flexibility, dynamic interactions and consumer co-authored stories.
Second, postmodern narrative and aesthetic approaches to brand
management are not mutually exclusive. They build upon shared
assumptions of consumers as active co-producers and hence of converging
roles of producers and consumers. However, the two approaches suggest
consumers to be driven by different motives in consumer choices; whereas
an aesthetic approach suggests consumers to be driven by visual and
expressive consumption symbols and manifests as fundamentally social or
tribal in consumer practices; the narrative approach constitutes consumers as
identity-seeking individuals emotionally driven by interpretations of
narrative fragments.
We suggest the two approaches to converge in brand management in order
for corporations to enter into dialogue with and embrace the multifaceted
115
stories and symbols, voices and images in consumer culture. The two
approaches thus offer different tools and vocabularies for understanding
different dimensions of a postmodern, complex consumer.
Keywords: brand
postmodern
management,
narrative,
aesthetics,
modern
vs.
References
Aaker, David A. 1996. Building strong brands. London: Free Press Business.
Brown, Stephen. 2006. “Recycling Postmodern Marketing”. The Marketing Review 6: 211230.
Cohn, Dorrit. 1999. The distinction of fiction. London: The John Hopkins University Press.
Cova, Bernard. 1996. ”What postmodernism means to marketing managers”. European
Management Journal 14 (5): 494-499.
Cova, Bernard, and Veronique Cova. 2002. ”Tribal marketing. The tribalisation of society
and its impact on the conduct of marketing”. European Journal of Marketing 36 (5/6): 595620.
Deighton, John, Daniel Romer, and Josh McQueen. 1989. “Using drama to persuade”.
Journal of Consumer Research 16 (3): 335-343.
Elliott, Richard. 1997. ”Existential consumption and irrational desire”. European Journal of
Marketing 31 (3/4): 285-296.
Fog, K., Christian Budtz, and Baris Yakaboylu. 2005. Storytelling: Branding in practice.
Berlin: Springer
Greimas, Algirdas Julien. 1983 [1966]. Structural Semantics: An Attempt at a
Method. Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press.
Hakala, U., Sonja Lätti, and Birgitte Sandberg. 2011. ”Operationalising brand heritage and
cultural heritage”. Journal of Product and Brand Management 20 (6): 447-456.
Herskovitz, Stephen, and Malcolm Crystal. 2010. ”The essential brand persona: storytelling
and branding”. Journal of Business Strategy 38 (3): 21-28.
Hung-Chang, Chiu, Yi-Ching Hsieh, and Kuo Yi-Chu. 2012. “How to Align your Brand
Stories with Your Products.” Journal of Retailing 88 (2): 262-275
Kapferer, Jean-Nöel. 1997. The new strategic brand management. London: Kogan Page.
Mark, Margaret, and Carol S. Pearson. 2001. The hero and the outlaw: building
extraordinary brands through the power of archetypes. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Oestergaard, Per, and Christian Jantzen. 2001. ”Shifting perspectives in consumer research:
from buyer behaviour to consumption studies”. In Suzanne C. Beckmann and Richard H.
Elliott (eds.). Interpretive consumer research. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School
Press: 9-23.
Padgett, Dan, and Douglas Allen. 1997. ”Communicating Experiences: A Narrative
Approach to Creating Service Brand Image”. Journal of Advertising 26 (4): 49-62
Propp, Vladimir. 2009 [1968]. Morphology of the folktale. Texas: University of Texas
Press.
116
Richardson, Brian (ed). 2002. Narrative dynamics. Essays on time, plot, closure and
frames. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith. 2002. Narrative fiction: contemporary poetics. New York:
Routledge.
Salzer-Mörling, Miriam, and Lars Strannegård. 2004. ”Silence of the brands.” European
Journal of Marketing 38 (1/2): 224-238.
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The current markets globalization as a result of ICT development in general
and the Internet in particular, have enhanced the importance of the websites
design, which is a powerful communications medium for companies
operating in international markets (Turban and Gehrek, 2000). The website
of the company represents its image in the Internet as an intermediary with
potential clients (Roy, Dewit and Aubert, 2001). Some researchers have
found that much of the success of an e-service depends on website usability
(Flavián, Guinalíu and Gurrea, 2006). Usability and appearance are two
indicators that represent the utilitarian aspects of a website, together with its
appeal. Those websites with a high level of usability in their design enable
users to carry out their tasks coherently and achieve the results they expect
(Palmer, 2000). In fact, this perception of control during the browsing
process is positively related to the sensation of security and satisfaction
(Diamantopoulos and Winklhofer, 2001; Casaló, Flavián and Guinalíu,
2008).
In this international context, culture plays an increasingly relevant role in
the use of information and communication technology. This is likely to
affect how usability is understood, thus adding an additional factor to our
understanding of culture´s effect on usability (Wallace, Reid, Clinciu and
Kang, 2013).
The importance of cultural factors in communications has been reinforced
since the web can now link diverse regions and communities across the
globe that were relatively isolated by time and space. The growth of global
communications has increased and intensified the need for leaning to
communicate successfully with a multitude of cultures. Regarding to these
international situation, the crucial role of language in intercultural relations
is widely acknowledged, with the words of a language being ‘symbols’ that
acts as the vehicles for cultural transfer (Hofstede, 2001). The literature
shows that the way in which a person processes information is conditioned
118
by cultural values (Tavassoli, 2002). Furthermore, recent research has
demonstrated that language is associated with cultural frameworks, such
that communication in a given language can increase access to the cultural
values associated with that language (Wong and Hong, 2005) and how users
from the same culture, when processing information in different languages,
obtain significantly different results in terms of perceived risk online
(Alcántara-Pilar, Del Barrio-García and Porcu, 2013).
Based on these premises, we aim to demonstrate how cultural values,
language as a cultural framework and website design can moderate the
perceived usability, the perceived risk online and the satisfaction online in
tourism sector. The reasoning behind choosing this sector as the focus for
the research was that the World Tourism Organization (WTO) has declared
that the key to success in this medium as a source of tourism information is
to swiftly identify consumers’ needs and establish direct contact with
tourists. Furthermore, the WTO has asserted that websites should offer
tourists information that is comprehensive, personalized and up-to-date
(Vich-I-Martorell 2004). The Internet is one of the main sources of
information used by tourists when making travel plans (Buhalis and Law
2008; Wu, Wei and Chen 2008). This behavior can be considered habitual
and common throughout the great majority of countries and cultures, hence
the decision to use this sector for the purposes of the present study.
To achieve the research scope, an experiment was designed with three
independent variables, each with two levels: culture (Spanish vs. British),
website design type (V1: high usability vs. V2: low usability) and
processing language (Spanish vs. English). Hence the experiment used a 2 x
2 x 2 between-subjects design. The Spanish and British cultures in particular
were chosen due to the cultural differences between them as measured by
means of the Hofstede indices (2001). To control the factor relating to
individuals’ processing language, subjects were randomly assigned a
website on a tourist destination written either in their mother tongue (L1) or
in their second language (L2). With regard to the site design, we followed
the recommendations and works of Moss (2004) and Nielsen (1993, 1999,
2004, 2009), with two treatments being established: (1) website design with
high usability (V1) and (2) website design with low usability (V2).
The experiment required a professional website to be purpose-built,
providing information on a fictitious tourist destination called “Buyuada”
(www.buyuada.org). Six versions of the site were created; two for each
factor. The subjects were selected by an external company which was
119
commissioned to establish an Internet data panel for the experiment. Internet
users from the UK and Spain were invited to participate, on the
understanding that they had a suitable level of Spanish or English,
respectively. The users were asked to browse through the website and put
together their own tourism package based on an outward flight, return flight,
hotel accommodation and a restaurant, from the multiple options on offer.
Once browsing was completed, subjects were redirected to a questionnaire.
The final sample comprised 491 Internet users, of which 47% were Spanish
and 53% British. To ensure that users came from Spain and the UK, Google
Analytics was used during the data collection.
The results indicated that the website design and the language used for
browsing moderate the perceived risk online. Moreover, the website design
moderates the perceived usability, regardless of the language used for
navigation.
As a limitation, the use of two national cultures and an utilitarian website
design could be limiting the obtained results.
In terms of future research, it would be interesting to replicate this study in
other countries and compare the results across cultures, taking into account
two factors in website design (the utilitarian and the aesthetic).
Keywords: cross-cultural study, language,
satisfaction, perceived risk online
website design, online
References
Alcántara-Pilar, J.M., Del Barrio-García, S. and Porcu, L. (2013), “A cross-cultural analysis
of the effect of language on perceived risk online”, Computers in Human Behavior, vol. 29,
n. 3, pp. 596–603.
Buhalis, D. (1998), “Strategic use of information technologies in the tourist industry”,
Tourism Management, vol. 19, n. 5, pp. 409–21.
Casaló, L.V., Flavian, C. and Guinalíu (2008), “The role of satisfaction and website
usability in developing customer loyalty and positive word-of-mouth in the e-banking
services”, The International Journal of Bank Marketing, vol. 26, n. 6, pp. 399-417.
Diamantopoulos, A. and Winklhofer, H.M. (2001), “Index construction with formative
indicators: An alternative to scale development”, Journal of Marketing Research, vol. 38, n.
2, pp. 269–277.
Flavián, C., Guinalíu, M. and Gurrea. R. (2006), “The role played by perceived usability,
satisfaction and consumer trust on website loyalty”, Information & Management, vol. 34,
pp. 1–14
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences. Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and
organizations across nations. 2nd ed. Sage Publications. California.
120
Moss, T. (2004), Web usability: the basics. [online] Usability and Accessibility Working
Group (http://www.webcredible.co.uk/user-friendly-resources/web-usability/basics.shtml).
Nielsen, J. (1993). Usability engineering. Morgan Kaufmann. Academic Press. San Diego
(CA).
Nielsen, J. (1999). Designing Web Usability. New Riders Publishing. Indianapolis.
Nielsen, J. (2004). Top Ten Mistakes In Web Design. Accessible via:
www.useit.com/alertbox/9605.html.
Nielsen, J. (2009). Top 10 Information Architecture Mistakes. Accessible via:
www.useit.com/alertbox/ia-mistakes.html.
Palmer, J.W. (2002), “Web site usability, Design, and performance metrics”, Information
Systems Research, vol. 13, n. 2, pp. 151–167.
Roy, M.C., Dewit, O. and Aubert, B.A. (2001), “The impact of interface usability on trust
in Web retailers”, Internet Research: Electronic Networking Applications and Policy, vol.
11, n. 5, pp. 388-398.
Tavassoli, N. (2002), “Language and Flexibility”, Advances in Consumer Research, vol.
29, pp. 185-187.
Turban, E. and Gehrke, D. (2000), “Determinants for e-commerce Website”, Human
Systems Management, vol. 19, n. 2, pp. 111-120.
Vich-I-Martorell, G.A. (2003), “The Internet and Tourism Principals In The Balearic
Islands”, Tourism and Hospitality Research, vol. 5, n. 1, pp. 25–44.
Wallace, S., Reid, A., Clinciu, D. and Kang, J. (2013), “Culture and the importance of
usability attributes”, Information Technology & People, vol. 26, n. 1, pp. 77-93.
Wu, S. I., Wei, P. L. and Chen, J.-H. (2008), “Influential factors and relational structure of
Internet banner advertising in the tourism industry”, Tourism Management, vol. 29, pp.
221–236.
Cheney, G. and Christensen, L.T. (2001). Organizational identity: Linkages between
internal and external communication. In The new handbook of organizational
communication: Advances in theory, research, and methods, F. M. Jablin and L. L. Putnam
(Eds.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage,(231-269).
Cho, C. and Cheon, H. J. (2004). Why do people avoid advertising on the Internet?”.
Journal of Advertising, 33(4): 89-97.
Cho, C., Lee, J and Tharp, M. (2001). Different forced exposure levels to banner
advertisements. Journal of Advertising Research, 41(4): 45–56.
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One of the most prominent stream of research in corporate communication
domain assumes that organizational orientation to dialogue is an antecedent
of positive organization public relationships (OPR) and finally of good
corporate reputation (Aula, 2011; Bronn, 2007; Carvalho, 2004) A first step
in testing this hypothesis is to define and operationalize the concept of
dialogue. Despite the interest in the concept, there is still no widely agreedupon definition. Most of the literature on dialogue can be neatly classified
into two groups: researches by management scholars who assume a
functional perspective and researches by communication theorists who
adopt an ethical perspective.
Management scholars indicate a huge variety of organizational purposes that
dialogue may serve (Gergen, et al., 2004). Studies relies largely on the
analysis of contextual conditions where dialogue occurs (i.e. corporate aims,
organizational settings, expected outcomes for organizations) (Isaacs, 2001;
Cunliffe, 2002). Furthermore, Beech et al. (2010) point out that several
dimensions characterize the dialogue process (i.e. position of involved actor,
intention of dialogue; trajectory of dialogue; results to achieve). Mengis and
Eppler (2008) identify six pivotal elements of dialogue (i.e. the form and the
content of messages; the conversational process; the dialogue intents; the
mental models of participants; the groups’ dynamics; the communicational
background). As such, management studies on dialogue tend to concentrate
on the point of view of organization (organisation centered approach). This
indicates an important gap in the understanding of expectations of as well as
value received by others’ involved actors. These studies capture only part of
the picture of dialogue among organizations and their stakeholders.
Differently, communication scholars argue that dialogue is an ethical
orientation (Kent, Taylor, 1998; Theunissen, Wan Noordin, 2012), a
rhetorical tool to drive organizational decision-making processes (Kent,
2011), a mechanism useful to encourage participation and collaboration with
123
internal and external stakeholders (de Bussy, 2010; Heath et al., 2006;
Johansen, Nielsen, 2011; Roper et al., 2004; Weaver, 2007). Authentic
dialogue occurs when symmetry exists among organizations and involved
stakeholders, as well as when value which is created can be shared among
all the actors during the conversation (Kent, Taylor, 1998; 2002). Following
communication scholars, effectiveness of dialogue depends on the existence
of the right balance of points of view, expectations and benefits received
from each subject, both organizations and their stakeholders (stakeholdercentered approach). In summary, dialogue is a complex, multi-faced,
polysomic phenomenon which has attracted a lot of attention in the
academic field.
With the huge widespread of social networks within organizations, it seems
that dialogue has become a must to overcome critics raising from digital
publics or to create online buzz around new products and corporate
activities. Shifting attention away from intrinsic characteristics of online
dialogue processes, most empirical studies focus on the frequency of usage
of social media by organizations, the amount of messages exchanged with
publics (Avery et al., 2010; Cho, Huh, 2010; Kitchen, Panopoulos, 2010).
According to these remarks, this research has two main objectives.
First of all, it aims to develop a measure of organizational orientation to an
organizational-centered rather than a stakeholder-centered online dialogue.
The measure will be conceptually developed and operationalized on the
basis of 40 dimensions emerging from organizational, management and
communication studies concerning the concept of dialogue. Dimensions
have been clustered numerically within the groups corresponding to the two
different approaches to dialogue. The dominant approach used by an
organization has been identified by assigning a unitary weight and applying
the following equation:
a*OC + b*SC = 1
Second, the measure will be applied on the first ten dialogic threads carried
out in the last fiscal quarter of 2011 (from October to December) both on
Facebook and Twitter by the first 50 organizations selected from the Global
RepTrak™ Pulse 100. Cases were screened on following criteria: a) they are
the organizations with the highest reputation scores (N: 50); b) they provide
official English language pages, both on Facebook and Twitter.
124
The data consist of 1620 Facebook statements (both posts and replies) and
993 tweets (both replies and re-tweets) collected in three four-month
periods. In order to investigate the organizations’ online dialogic profiles,
single cases were examined attentively and they were coded on the items
identifying the above mentioned dimensions, by verifying the presence (1)
or the absence (0) of each indicator of the model in the analysed dialogic
threads.
References
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online communication”, Public Relations Review, 37(1), 28-36
Avery, E., Lariscy, R, Amador, E., Ickowitz, T., Primm, C. and Taylor, A. 2010. “Diffusion
of Social Media Among Public Relations Practitioners in Health Departments Across
Various Community Population Sizes”. Journal of Public Relations Research 2,(3), 336358
Beech, N., MacIntosh, R. and MacLean, D. (2010). “Dialogues between academics and
practitioners: The role of generative dialogic encounters”. Organization Studies, 31, 13411367
Brønn,, P.S. 2007. “Relationship outcomes as determinants of reputation”, Corporate
Communications: An International Journal, 12 (4), 376-393
Carvalho, R. D. 2004. “Reputation management as relationship management”, ANZCA04
Conference, Sydney, July 2004
Cho, S. and Huh, J. 2010. Content analysis of corporate blogs as a relationship management
tool. Corporate Communications: an International Journal, 15 (1), 30-48
Cunliffe, A. 2002. “Reflexive dialogical practice in management learning”, Management
Learning, 33(1), 35-61.
Cutlip, S.M., Center, A.H. and Broom, G.M. 1994. Effective public relations. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
De Bussy, N.M. 2010. “Dialogue as a Basis for Stakeholder Engagement Defining and
Measuring the Core Competencies”, in Heath, R.L. (Ed.). The Sage Handbook of Public
Relations. SAGE Publication: London (pp. 127-144)
Dixon, N. 1996. Perspectives on Dialogue: Making Talk Developmental for Individuals
and Organizations. Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, North Carolina
Dozier, D.M., Grunig, L.A. and Grunig, J.E. 2001. “Public relations as communication
campaign”. Public communication campaigns, 3, 231-248
Eisenhardt, K.M. and Graebner, M.E. 2007. “Theory building from cases: opportunities and
challenges”. Academy of management journal, 50 (1), 25-32
Elsas J.L. and Carbonell, J.G. 2009. “It pays to be picky: an evaluation of thread retrieval in
online forums”. Proceedings of the 32nd international ACM SIGIR conference on Research
and development in information retrieval, pp. 714-715
Gergen, K., Gergen, M. and Barrett, F. 2004. “Dialogue: life and death of the organization”.
In Grant, D., Hardy, C., Oswick, C., and Putnam, L. (2004). The Sage Handbook of
Organizational Discourse. Sage Publications, London
125
Heath, R.G., Pearce, W.B., Shotter J., Taylor J.R., Kersten A., Zorn, T. Roper, J., Motion,
J. and Deetz, S. 2006. “The Process of Dialogue. Participation and Legitimation”.
Management Communication Quarterly, 19 (3), 341-375
Isaacs, W. 2001. “Towards an action theory of dialogue”, International Journal of Public
Administration, 24 (7-8), 709-748.
Johansen, T.S. and Nielsen, A.E. 2011. "Strategic stakeholder dialogues: a discursive
perspective on relationship building". Corporate Communications: An International
Journal, 16(3), 204 – 217
Kent, M.L. and Taylor, M. 1998. “Building dialogic relationships through the World Wide
Web”. Public relations review, 24(3), 321-334
Kent, M. L. and Taylor, M. 2002. “Toward a dialogic theory of public relations”. Public
relations review, 28(1), 21-37
Kent, M.L. 2011. “Public Relations Rhetoric: Criticism, Dialogue, and the Long Now”.
Management Communication Quarterly, 25(3), 550– 559
Kitchen, P. J. and Panopoulos, A. 2010. “Online Public Relations: the adoption process and
innovation challenge, a Greek example”. Public Relations Review, 36(3), 222-229
Ledingham, J.A. 2003. “Explicating relationship management as a general theory of public
relations”. Journal of Public Relations Research, 15(2), 181-198
Mengis, J. and Eppler, M.J. 2008. “Understanding and managing conversations from a
knowledge perspective: An analysis of the roles and rules of face-to-face conversations in
organizations”. Organization Studies, 29(10), 1287-1313.
Oluseyi, M.V. and Gallop, J.D. 2010. “Self-service and social media: communication
hierarchy and message diffusion in participatory media”. Professional Communication
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Pieczka, M. 2011. "Public relations as dialogic expertise?". Journal of Communication
Management, 15(2), 108 – 124
Roper, J., Zorn and T.E., Weaver, C.K. 2004. The communicative properties of science and
technology dialogue: a project for the Ministry of Research, Science and Technology.
Hamilton, New Zealand: University of Waikato
Theunissen, P. and Wan Noordin, W.N. 2012. “Revisiting the concept “dialogue” in public
relations”. Public Relations Review, 38(1), 5-13
Weaver, C.K. 2007. “Reinventing the public intellectual through communication dialogue
civic capacity building”. Management Communication Quarterly, 21(1), 92-104
Ye, S. and Wu, F. 2013. “Measuring message propagation and social influence on Twitter.
Com”. International Journal of Communication Networks and Distributed Systems, 11(1),
59-76
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Since 2008 we have adopted video analytics, audience measurement and
face detection system to make analysis in marketing applications.
We have used the system in several fields:
A)
Digital out of home
B)
Super and Hyper markets
C)
Luxury goods
D)
Store outlets
E)
Brand
F)
Events
G)
Automotive
H)
Telco
We have collected a huge experience in the usage the data from audience
measurement tools. The data were used to develop an analytical platform
that generates analytics and insight:
A)
Attraction Index
B)
Attention Index
C)
Relevance Index
D)
Engagement
E)
Net impressions
F)
Frequency
G)
GRP
H)
Sale index
I)
Convertion (Out/In) ratio (for store outlets)
Please, refer to the glossary attached for explanations.
From data to value based informations
Intends to present the state of the art in the application of audience
measurement to the marketing. In summary, it will cover the following
topics:
A)
The needs of marketers, advertisers, retailers: less data more insight.
127
B)
How to use Audience measurement data (Traffic, Viewers,
Dwell/Attention time) to generate insight and analytics.
C)
Measurement and insight/analytics generation in different settings:
Super/Hypermarkets retail outlets, Dooh.
D)
The reliability of data from Audience measurement systems.
E)
The merge of Audience measurement with traditional surveys.
Brief description:
A)
The complexity of the markets, the hyper competition, the booming
of sales channel, need new outcomes to be interpreted. This generated the
booming of data. Data, itself, do not necessarily produce informations and
help to understand facts.
The professionals in marketing and advertising need more focused insight,
in real time, affordable and reliable. New media, like DOOH, have suffered
because of a lack of measures and analytics (like GRP, Net Impressions,
Frequency) currently used by broadcast media.
In this section will be exposed, briefly, the necessity of informations and
how the audience measurement technology can help.
B)
Will expose how row data from Audience measurement technology
can generate insight and analytics i.e. how data may become information,
then, value.
C)
Different analytics and insight for different locations: every context
will be explored, with examples from real cases (generally blind, but, where
possible, branded) to understand the usage of outcomes and how they
support the decision process in Brand and store management. The case of
Grandi Stazioni network.
D)
A brief overview, from our experience and cases, of the level of
accuracy needed for Audience measurement data, to be acceptable in
different settings.
E)
Examples of how real time, continuous data (like the one of
Audience measurement tools) can be merged with traditional marketing
research techniques (interviews) and the additional value achievable.
128
All topics will be supported by examples taken from real applications
(Digital Signage, Retail, Brands).
129
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Corporate visual identity (CVI) has been recognised by many academics to
be an important part of the corporate identity mix and to be crucial when
conveying the identity of an organisation (Baker and Balmer 1997; Melewar
and Saunders 1999; Van den Bosch et al. 2006). Alternative sensory
communication referring to hearing, smelling, touching and tasting however
has received less attention until now, even though some academics have
argued that non-visual elements can play a vital role regarding the
communication of corporate identity (CI) or corporate brands and the
formation of corporate image. Drawing on a holistic sensory perspective,
this paper focuses on the auditory dimension as one element of sensory
identity (Bartholmé and Melewar 2009), following the definitions of
corporate auditory identity (CAI) and corporate auditory identity
management (CAIM) provided by Bartholmé and Melewar (2009, 62; 2011,
95-96).
In contrast to the academic area, corporate sound has been considerably
applied in the business environment (e.g. background music, jingles, sonic
logos) (Lindstrom 2005) and has received some attention in anecdotal
literature (e.g. sonic logo of Intel©) (Jackson 2003; Treasure 2007).
However, the auditory dimension so far has been widely neglected in
academic research, resulting in a palpable gap in academic literature. Even
though many academics advocate the integration of communication
activities as broad as possible (Bernstein 1984; Bick et al. 2003; Gray and
Balmer 1998; Simões et al. 2005), auditory cues have neither been linked to
the corporate identity mix nor to corporate identity management or image
formation (cf. Abratt 1989; Balmer 1998; Bick et al. 2003; Markwick and
Fill 1997; Stuart 1998). Consequently, a lack of understanding of the
auditory dimension as constituent of the communication mix and as a
company-controlled communication factor of identity management is
130
evident (cf. Birkigt and Stadler 1986; Schmidt 1995). This is particularly the
case when drawing on the integrated communication paradigm, which
advocates consistent and congruent messages to all stakeholders through all
corporate communication mix elements (Bick et al. 2003).
Based on quantitative data collected from UK companies in the media,
information and communication as well as the banking and finance industry,
this paper addresses the lack of academic research on CAI by investigating
potential consequences of CAIM based on commonly accepted
consequences of visual identity, which have derived from an extensive
literature review. In detail, the study tested whether managers that put effort
into the strategic management of sound expect to be rewarded by positive
effects that are analogue to the well-established benefits of managing
corporate visual identity.
A sample of 82 was analysed using PLS-SEM to test for the linkage
between CAIM and ten consequences as perceived by managers, showing
significant path relations between CAIM and all ten proposed consequences.
In detail, organisations that employ a high degree of CAIM more likely
perceive (1) gaining differentiation, (2) gaining competitive advantage as
well as (3) improving the image of the organisation as a consequence of
CAIM. Furthermore, such organisations expect to (4) support their
communication activities and to achieve (5) communication consistency. In
addition, results show that organisations with a higher degree of CAIM
more likely perceive the management of corporate sound as a way of (6)
strengthening the identification of employees with the organisation, (7)
increasing recognisability and (8) familiarity as well as (9) generating trust
and finally (10) influencing consumers’ buying behaviour.
Bearing in mind that the proposed consequences have derived based on
visual identity management, the quantitative data supports a conceptual
similarity between visual and auditory identity regarding the consequences
that are expected to derive from managing the two disciplines.
The identified linkages result in a number of academic implications and
recommendations. First, this study is one of the first attempts to investigate
the under-researched field of CAI in relation to CI from a corporate
perspective based on primary quantitative data from corporations, thus
acting as a foundation for future research.
Second, the support for the conceptualisation of CAI as an additional
element of CI management and corporate communication alongside visual
identity helps to overcome the criticised visual predominance in identity and
131
related literature (Balmer 2001) and could act as catalyst for the broader
multi-sensory concept, thereby opening a new research avenue.
Third, based on the indicated significance of CAIM the authors recommend
academics to adopt a more holistic conceptualisation of corporate identity
by integrating CAI as additional element into the corporate identity mix and
into future CI models.
Fourth, by revealing managers’ expectations about the potential of CAIM in
supporting the dissemination of consistent messages, this study expands the
knowledge about orchestrating elements that convey corporate identity,
which consequently advances the understanding of the integrated
communication paradigm (Bick et al. 2003; Van Riel 1995).
Additionally, the following managerial implications can be drawn. First, the
similarity of beneficial consequences through the management of both
disciplines for an organisation eliminates some of the vagueness still
associated with the auditory topic. Consequently, managers are encouraged
to build on visual expertise and adapt established concepts when addressing
auditory identity. Moreover, managers are facilitated to better integrate
sound into the set of communication activities in the future, thus
overcoming the traditional visually dominated approach.
Second, while ignoring the management of sound in some cases might only
mean to miss out on the potential of sound, with regard to the consequence
of consistent communication, ignoring CAIM might be harmful. That is,
building on the integrated communication paradigm, failing to align
auditory identity with visual identity leads to inconsistency in the various
communication channels. Since many organisations are little aware of
existing auditory applications and elements (i.e. sonic touch-points)
(Jackson 2003), such misalignment often will occur unnoticed.
Third, increasing interest in the auditory topic in the future is likely.
Consequently, demand for consultancy work on auditory identity might
grow accordingly. Since this area so far has been neglected by companies
and agencies alike, corporate sound could offer promising business
opportunities for consultants. Agencies therefore are advised to include CAI
into their service portfolio and to build up expertise to adequately react to
clients’ future demands.
In conclusion, quantitative data indicate that managers expect CAIM to
provide beneficial consequences similar if not identical to the consequences
assigned to the management of CVI, thus showing that CAI is a potent
communication element next to visual identity. Consequently, consultants
132
and managers are advised to include CAI by default into their
communication strategies. Moreover, academics and scholars in the identity,
branding and communication discipline are advised to include the auditory
facet into their future thinking, concepts, frameworks and models.
Keywords: corporate auditory identity, corporate identity, corporate
communication, corporate sensory identity, corporate visual identity, PLS
References
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European Journal of Marketing 5 (1): 63-76.
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Melewar, T.C. and J. Saunders. 1999. “International Corporate Visual Identity Standardisation or Localisation?” Journal of International Business Studies 30 (3): 583598.
Schmidt, K., (Ed.). 1995. The Quest for Identity - Corporate Identity, Strategies, Methods
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Simões, C., S. Dibb and R.P. Fisk. 2005. “Managing Corporate Identity - an Internal
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133
Stuart, H. 1998. “Exploring the Corporate Identity/Corporate Image Interface - an
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Van Riel, C.B.M. 1995. Principles of Corporate Communication. Hemel Hempstead:
Prentice Hall.
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Professionals of advertising create emotional ads to get the attention of
consumers and increase advertising effectiveness. This research explores the
concept of arousal on video ads and analyzes its relationship with brand
recall and ad recall. Specifically, our work in progress studies how different
temporal sequences of high arousal and brand logo presentation may affect
brand recall and ad recall. Skin conductivity and survey techniques are
combined in the research methodology. Preliminary results of two
experiments confirm that post-arousal brand logo presentation increases
brand recall compared to pre-arousal and during arousal brand logo
presentation conditions. Nevertheless, when brand logo is presented after
the high arousal peak, the time length between both moments does not affect
brand recall. In addition, the different sequences of brand logo presentation
and high arousal do not influence ad recall. The conclusion section
discusses the role of arousal on consumers’ attention and cognitive
information processing. Results also suggest interesting implications for ad
design and further research lines in consumer behavior to advance on the
study of advertising arousal, attention and memory.
Keywords: arousal, advertising, brand recall, ad recall, skin conductivity
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135
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information-processing intensity.” Information processing research in advertising 12 (2):
46-64.
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for directing attention to spatial locations and to time intervals as revealed by both PET and
fMRI.” The Journal of Neuroscience 18 (18): 7426-7435.
Damasio, A. 2008. “Descartes' error: Emotion, reason and the human brain.” Random
House.
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Communication and intangible
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The purpose of culture and knowledge diffusion which features museums
leads to consider communication as an essential activity to perform their
educational role (Hooper-Greenhill 1999).
Nevertheless, even in recent times museums are usually far from being
considered as providers of a public and social service, but are rather featured
with an elitist attitude (Hanson 2011; Witcomb 2003) that leads to huge
gaps in communication with a wide range of users. With regard to Italian
museums, the prevailing self-referentiality is often the result of a lack in
management skills and in resources (technical, organizational, financial
etc.), frequently destined to preserve the cultural heritage, and also to the
limited recourse to fund raising from private investors (Bodo 2003). This
leads to a failure in providing visitors with adequate tools that make it
possible to understand properly the collections and, consequently, get into
the visit and the activities of the museums.
In this context, FIBAC’s (Innovative Fruition of Artistic and Cultural
Assets) project, carried on by a number of parties including Poste Italiane
Spa, the Department of Information Engineering, Electric Engineering and
Applied Mathematics (DIEM) and the Research Centre in Pure and Applied
Mathematics (CRMPA), both based in the University of Salerno, has
defined a model of cultural re-mediation to rethink the traditional concept of
fruition typical of museums, from the monologue to a “metalogue”, where
solutions for an innovative fruition of cultural heritage are provided.
The “metalogue” involves all of museum stakeholders; as any organization,
museums have to communicate with a wide range of public. Nevertheless,
contributions that have adopted a managerial perspective to analyse museum
140
have basically considered visitors as the unique addressee of museum
communication (Colbert 2000; Solima 1998); this conception may be traced
back to a concrete focus of museums on visitor attraction, in response to
reductions in museum budgets and to the need to generate self-financed
income (Hooper-Greenhill 1999).
Although valid to represent a starting point, communication models focused
on visitors are short-sighted and inadequate to represent the variety of
stakeholders which relate to museum, and the range of communication
activities addressed to these specific publics. The peculiarities of museum
communication and the need to enhance the value of collections move
forward to elaborate a more recent and appropriate model of museum
communication, which may reflect the advantages deriving from the
development of museum reputation and support FIBAC’s scope of better
knowledge sharing.
Research objectives
The paper aims to define an interdisciplinary approach to provide a model
describing the virtuous circles which may potentially be generated through
the development of a favourable museum reputation. The recognition of an
innovative model of museum communication requires the neglect of a
traditional myopic focus on visitors, towards the adoption of a long-term
perspective; the latter favours consents to overcome the focus on visitor
previously adopted reasonably by FIBAC’s project, to recognise the variety
of museum stakeholders and, lastly, museum reputation building as the final
purpose of museum communication. Indeed, a favourable reputation results
in improved museum performance (Bennett, Kottasz 2000; Fombrun, van
Riel 2004); in this sense, the paper intends to identify the benefits deriving
from a good museum reputation.
The contextualization of key concepts of corporate communication
(Fombrun, Rindova 1999; Siano 2001) enables to support the purpose of
FIBAC’s project, by means of acknowledging museum reputation as the
final purpose of museum communication, and aims to illustrate the process
of museum reputation development and reflect possible peculiarities in
museum reputation building.
Research method
141
Based on the previous assumptions, the paper benefits of the principles of
Boehm’s spiral model (Boehm 1988), used for software development and
later on successfully contextualized to other fields (including, for example,
project management). The spiral model joins the advantages of further
management models, through the use of an iterative approach that enables to
provide an innovative communication model, refined gradually according to
a series of incremental steps.
The physical metaphor of spiral in Boehm’s method is functional to improve
each step identified by means of defining clearly objectives, constraints,
stakeholder relationships and opportunities deriving from museum
reputation. The various steps of the spherical process enable to take a broad
view of the current concept of museum communication, and consider it as a
starting point to refine the opportunities arising from museum reputation.
Research findings and limits
The paradigmatic nature of Boehm’s meta-model consents to move
incrementally from the current conception of museum communication to an
advanced view based on museum reputation building. The adoption of a
descriptive-normative approach is serviceable to identify the range of
museum stakeholders, and the peculiar communication activities destined to
each of them to develop a favourable reputation. Opportunities arising from
a good reputation (e.g. increasing assets, growing appeal for investors etc.)
are identified; this enables to recognize virtuous circles arising from the
development of relations with key stakeholders (e.g. peculiar
communication activities to visitors lead to increase museum awareness;
increased museum appeal may be spent to attract investors; involvement of
investors may produce additional resources to draw other visitors and so
on), which results in a better diffusion of culture and knowledge, innate in
museum educational role.
The adoption of Boehm’s method presents advantages and limits; the focus
on risks typical of the spiral model is adapted to the peculiarities of Italian
museums, commonly featured with a number of constraints (e.g. low
budget, limited competences in marketing and communication, inadequate
integration with their territory etc.), which the prescriptions provided by the
model aim to overcome.
142
Original value of the paper
By using a novel approach of this kind, we present a preliminary attempt to
move from the current view of museum communication to a more
innovative and adequate conception. Consequently, the value provided
within this paper derives from challenging the current models of museum
communication to develop a new one, which considers museum reputation
as a meta-resource to attract a wide range of stakeholders. The paper
identifies new developments and trends emerging from museum
communication, and represents them by means of the physical metaphor of
Boehm’s spiral. The result is an overall framework arising from the
effective involvement of stakeholders.
Theoretical relevance and managerial relevance
The paper aims to fill a gap in the literature on museum marketing and
communication, whose contribution have reserved limited attention to the
opportunities deriving from a favourable museum reputation.
The framework represents an operative tool which may productively be
considered both by museum practitioners to manage museum
communication, and by FIBAC’s executives, in order to fulfil the purposes
of the project. With regard to Italian museums, the paper provides concrete
suggestions to move from a traditional concept of museum communication
to a new emerging one. The implications of the model intend to be
functional to the development of relations with museum stakeholders, which
support the development of museum reputation over time.
Keywords: museum communication; spiral model; museum communication
opportunities
References
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Empirical Investigation. Corporate Communications: An International Journal 5(4): 224234.
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Colbert F. 2000. Marketing delle arti e della cultura. Milano: Etas.
143
Fombrun C.J. and Rindova V.P. 1999. “Constructing Competitive Advantage: the Role of
Firm-Constituents Interactions”. Strategic Management Journal, 20(8): 691-710.
Fombrun C.J. and van Riel C.B.M. 2004. Fame and Fortune: How the World’s Top
Companies Develop Winning Reputations. New York: Pearson Publishing and the Financial
Times.
Hanson J.H. 1997. “Strategic management and fundraising: a planning model for resource
development in the nonprofit organisation”. International Journal of Nonprofit and
Voluntary Sector Marketing 2(4): 315-323.
Hooper-Greenhill E. 1999. The Educational Role of the Museum. London: Routledge.
Siano A. 2001. Competenze e Comunicazione del Sistema d’Impresa. Il Vantaggio
Competitivo tra Ambiguità e Trasparenza. Milano: Giuffrè.
Solima L. 1998. La gestione imprenditoriale dei musei. Padova: Cedam
Witcomb A. 2003. Re-imagining the museum: beyond the mausoleum. London: Routledge.
144
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This research is primarily concerned with extending the current knowledge
of corporate website management within the discipline of marketing by
developing a comprehensive conceptual model of its influence on corporate
reputation, e-loyalty and identification. Despite the significant and positive
view of the corporate website as an element of corporate identity, little
systematic research has examined the effect of the components of corporate
websites on consumer evaluations of these websites (Tarafdar and Zhang,
2008) and of the relationship between the corporate website, its dimensions,
antecedents and consequences (Cox and Emmott, 2007; Hendricks, 2007;
Lombard and Hite, 2007; Taylor et al., 2002). From this point, one purpose
of the present study will be to investigate the notion of corporate website
management in the service setting, in particular in higher education, due to
the dramatic increase of interest in services from academics and
practitioners in today’s global economy. The other is to examine the
antecedents and consequences of the under-researched construct of
corporate website management, with particular reference to corporate
reputation, e-loyalty and identification.
Keywords: Corporate visual identity, corporate website management,
corporate reputation, e- loyalty, identification.
References
Adams, K.E. and Cassner, M. (2002) Content and design of academic library web sites for
distance learners: an analysis of ARL libraries, Journal of Library Administration, Vol. 3,
No. 1/2, pp. 3-13.
Beatty R. C., Shim J. P. and Jones, M. C. (2001) Factors influencing corporate web site
adoption: a time-based assessment, Information and Management, Vol.38, pp. 337-354.
145
Chen, Q. and Wells, W. D. (1999) Attitude Toward the Web, Journal of Advertising
Research, Vol.39, No. 5, pp. 27-37.
Cox, A. and Emmott, S. (2007) A survey of UK university web management: staffing,
systems and issues, Campus-Wide Information Systems, Vol. 24,No.5, pp. 308-330.
Gardner, S., Juricek, J. and Xu, F. (2008) An analysis of academic library web pages for
faculty, The Journal of Academic Librarianship, Vol. 34, No.1, pp. 16-24.
Hendricks, A. (2007) Webmasters, web policies and academic libraries: a survey, Library
Hi Tech, Vol. 25, No.1, pp. 136-146.
Kim, S.E., Shaw, T. and Schneider, H. (2003) Web site design benchmarking within
industry groups, Internet Research: Electronic Networking Applications and Policy, Vol.
13, No.1, pp.17-26.
Lombard, E. and Hite, L.A. (2007) Academic Library Websites: Balancing University
Guidelines with User Needs, Journal of Web Librarianship, Vol.1, No.2, pp. 57-69.
Melewar, T. C. and Karaosmanoglu, E. (2006) Seven dimensions of corporate identity: a
categorization from the practitioners’ perspectives, European Journal of Marketing, Vol 40,
No. 7/8, pp. 846-869.
Palmer, J.W. (2002) Web site usability, design and performance metrics, Information
Systems Research, Vol. 13, No.2, pp. 151-167.
Ranganathan, C. and Ganapathy, S. (2002) Key Dimensions of Business to Consumer
Websites, Information and Management, Vol.39, pp. 457-465.
Scheffelmaier, G.W. and Vinsonhaler, J.F. (2002) A Synthesis of Research on the
Properties of Effective Internet Commerce Websites, Journal of Computer Information
Systems, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 23-30.
Schlosser, A.E. (2003) Computers as situational cues: implications for consumers’ product
cognitions and attitudes. Journal of Consumer Psychology, Vol.13, pp. 103–112.
Shchiglik, C. and Barnes, S. J. (2004) Evaluating Website Quality in the Airline Industry,
Journal of Computer Information Systems, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 17-25.
Tarafdar, M. and Zhang, J. (2008) Determinants of reach and loyalty – a study of Website
performance and implications for Website design, Journal of Computer Information
Systems, Vol. 48,No. 2, pp. 16.
Taylor, M.J, McWilliam, J., Forsyth, H. and Wade, S. (2002) Methodologies and website
development: a survey of practice. Information and Software Technology, Vol. 44, No.6,
pp. 381- 391.
Van den Bosch, A.L.M., De Jong, M.D.T. and Elving, W.J.L. (2006) Managing corporate
visual identity – exploring the difference between manufacturing and service and profitmaking and nonprofit organisations, Journal of Business Communication, Vol. 43, No. 2,
pp. 138-57.
146
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Stakeholder engagement (SE) is emerging as a central topic in current
management strategies (Andriof and Waddock, 2002; Tapscott and Ticoll,
2003; Waddock, 2004; O'Dwyer, 2005; Burchell and Cook, 2006; Noland
and Phillips, 2010). Nonetheless, the concept due to its novelty has been
dealt with so far in widely and sometimes contradictory ways. These
contradictions stem from the multidisciplinary nature of the engagement
construct, which has been developed and investigated across different
domains (i.e. management, organization studies, psychology, marketing,
communication).
Although engagement is presently considered a priority in the management
scholars’ research agenda, there is still no shared theory on the engagement
concept nor on its management. While showing the potential of SE for
companies, extant studies also highlights SE as a chaotic and multifaceted
conceptual territory, where no single perspective seems to stand out for its
universal valence. Moreover all the existing viewpoints seem to add
increasing complexity to SE, impairing the understanding of its true
conceptual essence and pragmatic potential for the company. For this reason
we claim for a basic exploratory research aimed at advancing knowledge on
SE and building a social consensus on its characteristics and development.
Hence, our study is aimed at depicting and at the same time disentangling
the complexity of the SE concept, by outlining its distinctive characteristics
and the different perspectives coexisting entailed in the SE concept.
We designed our study according to a Delphi methodology which currently
is considered one of the most useful methods for eliciting and aggregating
experts’ opinion whenever there is a lack of viable knowledge on an
emerging and practice-relevant topic (Armstrong, 2006). More specifically,
147
Delphi method can be defined as medium-term qualitative conceptualizing
and forecasting method that is based on building a consensus among group
of experts (Linstone and Turoff, 1975; Murry and Hammons, 1995;
Landeta, 2006).
Our Delphi study is built on four subsequent rounds of data collection and
iterative processing which involved a purposive sample of scholarly and
managerial experts selected on the basis of their established expertise in
stakeholder relationship management practices.
This method allows an exchange of viewpoints amongst a panel of experts
over a number of subsequent rounds that enables them to reflect and react to
the insights gathered during round and to fine-tune their conceptualization
by means of a feedback mechanism (Bonnemaizon et al., 2007).
In this working paper, we present and discuss the result of the first two
rounds of our Delphi study, which highlight SE as a dynamic, recurring and
self-propelling dialogic process, started and managed by the firm. This
process is marked by a progressive opening of the company toward
stakeholders which relies on sharing and negotiating a stake that company
and stakeholders put forth for confrontation and adjustment. Dialogue
appears as the fuel encouraging and moving on this process by allowing
parenthetic interaction, reciprocal understanding, and anticipation of
stakeholder expectations. Furthermore, SE emerges as a process difficult to
tackle with due to its complexity and ambivalence characterized by inner
contrasting tensions.
Future developments of our study will allow for a deep and eventually
provocative reflection on the managerial implications stemming from a
unifying SE framework in order to reorient relevant business practices.
Keywords: stakeholder engagement, Delphi study, ethical management,
dialogue
References
Waddock, S. 2004. Parallel Universes: Companies, Academics, and the Progress of
Corporate Citizenship. Business and Society Review 109: 5-42.
Tapscott D, Ticoll D. 2003. The naked corporation: How the age of transparency will
revolutionize business. Free Press.
Andriof J, Waddock S. 2002. Unfolding Stakeholder Engagement. In Unfolding
Stakeholder Thinking, Andriof J , Waddock S, Husted B, Rahman SS. (eds). Greenleaf
Publishing Limited.
148
Burchell J, Cook J. 2006. It's Good to Talk? Examining Attitude Towards Corporate Social
Responsibility Dialogue and Engagement Process. Business Ethics: A European Review
15: 154-170.
Noland J, Phillips R. 2010. Stakeholder Engagement, Discourse Ethics and Strategic
Management. International Journal of Management Reviews 12: 39-49.
O’Dwyer B. 2005. Stakeholder Democracy: Challenges and Contributions from Social
Accounting. Business Ethics: A European Review 14: 28-41.
149
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Despite the various conceptualisations of brand identity and brand image,
these are often used interchangeably and occasionally misunderstood
(Nandan 2005; Wong 2010). Nandan (2005) and Bosch et al. (2006) argued
that a brand’s envisaged identity may not be perceived in the same way by
the consumer, with separate viewpoints existing. Furthermore, these
communication discrepancy gaps need to be as small as possible and
ultimately narrowed or eliminated in order for the brand to be considered
strong, trusted and valued (Nandan 2005).
Existing research tends to focus on either brand identity or brand image.
There have been a few attempts at exploring the identity and image of a
brand in the same study (Bosch et al. 2006; de Chernatony 1999; Harris and
de Chernatony 2001; Roy and Banerjee 2007; Davies and Chun 2002).
However, there are limited studies that focus on application and
operationalisation of brand identity and brand image frameworks.
Furthermore, there is a paucity of identity and image research in the context
of political branding. Responding to the identified gap, this research focuses
on the transfer potential of Kapferer’s brand identity prism and brand image
framework (Bosch et al. 2006) used to explore how David Cameron’s
Conservative Party brand was projected and understood prior the 2010 UK
General Election.
Research Objectives
This research focused on three objectives. The first objective focused on the
application of Kapferer’s brand identity prism to explore the UK
Conservative Party from an internal orientation. The second objective
assessed the transfer potential of the brand image framework (Bosch et al.
2006) to understand the UK Conservative Party from an external
150
perspective. The third objective examined the coherency of the UK
Conservative Party brand by amalgamating the applied frameworks.
Research Method
Stage one involved thirty in-depth interviews with internal stakeholders of
the UK Conservative Party, spanning all three elements; Parliamentary,
Professional and Voluntary. Stage two of the study involved eight focus
group discussions (forty-six participants in total) with external stakeholders
aged 18-24 years. As young citizens aged 18-24 years were considered an
untapped and potentially lucrative market and specifically targeted by David
Cameron’s Conservative Party (Charles 2009) it can be argued that it was
appropriate to consider young citizens aged 18-24 years as external
stakeholders. Interviews and focus group discussions were conducted by the
researcher between December 2009 and 6th May 2010 (polling day - UK
General Election). Interviews/focus groups were transcribed by the
researcher and analysed using Butler-Kisber’s (2010) two stage thematic
inquiry analytical process.
Findings
The findings indicated that applying a political brand to Kapferer’s (2008)
brand identity prism and the brand image framework (Bosch et al. 2006) can
be problematic. However, in the first instance a number of
dimensions/components had to be adapted to meet the unique qualities of a
political brand. The findings also highlighted that the combination of the
conceptual frameworks (Kapferer 2008; Bosch et al. 2006) provide a
mechanism to highlight both inconsistencies and consistencies between the
brand identity and brand image of the UK Conservative Party.
The UK Conservative Party brand identity needs to pay close attention to
the lack of internal coherency. The UK Conservative Party brand image is
contentious, ambiguous and remains associated with previously held
perceptions and imagery. In addition, the discrepancy gaps between the
concepts of brand identity and brand image also require attention.
Nevertheless this study provides deep insight into the brand identity and
brand image of the UK Conservative Party and highlights some
detoxification of the ‘Tory brand’.
Original Value
Despite this research demonstrating the concepts of brand identity and brand
image can be applied to a political brand, this research indicated that there
are areas of improvement for the amalgamated framework. The ‘brand
identity-image network’ therefore enables researchers to explore the internal
151
brand identity and external brand image with greater clarity without
undermining the related yet distinct nature of brand identity and brand
image. This research also addressed the limited understanding of how a
political brand is communicated and understood in the same study.
Furthermore, this research adds to the paucity of literature that critically
applies and operationalises the concepts of brand identity and brand image.
Theoretical/Managerial Relevance
The findings have implications not only for political parties but also for
politicians, candidates and other political entities. Organisations will be able
to generate a deeper understanding of their brands from an internal and
external orientation and investigate whether their projected brand identity is
coherent with the understood external brand image. Inconsistencies between
internal brand identity and external brand image can then be addressed. This
research also made a theoretical contribution to the body of knowledge with
the application, operationalisation and development of the brand identityimage network which could be used beyond the context of political
branding.
References
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Ashcroft, M.A. (2005), Smell the Coffee: A wake-up call for the Conservative Party, Great
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Azoulay, A. and Kapferer, J. (2003), ‘Do brand personality scales really measure brand
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Conservative Party Change under David Cameron’, British Politics, 3, 270-299.
Bosch, J. Venter, E. Han, Y. and Boshoff, C. (2006), ‘The Impact of brand identity on the
perceived brand image of a merged higher education institution: Part one’, Management
Dynamics, 15 (2), 10-30.
Bosch, J. Venter, E. Han, Y. and Boshoff, C. (2006), ‘The Impact of brand identity on the
perceived brand image of a merged higher education institution: Part two’, Management
Dynamics, 15 (3), 36-47.
Budge, I. Crewe, I. McKay, D. and Newton, K. (2001), The New British Politics, Essex:
Pearson Education Ltd.
Butler-Kisber, L. (2010), Qualitative Inquiry: Thematic, Narrative and Arts-Informed
Perspectives, London: Sage Publications Ltd.
152
Campbell, J. (2008), ‘In defence of David Cameron: How the Tories have gotten past soul
searching in opposition’, Review – Institute of Public Affairs, 60 (1), 33-36.
Charles, G. (2009), ‘Conservative Party targets young voters with Spotify ad campaign’,
Chen, Y. (2010), ‘The Drivers of Green Brand Equity: Green Brand Image, Green
Satisfaction, and Green Trust’, Journal of Business Ethics, 93 (2), 307-319.
Creswell, J.W. (2007), Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design, London: Sage
Publications Ltd.
Cretu, A. E. and R. J. Brodie: 2007, ‘The Influence of Brand Image and Company
Reputation Where Manufacturers Market to Small Firms: A Customer Value Perspective’,
Industrial Marketing Management, 36 (2), 230–240.
Dahlen, M. Lange, F. and Smith, T. (2010), Marketing Communications: A Brand
Narrative Approach, West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Davies, G. and Chun, R. (2002), ‘Gaps Between the Internal and External Perceptions of
the Corporate Brand’, Corporate Reputation Review, 5 (2/3), 144-158.
de Chernatony, L. (2007), From Brand Vision to Brand Evaluation, Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann.
de Chernatony, L. (2006), From Brand Vision to Brand Evaluation, Oxford: ButterworthHeinemann.
de Chernatony, L. (1999), ‘Brand Management Through Narrowing the Gap Between
Brand Identity and Brand Reputation’, Journal of Marketing Management, 15, 157-179.
Denham, A. and O’Hara, K. (2007), ‘The Three ‘Mantras’: ‘Modernisation’ and the
Conservative Party’, British Politics, 2, 167-190.
Fill, C. (2006), Marketing Communications, Essex: Pearson Education Ltd.
French, A. and Smith, G. (2010), ‘Measuring political brand equity: a consumer oriented
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Gordon, W. (1999) ‘Assessing the Brand through Research’ in Cowley, D. (1999),
Understanding Brands, London: Kogan Page Ltd.
Guzman, F. and Sierra, V. (2009), ‘A political candidate’s brand image scale: Are political
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Harris, F. and de Chernatony, L. (2001), ‘Corporate Branding and Corporate Brand
Performance’, European Journal of Marketing, 35 (3/4), 441-456.
Henrik, S. and Fredrik, T. (2006), ‘When Communication Challenges brand associations: a
framework for understanding consumer responses to brand image incongruity’, Journal of
Consumer Behaviour, 5 (1), 32-42.
Johns, N. and Gylmothy, S. (2008), ‘Assessing the brand position of Danish Kros’, Journal
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Kapferer, J.N. (2008), The New Strategic Brand Management: creating and sustaining
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153
Lee, S. and Beech, M. (2009), The Conservatives Under David Cameron: Built to Last?
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Rekom, J.V. Jacobs, G. Verlegh, P.W.J. and Podnar, K. (2006), ‘Capturing the essence of a
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Reid, T. (2009), ‘White House moves to protect Brand Obama’, The Times, 3 Feb 2009,
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Robinson, J. (2004), ‘Repackaging our Politicians: Marketing MPs in an MMP world’, New
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Roy, D. and Banerjee, S. (2007), ‘CARE-ing strategy for integration of brand identity with
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154
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Research, Interviews and Analysis, California: Roxbury Publishing Company.
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Development and Demise of a Political Brand’, Journal of Political Marketing; 1 (2/3), 4552.
Wong, J. (2010), ‘Using a Brand Identity Index for Relevancy in Teaching Collegiate
Marketing’, Journal of Applied Business and Economics, 10 (5), 52-60.
155
11
Communication across cultures (part
2) track
156
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The evolution of the global economy has seen a rise in the digital market
space where consumers are no longer passive but they have become active
participants in brand building. The development of Web 2.0 has not only led
to virtually limitless connectivity and low cost access, but has also resulted
in a need for new communication models in the digital market space. Van
Dijk (2009, 46) suggests that with the full implementation of Web 2.0
technologies, and the subsequent emergence of many user generated content
sites, business interest has shifted from consumption activities, and
gravitated towards production activities which has afford users more power
over content, and which can either add or detract from business value. The
collaborative and expressive nature of social media allows users to
participate in the production of brand content which is published and
disseminated. This gives rise to what Mullins (2011) and Patricios (2011,
20) refer to as the collaboration economy where consumers become
marketers and co-creators in building (and destroying) brands as they
become increasingly involved in the dialogue surrounding a brand.
The challenge that open source brand management poses is the loss of
control over the management of the brand as a result of co-creation and coproduction of brand communication. While marketers and brand managers
struggle to come to terms with open source branding because of its volatility
and unpredictability, it is changing some of the fundamental principles of
value creation that marketers have taken for granted for decades within
previous paradigms. As a result marketers have been compelled to seek new
strategies aimed at collaborating and positively leveraging the influence of
open source branding, while also devising new brand strategies aimed at
brand protection rather than brand building. This entails that brand agencies
and managers have to mobilize the brand community through continuous
market conversation, and perpetual monitoring of trends in order to
157
stimulate affinity and identification-based trust amongst the community
(Hafkesbrink & Schroll 2011).
Consequently, a reconsideration of the strategies for managing brands is
required in a brand context where customers and managers have become so
called ‘consumanagers’ who together co-manage the future of brand.
This paper draws on three previous exploratory studies conducted by the
authors within South African communities of practice in 2011, 2012 and
2013 amongst brand experts, brand managers and brand agencies of the top
ten South African reputation brands (as identified by and independent
measure) to identify the impact of open source branding on digital brand
management strategies. This paper draws on the literature and the findings
of these three studies to identify emergent core drivers and shifts, and to
make recommendations on how brand management strategies could be
revised to deal with the “collaborative turn” brought about by the interactive
web.
Keywords: control; collaboration; open source branding; communities of
affinity; co-creation; brand strategies
References
Hafkesbrink, J, and M Schroll. 2011. “Innovation 3.0: embedding into community
knowledge – collaborative organizational learning beyond open innovation.” Journal of
Innovation Economics 1 (7): 55-92.
Mullins, R. 2011. “Digital Strategy is all about doing better business.” Accessed August 11.
http/www/bizcommunity.com/article/ 196/16/62752.html
Patricios, O. 2011. “Branding in the Collaboration Economy.” Advantage Magazine 18: 2021.
Van Dijk, J. 2009. “Users like you? Theorizing agency in user-generated content.” Media
Culture Society 31 (1): 41-58.
158
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The paper aims to reduce existing gap and extent knowledge in Georgia by
determining group of factors influencing brand`s loyalty. Investigation
revealed that Georgian consumer actively consumes the different types of
the foreign brands, but index of loyalty is not high. Majority of consumer`s
in the process of buy -decisions pay attention on the brand’s country of
origin. Investigation argues that consumer attitude toward foreign brands
facilitate motivation of entrepreneurs to promote local brands.
Keywords: brand, loyalty, attitude,
communication, country of origin
market,
Georgian
consumer,
References
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Kotler, P. & Keller, K. (2013). Marketing Management. 14 edition , Pearson Publisher.
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in different loyalty levels? The University of Tartu Faculty of Economics and Business
Administration Working Paper, Iss. 58-2007, pp. 3-29.
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marketing. Journal of Marketing, Vol. 58, Iss. 3, pp. 20–39.
159
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Connecting with Your Customer. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New
Jersey.
160
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During the UN conference on climate change in Durban, South Africa, in
December 2011, Japan dissented from the extension of the agreement of
Kyoto Protocol. This is an anticipated outcome because the Keidanren
(Japan Business Federation) has been urging the Japanese government to
abandon the target to cut CO2 emission because the target is perceived as an
obstacle for companies’ growth (Keidanren, 2001). Japan’s withdrawal from
the Kyoto Protocol marks a new phase in the narrative of Japanese
companies in relation to environmental issues. The narrative of Japanese
companies encounter with environmental issues since the post war until the
Kyoto Protocol consists of four phases. The phases are divided
chronologically based on the events that occurred, the norms or sets of
expectation and behavior during those periods and companies’ reactions
towards those events (Hattori, 2007; Nakamaru, 2010; Toyozumi, 2010).
They are labeled as 1) industrial pollution and economic growth, 2) oil
shock and energy efficiency, 3) global environmental problems and
international contribution, and 4) Kyoto Protocol and environmental
protection. The narrative leads to the hypothesis that “Japanese companies
are striving to lead public green awareness and consciousness through the
proliferation of green communication with the objective to mold public
environmental consciousness into a superficial consciousness that will only
benefit the company in term of profit maximization.” Consequently, the
proliferation of companies’ environmental communication are
overwhelming and require an investigation that may reveal a new paradigm
of understanding to deconstruct the messages and arguments underlying
those exquisite and glossy representations of corporate greenness. The
purpose of this study is to explore and analyze the content of companies’
environmental communication most accessible to the public. The samples
consist of 45 samples of environmental print advertisement and 20 samples
of environmental television commercials of various Japanese companies.
161
The analysis of the samples generates three main findings. They are; the
type of companies’ communication, the types of information utilized in
depicting environmental concern and the visual analysis. The initial findings
reveal that more than 50% of the samples are product promotion and
challenges previous studies who stated that environmental communication
mainly appears in corporate advertising or companies’ CSR report (Farache
& Perks, 2009; Fukukawa & Teramoto, 2009). This result indicates that
companies environmental concern has expanded from external activities
unrelated to companies’ core business to internal activities interrelated with
companies profit maximization. The second finding for the analysis is the
cues to express environmental concern. They are the environmental benefit
and techniques applied to express environmental concerns. The
environmental benefit can be defined as the benefit the consumer gained in
terms of environmental protection. Among the most frequent benefit
communicated is the ‘Reduce of CO2’ and ‘Energy Efficiency’. In Japan,
the discourse of Kyoto Protocol has exposed the Japanese with the notion of
‘reduce carbon emission’. The media portrayed how reducing the carbon
emission will contribute to global environmental protection and these
companies seems to take this opportunity to position themselves as one of
the main parties contributing to the global environmental protection effort.
The next benefit, ‘Energy Efficiency’ is the second most frequent
environmental benefit appears in the sample. Generally, energy efficiency is
related to technology that enables the independency from fossil fuel thus,
coined as ‘energy efficient’. The increasing of fossil fuel price and the
consequences it brings making the purpose of decreasing dependency on
fossil fuel as among the popular environmental benefit.
The techniques can be categorized as process cycle, scientific data,
testimony, slogan, sponsorship. The most significant technique applied to
express environmental concerns is process cycle. Indicating the process
cycle with environmental benefit convince consumer that the companies’
environmental communication is a concrete action and not merely rhetoric
in achieving its legitimacy. This suggest that companies try to avoid being
abstract or vague in expressing their environmental concern as claimed by
Cho, Roberts, & Patten (2010) and Bowers (2010). Other than indicating
process cycle, the acquiring of environmental accreditation through
environmental label or certificate, the mentioning of scientific data and
162
testimony are other instruments utilized in the samples with an aim to avoid
their environmental claim to be vague or abstract.
The use of slogan and environmental activities sponsorship are the least
convincing way of expressing their environmental concern. In the samples,
these two techniques are accompanied by other techniques such as process
cycle and testimony.
The third finding generated by the analysis is the analysis of visual aspects.
The most significant finding of visual analysis is the high frequency of the
color blue and white along with green color in companies’ environmental
communication. The settings that represent these two colors are the blue sky
with clouds or the planet earth. This suggests that green may not be the only
color that represents the environment but sky blue and white may become
the theme color of environmental communication.
The second important visual analysis finding is the use of children as the
presenter in the print advertisements. Although the product promoted may
not directly relate with children, those samples use children to represent the
word mirai or future in expressing their environmental values. Instead of
using old people as the presenter of their product promotion parallel with
the aging population in Japan, there is tendency to twist this image and use
the picture of children to illustrate environmental aspects.
The findings above are crucial in suggesting a concrete framework or
analysis procedure for research that study corporate environmental
communication. Although the sample used in the analysis are rather small, it
proves to be useful in categorizing the type of information appeared in
Japanese corporate environmental communication through the variety of
industries the sample represents. The small number of samples also enables
deeper discussion that includes the input from people of the industries.
However, the random samples from various companies prevent the analysis
to seek in-depth explanation pertaining to the policy or corporate
communication objectives of a particular company. Thus, the next step of
this research is to collect samples from same companies or similar industries
namely Toyota and Panasonic for in-depth analysis. If the number of
companies or industries is limited and not too diverse, the explanation can
use the arguments from the companies’ internal discourse as well as
industrial discourse in drawing comprehensive conclusion from the findings.
These discourses can be find either through interview or through the
analysis of trade journals that focuses on the discussion among those
involves in the industries.
163
Keywords: corporate
environmental studies
environmental
communication;
advertising;
References
Bowers, T. (2010). From image to economic value: a genre analysis of sustainability
reporting. Corporate Communications, 15(3), 249 - 262.
Cho, C. H., Roberts, R. W., & Patten, D. M. (2010). The language of US corporate
environmental disclosure. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 35, 431 - 443.
Farache, F., & Perks, K. J. (2009). CSR advertisements: a legitimacy tool? Corporate
Communications : An International Journal, 15(3), 235 248.
Fukukawa, K., & Teramoto, Y. (2009). Understanding Japanese CSR: The Reflections of
Managers in the Field of Global Operations. Journal of Business Ethics, 85, 133-146.
Hattori, T. (2007). The Rise of Japanese Climate Change Policy : Balancing the Norms of
Economic Growth, Energy Efficiency, International Contribution and Environmental
Protection. In M. E. Pettenger (Ed.), The Social Construction of Climate Change: Power
Knowledge, Norms, Discourses. Hampshire: Ashgate.
Keidanren. (2001). Request for Calm and Patiend Negotiations on the Issues of Global
Warning: Keidanren (Japanese Federation of Economic Organization).
Nakamaru, H. (2010). Trends and future issues of environmental management in Japan.
Asian Business & Management, 9, 189-207.
Toyozumi, T. (2010). Environmental management strategy for small and medium-sized
enterprises: Why do SMBs practice environmental management? Asian Business &
Management, 9, 265-280.
164
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There is a death of published research on consumer based brand equity
(CBBE) in service sector in general and precisely in banking service in
developing countries. This research seeks to study CBBE in banking sector
in a developing economy in Middle East (Egypt) and examine If and how
the CBBE differs across bank types (local vs. foreign). Although services
represent fifty percent of the GDP in Egypt, most of this comes from
tourism and transport (essentially Suez Canal revenues). The potential in
making better use of services in Egypt is vast, but is as yet untapped. In
addition, most research conducted on service branding and CBBE in
banking sectors refers to a Western context. This study use brand equity
model developed based on Aaker (1991).
A questionnaire derived from existing literature was completed by 468
actual customers of banks operating in Egypt using two modes of data
collection by face to face interview and by Internet. The initial findings,
obtained using multiple regression analysis, indicate that private and foreign
banks are similar and different from public banks. Reliable staff, brand
personality, organisational association and brand loyalty are the dimensions
which influenced brand equity in public banks. While, brand awareness,
brand personality and brand loyalty are the dimensions which influenced
brand equity for private and foreign banks
Keywords: Service brands, CBBE, Foreign and Local brands, banking
sector, Emerging markets, Egypt.
References
165
Aaker, D.A. (1991), Managing Brand Equity, Free Press, New York. Berry, L.L. (2000)
‘Cultivating service brand equity’, Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, vol. 28,
no. 1, pp. 128–137.
Business Studies and Analysis Center. (September 2008). Banking sector developments in
Egypt.
Christodoulides, George & de Chernatony, Leslie 2010, "Consumer-based brand equity
conceptualisation and measurement: A literature review", International Journal of Market
Research, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 43-66.
de Chernatony, L. and Riley, F.D. (1999) ‘Expert's Views About Defining Services Brands
and the Principles of Services Branding’, Journal of Business Research, vol. 46, no. 2, pp.
181-192.
Elsharnouby, T. and Parsons, E. (2010) ‘A broader concept of relationships: Identifying
new forms of consumer–provider interactions in Egyptian financial services’, Journal of
Marketing Management, vol. 26, no. 13–14, pp. 1367–1388.
Ghoneim, A.F. (2007) ‘Access to Services and Its Impact on Competitiveness of Egyptian
Firms’, The Journal of International Trade and Diplomacy, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 203-230.
Keller, K.L. (1998) Strategic Brand Management, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.
Keller, K.L. (1993) ‘Conceptualizing, measuring, anquity’, Journal of Marketing, vol. 57,
no. 1, pp. 1–22.
Mourad,Maha,Ennew,Christine and Kortam,Wael 2010, " Descriptive Evidence on the Role
of Corporate Brands in Marketing Higher Education Services", Service Science, vol. 2, no.
3, pp. 154-166.
Yoo, B., Donthu, N. & Lee, S. (2000), " An examination of selected marketing mix
elements and brand equity ", Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, vol. 28, no. 2,
pp. 195-211.
166
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