French Grammar and Usage (gnv64)

French Grammar and Usage French Grammar and Usage Second edition Roger Hawkins Senior Lecturer in Language and Linguistics, University of Essex Richard Towell Professor of French Applied Linguistics, University of Salford NATIVE SPEAKER CONSULTANT Marie-Noëlle Lamy Senior Lecturer, Open University A member of the Hodder Headline Group LONDON Contents Guide for the user Glossary of key grammatical terms Acknowledgements Acknowledgements for the second edition xi xiv xx xxi 1 Nouns 1.1 Types of noun 1.2 Gender 1.3 Number 1 1 5 17 2 Determiners 2.1 Articles 2.2 Typical use of the definite article 2.3 Typical use of the indefinite article 2.4 The partitive article: du, de l', de la, des 2.5 Use of indefinite and partitive articles after the negative forms ne... pas, ne... jamais, ne... plus, ne... guère 2.6 Omission of the article 2.7 Demonstrative determiners 2.8 Possessive determiners 23 23 24 29 32 3 Personal and impersonal pronouns 3.1 Subject pronouns 3.2 Object pronouns 3.3 Stressed pronouns 3.4 Demonstrative pronouns 3.5 Possessive pronouns 40 40 53 71 75 76 4 Adjectives 4.1 Adjectives modifying the noun 4.2 Adjectives which follow verbs or verbal expressions 4.3 Adjectives with complements 4.4 Indefinite and negative noun phrases with adjective complements 4.5 Adjectives used as nouns 4.6 Adjectives used as adverbs 4.7 Masculine and feminine forms of adjectives 4.8 Plural forms of adjectives 4.9 Adjective agreement with nouns 78 78 83 84 33 34 37 39 85 85 86 86 89 91 vi Contents 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 Invariable adjectives Compound adjectives Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives Subjunctive versus indicative in clauses dependent on a superlative adjective Absolute use of the superlative 91 92 93 96 97 5 Adverbs 5.1 Function of adverbs 5.2 Formation of adverbs with the ending -ment 5.3 Adjectives used as adverbs without addition of -ment 5.4 Phrases used as adverbs 5.5 English and French adverb formation 5.6 Types of adverbs 5.7 Location of adverbs 98 98 98 101 102 104 104 122 6 Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers 6.1 Cardinal numbers 6.2 Ordinal numbers 6.3 Fractions 6.4 Some differences in the use of cardinal and ordinal numbers in French and English 6.5 Measurements and comparisons 6.6 Dates, days, years 6.7 Clock time 6.8 Money 6.9 Quantifiers 126 126 133 134 7 Verb 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 forms Introduction Conjugations Easy ways of generating some parts of the paradigms Changes in the stem form of some -er conjugation verbs Verbs whose stems end in c- or gVerb paradigms 147 147 148 149 152 153 154 8 Verb 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 constructions Relations between verbs and their complements Intransitive constructions Directly transitive verbs Indirectly transitive verbs Ditransitive verbs The passive Pronominal verbs Impersonal verbs Verbs which take noun + adjective or noun + noun complements 186 186 186 188 190 192 194 197 204 207 135 138 140 142 143 143 Contents vii 9 Verb 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 and participle agreement Subject-verb agreement Agreement of the past participle with the subject of être Agreement of the past participle of verbs conjugated with avoir with a preceding direct object Agreement of the past participle of pronominal verbs in compound tenses 10 Tense Introduction 10.1 10.2 The present 10.3 The past 10.4 The future Other tenses indicating the time at which events occur 10.5 relative to other events 10.6 Combining tenses 10.7 Tenses in direct and reported descriptions of events Tenses with si 10.8 11 The 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 12 The 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 208 208 212 213 220 222 222 222 223 228 232 235 238 240 subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives The attitude of the subject to events: the subjunctive The use of devoir, pouvoir, savoir, falloir The French equivalents of the English modal verbs: 'would', 'should', 'could', 'may', 'might', 'ought to', and 'must' Exclamatives Imperatives 241 241 258 infinitive Introduction: what are infinitives? Infinitives as complements to other verbs Verbs which take infinitive complements without a linking preposition Verbs which take infinitive complements preceded by the preposition à Verbs which take an infinitive complement preceded by de Omission of objects before infinitives Infinitives as complements to adjectives Infinitives as complements to nouns Infinitives in subordinate clauses Infinitives as polite commands Quick-reference index to verbs taking infinitive complements 273 273 274 13 Prepositions 13.1 Introduction 13.2Prepositions listed alphabetically from à to vers 13.58 French translations for common English prepositions 13.59 262 267 269 274 277 282 288 289 291 293 294 294 301 301 301 325 viii Contents 14 Question formation 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Yes/no questions 14.3 Information questions 14.4 Order of object pronouns in questions involving inversion 14.5 Order of negative particles in questions involving inversion 14.6 Use of question words and phrases: qui?, que?, quoi?, quel?, de qui?, avec combien de? etc. 14.7 Indirect questions 332 332 332 336 341 341 15 Relative clauses 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Use of relative qui 15.3 Use of relative que 15.4 Preposition plus qui 15.5 Use of lequel in relative clauses 15.6 Use of dont, de qui, duquel/de laquelle/desquels/desquelles 15.7 The use of où as a relative pronoun 15.8 Use of relative quoi 15.9 Free relative clauses and the use of ce qui, ce que, ce dont, ce à quoi, ce sur quoi, etc. 15.10 Translating 'whoever', 'whatever', 'wherever', 'whenever', 'however' 15.11 Indicative and subjunctive in relative clauses 349 349 350 351 352 352 354 355 356 16 Negation 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Location of sentence negators 16.3 Order of negators in multiple negation 16.4 Omission of ne in sentence negation 16.5 Order of negative elements in questions and imperatives 16.6 ne... pas 16.7 ne... que 16.8 ne... aucun(e), ne... nul(le) 16.9 ne... jamais 16.10 ne... plus 16.11 ne... guère 16.12 ne... rien 16.13 ne... personne 16.14 ne... ni... ni 16.15 sans used with other negators 16.16 ne used alone 365 365 365 368 368 369 369 373 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 380 17 Conjunctions and other linking constructions 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Coordinating conjunctions 17.3 Subordinating conjunctions 382 382 382 384 341 346 357 359 361 Contents ix 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 17.8 17.9 Conjunctions sometimes confused by English speakers Repeated subordinating conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions used with infinitive clauses après avoir/ être + past participle linking an infinitive clause to a main clause Past participle phrases used as linkers Present participles and gerunds Appendix Bibliography Index 394 395 396 397 397 398 402 405 407 Glossary of key grammatical terms Items in bold in the definitions are also defined in the glossary. adjective - a class of words which modify nouns. Adjectives appear adjacent to nouns or separated from them by verbs like être, devenir, rester: e.g. un PETIT problème 'a small problem'; une boîte CARRÉE 'a square box'; Cette robe est CHÈRE 'This dress is expensive'. adverb - a class of words which modify words, phrases and sentences: e.g. Tout est si clair 'Everything is so clear'; Je fume MODÉRÉMENT 'I smoke moderately'; JUSTE avant le départ du train 'Just before the train leaves'; SOUDAIN, j'ai entendu un bruit 'Suddenly I heard a noise'. adverbial - a word or phrase which can function as an adverb, although it also has other functions: e.g. parler BAS 'to talk quietly' (bas = an adjective); Je lui rends visite DE TEMPS EN TEMPS 'I visit her from time to time' (de temps en temps = a prepositional phrase); Elle travaille LE MATIN 'She works in the mornings' (le matin = a noun phrase). affirmative sentence - a sentence which is not a negative: e.g. Elle parle 'She is speaking'; Parle-t-elle? 'Is she speaking?'; Parle! 'Speak!' (as opposed to the negative sentences: Elle ne parle pas, Ne parle-t-elle pas? Ne parle pas!). agreement - a form the verb must take to be compatible with a given subject: e.g. NOUS mangeons 'We're eating'/Vous mangez 'You're eating'. A form a determiner and an adjective must take to be compatible with a given noun: e.g. UN BON REPAS 'A good meal'/UNE BONNE BIÈRE 'A good beer'. A form a past participle must take to be compatible with a preceding direct object: e.g. le coffre? Je L'AI OUVERT 'The car boot? I've opened it': La porte? Je L'ai OUVERTE 'The door? I've opened it'; and so on. article - definite article = le, la, les; indefinite article = un, une, des. The 'partitive' article - du, de la, des - indicates that a noun refers to something which is part of a larger mass: e.g. du gâteau 'some (of the) cake'; des abeilles 'some bees'. auxiliary verb - the verbs avoir or être which accompany a past participle in compound tenses or the passive: e.g. Elle A mangé 'She has eaten'; Le vélo A ÉTÉ réparé 'The bike has been repaired'. cardinal number - a number in the series un (1), deux (2), trois (3), etc. clause - a string of words which contains just one verb phrase and a subject (whether overt or implied): e.g. ELLE PART 'She's leaving' - one clause; DEPUIS JANVIER LES PRIX ONT AUGMENTÉ 'Since January, prices have gone u p ' - one clause; IL EST HEUREUX/PARCE QU'IL EST RICHE 'He is happy because he is rich' - two clauses; ELLE EST PRÊTE/A PARTIR 'She is ready to leave' - two clauses Glossary of key grammatical terms xv (in à partir the subject is implied: She is ready, and she will leave); LES CIRCONSTANCES AIDANT/LE PARTI GAGNERA CES ÉLECTIONS 'If the conditions are right, the party will win this election' - two clauses; II DIT/QU'ON CROIT/QU'ELLE VA PARTIR 'He says that they think that she will leave' - three clauses. Also see coordinate clause, relative clause, subordinate clause. comparative - a way of modifying adjectives and adverbs to draw a comparison between one entity and another: // veut acheter une PLUS GRANDE/une MOINS GRANDE/une AUSSI GRANDE voiture 'He wants to buy a bigger car/a car which is not as big/a car which is just as big'; Cette voiture-ci roule PLUS VITE/MOINS VITE/AUSSI VITE QUE l'autre 'This car goes faster/slower/as quickly as the other one'. complement - any phrase which follows a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, to form an expression with a cohesive meaning: e.g. un appartement À LOUER 'a flat to let'; Ils se réunissent LE DIMANCHE AU STADE 'They meet on Sundays at the stadium'; Pierre est difficile À VIVRE 'Pierre is difficult to live with'. coordinate clause - a clause linked to another by et, ou, mais: e.g. Il est riche ET il est heureux 'He is rich and he is happy'. declarative sentence - a sentence which makes a statement (as opposed to a question or an imperative). demonstrative - demonstrative determiner = ce, cette, ces; demonstrative pronoun = celui, celle, ceux, celles. determiner - an article (un, une/le, la, les/des, etc.), demonstrative determiner (ce, cette, etc.) or possessive determiner (mon, ma/ton, ta, etc.) which modifies a noun. direct object - see object. directly transitive verb - see transitive verb. ditransitive verb - see transitive verb. finite verb - a verb which is marked for tense and agreement, as opposed to non-finite forms like the infinitive, imperative, participles: e.g. Je PARLE 'I'm speaking'; J'AI PARLÉ T spoke'; Je SAIS parler français T can speak French'. formal French - in this grammar 'formal French' refers to a style used by speakers of standard educated French when they are paying particular attention to the form of what they are saying or writing. It is a style usually appropriate when someone is speaking in an official capacity (lectures, sermons, speeches, etc.), or writing in learned, academic or literary style. Features of formal French which are absent from informal French include: the use of the simple past tense (Il SORTIT 'He went out'), the use of the past anterior tense (Aussitôt qu'il FUT SORTI . . . 'As soon as he had gone out . . . ' ) , retention of ne in ne . . . pas. gender - a division of nouns into two classes: masculine and feminine. The distinction shows up mainly in determiners (le versus la, ce versus cette, mon versus ma, etc.), in pronouns (il versus elle) and in the agreement of adjectives with nouns (beau versus belle). Gender distinctions are grammatical and need not correspond to sex distinctions in the real world (although they mostly do): e.g. médecin 'doctor' is masculine, but can refer to men or women; personne 'person' is feminine but can refer to men or women. gerund - see participle. xvi Glossary of key grammatical terms imperative - a form of the verb used to give orders, express encouragement or give advice: e.g. ASSEYEZ-VOUS! 'Sit down!'; ALLEZ! 'Come on!'; FAIS attention^. 'Watch out!' impersonal - refers to a pronoun (usually a subject pronoun) which does not refer to any person, place, thing, idea etc. il, ce, cela, ça can be impersonal pronouns in French: e.g. IL est temps de partir 'It's time to leave'; ÇA me fait peur d'y aller la nuit 'It scares me to go there at night'. indicative - the set of forms of the verb which are not subjunctive, imperative, infinitive or participial. indirect object - see object. indirectly transitive verb - see transitive verb. infinitive - a form of the verb which ends in -er, -ir, -re, -oir, and corresponds to English 'to': AIMER 'to like', FINIR 'to finish', VENDRE 'to sell', RECEVOIR 'to receive'. informal French - in this grammar 'informal French' refers to a style used by speakers of standard educated French in contexts of relaxed, spontaneous communication when they are interacting with friends, colleagues, family, etc. Features of informal French include: the non-use of the simple past or past anterior tenses, and the regular omission of ne from ne ... pas. intransitive verb - a verb which has no direct object: e.g. La neige TOMBAIT 'Snow was falling'. modify, to - to add to the meaning of a noun, verb, adjective, etc. by adding another word or phrase to it: e.g. manteau, UN manteau, UN manteau GRIS; oiseau, UN oiseau, UN oiseau QUI CHANTE; parle, IL parle, IL parle LENTEMENT; grand, si grand, ELLE EST SI grande. negator - one of the elements aucun, jamais, ni, nul, pas, personne, plus, rien which can create negative expressions (see Chapter 16). noun - a class of words which refers to people, places, things, ideas, and so on; it is usually preceded by a determiner: e.g. un AMI; la FRANCE; une BIÈRE; le BONHEUR. noun phrase - the phrase consisting of a noun alone, or a noun and the elements which modify it. Each of the following is a noun phrase: PIERRE, LE SOLEIL, UN CHER AMI 'a dear friend', UNE BIÈRE BIEN FROIDE 'a really cold beer', CHACUN DE MES AMIS LES PLUS CHERS 'each of my dearest friends'. number - a grammatical distinction between nouns or pronouns which are singular and those which are plural. Number distinctions need not correspond to real singular and plural distinctions in the world, and can differ between English and French (although mostly the grammatical and realworld distinctions coincide): e.g. 'hair' (singular) versus cheveux (plural); 'trousers' (plural) versus pantalon (singular). See also cardinal number and ordinal number. object - a direct object is the noun phrase or pronoun affected directly by the action described by the verb: e.g. Il a pris LE TRAIN 'He took the train'; 17 L'a pris 'He took it'. An indirect object is the noun phrase or pronoun affected indirectly by the action described by the verb. In French, indirect object noun phrases are always introduced by à: e.g. 17 a envoyé un cadeau À SA MÈRE 'He sent a present to his mother'. An object of a preposition is any noun phrase Glossary of key grammatical terms xvii which follows a preposition, including indirect objects introduced by à: e.g. dans LE HALL 'in the hall', à côté DU RESTAURANT 'beside the restaurant', à SA MÈRE 'to his mother'. object of a preposition - see object. ordinal number - a number in the series premier (1er), deuxième (2e), troisième (3e), etc. parenthetical expression - an aside made by a speaker to indicate a reservation h e / s h e has about what is being said. It is the equivalent of putting something in brackets ('parentheses'): e.g. Pierre, SEMBLE-T-IL, a gagné le prix 'Pierre, it seems, won the prize'. Parentheticals are kinds of adverbial. participle - past participles are forms of the verb which occur with avoir or être: e.g. J'ai MANGÉ 'I've eaten'; Elle est PARTIE 'She has left'. Present participles end in -ant and correspond to English verbs ending in -ing: e.g. disparaissant 'disappearing', attendant 'waiting'. Gerunds are present participles preceded by en: en disparaissant 'while disappearing; by disappearing', en attendant 'while waiting; by waiting'. passive - a form of a normally transitive verb where the direct object becomes the subject and the verb is turned into an être + past participle construction: e.g. Il a réparé le vélo 'He repaired the bike'; LE VÉLO A ÉTÉ RÉPARÉ 'The bike has been repaired'. past participle - see participle. person - the three categories into which noun phrases or pronouns can be divided depending on whether they refer to the person(s) speaking (je, me, moi, nous - first person), the person(s) being spoken to (tu, te, toi, vous - second person), or the person(s) or thing(s) being talked about (il, elle, lui, ils, etc. - third person). Pronouns take different forms in the first, second and third person, and finite verbs change their form to agree with the person of the subject (e.g. je parle, nous parlons, vous parlez, etc.). personal pronoun - a first person, second person or third person pronoun which stands for a noun phrase mentioned or implied elsewhere in a text or discourse. Personal pronouns contrast with impersonal pronouns which do not refer to other noun phrases. Personal pronouns are pronouns like je, me, moi, nous; tu, te, toi, vous; il, elle, lui, les etc. They take their name from the fact that they can be classified as first, second or third person, and do not necessarily refer to people; e.g. elle is a personal pronoun, but it refers to the inanimate émission in: ELLE est intéressante, cette émission 'That programme's interesting'. phrase - any string of words which gives rise to an expression with a cohesive meaning: e.g. MON ONCLE JACQUES 'my uncle Jacques' (noun phrase); Pierre MARCHE LENTEMENT 'Pierre walks slowly' (verb phrase), etc. possessive - possessive determiner - mon, ma, ton, votre, etc.; possessive pronoun = le mien, la mienne, le tien, le vôtre, etc. preposition - words like à, de, dans, en, sur, etc., which are followed by noun phrases and indicate the direction, location, orientation, etc., of an entity. prepositional phrase - a phrase consisting of a preposition and its complement. The following are all prepositional phrases: À MIDI 'at noon'; À CHAQUE VIRAGE 'at every bend'; AU CHEVET DE MA MÈRE 'at my mother's bedside'. xviii Glossary of key grammatical terms present participle - see participle. pronoun - a form which is used in place of a noun phrase when that phrase is already known from the context: e.g. je, tu, nous, le, la, leur, etc. Pronouns have different forms depending on whether they are subjects, direct objects, indirect objects or objects of a preposition. proper noun - names like Marie-Paule, le Canada, are proper nouns. quantifier - a determiner-like expression which measures or quantifies a noun or noun phrase: e.g. BEAUCOUP D'argent 'a lot of money'; LA PLUPART DES spectateurs 'most of the spectators'; TOUS les jours 'every day'. question (direct versus indirect) - a direct question is addressed directly to the hearer or reader: e.g. VIENS-TU? 'Are you coming?'. An indirect question reports the asking of a question: e.g. Il a demandé si TU VENAIS 'He asked if you were coming'). reciprocal - a type of sentence where either the direct object, the indirect object or the object of a preposition refers to the same person, thing, idea, etc., as a plural subject, and the sentence is intepreted so that the subjects are doing things to each other: e.g. Les boxeurs SE sont blessés 'The boxers injured each other'; Les participants SE sont posé des questions 'The participants asked each other questions'; Les manifestants ont lutté LES UNS CONTRE LES AUTRES 'The demonstrators fought with each other'. reflexive - a type of sentence where either the direct object, the indirect object or the object of a preposition refers to the same person, thing, idea, etc., as the subject: e.g. Je ME lave T am washing (myself)'; Elle SE cache la vérité 'She hides the truth from herself; Elle parle CONTRE ELLE-MÊME 'She is speaking against herself. relative clause - a clause which modifies a noun phrase or a pronoun: e.g. // y avait deux hommes QUI SORTAIENT DU BAR 'There were two men who were coming out of the bar'; C'est lui QUI ME L'A DONNÉ 'He is the one who gave it to me'. subject - the noun phrase or pronoun in a clause about which the verb and its complement say something. Subjects usually appear in front of the verb: e.g. LE DÎNER est servi 'Dinner is served'; SA FEMME parle lentement 'His wife speaks slowly'; DELPHINE a été battue 'Delphine was beaten'. It can appear after the verb in some constructions. See subject-verb inversion. subject-verb inversion - subjects normally precede finite verbs in French. But in questions, and after certain adverbs, the subject and the finite verb may change places: e.g. AIME-T-IL LE Roquefort? 'Does he like Roquefort cheese?; A peine S'EST-IL ASSIS qu'on lui a demandé de se déplacer 'Hardly had he sat down when someone asked him to move'. subjunctive - see Chapter 11 for discussion. subordinate clause - a clause which is part of a larger sentence, and whose meaning is secondary to that of the main clause: e.g. PARCE QU'IL EST RICHE, Pierre est heureux 'Because he is rich, Pierre is happy' - parce qu'il est riche is subordinate to Pierre est heureux; Jean a complètement rénové le grenier DEPUIS QU'IL EST CHEZ NOUS 'Jean has completely renovated the loft since he has been at our house' - depuis qu'il est chez nous is subordinate to jean a complètement rénové le grenier. Glossary of key grammatical terms xix superlative - a way of modifying adjectives and adverbs to single out an entity as the best or the worst of its kind: e.g. C'est la route LA PLUS DANGEREUSE/LA MOINS DANGEREUSE de la région 'It's the most dangerous road/least dangerous road in the region'; Cette voiture-là est LA PLUS VITE/LA MOINS VITE 'That car is the fastest/the least fast'. tense - a form of the verb which indicates the time at which an event took place relative to other events being talked about: e.g. Je PRENDS [present tense] la route par où nous SOMMES VENUS [compound past tense] 'I'm taking the road along which we came'. Tenses have names like present, future, simple past, compound past, etc. - see Chapter 7 for the forms of verbs in different tenses, and Chapter 10 for their uses. transitive verb - a verb which has a direct object: e.g. Elle mange UNE POMME 'She is eating an apple'. In this grammar we also distinguish directly transitive verbs, which have direct objects, from indirectly transitive verbs which have prepositional complements: e.g. Il parle DE SES PARENTS 'He is talking of his parents', and from ditransitive verbs which have complements consisting of a direct object and a prepositional object: e.g. J'ai envoyé LA LETTRE À MON FRÈRE T sent the letter to my brother'. verb - a class of words which refers to actions, states, events, accomplishments, and so on, and has different forms to indicate tense and agreement: e.g. Elle PARLE 'She is speaking'; L'eau SCINTILLAIT 'The water was sparkling'. verb phrase - the phrase consisting of a verb alone, or a verb and the elements which modify it (but excluding the subject). Each of the following is a verb phrase: marchait 'was walking'; marchait lentement 'was walking slowly'; a envoyé un cadeau d'anniversaire à sa tante 'sent a birthday present to his aunt'. 1 Nouns I.I Types of noun I.I.I Abstract versus concrete nouns Concrete nouns refer to entities with physical attributes which can be seen, heard, touched, etc. Abstract nouns refer to entities without such physical attributes: Typical concrete nouns bière (f) bonbon (m) cadeau (m) carte (f) disque (m) église (f) livre (m) mannequin (m) beer sweet present card record church book (fashion) model Typical abstract nouns beauté (f) bonheur(m) bonté (f) patience (f) mœurs (f pi) savoir (m) silence (m) soif (f) beauty happiness goodness patience customs, morals knowledge silence thirst Abstract nouns in French are usually accompanied by a definite article whereas English has no article: La patience est une qualité qui se fait rare Patience is a quality which is becoming rare Je cherche le bonheur I'm looking for happiness But when abstract nouns refer to a particular example of 'patience', 'happiness', 'knowledge', and so on (for instance, when they are modified by an adjective), they occur with an indefinite article: Il a fait preuve cette fois d'une patience appréciable The patience he showed on this occasion was appreciated Il s'est alors produit un silence absolu Absolute silence ensued Un bonheur en vaut un autre One kind of happiness is the same as any other (See Chapter 2 for definite and indefinite articles.) 1.1.2 Mass versus count nouns Count nouns identify individual entities, and usually have both singular and plural forms. Mass nouns treat the entity or entities they refer to as a single unit, and typically have only a singular form (although some mass nouns only have a plural form): 2 Nouns Typical count nouns une bouteille des bouteilles un chien des chiens une personne des personnes Typical mass nouns de l'air du beurre de l'eau du gâteau des gens du sable a bottle bottles a dog dogs a person people air butter water cake people sand M a s s n o u n s in French are u s u a l l y a c c o m p a n i e d by the partitive article (see C h a p t e r 2.4) - du, de V, de la or des - in those cases w h e r e English h a s ' s o m e ' or no article at all: Je voudrais du lait, s'il vous plaît I would like some milk, please II y a du vin dans le placard There's wine in the cupboard Personnes and gens personnes and gens, both of which mean 'people', differ in their uses because personne is a count noun and gens a mass noun. Only personne can be preceded by a number (e.g. cinq), or the quantifiers plusieurs 'several', quelques 'a few', un certain nombre de 'a certain number of: Les cinq personnes (NOT *gens) qui ont mangé avec nous The five people who ate with us Plusieurs personnes (NOT *gens) sont restées tout l'après-midi Several people stayed for the whole afternoon By t h e s a m e token, gens is preferred in contexts w h e r e ' p e o p l e ' are treated as a mass: Les gens (NOT *personnes) n'aiment pas rester à table trop longtemps People don't like to spend too long over a meal N B : gens can be p r e c e d e d by beaucoup de ' m a n y ' , peu de 'few', tous les 'all t h e ' a n d la plupart des ' m o s t ' . M a s s n o u n s u s e d countably S o m e m a s s n o u n s can be u s e d c o u n t a b l y to refer to specific e x a m p l e s of the s u b s t a n c e in question: les vins de France les Eaux et Forêts les fromages de Normandie un pain un petit pain the wines of Trance the Trench Torestry Commission the cheeses of Normandy a loaf of bread a bun S o m e c o u n t n o u n s can also b e u s e d a s m a s s n o u n s : Prenez du poulet Il met du citron dans tout Have some chicken He puts lemon in everything 1.1.3 Collective nouns Collective n o u n s refer to collections of p e o p l e or things. Types of noun 3 Typical collective nouns assistance (f) comité (m) équipe (f) foule (f) gouvernement (m) linge (m) de maison main-d'œuvre (f) peuple (m) vaisselle (f) audience committee team crowd government household linen workforce people dishes, crockery When a collective n o u n is the subject of a clause, the v e r b is u s u a l l y singular. This contrasts w i t h English, w h e r e the v e r b can be either singular or plural: Le gouvernement a (NOT *ont) décidé d'interdire la publicité pour les cigarettes The government has/have decided to ban cigarette advertizing L'équipe s'entraîne (NOT *s'entraînent) le jeudi soir The team trains/train on Thursday evenings (For more on subject-verb a g r e e m e n t see C h a p t e r 9.1.) 1.1.4 Proper nouns Proper n o u n s are n a m e s like Marie-Paule, Paris, Toulouse, Le Havre, La Seine, La France, Le Canada. With persons there is u s u a l l y no article: Marie-Paule viendra demain Marie-Paule will come tomorrow In some cases an article is inserted in informal speech: Dis donc, elle était pas fière, la Marie-Paule! So Marie-Paule must have felt a bit of a fool! T'aurais vu la tête qu'il faisait, le Jérôme! You should have seen Jerome's face! This conveys a familiar, affectionate a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s the i n d i v i d u a l concerned. When reference is m a d e to a family, as in ' t h e Jones family', a p l u r a l article is used, but the n a m e itself is n o t pluralized: J'ai invité les Martin à venir manger dimanche I have invited the Martins for Sunday lunch When a p e r s o n ' s title is u s e d , it is n o r m a l l y a c c o m p a n i e d by the definite article: Je vous présente le Professeur Bodin May I introduce Professor Bodin chez le Docteur Gleizes c/o Dr Gleizes (on an envelope or package) When p r o p e r n o u n s are m o d i f i e d by p r e c e d i n g adjectives, t h e y require a definite article: 4 Nouns le petit Jules le gros Henri little Jules fat Henri Unlike in English, regions a n d countries are n o r m a l l y u s e d w i t h a definite article: J'ai visité la Normandie la France d'aujourd'hui Nous survolons la Belgique I visited Normandy today's France We're flying over Belgium (See C h a p t e r 2.2.2 for the u s e of articles w i t h regions a n d countries.) 1. 1.5 Use of anlannée, jour/journée, matin/matinée, soirisoirée English h a s o n l y o n e w o r d for each of ' m o r n i n g ' , ' e v e n i n g ' , ' d a y ' a n d ' y e a r ' . French h a s t w o , b u t each are u s e d u n d e r different circumstances. It is often said t h a t the -ée forms are u s e d w h e n the activity w h i c h takes place d u r i n g the m o r n i n g , e v e n i n g , etc. is highlighted. C o m p a r e : Je travaille chaque matin/soir/jour I work every morning/evening/day (where the frequency rather than the activity is highlighted) J'ai travaillé toute la matinée/la soirée/la journée I worked all morning/evening/day (where the length of work is highlighted) But there are other cases w h e r e the forms h a v e distinct uses w h i c h a p p e a r to be the result s i m p l y of convention: au début de la matinée/la soirée/la journée at the start of the morning/the evening/the day en fin de matinée/ soirée/journée at the end of the morning/ the evening/the day par une belle matinée tôt le matin Un beau matin il est parti tous les jours/matins/ans l'an 2000 le jour de l'an le nouvel an souhaiter la bonne année à qn les années 70 l'année précédente/suivante on a beautiful morning early in the morning One fine morning he up and left every day/morning/year the year 2000 New Year's Day the New Year to wish so a Happy New Year the 70s the previous/following year With p r e c e d i n g n u m b e r s the forms w i t h o u t -ée are n o r m a l l y used: II a cinq ans trois fois par jour He is five three times a day But if an adjective modifies the n o u n as well this seems to highlight the activity: trois bonnes années six longues journées three good years six long days Gender 5 1.2 Gender Nouns in French are either masculine or feminine. Unfortunately there are no simple rules which non-native speakers can use to predict with complete accuracy the gender of a given noun. However, there are some patterns, either in the form or meaning of nouns, which can normally be used to predict the correct gender with greater than chance accuracy. The reader should remember, however, that these patterns are not comprehensive, and that there are exceptions. 1.2.1 Gender signalled by the final letters of the w r i t t e n forms of nouns Masculine Many nouns whose singular written form ends in a consonant are masculine: -c un franc a franc (un lac a lake, le public the public, etc.) -d le bord the edge (le fond the bottom, le pied the foot, etc.) -g un camping a camp site (un parking a car park, un shampooing a shampoo, etc.) -1 un détail a detail (le travail work, le soleil the sun, etc.) -r le fer iron (l'hiver winter, un couloir a corridor, etc.) -t le chocolat chocolate (le climat the climate, un jouet a toy, un poulet a chicken, le ciment cement, un jugement a judgement, etc.) Exceptions are typically found with nouns which end in -n, -r, -s, -t, and -x: une maison une cuiller la mer une tour une fois une dent une nuit une jument une croix a house a spoon the sea a tower one time a tooth a night a mare a cross Nouns ending in -on are usually masculine {un poisson 'a fish', un sillon 'a furrow', etc. Although une chanson 'a song' is an exception). But nouns ending in -aison, -(s)sion, -Hon or -xion are usually feminine: une comparaison une liaison une maison une raison une saison une décision la tension une vision une émission une connexion a comparison a liaison a house a reason a season a decision tension, blood pressure a vision a broadcast a connection Exception: un bastion a bastion Nouns ending in -eur are usually masculine {un ordinateur 'a computer', le bonheur 'happiness', etc.), but the following frequently-used nouns are feminine: 6 Nouns la chaleur une couleur une erreur une fleur la largeur la longueur la peur la profondeur the heat a colour a mistake a flower the width the length fear the depth Many nouns whose singular written form ends in a vowel (but excluding -e without an acute accent) are masculine, although there are a significant number of exceptions: -ai, un un un un délai essai emploi roi a time limit an attempt (a 'try' in rugby) a job a king Exceptions: la foi faith, une loi a law, une paroi a wall le café un fossé le marché le thé the café or coffee a ditch the market tea Exception: u n e clé a key -eau un couteau un marteau le niveau le réseau un tableau a knife a hammer the level the network a picture Exceptions: l'eau water, la peau skin -i l'abri un cri un pari un pli un raccourci -ou un bijou un caillou un clou un genou le hibou shelter a shout a bet a fold a short-cut a jewel a pebble a nail a knee the owl Feminine Many nouns whose singular written form ends in -e without an acute accent are feminine: l'audace daring, la façade the front, the outside, une salade a salad une baie a bay, la haie the hedge Gender 7 une douzaine a dozen, une fontaine a fountain une ambulance an ambulance, une flèche an arrow une thèse a thesis, une grève a strike, etc. une araignée a spider, une bougie a candie, etc. But there are a large number of exceptions to this rule: -isme Nouns ending in -isme are masculine: le romantisme 'romanticism', le tourisme 'tourism', un idiotisme 'an idiom (linguistic)', etc. -ède, -ege, -eme Nouns with these endings are usually masculine: un intermède un cortège un piège un stratège un poème le système le thème an interlude a procession a trap a strategist a poem the system the theme or translation into a foreign language la crème 'cream' is an exception (but see 1.2.4). -age Nouns ending in -age are usually masculine, but there are some notable exceptions: le courage un garage un message un stage un voyage courage a garage a message a work placement a journey Exceptions: une cage a cage, une image a picture, une page a page, une plage a beach, la rage rabies. Other common exceptions: un grade a rank un stade a stadium un groupe le monde le capitaine le domaine le silence un musée un lycée un trophée un génie un incendie un cimetière le derrière un magazine le platine un pare-brise un intervalle le rebelle le chèvrefeuille a group the world the captain the area silence a museum a (sixth-form) college a trophy a genius a fire a cemetery the backside a magazine platinum a windscreen an interval the rebel honeysuckle 8 Nouns un chêne un hêtre un gorille un portefeuille un carosse un squelette un renne le mercure le murmure un gramme un kilogramme un mètre un kilomètre un litre un parapluie an oak tree a beech tree a gorilla a wallet a carriage a skeleton a reindeer mercury a murmur a gram a kilogram a metre a kilometre a litre an umbrella NB: Most words with the prefix para- are masculine: un parachute 'a parachute', un paratonnerre 'a lightning conductor', le parapente 'paragliding', un paravent 'wind-shield, screen'. 1.2.2 Nouns which refer both to males and to females Some nouns can refer either to males or to females simply by changing the determiner from masculine to feminine: un / u n e un / u n e un/une un/une un/une un / u n e un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une un/une adulte adversaire artiste bibliothécaire camarade célibataire chimiste collègue compatriote complice concierge convive dentiste élève enfant esclave fonctionnaire gosse interprète journaliste libraire locataire malade partenaire patriote pensionnaire philosophe photographe pianiste pique-assiette secrétaire touriste an adult an adversary an artist a librarian a comrade a bachelor/spinster (an unmarried person) a chemist (scientist) a colleague a compatriot an accomplice a porter a guest a dentist a (school) pupil a child a slave a civil servant a kid (a word for a child in informal French) an interpreter a journalist a bookseller a tenant a person who is ill a partner a patriot a boarder (as in boarding school) a philosopher a photographer a pianist a sponger a secretary a tourist Gender 9 NB: pupille m e a n i n g ' p u p i l of the e y e ' is feminine only. In set expressions such as pupille de la Nation, pupille de l'Etat the n o u n refers to a child w h o s e e d u c a tion is paid for by the state. With this m e a n i n g pupille m a y be masculine or feminine according to the sex of the child. 1.2.3 Nouns which change f o r m when they refer to males or to females Regular patterns For words e n d i n g in -i, -é, -u, -l an -e is a d d e d in the w r i t t e n form a n d the pronunciation r e m a i n s the s a m e : un ami un employé un rival une amie une employée une rivale a friend an employee (worker) a rival For words e n d i n g in -d, -t, -ois, -ais, -er, -ier an -e is a d d e d a n d the final consonant, previously n o t p r o n o u n c e d , is p r o n o u n c e d : un un un un un un un un un marchand candidat avocat bourgeois boulanger berger fermier caissier romancier une une une une une une une une une marchande candidate avocate bourgeoise boulangère bergère fermière caissière romancière a trader a candidate a lawyer a bourgeoisie) a baker a shepherd a farmer a checkout operator a novelist For words e n d i n g in -ien, -on, -an, -in, -ain in w r i t t e n form -(n)e is a d d e d a n d the final v o w e l , p r e v i o u s l y p r o n o u n c e d as a nasal v o w e l , is p r o n o u n c e d as an oral vowel p l u s -n: un un un un un un chien lion paysan gitan voisin Africain une une une une une une chienne lionne paysanne gitane voisine Africaine a dog/a bitch a lion/a lioness a farmer a gypsy (pejorative) a neighbour an African a donkey a canon/canoness (religious) a count I countess a devil/she-devil someone a little odd a host/hostess a drunkard a master/mistress (in the school context) an ogre a poor person a priest/priestess a prince/princess a Swiss person a tiger/tigress Some n o u n s a d d -esse. un un un un un un un un âne chanoine comte diable drôle hôte ivrogne maître une une une une une une une une anesse chanoinesse comtesse diablesse drôlesse hôtesse ivrognesse maîtresse un un un un un un ogre pauvre prêtre prince Suisse tigre une une une une une une ogresse pauvresse prêtresse princesse Suissesse tigresse 10 Nouns N o u n s e n d i n g in -eur w h i c h are n o t d e r i v e d from a French verb, c h a n g e -eur to -rice: un ambassadeur un directeur un empereur une ambassadrice une directrice une impératrice an ambassador a director an emperor/empress Those e n d i n g in -eur w h i c h are d e r i v e d from a French v e r b c h a n g e to -euse: un chanteur un menteur un voleur une chanteuse une menteuse une voleuse a singer a liar a thief Irregular patterns In a d d i t i o n to these regular p a t t e r n s there are a n u m b e r of m a s c u l i n e / f e m i n i n e forms w h e r e the w o r d s are quite different: un un un un un un héros époux neveu homme fils garçon une une une une une une héroïne épouse nièce femme fille fille a hero/heroine a husband/wife a nephew/niece a man/woman a son/daughter a boy'/girl 1.2.4 Nouns which change meaning when they change gender S o m e n o u n s h a v e different m e a n i n g s w h e n they are m a s c u l i n e a n d w h e n they are feminine: un aide un chèvre un crème le crêpe un critique un espace un laque a helper a goat's cheese a white coffee crêpe (cloth) a critic a space artwork un livre a book un manche a handle un manœuvre un mémoire un merci un mode (un mode de vie) un moule un pendule le physique un poêle un poste le solde an unskilled worker a dissertation a thank you a way of. . . (a way of life) a mould a pendulum appearance a stove a job, TV or radio set balance (in an account) un somme un tour a nap a turn, trick help a goat cream a pancake a criticism a space (in printing) a hair lacquer or gloss paint une livre a pound (money or weight) une manche a sleeve La Manche the English Channel une manœuvre a manoeuvre memory (faculty of) la mémoire la merci mercy une mode a fashion l'aide (f) une chèvre la crème une crêpe une critique une espace une laque une moule une pendule la physique une poêle la poste la solde une somme une tour a mussel a clock physics a frying pan the Post Office pay (usually with reference to soldier's pay) a sum (of money) a tower Gender I I le Tour de France un vase un voile La Tour Eiffel la vase une voile bicycle race a vase a veil the Eiff ?/ Tower mud a sail (a) chose is normally feminine when it means 'thing': la/une chose. But the expressions quelque chose 'something', autre chose 'something else', peu de chose 'nothing much', pas grand-chose 'not a great deal' are masculine: Quelque chose est arrivé Something happened versus Cette chose est arrivée This thing happened (b) gens 'people' requires immediately preceding adjectives or quantifiers to be feminine, but following adjectives/participles or preceding adjectives/quantifiers separated from gens to be masculine: Those old people are happy some people everyone Ces vieilles gens sont heureux certaines gens tous les gens Rassurés, les gens qui manifestaient se sont dispersés Having been reassured, those demonstrating dispersed (c) amour 'love' is normally masculine singular. It is sometimes, however, feminine plural: les amours. When feminine plural it can mean 'amorous adventures' or it can be a more poetic way of referring to love. 1.2.5 Nouns which have the same spoken f o r m but t w o different written forms, with different genders and different meanings There are some words which, in spoken French, are pronounced in the same way but which have different meanings and different genders: un cal un faîte le foie le maire un pet le poids un rai a callus a summit the liver the mayor a fart weight a ray of light une cale une fête la foi la mer la paie la poix une raie le sel le sol un tic le vice salt earth a tic (nervous) vice (crime) une une une une selle sole tique vis a wedge a party the faith une mère the sea the pay la paix pitch un pois a parting (in hair) or a skate (fish) a saddle a sole (fish) a tick (insect) a screw a mother peace a pea 1.2.6 Gender of countries, towns, islands, rivers, regions and states Countries Some countries are masculine, some are feminine. The best generalization is that they are masculine unless they end in -e, in which case they are feminine: le le le le le le Canada Danemark Japon Koweït Liban Maroc Canada Denmark Japan Kuwait Lebanon Morocco la la la la la la Chine Finlande Libye Norvège Mauritanie Roumanie China Finland Libya Norway Mauritania Romania 12 Nouns le Nigeria le Portugal Nigeria Portugal la Suisse la Syrie Switzerland Syria N B : Les Etats-Unis (m pi). Exceptions: le Cambodge ' C a m b o d i a ' , le Mexique 'Mexico', ' M o z a m b i q u e ' , le Zaïre 'Zaire', le Zimbabwe ' Z i m b a b w e ' . le Mozambique 'To' or ' i n ' a c o u n t r y is either en or au(x). en is u s e d w i t h countries of feminine gender, a n d countries of m a s c u l i n e g e n d e r b e g i n n i n g w i t h a v o w e l , au is u s e d w i t h countries of m a s c u l i n e g e n d e r b e g i n n i n g w i t h a consonant, a n d aux w i t h those countries w h o s e n a m e s are p l u r a l , w h e t h e r m a s c u l i n e or feminine (see C h a p t e r 13.2.3 a n d 13.26.1): en en en en en Chine Norvège Suisse Iran (m) Israël (m) au Canada au Japon aux Etats-Unis Towns Towns, in n o r m a l u s a g e , are masculine. In formal w r i t t e n French t h e y are s o m e times feminine, particularly those w h i c h e n d in -e: Cambridge est plein(e) de touristes en été Cambridge is full of tourists in summer W h e r e the n a m e of a t o w n i n c l u d e s a definite article, adjectives a n d participles m u s t agree w i t h the g e n d e r of the article: La Baule est située sur le littoral atlantique La Baule is on the Atlantic coast Le Touquet est désert l'hiver Le Touquet is deserted in winter Islands Islands are u s u a l l y feminine: la Sardaigne la Crète la Nouvelle-Zélande Sardinia Crete New Zealand But le Groenland ' G r e e n l a n d ' is an exception. Rivers, regions and states For rivers, French départements, French regions, for states a n d regions in other countries, the best generalization is that if they e n d in -e they are feminine: Rivers le Rhin le Tarn le Cher the Rhine the Tarn the Cher Exception: le Rhône ' t h e R h ô n e ' . la Sâone la Seine la Tamise the Sâone the Seine the Thames Gender 13 Départements le Calvados le Gers le Jura la Haute-Garonne la Marne la Vendée Exception: le Finistère. French regions le Berry le Limousin le Périgord la Normandie la Bretagne la Champagne States and regions in other countries For example, American states: le Massachusetts le Nevada le Texas la Louisiane la Californie la Floride Exception: British counties appear mostly to be treated as masculine, even those ending in '-shire': le Kent le Perthshire le Yorkshire 1.2.7 Gender of makes of vehicle and machines Usually, the gender of makes of vehicle or makes of machines, like cars, lorries, planes, lawnmowers, dishwashers, and so on, is the same as the gender of the general name for the vehicle or machine. voiture 'car' is feminine, so makes of car are feminine: une Renault une Citroën DS une Nissan Primera camion 'lorry' is masculine, so makes of lorry are masculine: un Berliet un Foden avion 'plane' is masculine, so types of plane are masculine: le Concorde un Boeing 747 cuisinière 'cooker' is feminine, so makes of cooker are feminine: une Arthur Martin une Belling and so on. 1.2.8 N a m e s of ships and restaurants The names of ships are usually masculine because navire is masculine e.g. Le Normandie. However, smaller vessels may be feminine e.g. La Marie-Joseph 14 Nouns because la corvette and la frégate are feminine. The names of restaurants also tend to be masculine, because restaurant itself is masculine. A restaurant named after a region famed for its excellent produce, such as la Normandie, will be called Le Normandie. 1.2.9 Nouns which are only masculine or only feminine, but can refer both to m e n and w o m e n Some nouns which have only one gender refer to jobs or professions undertaken both by men and women. The following are all masculine in gender: un un un un un un un un un un un un un un architecte auteur chef compositeur forçat ingénieur juge magistrat médecin peintre professeur sculpteur témoin vampire an architect an author a chef a composer a convict an engineer a judge a magistrate a doctor a painter a teacher a sculptor a witness a vampire When they refer to women, to make it explicit that the reference is to a woman and not a man, femme can be added either before or after the noun: une femme médecin/un médecin femme une femme ingénieur /un ingénieur femme Alternatively, and more usually, the context can be allowed to determine the sex of the person referred to: Elle est médecin dans un grand hôpital à Montréal She is a doctor in a large Montreal hospital Some titles are also only masculine, for example le Maire 'the Mayor', le Juge 'the Judge', le Notaire 'the Solicitor', etc. A woman playing this role will be addressed as Madame le Maire, Madame le Juge, etc. This is an area which has given rise to considerable controversy. Whereas a few years ago, the above list would have contained écrivain and avocat as masculine-only terms, it would seem that écrivaine and avocate may now be passing into current usage. Canadian French has adopted a number of similar feminine forms not adopted in France. There are a small number of nouns which are only feminine in gender, but which may refer both to men and women: personne recrue sentinelle star/vedette victime person recruit sentry star (in the entertainment business) victim Gender 15 personne meaning 'person' is feminine: la/une personne, personne in ne sonne meaning 'nobody' (see Chapter 16.13) is masculine: ... per- Personne n'est venu Cette personne est venue Nobody came That person came 1.2.10 Nouns with genders which English speakers often get wrong The following nouns are masculine: e caractère rn choix e crime 'espace 'exode m groupe character/temperament a choice crime space exodus a group un légume le manque le mérite un parachute un parapluie le silence a vegetable lack, lacuna merit a parachute an umbrella silence NB: espace is feminine when it means 'a space in printing' (see 1.2.4). The following nouns are feminine: une croix une espèce la fin a cross a type, kind the end une forêt une noix une vis a forest a nut a screw 1.2.11 Gender of compound nouns Compound nouns fall into six main types in French, and it is possible to determine broadly the gender of a compound on the basis of the type it belongs to (although with some exceptions). Adjective + noun compounds Adjective + noun compounds normally take their gender from the noun. The noun part of the compound is highlighted in the following examples: un arc-boutant un bas-côté une basse-cour une belle-fille un cerf-volant un coffre-fort un grand-parent un rond-point a buttress a verge (e.g. of a motorway) a farmyard a daughter-in-law a kite a safe a grandparent a roundabout Exception: un rouge-gorge 'a robin'. Noun + noun compounds In noun + noun compounds the gender is determined by the more important noun, un camion-citerne 'a tanker (lorry)' is a type of camion 'lorry', so camion is the more important noun, and the compound is masculine, un hommegrenouille 'a frogman' is a type of homme 'man' (not a type of frog!), so homme is the more important noun, and the compound is masculine. The important nouns are highlighted in the following examples: une auto-école un bateau-mouche un bateau-citerne a driving school a Parisian tourist boat a tanker (ship) 16 Nouns un camion-citerne un chou-fleur un homme-grenouille un hôtel-Dieu une idée-force un mot-clé un oiseau-mouche du papier-toilette une pause-café une porte-fenêtre un timbre-poste une voiture-restaurant un wagon-lit a tanker (lorry) a cauliflower a frogman a hospital a central idea a keyword a humming-bird toilet paper a coffee break a french window a stamp a restaurant car a sleeping car Adverb + n o u n c o m p o u n d s In a d v e r b + n o u n c o m p o u n d s , the c o m p o u n d is u s u a l l y the s a m e g e n d e r as the n o u n , b u t there are exceptions: une arriere-pensee l'arrière-plan (m) une contre-offensive un demi-tarif une demi-bouteille un hors-bord une mini-jupe un haut-parleur un sans-travail a second thought the background a counter-offensive a half-price ticket a half bottle a speedboat a miniskirt a loudspeaker an unemployed person Exceptions: l'après-guerre (m) 'the p o s t - w a r p e r i o d ' , un en-tête 'a letterhead', le sans-gêne ' t h e lack of e m b a r r a s s m e n t ' . N o u n + prepositional phrase c o m p o u n d s The g e n d e r of n o u n + p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e c o m p o u n d s is u s u a l l y that of the first n o u n : un aide-de-camp un arc-en-ciel un chef d'ceuvre un coup d'ceil un coup de pied un croc-en-jambe une langue-de-chat la main d'ceuvre un mont-de-piété une pomme de terre un pot-de-vin an aide-de-camp a rainbow a masterpiece a glance a kick a trip a long, flat, finger biscuit the workforce a pawnshop a potato a bribe Exceptions to this generalization are: un tête-à-queue 'a s p i n ' (head to tail in a car), un tête-à-tête 'a tête à tête conversation'. Verb + n o u n c o m p o u n d s Verb + n o u n c o m p o u n d s are u s u a l l y masculine: un abat-jour un accroche-cœur un appui-tête des casse-noisettes a lampshade a (kiss) curl a headrest nutcrackers Number 17 un un un un un un un un un un un un un un un un a scarf a paper-knife a bedspread a toothpick a hand towel a skyscraper a tin-opener a windscreen a bumper an aircraft carrier a luggage rack a wallet a bra a pencil sharpener a corkscrew a "trompe l'œil' (art) cache-nez coupe-papier couvre-lit cure-dents essuie-mains gratte-ciel ouvre-boîtes pare-brise pare-chocs porte-avions porte-bagages porte-monnaie soutien-gorge taille-crayons tire-bouchon trompe-l'œil Verbal phrase c o m p o u n d s Compounds constructed from verbal p h r a s e s are masculine: lost revenue rumour, gossip hearsay a show-off the 'what might people say' an announcement card (weddings, births, funerals) a pass (document) know-how le manque-à-gagner le on-dit le ouï-dire un m'as-tu-vu le qu'en dira-t-on un faire-part un laisser-passer le savoir-faire 1.3 Number All nouns m u s t b e either s i n g u l a r o r p l u r a l . A l t h o u g h m a n y n o u n s are m a r k e d for plural in w r i t t e n French, few differ in singular a n d p l u r a l form in s p o k e n French. Usually, n u m b e r is m a r k e d in the d e t e r m i n e r in s p o k e n French (le/la versus les, ce/cette v e r s u s ces, mon/ma v e r s u s mes, a n d so on). 1.3.1 Regular plurals Regular plurals a d d -s, w h i c h is n o t p r o n o u n c e d , to the singular n o u n in written French: une loi un drap une voiture une remarque un chat un enfant une maison un chandail un éventail des des des des des des des des des lois draps voitures remarques chats enfants maisons chandails éventails law(s) sheet(s) car(s) remark(s) cat(s) child(ren) house(s) cardigan(s) fan(s) (For w o r d s e n d i n g in -ail w h i c h h a v e an irregular p l u r a l see 1.3.6.) 1.3.2 Plurals of nouns ending in -s, -x, -z With these w o r d s there is no c h a n g e b e t w e e n singular a n d plural: un pois une croix des pois des croix spot(s) cross(es) 18 Nouns un un un un un nez as prix corps bras des des des des des nez as prix corps bras nose(s) ace(s) price(s) body(ies) arm(s) NB: (a) un os 'bone': In the singular the final 's' is pronounced. In the plural it is not pronounced: des os 'bones'. (b) un as 'ace': The 's' is pronounced in both the singular and the plural. 1.3.3 Plurals of nouns ending in -eu, -au, -eau These nouns form their plural by adding -x: un cheveu un tuyau un manteau l'eau des des des des cheveux tuyaux manteaux eaux hair(s) pipe(s) coatis) water(s) Exceptions: un bleu un pneu un landau des bleus des pneus des landaus bruise(s) tyre(s) pram(s) 1.3.4 Plurals of nouns ending in -ou Nouns ending in -ou form their plural with -s: un fou un trou des fous des trous madman/men or jester(s) hole(s) aère are seven w o r d s w h i c h form their p l u r a l w i t h -x: un bijou un caillou un chou un genou un hibou un joujou un pou des des des des des des des bijoux cailloux choux genoux hiboux joujoux poux jewel(s) stone(s) cabbage(s) knee(s) owl(s) toy(s) louse(lice) 1.3.5 Plurals of nouns ending in -al Most nouns ending in -al form their plural as aux: • des bocaux un bocal jam jar(s) un cheval horse(s) des chevaux des idéaux un idéal ideal(s) newspaper(s) des journaux un journal un mal evil(s) des maux un terminal terminal(s) des terminaux des vaux un val valley(s) (limited to poetic language) ; are, h o w e v e r , a n u m b e r of exceptions w h i c h form t un bal un cal des bals des cals dance(s) callus(es) Number 19 un un un un un un carnaval cérémonial chacal festival récital régal des des des des des des carnavals cérémonials chacals festivals récitals régals carnival(s) ceremony des) jackal(s) festival(s) recital(s) feast(s) 1.3.6 Irregular plurals for nouns ending in -ail Many nouns ending in -ail have a regular plural, e.g. des détails, des chandails, des éventails, as indicated in 1.3.1, but a number of -ail nouns also make their plural with -aux: un bail un corail un émail un soupirail le travail un vitrail des baux des coraux des émaux des soupiraux les travaux des vitraux lease(s) coral(s) enamel(s) window(s) work(s) stained glass window(s) 1.3.7 Nouns which exist only in plural f o r m des affres (f) aux alentours (m) des annales (f) des archives (f) des armoiries (f) des arrérages (m) des arrhes (f) des bestiaux (m) des condoléances (f) des ébats (m) des entrailles (f) des environs (m) des fiançailles (f) des fringues (f) (colloquial) des frusques (f) (colloquial) des funérailles (f) des gens des honoraires (m) des intempéries (f) des mœurs (f) des obsèques (f) des vêpres (f) des victuailles (f) agonies around annals archives (coat of) arms arrears a deposit animals condolences frolicking entrails surroundings engagement clothes clothes funeral people (for gender see 1.2.4) fees bad weather customs funeral vespers victuals 1.3.8 Nouns w i t h irregular plurals These are most notably: un un un un un os œil ciel œuf bœuf des os (pronounced as 'eau') des yeux des cieux des œufs (pronounced as 'oeu') des bœufs (pronounced as 'bœu') bone(s) eye(s) sky(ies) e gg(s) bullock(s) 20 Nouns 1.3.9 T h e plural of compound nouns Adjective + noun compounds In adjective + noun compounds (see 1.2.11), both elements become plural: NB: un arc-boutant un bas-côté une basse-cour une belle-fille un cerf-volant un coffre-fort un grand-parent un rond-point des des des des des des des des arcs-boutants bas-côtés basses-cours belles-filles cerfs-volants coffres-forts grands-parents ronds-points un grand-père un grand-oncle une grand-mère une grand-tante des des des des grands-pères grands-oncles grands-mères grands-tantes un bonhomme BUT un bonjour or or des grand-mères des grand-tantes des bonshommes des bonjours Noun + noun compounds In n o u n + n o u n c o m p o u n d s plural: un bateau-citerne un bateau-mouche un camion-citerne un chou-fleur un homme-grenouille une idée-force un mot-clé un oiseau-mouche une pause-café une porte-fenêtre une voiture-restaurant un wagon-lit (see 1.2.11) the n o r m is for b o t h n o u n s to b e c o m e des des des des des des des des des des des des bateaux-citernes bateaux-mouches camions-citernes choux-fleurs hommes-grenouilles idées-forces mots-clés oiseaux-mouches pauses-cafés portes-fenêtres voitures-restaurants wagons-lits des des des des auto-écoles bains-marie hôtels-Dieu timbres-poste Exceptions: une auto-école un bain-marie un hôtel-Dieu un timbre-poste Adverb + noun compounds In adverb + noun compounds (see 1.2.11), the noun alone becomes plural, (although some remain invariable): une arrière-boutique une arrière-pensée un arrière-plan une contre-offensive une contre-offre une demi-bouteille un demi-tarif des des des des des des des arrière-boutiques arrière-pensées arrière-plans contre-offensives contre-offres demi-bouteilles demi-tarifs Number 21 un haut-parleur un hors-bord une mini-jupe un non-lieu un non-paiement des des des des des haut-parleurs hors-bords mini-jupes non-lieux non-paiements Exception: un sans-travail, d e s sans-travail Noun + prepositional phrase c o m p o u n d s In noun + prepositional p h r a s e c o m p o u n d s (see 1.2.11) o n l y t h e first n o u n becomes plural: un aide-de-camp un arc-en-ciel un chef d'oeuvre un coup d'œil un coup de pied un croc-en-jambe une langue-de-chat la main d'œuvre un mont-de-piété une pomme de terre un pot-de-vin des des des des des des des des des des des aides-de-camp arcs-en-ciel chefs d'oeuvre coups d'œil coups de pied crocs-en-jambe langues-de-chat mains d'œuvre monts-de-piété pommes de terre pots-de-vin But not all change: un pot-au-feu un tête-à-queue un tête-à-tête des pot-au-feu des tête-à-queue des tête-à-tête Verb + noun c o m p o u n d s In verb + n o u n c o m p o u n d s (see 1.2.11), there are three possibilities: (i) The form r e m a i n s invariable w h e t h e r its singular form contains a n o u n in the singular or p l u r a l . This is the u s u a l pattern: des des des des des abat-jour essuie-mains gratte-ciel ouvre-boîtes porte-monnaie (ii) The second w o r d b e c o m e s p l u r a l , n o r m a l l y -s or -x. This is the case with: des accroche-cœurs des tire-bouchons des couvre-lits These w o u l d a p p e a r to h a v e b e e n assimilated to the o n e - w o r d versions, s u c h as: le(s) portemanteau(x) le(s) portefeuille(s) coat peg(s) wallet(s) (iii) The first w o r d b e c o m e s p l u r a l (which is an indication that it is no longer related to a n y verbal form). This is the case w i t h : des appuis-tête des soutiens-gorge 22 Nouns It h a s to be said that in the area of c o m p o u n d n o u n s n o t all ' a u t h o r i t i e s ' agree o n the rules a n d a t t e m p t s t o i n t r o d u c e 'logical' rules a p p e a r t o h a v e a d d e d further confusion to an a l r e a d y confused situation! Verbal phrase c o m p o u n d s These do n o t generally h a v e a different p l u r a l form: des des des des des des des manque-à-gagner on-dit ouï-dire m'as-tu-vu qu'en dira-t-on laisser-passer savoir-faire 1.3.10 N u m b e r differences between French and English nouns S o m e n o u n s w h i c h are singular in English are p l u r a l in French, a n d others are p l u r a l in English a n d singular in French. T h e following are e x a m p l e s w h i c h s o m e t i m e s cause difficulty for English speakers: English singular applause darkness sb's funeral hair information knowledge to make progress to do research/my research French plural les applaudissements les ténèbres les funérailles de qn les cheveux des informations, des renseignements les connaissances faire des progrès faire des recherches/mes recherches English plural economics grapes (grape = un grain de raisin) linguistics physics pyjamas shorts stairs tights trousers underpants French singular l'économie du raisin la linguistique la physique un pyjama un short l'escalier un collant un pantalon un slip NB: S o m e m a s s n o u n s in French can also be u s e d as c o u n t n o u n s m o r e freely t h a n their English equivalents: un fruit un pain un raisin a piece of fruit a loaf of bread (NOT *a bread) a type of grape 2 Determiners 2.1 Articles TABLE 2.A Summary table of articles Definite Indefinite Partitive masc le, 1' the un a du, de 1' fem la, 1' the une a de la, de 1' plur les the des some/no article some/no article some/no article 2.1.1 Form of the article with adjectives and nouns beginning with a vowel or an h le and la are shortened to Y, and du and de la become de V if they immediately precede an adjective or noun beginning with a vowel: l'univers (m) l'électricité (f) de l'acier (m) de l'eau (f) l'ancien régime (m) the universe electricity steel water the Ancien Regime They also behave in the same way when they immediately precede an adjective or noun beginning with a so-called 'silent h' or h muet. This is a written h which has no counterpart in the spoken language: l'hiver (m) l'histoire (f) de l'héroïsme (m) de l'herbe (f) l'horrible silence (m) winter history heroism grass the terrible silence There is also another set of adjectives and nouns beginning with a written h which do have a counterpart in the spoken language. This is misleadingly called an 'aspirate h' or h aspiré. It is misleading because there is no 'h' sound in spoken French. Rather, words which begin with an 'aspirate h' in written French also happen to block reduction of the article to /' or de V in spoken French: le hibou (m) la haine (f) the owl hate 24 Determiners du hachis (m) de la honte la haute montagne minced beef shame high up in the mountains There is no easy way to distinguish adjectives and nouns which begin with a silent h from those which begin with an aspirate h. Some cases are idiosyncratic. For example, héros 'hero' does not allow contraction of the article: le héros; but héroïne 'heroine or heroin' and héroïsme 'heroism' do: l'héroïne, l'héroïsme. Many dictionaries indicate an aspirate h by putting ['] at the beginning of the phonetic transcription of the word. For example: hibou ['ibu] (m) histoire [istwar] (f) owl story, history The final consonant of les and des is pronounced [z] when they immediately precede an adjective or a noun beginning with a vowel or a silent h: les [z] enfants des [z] amis des [z] héroïnes children friends heroines BUT BUT BUT les hérissons des haricots des héros hedgehogs beans heroes The final n of un is pronounced when un immediately precedes an adjective or noun beginning with a vowel or silent h, but not otherwise: un [n] hôtel a hotel BUT un homard a lobster un [n] honnête homme a decent man BUT un haut fonctionnaire a senior civil servant NB: Verbs beginning with an h in the written language also divide into those which require contraction of je, me, le, la, ne, etc., and those which do not: J'habite Londres I live in London Je hais Londres I hate London Je l'héberge I am letting him stay with me Je la heurte dans son orgueil I hurt her pride 2.2 Typical use of the definite article (a) One of the uses of the definite article in French is parallel to its use in English: to accompany nouns which are already known from the context: Achetez une nouvelle Panthéra GT6. La Panthéra GT6 vous va! Buy a new Panthéra GT6. The Panthéra GT6 suits you! Tu as laissé dans le jardin le livre que tu as acheté hier You left the book which you bought yesterday in the garden A pretty good guide to this usage is: if English uses a definite article, use one in French. (b) A second use of the definite article in French is to refer to a general class of phenomena, a unique phenomenon or an abstract quality: Typical use of the definite article 25 Les cochons sont très propres de nature Pigs are naturally very clean Les médecins pensent que la rougeole réapparaît Doctors think that measles is coming back La jungle est un endroit dangereux The jungle is a dangerous place La peur de prendre l'avion le retient en Grande Bretagne Fear of flying keeps him in Britain This contrasts with English which more often than not uses no article when a general class or an abstract quality are indicated: Pigs are quite clean by nature Fear of flying keeps him in Great Britain The definite article is obligatory in French in these cases. 2.2.1 Fused forms of t h e definite article Definite articles fuse with preceding de or à: du (= de + le) pain au (= à + le) cinéma de l'effort à l'école des (= de + les) épices aux (= à + les) animaux Such contraction is only possible with articles, however. It is not possible when le, la, les are pronouns (see Chapter 3.2): J'ai essayé de le comprendre T tried to understand it' (NOT *}'ai essayé du comprendre). An archaic contraction of en les to es is still found in the set phrase: licencié es lettres 'Bachelor of Arts'. 2.2.2 Use of the definite article with names of countries, regions, départements In French the definite article is normally used with the names of countries, regions and départements, whereas in English it is not: La France est un très beau pays France is a very beautiful country Progressivement, la Champagne est devenue terre de rencontre et de conflits Over time, Champagne (a French region) became a land of meetings and confrontations Ramassage de coquillages interdit dans le Calvados Shellfish fishing banned in Calvados (a French département) When en 'to/in' or de 'from' are used with feminine countries or regions (or with masculine countries beginning with a vowel: en Irak), the definite article is omitted: Nous irons en France l'année prochaine We shall go to France next year des pommes de Normandie apples from Normandy 26 Determiners des vacances en Ille-et-Vilaine holidays in Ille-et-Vilaine But with masculine countries, regions and départements, the definite article is retained with à 'to/in', dans 'in' and de 'from': Les hôtels au Mexique sont d'un très bon niveau The hotels in Mexico are of a very high standard J'ai acheté une maison dans le Finistère 7 have bought a house in Finistère des pommes du Calvados apples from Calvados (For the gender of countries see Chapter 1.2.6, and for the use of en, à, dans see Chapter 13.26.1.) 2.2.3 Use of the definite article with names of languages The names of languages in English start with a capital letter and have no article. The names of languages in French start with a small letter, normally have a definite article and are masculine in gender: Ici les étudiants étudient le français, l'allemand et l'italien Here students study French, German and Italian Le grec possède un alphabet tout à fait différent du nôtre Greek has an alphabet which is quite different from our own In the expressions parler français, parler allemand, etc., the name of the language functions more like an adverbial than a noun, so no article is used. But note the following contrast: Je parle français /Je parle souvent le français /Je parle bien le français I speak French/I often speak French/I speak French well When adverbs like souvent, bien are present, français becomes a noun again, requiring the definite article. 2.2.4 Use of the definite article with seasons Seasons in French are usually accompanied by a definite article, except when they are preceded by en: L'hiver est une saison de repos pour nous Winter is a restful season for us L'été nous réserve parfois des surprises mais à l'automne le temps est toujours plus prévisible Summer sometimes has some surprises in store for us, but autumn weather is always more predictable Tout se réveille au printemps Everything awakes in spring BUT en hiver en été en automne in winter in summer in autumn (See also Chapter 13.26.1.) Typical use of the definite article 27 2.2.5 Use of the definite article with titles Titles in French prefaced by Monsieur or Madame include the definite article: Monsieur le Maire Madame le Maire Monsieur le Président-Directeur-Général Mr Mayor Madam Mayor Mr Chairman Such forms of address as: Monsieur le Directeur des Achats 'Mr Purchasing Director', Madame le Directeur du Personnel 'Madam Personnel Director' are frequent in French in writing (e.g. letters) or in very formal speeches, but almost unheard of in English. The definite article is similarly present in French in greetings or expressions of encouragement like: Salut les gars! Allez les bleus! Au lit, les enfants! Hi, guys! Come on, you blues! Off to bed, kids! With kings and queens, however, French leaves out an article with numbers where English puts one in: François I (François premier) Henri III (Henri trois) Elizabeth I (Elizabeth première) Elizabeth II (Elizabeth deux) François the first Henry the third Elizabeth the first Elizabeth the second (See also Chapter 6.4.2.) 2.2.6 Use of the definite article with superlatives In superlatives involving adjectives which follow the noun (see Chapter 4.12.2), it is compulsory to repeat the definite article, which then agrees with the noun: Le moment le plus intense de ma vie The most exciting moment of my life Les virages les plus dangereux de la région The most dangerous bends in the region 2.2.7 Use of the definite article with quantities Where English uses 'so much a pound', French refers to tant la livre/le kilo, etc.: Les pommes? C'est 4,50 F le kilo Apples? They are 4.50 francs a kilo Les bonbons sont à 5,40 F les 100 grammes Sweets are 5.40 francs for a 100 grammes Ces chaises sont vendues à 500 F la pièce (or 500 F pièce) These chairs are sold for 500 francs each 2.2.8 Use of the definite article with parts of the body (a) In simple descriptions of body parts, French uses a definite article where English uses a possessive determiner (e.g. his, my, their): Il a les yeux bleus Elle a les cheveux coupés court His eyes are blue She has her hair cut short 28 Determiners (b) W h e n p e o p l e activate p a r t s of their o w n bodies, French also uses a definite article w i t h the b o d y part: Il a plissé les yeux Elle a agité le bras J'ai baissé la tête en y entrant Elle a hoché /secoué la tête He screwed up his eyes She waved 1 lowered my head as I went in She nodded/shook her head (c) W h e n p e o p l e do things w h i c h affect their o w n b o d i e s , or those of others, the u s u a l construction is a definite article in front of the b o d y p a r t , a n d a reflexive or indirect object p r o n o u n : Je me suis fracturé la jambe Elle s'est fait couper les cheveux Je lui serre la main On lui a coupé la tête Elle lui essuie les yeux avec un mouchoir I broke my leg She had her hair cut I shake his hand They cut his head off She wipes his eyes with a handkerchief These constructions are also possible w i t h a possessive determiner, as in English, h o w e v e r : Je prends sa main Elle caresse mes cheveux J'appuie mes deux mains sur sa poitrine I take her hand She strokes my hair I press with both my hands on his chest (d) W h e n b o d y p a r t s are the subject of a sentence, t h e y u s u a l l y h a v e a p o s sessive d e t e r m i n e r , as in English, rather t h a n a definite article: Mon coeur s'est arrêté une fraction de seconde Ma tête me fait mal Ses paupières se sont abaissées Leurs regards se sont croisés My heart stopped for an instant My head hurts His eyelids lowered Their eyes met (e) W h e n descriptions of p a r t s of the b o d y or items of clothing are u s e d adverbially, t h e y are a c c o m p a n i e d by the definite article: l'homme au nez retroussé le comédien au chapeau de paille Il parlait, le sourire aux lèvres the man with the turned-up nose the actor in the straw hat He spoke, with a smile Elle est partie, les mains dans les poches Il s'est agenouillé, le chapeau à la main Il a avoué son crime, les yeux abaissés She left with her hands in her pockets He knelt down with his hat in his hands He confessed his crime, looking down 2.2.9 Singular or plural when a number of individuals have one i t e m each W h e n reference is m a d e to o n e b o d y p a r t , o n e item of clothing, or one m o r e general p e r s o n a l attribute, b u t t w o or m o r e p e o p l e are involved, the entity is u s u a l l y referred to in the singular: Typical use of the indefinite article 29 Nous nous sommes tous les deux cassés le bras We both broke our arms Ils ont levé la main droite They raised their right hands Les étudiants sont priés d'inscrire leur nom de famille à l'endroit prévu Students are requested to write their surnames in the space provided Ils ont tous accroché leur manteau dans l'entrée They all hung their coats up in the entrance hall Les jumeaux ont vécu leur vie d'une manière indépendante The twins lived their lives independently 2.2.10 Use of the definite article to indicate a habitual action Where English uses ' o n + . . . d a y ( s ) ' to indicate a h a b i t u a l action e.g. ' O n Monday(s) I go to t h e m a r k e t ' , French u s e s the definite article: Je vais faire mon marché le lundi: Nous allons au cinéma le vendredi soir We go to the cinema on Friday evenings Le cours d'histoire a lieu le mercredi The history lecture is on Wednesdays Ils viennent ramasser les poubelles le lundi et le jeudi They come to empty the dustbins on Mondays and Thursdays 2.2.11 Repetition of the definite article In French the article u s u a l l y h a s to be r e p e a t e d w i t h each n o u n , w h e r e a s in English one use at the b e g i n n i n g of a 'list' is e n o u g h : Je dois ramener chez moi le fer à repasser, la planche à repasser et la corbeille à papiers I must take home with me the iron, ironing board and waste-paper basket 2.3 Typical use of the indefinite article (a) One u s e of the indefinite article is to i n t r o d u c e a new, countable, concrete noun (maison, tableau, livre, voiture, etc.) into the discourse: Je me suis trouvé une belle maison en Ecosse I have found myself a lovely house in Scotland Voulez-vous voir un Picasso? Do you want to see a Picasso? (b) A n o t h e r is to describe a general class of c o u n t a b l e , concrete entities: Normalement une voiture a quatre roues et une moto en a deux Normally a car has four wheels and a motorbike two II s'agit là d'une erreur caractéristique d'un étudiant de première année That's an example of a typical error made by a first year student In this ' g e n e r i c ' u s e , t h e indefinite article is u s u a l l y interchangeable w i t h a plural definite article: Normalement les voitures ont quatre roues et les motos en ont deux Il s'agit là d'une erreur caractéristique des étudiants de première année {de + definite article les) 30 Determiners (c) Abstract nouns (courage, beauté, réalisme, importance, etc.) are normally a c c o m p a n i e d by t h e definite article (see C h a p t e r 1.1.1). But w h e n t h e y are m o d ified by an adjective they take an indefinite article. C o m p a r e : II admire le courage He admires courage Il a fait preuve d'un courage peu ordinaire He showed extraordinary courage La beauté du paysage nous étonnait The beauty of the countryside astonished us Le paysage était d'une beauté étonnante The countryside was astonishingly beautiful 2.3.1 T h e plural indefinite article des The p l u r a l indefinite article des refers to an unspecified q u a n t i t y of entities d e s c r i b e d by a p l u r a l c o u n t n o u n . In English the article is m o s t frequently omitted: Je lui ai offert des roses I gave her roses Les places avaient déjà été réservées par des Américains The seats had already been reserved by Americans Vous me posez des questions impossibles You ask me impossible questions NB: An error often m a d e by English s p e a k e r s is to omit the article; p l u r a l indefinite des c a n n o t be o m i t t e d in French: N O T *}e lui ai offert roses. 2.3.2 Omission of plural indefinite des after the preposition de W h e n the p l u r a l indefinite article is p r e c e d e d by the p r e p o s i t i o n de, it is omitted i n French. C o m p a r e : Elle a été accusée d'un meurtre particulièrement horrible She was accused of a particularly nasty murder Elle a été accusée de meurtres particulièrement horribles (être accusé de + des meurtres horribles) She was accused of particularly nasty murders Avec l'aide d'une amie, elle a fini son projet With the help of a friend, she finished her project Avec l'aide d'amies, elle a fini son projet (avec l'aide de + des amies) With the help of friends, she finished her project O m i s s i o n of p l u r a l indefinite article des only occurs after the p r e p o s i t i o n de. With other p r e p o s i t i o n s it is n o t omitted: Elle est sortie avec des amies She went out with friends des attaques violentes contre des policiers violent attacks on policemen Because p l u r a l indefinite des is o m i t t e d after the preposition de, this m e a n s that Typical use of the indefinite article 31 it is omitted w h e n it is t h e c o m p l e m e n t of a n u m b e r of verbs w h i c h are a l w a y s followed by the p r e p o s i t i o n de (see C h a p t e r 8.4): Il a déjeuné de fruits His lunch consisted of fruit (versus II a mangé des fruits) Elle parlait de choses oubliées depuis longtemps She spoke of things long since forgotten (versus Elle décrivait des choses oubliées depuis longtemps) Plural indefinite des is also o m i t t e d after m a n y quantifiers (see C h a p t e r 6.9) or quantifier-like expressions w h i c h i n c o r p o r a t e t h e p r e p o s i t i o n de: Il y a un bon nombre de participants au tournoi There are a good many participants at the tournament Un kilo de cerises, s'il vous plaît A kilo of cherries, please Beaucoup de personnes ont déjà remarqué ton absence Many people have already noticed your absence J ai déjà entendu assez d'excuses de ta part; je n'en accepterai plus I have heard enough excuses from you; I won't accept any more Où as-tu mis la boîte de sardines? Where did you put the tin of sardines? Exceptions: bien des ' m a n y ' , encore des 'still m o r e ' : Bien des personnes ont déjà remarqué ton absence Many people have already noticed your absence J'ai encore des questions à vous poser I still have more questions to ask you 2.3.3 C o m p a r i n g the use of plural indefinite article des with preposition de + definite article les C o m p a r e the use of the p l u r a l indefinite article a n d the p l u r a l definite article in similar contexts: Elle mangeait des coquillages She was eating shellfish Elle mangeait les coquillages qu'elle avait achetés au marché She was eating the shellfish she had bought in the market W h e n the h i g h l i g h t e d expressions follow the p r e p o s i t i o n de, des is deleted (2.3.2), b u t de + les b e c o m e s des (2.2.1): Elle déjeunait de coquillages She dined on shellfish Elle déjeunait des coquillages qu'elle avait achetés au marché She dined on the shellfish which she had bought in the market T h u s des can be either a p l u r a l indefinite article c o r r e s p o n d i n g to English ' s o m e ' or no article, or a p l u r a l definite article fused w i t h the preposition de. N o t e t h e following contrasts w i t h quantifiers: 32 Determiners Beaucoup de personnes (indefinite) trouvent cela difficile Many people find that difficult Beaucoup des personnes (definite) à qui nous avons parlé trouvent cela difficile Many of the people to ivhom we spoke find that difficult Un kilo de cerises, s'il vous plaît A kilo of cherries, please Un kilo des cerises espagnoles, s'il vous plait A kilo of the Spanish cherries, please 2.3.4 d'autres and des autres A contrast which English speakers often find difficult is between d'autres and des autres, d'autres 'other(s)' is an indefinite expression which is not accompanied by the plural indefinite article des: Dans son article, elle a présenté d'autres idées (NOT *des autres idées) In her article, she presented other ideas D'autres (NOT *des autres) auraient agi différemment Others would have acted differently J'en ai vu d'autres (NOT *des autres) I saw others des autres is only used where des is the fused form of preposition de and the definite article les of les autres 'the others': Elle parlait des autres projets qu'elle dirige She spoke of the other projects she directs Je ne me rappelle rien des autres jours de ce mois I remember nothing of the other days of that month NB: This is a case where a change appears to be in progress. In spoken French des autres is often generalized to all these contexts. 2.3.5 T h e use of de when an adjective precedes the noun When an adjective precedes the noun, it is customary, at least in written French, to use de and not des: Je lui ai offert de jolies roses I gave her pretty roses De gros miroirs comme ça, on n'en voit plus beaucoup You don't see many large mirrors like that any more NB: This does not apply when the adjective and the noun are joined in a compound noun or something which is seen as a single unit: des jeunes gens, des jeunes filles, des petits pois, des petites annonces, des grands magasins, des grands jours. 2.4 T h e partitive article: du, de l', de la, des The partitive article du, de l', de la, des is used with mass nouns in French where English uses 'some' or no article at all: II charriait du bois pour son voisin He carted wood about for his neighbour Indefinite and partitive articles after negative forms 33 Vous auriez dû acheter du lait en même temps You ought to have bought some milk at the same time Avec de l'ail ça aurait encore meilleur goûtl It would taste even better ivith garlic! II me manque de l'argent I'm lacking funds The partitive article is also u s e d w i t h abstract n o u n s like courage, beauté, patience, silence w h e n these qualities are attributed to p e o p l e or things: Il faut avoir de la patience avec les enfants You must be patient with children Elle a de l'intelligence à revendre She is really intelligent Vos enfants ont de la malice Your children are mischievous When a partitive article follows t h e p r e p o s i t i o n de it is deleted, just as p l u r a l indefinite des is d e l e t e d (see 2.3.2): beaucoup de bois une bouteille de lait une tête d'ail J'ai besoin d'argent a lot of wood a bottle of milk a bulb of garlic I need money 1A. I Use of faire + partitive: faire dulde la Many constructions exist w i t h faire + n o u n , i n t r o d u c e d by the partitive: Faire Faire Faire Faire Faire Faire du du du de du du sport basket piano la politique bien (à quelqu'un) mal (à quelqu'un) To take part in sport To play basketball To play the piano To go in for politics To do good (to somebody) To do harm (to somebody) 2.5 Use of indefinite and partitive articles after t h e negative forms ne ... pas, ne ... jamais, ne ... plus, ne ... guère After ne ... pas, ne ... jamais, ne ... plus, ne ... guère, a n y indefinite article {un, une, des) or partitive article {du, de V, de la, des) a c c o m p a n y i n g a direct object normally b e c o m e s de : Elle n'a pas écrit de lettre She didn't write a letter Nous ne vendons pas de chaussettes We don't sell socks Elle ne porte jamais de casque She never wears a helmet Pourquoi ne peut-on jamais acheter de vêtements d'hiver au printemps? Why can you never buy winter clothes in spring? Je n'ai plus de crayon I don't have a pencil any more 34 Determiners Il n'a plus de médicaments He doesn't have any more medication Il n'y a guère de visiteurs There are hardly any visitors T h e r e are t h r e e cases w h e r e this d o e s n o t a p p l y : (a) w h e n a contrast is m a d e b e t w e e n a n e g a t i v e a n d a positive direct object: Je ne veux pas des chaussettes mais des chaussures I don't want socks, but shoes Je n'ai pas un cours de grammaire mais un cours d'histoire I haven't got a grammar class but a history class (b) after the v e r b être: Ce n'est pas un oiseau It isn't a bird (c) w h e n the m e a n i n g is ' n o t a (single) o n e ' rather t h a n ' n o t a': On n'entendait pas un bruit dehors We couldn't hear a single noise outside 2.6 Omission of the article There are a n u m b e r of cases w h e r e no article is u s e d in French. 2.6.1 Omission of the article in compound nouns linked by à In c o m p o u n d n o u n s linked by à, there is u s u a l l y no article in front of the second noun: une brosse à dents un couteau à pain une corbeille à papiers une cuiller à café une planche à roulettes une planche à voile une tasse à café une tasse à thé un verre à vin un verre à pied a toothbrush a bread knife a waste-paper basket a tea (coffee) spoon a skateboard a sailboard a coffee cup a tea cup a wine glass a stemmed glass 2.6.2 Omission of the article in noun constructions linked by de T h e article is frequently o m i t t e d before the second n o u n in n o u n + n o u n constructions linked by de, w h e r e the s e c o n d n o u n functions like an adjective (and is often t r a n s l a t e d into English as an adjective): une ambassade de France une carte de visite une carte de France un billet de bus un arrêt de bus un tableau d'affichage une question d'argent une affaire de coeur un problème de liquidité une salle de classe a French embassy a visiting card a map of France a bus ticket a bus stop a notice board a question of money a matter of the heart a cash-flow problem a classroom Omission of the article 35 une salle de bains une agence de voyages un verre de vin une tasse de thé une tasse de café a bathroom a travel agent/agency a glass of wine a cup of tea a cup of coffee But note that w h e n the s e c o n d n o u n is modified (by an adjective or a clause, for example) it b e c o m e s definite, a n d a definite article a p p e a r s : une carte de la France métropolitaine a map of mainland France Il va être question de l'argent que je t'ai prêté There'll be a discussion about the money I lent you un arrêt du bus no 25 a stop for the number 25 bus 2.6.3 Omission of t h e article in participle + noun constructions linked by de The article is o m i t t e d after de in participle + n o u n constructions w h e r e the p a r ticiple functions as an adjective: couvert de boue rempli de rancune dépourvu de sens comblé de bonheur entouré d'imbéciles covered with mud filled with rancour lacking any meaning overwhelmed with happiness surrounded by idiots 2.6.4 Omission of the article after sans, avec, en, sur, sous, par, ni ... ni The article is frequently o m i t t e d w h e n a n o u n alone follows sans, avec, en, sur, sous, par, or t w o n o u n s a l o n e a p p e a r in t h e expression ni . . . ni: sans sans sans sans sans arrêt difficulté délai sucre manche continuously without difficulty without delay without sugar with no handle avec patience avec difficulté with patience with difficulty en en en en en angry at war being repaired in theory in marble colère guerre réparation théorie marbre sur commande by order sous verre sous pression under glass under pressure deux fois par semaine par pitié twice a week out of pity Il ne portait ni chapeau ni cravate He was wearing neither a hat nor a tie (For ne ... ni. . . ni see C h a p t e r 16.14.) 36 Determiners But if the n o u n is modified (for e x a m p l e by an adjective) the article is n o t omitted: sans sans avec sous la moindre difficulté même le plus petit retard une patience admirable la pression du gouvernement without the least difficulty without even the slightest delay with admirable patience under pressure from the government NB: en c a n n o t n o r m a l l y co-occur w i t h an article. W h e n an article is required, the p r e p o s i t i o n c h a n g e s to dans: en théorie in theory BUT dans la théorie d'Einstein in Einstein's theory en pratique in practice BUT dans la pratique in practice 2.6.5 Omission of the article in set phrases and verbal constructions avoir besoin (de) avoir envie (de) avoir peur avoir raison chercher noise (à) demander pardon donner congé (à) faire attention garder rancune (à) prendre fait et cause (pour) rendre justice (à) to rendre service to tenir parole to to to need to desire to he afraid to be right to try and pick a quarrel (with) to ask for forgiveness to sack to pay attention to bear a grudge (against) defend be fair (to) help keep one's word 2.6.6 Omission of the article with nouns in apposition W h e n p r o p e r n o u n s are j u x t a p o s e d w i t h c o m m o n n o u n s w h i c h identify t h e m , the c o m m o n n o u n s are said to be in apposition. In such cases the article is u s u a l l y omitted: Versailles, palais de Louis XIV et son entourage Versailles, the palace of Louis XIV and his court Juliette Lagrange, concierge, cherchait un nouveau poste Juliette Lagrange, caretaker, was looking for a new job Chantai, fille de dentiste, a annoncé son mariage avec Jean-Michel, fils de médecin Chantai, a dentist's daughter, has announced her marriage to Jean-Michel, a doctor's son Le Bergerac, vin de qualité, est vendu dans toute l'Europe Bergerac, a quality wine, is sold throughout Europe But w h e n t h e c o m m o n n o u n is modified, for e x a m p l e by an adjective, the article is n o t omitted: Chantai, la fille aînée du dentiste, . . . Versailles, le célèbre palais de Louis XIV . . . Demonstrative determiners 37 2.6.7 Omission of the article with nouns following t h e verbs être, demeurer, devenir, élire, nommer, rester When a noun alone follows t h e v e r b s être ' b e ' , demeurer 'stay', devenir ' b e c o m e ' , élire 'elect', nommer ' a p p o i n t ' , rester 'stay', the article is omitted: Sa mère est ingénieur Il est devenu architecte très tôt Elle est restée maire de la commune On l'a élu président Pierre a été nommé Directeur des Achats Her mother is an engineer He became an architect early on She remained mayor of the village He was elected president Pierre was appointed Purchasing Director But when the n o u n is modified, for e x a m p l e by an adjective, the article is n o t omitted: Depuis, il est devenu un architecte innovateur Since then, he has become an innovatory architect Pierre a été nommé le premier Directeur des Achats Pierre was appointed as the first Purchasing Director 2.6.8 Omission of the article in lists In lists of n o u n s the article is frequently omitted: Hommes, femmes et enfants sont tous invités à la fête Men, women and children are all invited to the party J'ai acheté pommes de terre, tomates, courgettes, prunes et navets chez le même marchand de primeurs I bought potatoes, tomatoes, courgettes, plums and turnips at the same greengrocer's NB: Either all the articles are o m i t t e d (as in these examples) or t h e y are all included (see 2.2.11). 2.7 Demonstrative determiners TABLE 2.B Summary table of demonstrative determiners Proximate Non-proximate masc ce, cet this, that ce, cet . . . ci this ... (here) ce, cet ... là that ... (there) fern cette this, that cette ... ci this ... (here) cette ... là that... (there) plur ces these, those ces . . . ci these . . . (here) ces ... là those ... (there) NB: Masculine cet a p p e a r s only w h e n the d e m o n s t r a t i v e d e t e r m i n e r i m m e d i ately precedes a n o u n or adjective b e g i n n i n g w i t h a v o w e l or a 'silent h' (h muet) (see 2.1.1): cet enfant cet ancien marin cet héroïsme this child that ex-sailor that heroism 38 Determiners 2.7.1 Typical use of demonstrative determiners Demonstrative determiners imply a contrast between the entity referred to by the noun they accompany and other entities of a similar type: Cette voiture a fait le tour du monde This car has been around the world (The car referred to is implicitly contrasted with other cars which haven't been around the world.) A cet instant, la porte s'est brusquement refermée derrière eux At that moment the door suddenly closed behind them (The moment referred to is implicitly contrasted with other moments when the door didn't close.) Note that ce, cet/cette translate both 'this' and 'that', ces translates both 'these' and 'those'. The form -ci can be added to the noun accompanied by ce, etc., to stress proximity in space or time. Proximity in English is part of the meaning of 'this', but it can also be emphasized by stressing 'this' or sometimes by adding 'here' after the noun: Cette voiture-ci a fait le tour du monde THIS car/This car here has been around the world Ce mois-ci je ne peux pas vous payer THIS month I can't pay you The form là can be added to the noun accompanied by ce, etc., to stress nonproximity in space or time. Non-proximity in English is part of the meaning of 'that', but it can also be emphasized by stressing 'that' or sometimes by adding 'there' after the noun: Cette année-là nous ne sommes pas allés à la mer THAT year we did not go to the sea Ce matin-là, je m'étais réveillé très tard THAT morning I had woken up very late -ci and -là are necessary if a comparison is made between 'this X' and 'that X': Est-ce que vous préférez cette voiture-ci ou cette voiture-là? Do you prefer this car or that car? Possessive determiners 39 2.8 Possessive determiners TABLE 2.C Summary table of possessive determiners First person Second person Third person masc mon my fem ma my plur mes my masc ton your fem ta your plur tes your masc son his, her, its fem sa his, her, its plur ses his, her, its notre our nos our votre your vos your leur his, her, its leurs their Possessive determiners agree in gender and number with the nouns they precede: Elle a levé son verre Il a rempli sa tasse Il a cassé ses lunettes She raised her (or his) glass He filled his (or her) cup He broke his (or her) glasses The feminine singular forms ma, ta, sa become mon, ton, son when they immediately precede a noun or adjective beginning with a vowel or 'silent h' (h muet) (see 2.1.1): ma classe sa permission ta hardiesse my class her permission your audacity BUT BUT BUT mon école my school son approbation her approval ton hésitation your hesitation The determiners votre, vos can both be used to refer to more than one possessor: Messieurs et mesdames, votre table est prête Ladies and gentlemen, your table is ready and as a polite form: Suivez-moi, monsieur, votre table est prête Follow me, sir, your table is ready (For the use of the definite article rather than possessive determiners with parts of the body see 2.2.8.) (For the use of a singular determiner when a single item is possessed by more than one person see 2.2.9.) 3 Personal and impersonal pronouns 3.1 Subject pronouns TABLE 3.A Summary table of subject pronouns Person Singular Plural je I nous we Second person tu you vous you (plural, polite) Third person masculine feminine non-specific il elle on he, it she, it one, we, people, they ils elles they they neutral ce, cela, ça it, that impersonal il, ce, cela, ça it, that, there First person 3.1.1 Position of subject pronouns In declarative sentences, subject pronouns normally appear immediately before the verb which carries the tense: Nous voulons voir le directeur We want to see the manager Tu comprends vite You catch on quick Elle a servi le vin chambré She served the wine at room temperature They can only be separated from this verb by the ne of negation, and by other pre-verbal pronouns: Elle ne prend pas de café She's not having any coffee Tu Tas mangé You ate it Subject pronouns 41 Vous ne le ferez pas You won't do it Unlike in English, subject pronouns cannot normally be separated from the verb by adverbials or parenthetical expressions: NOT NOT *Je souvent dîne avec Laura I often dine with Laura *I1, paraît-il, ne prend pas de café He, it seems, isn't having coffee versus the grammatical Je dîne souvent avec Laura, Il ne prend pas de café, paraît-il. In direct questions involving inversion (see Chapter 14.2.3), subject pronouns appear immediately after the verb which carries the tense: Sait-il nager? Est-elle arrivée? Ont-ils mangé? Can he swim? Has she arrived? Have they eaten? (For the formation of direct questions, see Chapter 14.2.) When subject pronouns follow the verb in this way nothing else can intervene: Ne le croyez-vous pas? Ne le lui avez-vous pas donné? Dînent-ils souvent ensemble? Don't you believe it? Didn't you give it to him? Do they often dine together? 3.1.2 T h e use of vous and tu vous can have two functions: to address more than one person, and as a polite form of address to one person when there is a certain 'social distance' between the speaker and the addressee, tu is used only to address one person when there is no social distance between speaker and addressee. In its plural use, vous refers simply to more than one addressee, whether social intimates or not: Vous voulez aller au match dimanche? Do you want to go to the match this Sunday? (e.g. several friends discussing where to go) Vous allez me refaire ce devoir You lot are going to have to do this homework again (e.g. a teacher talking to a class) When one person is being addressed it is difficult to give hard and fast rules about when to use tu and when to use the polite vous. Generally, one can say that the non-native speaker would be well advised to use vous from the outset, and to allow the native speaker to take the initiative about any change to tu. The following table (Table 3.B) illustrates some uses of tu and polite vous, but it is not possible to give an exhaustive list of such usage. Individual speakers may vary in their own preferences for use of tu or polite vous, and that 42 Personal and impersonal pronouns usage may vary regionally (for example, it is often said that tu is used more readily in the south of France than it is in the north). TABLE 3.B Examples of the use of tu and polite vous Context Typical u s a g e by t w o s p e a k e r s Adult strangers meeting for the first time in formal contexts: e.g. business meetings, interviews, dealing with state administration and services. Both use vous. Adults meeting in informal contexts: e.g. neighbours, socializing, shopping. Initially both use vous, but with continued contact it is likely that they will change to tu, especially with young adults (under 40). Professional superior and inferior Generally both use vous, but in some organizations the inferior may use vous and the superior tu. Professional equals Both use tu, but older speakers (50-ish or over) may use vous. Immediate family Both use tu. Distant relatives: e.g. second cousins, great aunts/uncles, etc. Both use tu, but there is a tendency to use vous when older family members are involved. Friends Typically tu but older speakers (50-ish or over) may use vous. This does not necessarily indicate less warmth in the friendship. Adults to young children Adults use tu to young children up to early adolescence. When very young they will respond with tu, but as they grow older they are expected to learn when and where vous is required of them. Teachers and pupils Teachers typically use tu to children under 14 and vous to older pupils, but some teachers continue to use tu, either to express power over their pupils, or solidarity with them. The younger the teacher, the greater the likelihood that tu will be used. Pupils typically use vous to teachers, occasionally tu. Under tens are rarely expected to say vous to their teacher. Students Both use tu from the first meeting. Subject -pronouns 43 3.1.3 'Marked' use of tu Certain social sub-groups have their own internal norms for the use of tu and polite vous. For example, in sports teams, in left-wing political parties, and in trade unions, tu is the generalized form of address. There are also a number of contexts where the expected use of polite vous between speakers is not met, and the actual pronoun form used is tu. For example, a stranger approaching you in the street and using the tu form, where normally vous is expected, may create the impression of an unwanted degree of intimacy; or it may indicate arrogance or contempt. Other examples of such 'marked' use are: In street altercations, e.g. between motorists. The effect produced is one of insult. Police interrogating suspects use the tu form, but suspects are expected to reciprocate with the vous form. The effect produced is one of domination. As a special case of the use of tu, Protestants have always addressed God with the tu form, but Catholics have only done so since 1967; before that 'He' was addressed with the vous form. 3.1.4 Use of Mils and ellelelles The third person pronouns il/ils and elle/elles normally refer to people and things (both concrete and abstract) and the choice of which one to use is usually determined by the grammatical person, gender and number of the noun referred to: Qu'est-ce qu'il fait, le facteur? Il est en retard What's the postman up to? He's late Il est intéressant, ce livre That book's interesting Où est la directrice? Elle est en réunion Where's the headmistress? She's in a meeting Elle est intéressante, cette émission That programme's interesting Il n'y a plus d'abricots. Ils sont finis There are no more apricots. They're finished Elles sont dangereuses, ces falaises These cliffs are dangerous 3.1.5 G r a m m a t i c a l and real gender With a handful of nouns, the real gender (sex) of the person referred to may determine the choice of third person pronouns il/ils or elle/elles. For example, victime, recrue, sentinelle are grammatically feminine nouns, but not all 'victims', 'recruits' or 'sentries' are necessarily female: mannequin, recteur, conseiller municipal are grammatically masculine nouns, but not all 'models', 'university ViceChancellors' or 'town councillors' are necessarily male. In such cases the real gender of the person referred to normally determines the choice of il/ils or elle/elles: Nous avons fait une nouvelle recrue. Il va se joindre à nous ce soir We have gained a new recruit. He will pin us this evening 44 Personal and impersonal pronouns C'est une femme qui a été nommée recteur de l'université. Elle n'a que 42 ans A woman has been appointed as Vice-Chancellor of the university. She is only 42 3.1.6 G r a m m a t i c a l and real number With g r a m m a t i c a l l y singular n o u n s that refer to m o r e t h a n o n e p e r s o n or thing, the choice of p r o n o u n is n o r m a l l y singular il or elle: Quant au gouvernement, il ne prendra jamais les mesures qui s'imposent As for the government, they will never take the necessary steps Le comité va-t-il élire un nouveau président? Will the committee elect a new chairperson? En ce qui concerne l'équipe française, on peut dire qu'elle est en grande forme en ce moment As for the French team, they are currently on top form For collective n o u n s see C h a p t e r 1.1.3. 3.1.7 Pronouns referring to groups of mixed gender W h e n a g r o u p (of p e o p l e or things) of m i x e d g e n d e r is referred to, Us is the pronoun used. Compare: Le directeur, son frère et son neveu? Ils sont tous les trois démissionnaires The director, his brother and his nephew? All three are resigning Louise, sa fille et sa petite-fille étaient dans la voiture. Elles sont toutes les trois mortes dans l'accident Louise, her daughter and her granddaughter were in the car. All three died in the accident with: Louise, sa fille et son petit-fils étaient dans la voiture. Ils sont tous les trois morts dans l'accident Louise, her daughter and her grandson were in the car. All three died in the accident 3.1.8 ils with arbitrary reference Plural Us m a y be u s e d to refer to an indefinite or arbitrary g r o u p of p e o p l e : Ils ont encore augmenté le prix de l'essence They have put the price of petrol up again Ils disent qu'il va y avoir de l'orage They say that there will be a storm Comment votent-ils par ici? How do they vote around here? 3.1.9 Coordination of subject pronouns W h e n clauses containing u n s t r e s s e d subject p r o n o u n s are c o o r d i n a t e d by et, ou or ne ... ni, the second p r o n o u n m a y be deleted: Elle se réveille et (elle) regarde l'horloge She wakes up and looks at the clock Je ne lis ni (je) n'écris à présent I am neither reading nor "writing at the moment W h e n the verb is a c c o m p a n i e d by auxiliary avoir or être, if the subject p r o n o u n is deleted, the auxiliary m u s t be too: Subject pronouns 45 Il a chanté et (il a) dansé (NOT *I1 a chanté et a dansé) He sang and danced 3.1.10 U s e o f o n on can refer to a p e r s o n or p e o p l e w h o s e identity is n o t really k n o w n : On dit que la première année de mariage est la plus difficile People say that the first year of marriage is the most difficult C'est une région où l'on continue de mourir davantage de maladies de coeur que du cancer It is an area where more people continue to die from heart disease than from cancer On n'en fabrique plus They don't make them any more On m'a volé tout mon argent Someone stole all my money 3.1.11 o n a s a n a l t e r n a t i v e to t h e English p a s s i v e A construction w i t h on can often be u s e d w h e r e a p a s s i v e is u s e d in English: On croyait la crise du logement définitivement réglée The housing shortage was definitely thought to be over On ne soupçonne guère le véritable rôle économique joué par les enfants The real economic role that children play is thoroughly underestimated On sait qu'il a eu des démêlés avec la police, mais on ne sait pas pourquoi It is well known that he was once in trouble with the police, but it is not known why (For t h e p a s s i v e see C h a p t e r 8.6.) 3.1.12 on as an e q u i v a l e n t for English 'you' on can s o m e t i m e s be u s e d w h e r e English uses ' y o u ' a n d French could u s e vous or tu: Est-il vrai qu'on distingue un Américain d'un Français à cent mètres? Is it true you can tell an American from a Frenchman at a hundred metres? Avec le moteur devant, on est au moins protégé With the engine at the front you are at least protected Comment savoir si on est doué pour la musique si l'on n'a jamais essayé? How do you know whether you have a talent for music if you've never tried it? 3.1.13 on as an e q u i v a l e n t for nous on can often be u s e d as a s y n o n y m for nous: On avait d'abord tenté l'opération inverse We had at first taken the opposite tack On sait à quelles extrémités peuvent arriver certaines personnes We know to what extremes some people can go On s'y est habitué depuis longtemps We have been used to it for a long time The use of on instead of nous is v e r y frequent in informal s p o k e n French: Pourquoi on rentre pas à la maison? Why don't we go home? 46 Personal and impersonal pronouns On avait chanté la Marseillaise, tu te souviens pas? We sang the Marseillaise, don't you remember? On y va? Shall we go? NB: When on refers to more than one person, many writers make any adjective or past participle which should indicate agreement show plural agreement. Not all native speakers agree with this. Teachers, for instance, require the masculine singular agreement to be observed. On est tous très fatigués We are all very tired Après on est tous allés dans une boîte de nuit Afterwards we all went to a night-club 3.1.14 Use of l'on l'on is sometimes used in French for on when it follows a word ending in a vowel (like et, ou, qui, que, si, etc). This is a feature of written, rather than spoken, French: Comment savoir si l'on ne demande pas? How can you know if you don't ask? Il faut savoir choisir l'homme avec qui l'on s'engage pour la vie You have to be careful choosing the man to whom you will commit your life The use of /' is not obligatory, however. 3.1.15 Use of ce, cela, ça as neutral pronouns When ce, cela and ça are used as neutral pronouns they normally refer to events, actions, states or general classes of people or things: Vous viendrez dîner ce soir. C'est prévu. Come to dinner this evening. It's all taken care of (c' referring to 'coming to dinner') L'élection d'un nouveau président aura lieu en mars. Ce sera l'occasion pour le pays de s'exprimer The election of a new president takes place in March. The country will be able to have its say (ce referring to 'the election of a president') L'extérieur, ce n'est rien. Il faudrait voir l'intérieur The outside is nothing. You should see the inside {ce referring to the 'state of the outside') NB: il cannot usually be used to refer to events, actions, states or general classes. While ce is normally used with être (see also 3.1.23), cela and ça are used with other verbs: Partez à l'étranger. Cela vous fera du bien Travel abroad. It will do you good (cela referring to 'travelling abroad') Ils y sont allés un peu fort. Cela risque de faire du bruit They went a bit far. It is likely to cause a stir (cela referring to 'having gone a bit far') Subject pronouns 47 J'essayais pas d'être premier. Ça m'intéressait pas. I wasn't trying to corne first. It didn't interest me. {ça referring to coming first) cela tends to be u s e d in w r i t t e n French, or for e m p h a s i z i n g the subject in spoken French; ça is w i d e l y u s e d as the unstressed subject in the s p o k e n language. Written French: Plus de la moitié de la population adulte d'aujourd'hui a étudié le latin à l'école. Cela montre bien le décalage entre les formations scolaires et les activités professionnelles More than half of today's adults studied Latin at school. This clearly shows the gap that exists between school education and professional activity 3 millions de Français ne savent pas lire. Cela incite à poser des questions sur l'efficacité du système éducatif 3 million French people cannot read. This raises questions about the effectiveness of the educational system Spoken French: Elle est heureuse. Ça se voit She's happy. You can tell just from looking at her Ça lui servira de leçon That'll teach him 3.1.16 Comparing neutral ce, cela, ça w i t h personal Welle, ilslelles il/ils a n d elle/elles refer to p e o p l e a n d things (both concrete a n d abstract), ce, cela, ça refer to events, actions, states or general classes of p h e n o m e n a . Compare: C'est bon, le vin Wine is good (refers to wine in general) Il est bon, le vin The wine is good (refers to a specific example of wine) C'est lourd, cette valise This suitcase is heavy (implies that it is heavy to carry) Elle est lourde, cette valise This suitcase is heavy (refers to the object itself) J'adore m'occuper des enfants. C'est si câlin à cet âge-là I love looking after children. They're so cuddly when they're that age (ce referring to small children in general) J'adore m'occuper de tes enfants. Ils sont si câlins I love looking after your children. They're so cuddly (referring to specific small children) In informal s p o k e n F r e n c h m a n y s p e a k e r s u s e ça w h e r e il/ils, elle/elles are u s e d in m o r e formal s p o k e n a n d w r i t t e n French: 48 Personal and impersonal pronouns J'ai astiqué mes casseroles. Regardez comme ça brille! I gave my pans a scrub. Look how shiny they are! Les pintades, ça couche souvent dehors Guinea-fowl often sleep outside Tu sais, ces gens-là, ça boit You know, those people, they like their drink NB: Because this usage is regarded as a feature of informal spoken French, the foreign learner should avoid using it in the written language. 3.1.17 Use of il, ce, cela and ça as impersonal pronouns The clearest use of impersonal subject pronouns is with verbs where il, ce, cela and ça simply mark the subject position without referring to someone or something elsewhere in the conversation or text: II pleut Il neige Il fait du vent It's raining It's snowing It's windy C'est difficile de le joindre au téléphone It's difficult to reach him by phone C'est dommage qu'elle ne soit pas venue It's a pity that she didn't come Cela inquiète ma mère de les savoir dehors par ce temps It worries my mother to know that they are out in this weather Ça m'étonne qu'elle n'ait rien dit It amazes me that she said nothing In these cases il, ce, cela, ça express very little meaning (indeed, in some languages impersonal constructions are characterized by the absence of a subject, for example Spanish Llueve '(it) is raining'). This impersonal use of il, ce, cela, ça in French corresponds to the impersonal use of 'it', and sometimes "there' in English. 3.1.18 Impersonal subject restricted to il Some impersonal verbs and verbal expressions always take impersonal subject il (and NOT ce, cela or ça): Expressions of clock time do: Quelle heure est-il? What time is it? Il est midi It's noon Il est 6 heures It's 6 o'clock As do the related time expressions: II est temps de, que ... Il est tard It's time to, that ... It's late Certain frequently occurring constructions also take impersonal il: Il y a (quelqu'un, deux hommes à la porte) There is/are (somebody, two men at the door) Subject pronouns 49 Il est question de (lui interdire l'accès aux enfants) There's talk of (stopping her seeing the children) Il s'agit de (refaire les fondations) It's a question of (rebuilding the foundations) Il faut (se lever tôt le matin) You've got to (get up early in the morning) Il reste (des phénomènes qu'il est difficile de catégoriser) There remain (phenomena which it is difficult to classify) Il convient (de faire le point) If is advisable (to take stock) Il vaut mieux (rester chez vous) It's better (for you to stay at home) NB: Il s'agit de is a frequently-used impersonal construction which learners often misuse because one way of translating it into English can be as 'X is about Y', e.g. Il s'agit dans ce roman d'une jeune fille 'This novel is about a girl'. Il s'agit de can never have a personal subject, however: NOT *Ce roman s'agit d'une jeune fille By contrast, the verb agir 'to act' must have a personal subject: Pierre agit de façon bizarre Pierre is acting in a strange way Il agit en ami He is acting as a friend (For impersonal verbs see also Chapter 8.8.) 3.1.19 /'/ or ça w i t h impersonal verbs Some impersonal verbs and verbal expressions have il as subject in written French, but il or ça may occur in spoken French; ça is used in informal styles. Some weather verbs behave in this way: Il pleut, ça pleut Il neige, ça neige Il gèle, ça gèle Il limine, ça bruine It's raining It's snowing It's freezing It's drizzling Constructions not listed under 3.1.18 also behave in this way: Il/ça se peut que la carte soit démagnétisée Perhaps the card has lost its magnetism Il/ça n'empêche pas qu'elle ait raison That doesn't stop her from being right Il/ça suffit de voir ce qui se passe You only have to see what's happening 3.1.20 illça alternating with clauses or infinitives as subjects Some impersonal verbs allow both il (or ça in informal spoken French) and a clause or infinitive as a subject: SO Personal and impersonal pronouns Il convient à ma mère que les Durand habitent à côté or Que les Durand habitent à côté convient à ma mère It suits my mother to have the Durands living next door Ça me fait peur d'y aller la nuit or D'y aller la nuit me fait peur I am afraid to go there at night Others: Il/ça déplaît à Olivier d e / q u e . . . It displeases Oliver to/that. . . Il/ça fait mal à Arnaud d e / q u e . . . It hurts Arnaud to/that . . . 11/'ça fait plaisir à Céline d e / q u e . . . It gives Céline pleasure to/that . . . Il/ça va à Romain d e / q u e . . . It suits Romain to/that. . . Il /ça arrive à Béatrice d e / q u e . . . It sometimes happens to Béatrice that. . . Verbs of this t y p e w h i c h h a v e d i r e c t objects, as o p p o s e d to indirect objects i n t r o d u c e d by à, a l w a y s take t h e i m p e r s o n a l subject cela (or ça in informal s p o k e n French) a n d N O T il: Cela/ça amuse Pierre qu'elle fasse de la planche à voile or Qu'elle fasse de la planche à voile amuse Pierre It amuses Pierre that she goes wind-surfing Cela/ça ennuie Georges de devoir recommencer or De devoir recommencer ennuie Georges George finds it annoying to have to start again Cela/ça Cela/ça Cela/ça Cela/ça Cela/ça Cela/ça Cela/ça Cela/ça Cela/ça Cela/ça attriste Antoine d e / q u e ... effraye Véronique d e / q u e ... énerve Joël d e / q u e . . . épuise Fabien d e / q u e . . . étonne Jérôme d e / q u e ... fatigue Charlotte d e / q u e . . . gêne Violette d e / q u e . . . inquiète Maud d e / q u e . . . intéresse Rachel d e / q u e ... irrite Sophie d e / q u e . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... saddens ... frightens ... annoys ... exhausts ... astonishes ... tires ... embarrasses ... worries ... interests ... irritâtes ... 3.1.21 illça a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h n o u n p h r a s e s u b j e c t s A h a n d f u l of c o m m o n v e r b s alternate b e t w e e n an i m p e r s o n a l construction w i t h il (or ça in informal s p o k e n French) a n d a p e r s o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a n o u n p h r a s e subject: Il semble que Pierre soit passé lundi or Pierre semble être passé lundi It seems that Pierre came round on Monday Il apparaît que vous êtes le dindon de la farce or Vous apparaissez comme étant le dindon de la farce It seems that you have been made a fool of Subject pronouns 51 Il s'est avéré que Sophie était consciencieuse or Sophie s'est avérée consciencieuse It turned out that Sophie was conscientious 3.1.22 C h o o s i n g b e t w e e n il est a n d c'est il est v e r s u s c'est w i t h r e f e r e n c e to p r o f e s s i o n s , n a t i o n a l i t y or social s t a t u s There are t w o w a y s of indicating a p e r s o n ' s profession, nationality or social status: il/ils a n d elle/elles are u s e d w i t h the v e r b s être, devenir, rester a n d a n o u n without an article: Il est médecin He is a doctor Elle est devenue professeur She became a teacher Elles sont avocates They are lawyers Elle est toujours restée femme au foyer She always was a housewife Ils restent hollandais, bien qu'ils aient quitté les Pays-Bas il y a 20 ans They remain Dutch, although they left the 'Netherlands 20 years ago ce is u s e d w h e n the n o u n is p r e c e d e d by a d e t e r m i n e r (un, une, le, la, etc.): C'est un Russe C'est un avocat He's a Russian He's a lawyer W h e n the n o u n is modified, a d e t e r m i n e r is r e q u i r e d a n d therefore ce (not il/elle) must be used: C'est un médecin connu C'est un boxeur professionnel He's a famous doctor He's a professional boxer C'est une avocate qui connaît le droit anglais She's a lawyer who knows English law C'est un professeur de Toulouse He's a teacher from Toulouse il est v e r s u s c'est in m o r e g e n e r a l contexts W h e n être is followed by a n y t h i n g other t h a n an adjective, ce is the p r o n o u n to use, N O T il: C'est un plaisir It's a pleasure (NOT *il est un plaisir) C'est Marie It's Marie (NOT *il, *elle est Marie) C'était en été It was in summer (NOT *il était en été) Ce sera pour elle It'll be for her il est v e r s u s c'est w h e n être is f o l l o w e d by an adjective a l o n e W h e n être is followed by an adjective alone, b o t h il a n d ce are possible b u t there is a difference in m e a n i n g . In these e x a m p l e s , il is p e r s o n a l b u t ce is i m p e r s o n a l or neutral: II est stupide C'est stupide will normally mean will normally mean He is stupid That's silly Il est curieux C'est curieux will normally mean will normally mean He's inquisitive That's odd 52 Personal and impersonal pronouns Il est incroyable C'est incroyable will normally mean will normally mean He's amazing That's unbelievable il est versus c'est when être is followed by adjective + clause or infinitive But when être is followed by an adjective which is itself followed by a clause or infinitive, both il and ce are possible and both are then used in an impersonal sense: Il/c'est difficile de formuler une politique It's difficult to formulate a policy Il/c'est intéressant d'observer les passants It's interesting to watch the passers-by Il/c'est impossible d'ouvrir ces huîtres It's impossible to open these oysters Some grammars will sometimes claim that il est is the only form to use in these constructions, but c'est is widely used in all spoken styles of French, and is often also found in these constructions in the written language. Other common adjectives which behave in this way are: agréable bon commode dangereux difficile étrange évident facile important impossible insupportable fun good convenient dangerous difficult odd obvious easy important impossible intolerable intéressant inutile mauvais nécessaire pénible périlleux possible peu probable utile vrai interesting useless bad necessary tiresome perilous possible unlikely useful true NB: In the impersonal constructions illustrated above, the preposition which links the adjective to the following infinitive is always de. (For discussion of adjective + infinitive constructions see Chapter 12.7.) il versus ce used with être + adjective + à In the examples immediately above, il and ce are impersonal. They are used like 'it' and 'there' in English without reference to anything else in the conversation or text: in these cases the adjective is linked to the infinitive by the preposition de. But il can also be used as a personal pronoun, and ce as a neutral pronoun in similar constructions when the preposition linking the adjective and the infinitive is à: Leur politique est difficile à accepter (Leur politique), elle est difficile à accepter (Leur politique), c'est difficile à accepter Ce document est intéressant à analyser (Ce document), il est intéressant à analyser (Ce document), c'est intéressant à analyser Object pronouns 53 Here il, elle and ce refer to something mentioned elsewhere in the conversation or text (in this case to leur politique, ce document). (For more on these constructions see Chapter 12.7.) 3.1.23 ce, and compound forms of être ce can be used with various compound forms of être, like ce doit être, ce peut être, c'a été: Ce pourrait être un facteur important It could be an important factor Ce doit être Marianne It must be Marianne C'aurait été trop It would have been too much When the phrase following être in this construction is plural, some grammars suggest that the verb should be in the third person plural form: Ce sont mes amis It's my friends Ce devraient être eux/elles It should be them But many speakers use c'est etc. in these cases: C'est mes amis Ce doit être eux/elles When first or second person plural pronouns nous or vous follow être in these constructions, the verb is always singular: C'est vous, c'est nous It's you, it's us 3.2 Object pronouns Correctly identifying the direct and indirect objects in English and French Many of the problems which learners have with pronouns are not caused by a failure to know what the pronouns are, but by a failure to recognize which pronoun French requires in a particular structure. This is especially true of indirect object pronouns. The structure of English and French verbs, even when they have similar meanings, is not necessarily the same: in a given sentence it is essential to know whether the object is direct or indirect in relation to the French verb and NOT the English verb. Thus, in the English sentence 'They advised Stéphane to leave', 'Stéphane' is the direct object of 'advised', and with a pronoun the sentence becomes 'They advised him to leave'. But in the French equivalent - Ils ont conseillé à Stéphane de partir - Stéphane is the indirect object of conseiller. With a pronoun the French sentence becomes: Ils lui ont conseillé de partir For a full list of verbs which behave differently with respect to objects in English and French see Chapter 8. 54 Personal and impersonal pronouns TABLE 3.C Summary table of object pronouns Person Singular Plural First person Direct and indirect me nous Second person Direct and indirect te (to) you vous (to) you plural or polite Third person Direct masculine feminine le la him, it her, it les les them them le it lui lui to him, to it to her, to it leur leur to them to them se (to) themselves neutral Indirect masculine feminine Direct and indirect reflexive, reciprocal, benefactive se (to) me- (to) oneself (to) us TABLE 3.D y and en Pronoun Stands in the place of y a phrase introduced by à, en, dans, sur e.g. à Paris, en ville, dans sa chambre en a phrase which begins with de e.g. de son idée 3.2.1 Direct object and indirect object pronouns: differences between English and French The following common French verbs take indirect object pronouns; learners often treat them as if they required direct object pronouns, perhaps because their English equivalents take direct objects: Sa sœur lui a appris à parler espagnol His sister taught him to speak Spanish (apprendre à qn à faire qc) Luc leur a conseillé de se taire Luc advised them to be quiet (conseiller à qn de faire qc) Object pronouns 55 Sa mère lui défendait de fumer à la maison Her mother used to forbid her to smoke at home (défendre à qn de faire qc) Le film lui a (dé)plu He (dis)liked the film ((dé)plaire à qn) Elle lui manque He misses her (manquer à qn) There are several v e r b constructions w h i c h t e n d to give rise to this p r o b l e m , each slightly different. Verbs followed by: . . . à quelqu'un: ... ... ... ... ... lui lui lui lui lui a téléphoné a survécu a (dés)obéi a nui ressemble phoned him outlived her (dis)obeyed her disadvantaged him looks like him Verbs followed by: . . . quelque chose à quelqu'un: ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... lui lui lui lui lui lui lui lui a passé le sel a permis du repos a promis une lettre a reproché son attitude a enseigné le chant a donné un cadeau a envoyé un colis a offert un whisky passed her the salt allowed him some rest promised her a letter criticized her attitude taught him to sing gave her a present sent her a package offered her a whisky Verbs followed by: ... à quelqu'un de faire quelque chose: lui lui lui lui a a a a ordonné de signer dit de se taire demandé de partir permis de l'acheter ordered him to sign told him to shut up . asked him to leave allowed her to buy it The following c o m m o n French verbs take direct objects; learners often treat them as if they required indirect objects, p e r h a p s b e c a u s e of a confusion over the status of à (or s o m e t i m e s de) w h i c h these verbs require w h e n t h e y are followed by an infinitive: Je l'ai aidé à changer la roue I helped him to change the wheel Le professeur l'avait encouragé à participer The teacher had encouraged him to take part Je les ai persuadés de venir I persuaded them to come Others: l'a l'a l'a l'a contraint à rester dissuadée empêché de courir forcée à rester . forced him to stay . dissuaded her . stopped him from running . forced her to stay 56 Personal and impersonal pronouns l'a l'a l'a l'a invité à dîner menacée obligé à parler remerciée . invited him to dinner . threatened her . forced him to talk . thanked her 3.2.2 Position of direct and indirect object pronouns Direct a n d indirect object p r o n o u n s are closely linked w i t h the v e r b to w h i c h t h e y are m o s t closely related in declarative, n e g a t i v e a n d interrogative sentences. W h e n the verb is a main verb they a p p e a r i m m e d i a t e l y before it: L'Etat me paie Les gens ne me remarquent pas Elle le croit A son âge, vous ne la referez pas Il lui a soufflé quelques mots Tu me donnes une idée Ça leur apprendra à mentir The state pays me People don't notice me She believes it You won't change her, at her age He whispered a few words to her You've given me an idea That will teach them to lie W h e n the v e r b is a c c o m p a n i e d by the auxiliary v e r b s avoir or être, direct a n d indirect object p r o n o u n s a p p e a r i m m e d i a t e l y before the auxiliary: Il m'a vu M'a-t-il vu? Vous ne les avez pas goûtés? Il lui avait proposé un voyage Je vous suis très reconnaissant He saiv me Did he see me? Didn't you taste them? He had suggested a trip to her I am very grateful to you Il leur a raconté beaucoup d'histoires passionnantes He told them a lot of fascinating stories Nous l'avons déjà traduite, cette lettre We have already translated this letter N B : The p a s t participle agrees w i t h a p r e c e d i n g direct object in these cases, b u t n o t w i t h the indirect object. (For the a g r e e m e n t of the p a s t participle: see C h a p t e r 9.2 a n d 9.3.) N o t e also that p r o n o u n s e n d i n g in -e (me, te, se, le) a n d -a (la) are s h o r t e n e d to the c o n s o n a n t alone before verbs b e g i n n i n g w i t h a v o w e l : elle m'aide, je t'ai déjà remercié, je te l'ai dit, etc. 3.2.3 Position of object pronouns with infinitives W h e n the v e r b g o v e r n i n g a direct or indirect object p r o n o u n is an infinitive (including a c o m p o u n d infinitive m a d e up of an auxiliary v e r b a n d a p a s t participle), direct a n d indirect objects u s u a l l y c o m e in front of the infinitive: On peut toujours lui téléphoner He can always he reached by phone Il pourra te voir demain He will be able to see you tomorrow Nous irons leur raconter l'histoire demain We will go and tell them what happened tomorrow Object pronouns 57 Il pourrait bien l'avoir dit He may well have said that NB: When à or de followed by le or les c o m e before the infinitive, these forms do NOT combine to form au, du, aux, des: je suis obligé de les aider. 3.2.4 Position of object pronouns with faire, laisser, envoyer or verbs of perception + infinitive Where the infinitive has faire, laisser, envoyer or p e r c e p t i o n v e r b s like voir, regarder, entendre, sentir in front of it, direct a n d indirect object p r o n o u n s a p p e a r before this other v e r b if they are u n d e r s t o o d as the subject of the infinitive: Je la voyais venir (who is coming? 'she' is, therefore la is the understood subject of venir) I saw her coming Sa mère lui a fait manger du potage (who ate the soup? 'she' did, therefore lui is the understood subject of manger) Her mother made her eat some soup Elle m'a laissé pleurer (who cried? T did, therefore me is the understood subject of pleurer) She let me cry Note that the u n d e r s t o o d subject of the infinitive is realized as an indirect object if the infinitive h a s a direct object, b u t as a direct object if it d o e s not. Compare: Sa mère lui a fait manger du potage/Sa mère le lui a fait manger (du potage is the direct object of manger) Her mother made her eat some soup/Her mother made her eat it Sa mère l'a fait manger (manger has no direct object) Her mother made her eat If the direct or indirect object is u n d e r s t o o d as the object of the infinitive, it normally also comes before the other v e r b ( a l t h o u g h s o m e n a t i v e s p e a k e r s m a y allow it to be placed directly in front of the infinitive): Je l'ai envoyé chercher (le is the understood object of chercher) I sent (someone) to look for him Je l'ai entendu dire (le is the understood object of dire) I have heard it said Elle le fit remplacer (le is the understood object of remplacer) She had it replaced For the o r d e r i n g of m o r e t h a n one p r o n o u n w i t h these constructions, see 3.2.32. 3.2.5 Position of object pronouns with imperatives In affirmative i m p e r a t i v e s direct a n d indirect object p r o n o u n s c o m e i m m e d i ately after the v e r b w h i c h g o v e r n s t h e m , a n d the p r o n o u n s me, te b e c o m e the stressed forms moi, toi: Prends-les! Suivez-nous! Arrêtez-les! Take them! Follow us! Stop them! 58 Personal and impersonal pronouns Ecoutez-moi! Tais-toi/ Listen to me! Shut up! BUT in negative imperatives direct and indirect object pronouns precede the verb: Ne les suivez pas! Don't follow them! Ne la mange pas! Don't eat it! Ne me fais pas rire! Don't make me laugh! (See also Chapter 11.5 on imperatives.) 3.2.6 Position of object pronouns with voici and voilà Direct object pronouns may appear before voici and voilà: Nous voici Les voilà Here we are There they are 3.2.7 Ambiguity of reference of lui and leur Because the indirect object pronouns lui, leur can refer both to masculine and to feminine nouns they are inherently ambiguous: Je lui ai indiqué le chemin / showed him or her the way Pierre leur a parlé Pierre spoke to them (either male or female or mixed) This ambiguity can be resolved if one wishes, however, by copying the pronoun with a stressed pronoun and a preposition: Je lui ai indiqué le chemin à elle/Je lui ai indiqué le chemin à lui Pierre leur a parlé à elles/Pierre leur a parlé à eux 3.2.8 Use of the neutral pronoun le le, in addition to its function as a third person singular pronoun referring to masculine nouns, may also have a 'neutral' function when it refers to states, general ideas or whole propositions: Pour que nous vous remboursions vos frais de déplacement, il faut présenter des justificatifs, si vous le pouvez {le refers to 'justifying the expenditure') For us to be able to pay your travelling expenses, you must prove you have spent the money, if you can Vous n'êtes plus président, je le sais {le refers to 'no longer being the president') You are no longer the president, I know Je le répète: tu ne travailles pas assez {le refers to 'you're not doing enough work') I'll say it again: you're not doing enough work In this usage neutral le is the object counterpart of the neutral subjects ce, cela, ça (see 3.1.15). 3.2.9 Use of neutral le where no equivalent exists in English Sometimes neutral le is required in French where English normally has no object pronoun at all, typically where the verb être + adjective/identifying expression are involved: Object pronouns 59 N'ayez pas peur! J'étais en colère, mais je ne le suis plus (le refers to 'being angry') Don't be frightened! I was angry, but I'm not any more Est-ce qu'elle est prête? Elle le sera dans un instant (le refers to 'being ready') Is she ready? She will be in a moment Moi, je n'étais pas étonné, mais Myriam l'a été (le refers to 'being surprised') I wasn't surprised, but Myriam was 3.2.10 W r o n g use of neutral le in phrases w h e r e 'it' occurs in English The English constructions 'find it difficult to', 'consider it easy to', 'reckon it possible that', and similar cases, have French counterparts in which le must not appear. The verbs usually involved are croire, penser, trouver, juger, estimer, considérer. Je trouve difficile de me faire des amis I find it difficult to make friends NOT *Je le trouve difficile de me faire des amis II considère important que tous ses amis soient prévenus He considers it important that all his friends be notified NOT *I1 le considère important que tous ses amis soient prévenus The le is absent in these cases because the construction is impersonal, and, while English requires 'it', French requires an absence of pronoun. Where the construction is personal (that is, where a person or thing is referred to), le, la, or les are required: Je trouve ce livre difficile à comprendre 1 find this book difficult to understand Je le trouve difficile à comprendre (le refers to 'the book') J'ai trouvé le soliste impossible à écouter I found I couldn't bear to listen to the soloist Je l'ai trouvé impossible à écouter (le refers to 'the soloist') (For more on this construction see Chapter 12.7.) 3.2.1 I Optional use of neutral le Neutral le is optional in the following environments: (a) With the verbs croire, penser, dire, vouloir, savoir when these are used as stock conversational responses to questions or statements by other people: Ils sont heureux? Oui, je (le) pense Are they happy? Yes, I think so Est-ce que vous viendrez ce soir? Non, je ne (le) crois pas Will you come this evening? No, I don't think so Elle revient directement de Londres. Oui, je (le) sais She has come straight back from London. Yes, I know 60 Personal and impersonal pronouns (b) In the second clause of a comparison (where the particle ne is also optional). Both are typical of formal written French: II est autre que je (ne) (le) croyais He is different from what I expected Un abonnement est moins cher que vous (ne) (le) pensez A subscription costs less than you think A son âge, il faut admettre que Maurice est plus naïf qu'il (ne) devrait (l')être When you realize how old he is, you have to admit that Maurice is more naïve than he should be 3.2.12 Reflexive use of me, te, se, nous, vous Where me, te, se, nous, vous refer to the subject of the verb to which they are attached, they are being used reflexively. This use can correspond to English 'my-, your-, him-, her-, it-, oneself; our-, your-, themselves': Michel adore se regarder dans les vitrines Michel loves looking at himself in shop windows Je me connais / know myself Vous vous critiquez trop You are too critical of yourselves (See also Chapter 8.7.1.) 3.2.13 Reciprocal se and cases of potential ambiguity When the subject is third person plural, se may also be interpreted as a 'reciprocal' pronoun, corresponding to English 'each other'. In some cases se is therefore ambiguous, having a 'reflexive' or 'reciprocal' interpretation, and the meaning may depend on the context: Les deux écrivains s'admirent depuis 20 ans is most likely to be: The two writers have admired each other for 20 years but could possibly be: The two writers have (each) admired themselves for 20 years Les deux amis se connaissent bien The two friends know themselves or each other well (See also Chapter 8.7.5.) 3.2.14 Benefactive me, te, se, nous, vous me, te, se, nous, vous may also be used to indicate that the subject 'benefits' from some action. This use, known as the 'benefactive', can often be paraphrased in English by 'for him-, her-, it-, oneself/themselves, etc.': Josée s'est acheté un nouvel ordinateur Josée bought herself a neiv computer Object pronouns 61 Jacques s'est commandé une bière Jacques ordered himself a beer J'ai hâte de rentrer et de me verser un Martini / can't wait to get home and pour myself a Martini Etienne et Madeleine se sont offert un baptême de l'air Etienne and Madeleine treated themselves to a first flight 3.2.15 se as an a l t e r n a t i v e to an English passive se may be used with a verb as an alternative to an English passive: Un collant se lave en deux minutes A pair of tights can be washed in two minutes Le Gamay se boit frais Gamay (light red wine) is best drunk chilled L'uni se vend bien cet hiver Plain colours are selling well this winter This usage is restricted to special circumstances. The sentence must describe a state of affairs and not an action and the verb must not suggest through its tense that the action takes place in a limited time span. (See also Chapter 8.7.6.) 3.2.16 me, te, se, nous, vous as p a r t of c e r t a i n verbs b u t w i t h no specific m e a n i n g me, te, se, nous, vous also normally accompany some verbs without any detectable reflexive, reciprocal or benefactive meaning: Robert s'est évanoui Robert fainted Elle se souvient de son arrière-grand-père She remembers her great-grandfather La foule s'est éloignée The crowd moved away (For a list of common pronominal verbs in which se has no detectable reflexive, reciprocal or benefactive meaning, see Chapter 8.7.3.) 3.2.17 E m p h a s i z i n g me, te, se, nous, vous by a d d i n g a p r o n o u n + même The reflexive and benefactive interpretations of me, te, se, nous, vous can be emphasized by the addition of one of the expressions moi-même, toi-même, luimême, elle-même, soi-même, eux-mêmes, elles-mêmes, etc.: Connais-toi, toi-même Know thyself Elle est grande maintenant: elle s'habille elle-même She's a big girl now, she dresses herself Puisque personne d'autre ne le fait, Suzette s'admire elle-même! Since no-one else does so, Suzette admires herself! De nos jours, malheureusement, il faut se soigner soi-même Nozvadays, unfortunately, you have to be your own doctor 62 Personal and impersonal pronouns 3.2.18 Emphasizing the reciprocal use of se by adding l'un l'autre The reciprocal interpretation of se can be made explicit by the addition of one of the phrases l'un(e) l'autre, l'un(e) à l'autre, les un(e)s les autres, les un(e)s aux autres, all with the meaning 'each other', 'one another'. l'un(e) l'autre or l'un(e) à l'autre are used when the subject refers to just two people or things: Les deux boxeurs se regardaient fixement l'un l'autre The two boxers were staring at each other Mes deux sœurs se copient l'une l'autre My two sisters copy one another les un(e)s les autres and les un(e)s aux autres are used when the subject refers to more than two people or things: Les équipiers se connaissent depuis longtemps les uns les autres The team members have known each other for a long time Les enfants se sont donné des petits cadeaux les uns aux autres The children gave each other small presents 3.2.19 Constructions which do not allow indirect object pronouns A small set of verbs and adjectives in French look as if they take indirect objects because they are followed by the preposition à, but in fact they do not allow preceding me, te, se, nous, vous, lui, leur, and require stressed pronouns to follow à: Il pense à Jean II pense à lui (NOT *I1 lui pense) He is thinking of John He is thinking of him II fait allusion à Marie II fait allusion à elle (NOT *I1 lui fait allusion) He is referring to Marie He is referring to her Elle aura affaire à Henri Elle aura affaire à lui (NOT ""Elle lui aura affaire) She will have to deal with Henri She will have to deal with him Ce sac est à Julien Ce sac est à lui (NOT *Ce sac lui est) This bag is juliens This bag is his The explanation for this behaviour seems to be that à can have two functions: to introduce indirect objects, and as an ordinary preposition. In the above examples, À is a preposition. Since lui, leur can only correspond to indirect objects lui, leur are not possible in these cases - only stressed pronouns can be used (see 3.3). Other common verbs followed by à which behave similarly are: en appeler à faire appel à avoir recours à recourir à faire attention à faire allusion à s'habituer à revenir à appeal to appeal to have recourse to have recourse to pay attention to allude to get used to come back to Object pronouns 63 rêver à songer à tenir à venir à dream of think of be fond of come to The set of verbs which behave in this way is quite small. We have listed most of them here. When the phrase introduced by à in these cases refers to things, rather than people, pre-verbal y may replace it. (See 3.2.21 and 3.2.23.) Verbs like these can be made reflexive or reciprocal by adding the appropriate forms lui(-même), elle(-même), etc., or l'un l'autre, etc.: Il pense à lui(-même) He is thinking of himself Elles auront affaire les unes aux autres They will have to deal with each other 3.2.20 Indirect object pronouns used in possessive constructions w i t h body parts The indirect object pronouns are used in a possessive construction in French with 'body parts' where English would use possessive determiners (like 'my', 'your', 'his', 'her', etc.): On lui a cassé le bras They broke his arm Elle s'était coupé le doigt She had cut her finger La sueur me coulait dans le dos Sweat was running down my back However, the indirect object construction is not possible with verbs which do not describe actions: Elle lui lave le visage She is washing his face BUT NOT: *Elle lui aime le visage She likes his face RATHER: Elle aime son visage This construction is also normally impossible with non-body-parts. However, it can be found in some regional varieties of French: Elle lui a cassé le magnétoscope She broke his video recorder (See also Chapter 2.2.8 and 8.7.2.) 3.2.21 Use of y y usually plays the same role in sentences as phrases which follow the verb and are introduced by prepositions like à, en, dans, sur, sous, etc.: 64 Personal and impersonal pronouns Je vais à Paris demain 7 am going to Paris tomorrow Elle vit dans une grande maison She lives in a large house Il a écrit son nom sur le cahier He wrote his name on the book J'y vais demain I'm going there tomorrow Elle y vit She lives there II y a écrit son nom He wrote his name there Although y can generally replace any phrase of this type, both concrete and abstract (as in the examples below), it is usually restricted to non-animate entities: Je pense souvent à la retraite I often think about retirement J'y pense souvent Elle est fidèle à ses principes She is faithful to her principles Elle y est fidèle Nous sommes entrés dans le débat We joined in the debate Nous y sommes entrés 3.2.22 Non-specific use of y In a number of common constructions, y is used without a very specific meaning being attached to it: Pensez-y! Je n'y suis pour rien J'y suis, j'y reste II y a ... Think about it! It's nothing to do with me Here I am and here I stay There is ... there are ... 3.2.23 Use of y in constructions w h e r e à does not introduce an indirect object y is normally used to refer to non-human objects which occur with verbs like penser à where à does not introduce an indirect object (see 3.2.19): Je pense à la guerre With a pronoun: J'y pense Je tiens à mes idées J'y tiens Je ferai très attention à vos affaires J'y ferai très attention I'm thinking of the war I'm thinking of it I'm sticking to my ideas I'm sticking to them I'll look after your belongings very carefully I'll look after them carefully y can also be found on rare occasions referring to people with such verbs: /'y pense 'I'm thinking of him'. 3.2.24 Use of en en is the pronoun used to replace phrases introduced by de which follow the verb. Where these include a noun, en can refer to both human and non-human nouns: Object pronouns 65 Il a déjà parlé de son idée He has already spoken about his idea Il en a déjà parlé He has already spoken about it Il a empêché lean-Pierre de travailler He stopped jean-Pierre working Il l'en a empêché He stopped him doing it Mémère s'occupe des enfants Grandma is looking after the children Mémère s'en occupe Grandma is looking after them Christine est fière de son frère Christine is proud of her brother Christine en est fière Christine is proud of him In s p o k e n French, w h e r e p e o p l e are referred to, it is quite likely that a stressed p r o n o u n following de will be u s e d instead (see 3.3.3): Mémère s'occupe d'eux Christine est fière de lui NB: An exception to the generalization that en can replace p h r a s e s i n t r o d u c e d by de is those verbs, s u c h as permettre, défendre a n d interdire, w i t h a construction u s i n g . . . à quelqu'un de faire quelque chose. The infinitive clause is treated as a direct object: Elle a permis à Jean-Marie d'emprunter sa voiture She allowed jean-Marie to borrow her car Elle le lui a permis (le means 'to borrow the car') She allowed him to do it Il a défendu à Suzanne de sortir ce soir He forbade Suzanne to go out this evening Il le lui a défendu (le means 'to go out this evening') He forbade her to do it 3.2.25 Use of en with numerals and quantifiers It is important to use en w h e n numerals [deux, trois, une dizaine, une douzaine, etc.) a n d quantifiers (beaucoup, trop, la plupart, etc.) are on their o w n after a v e r b . In English a p r o n o u n is n o r m a l l y absent in these cases, b u t in French en is obligatory: J'ai acheté une douzaine de roses / bought a dozen roses J'en ai acheté une douzaine / bought a dozen Il a commandé une douzaine d'huîtres He ordered a dozen oysters Il en a commandé une douzaine He ordered a dozen Elle produit beaucoup de documents She produces a lot of papers Elle en produit beaucoup She produces a lot J'ai acheté dix roses / bought ten roses J'en ai acheté dix I bought ten Elle a cueilli plusieurs tomates She picked several tomatoes Elle en a cueilli plusieurs She picked several Le comité avait demandé certains manuscrits The committee had asked for selected manuscripts Le comité en avait demandé certains The committee had asked for selected ones 66 Personal and impersonal pronouns Note that quelques 'some, a few' belongs to this group, but when en is present quelques becomes quelques-un(e)s: On voyait quelques voiles au loin We could see some sails in the distance On en voyait quelques-unes au loin (See also Chapter 6.9.2.) 3.2.26 y and en as an integral part of the verb structure There is a small set of verbs in French which involve y or en as an integral part of their structure without any detectable specific meaning. Common examples are: il y a . . . s'en aller en imposer s'en prendre à en revenir s'en tenir à en vouloir à en voilà un c'en est fait en découdre Où en sommes-nous? there is/are ... go away impress lay into get over stick to hold a grudge there's someone that's the end of to get into a fight Where did we get to? Il y avait trois hommes Yvette s'en va Elle en impose Il s'en est pris à Jacques Je n'en reviens pas Tenez-vous-en aux faits Je lui en veux En voilà un qui m'énerve C'en est fait de nos espoirs Il est toujours prêt à en découdre 3.2.27 Position of y and en with negative infinitives When y and en appear with negative infinitives, they normally appear directly adjacent to the infinitive, just as all other object pronouns do, but in formal written French they can split the negative: Most frequent: Il vaudrait mieux ne pas en parler It would be better not to speak of it Formal written French: Il vaudrait mieux n'en pas parler Most frequent: Elle avait décidé de ne plus y penser She had decided not to think about it any more Formal written French: Elle avait décidé de n'y plus penser 3.2.28 y and en in French w h e r e the English translation has no preposition The foreign learner of French should remember that the use of y and en is determined by the presence of à or de in the French verb phrase, and should not be misled by an English equivalent which does not have a preposition, e.g.: to use something BUT se servir de qch / often use it = Je m'en sers souvent Object pronouns 67 to need something BUT avoir besoin de qch I need it = J'en ai besoin to give something up BUT renoncer à qch 1 will give it up = J'y renoncerai to enter/join BUT entrer dans qch I joined the firm when I was twenty Je suis entré dans l'entreprise quand j'avais vingt ans J'y suis entré quand j'avais vingt ans to doubt something BUT douter de qch I doubt it = J'en doute But see the note to 3.2.24. 3.2.29 O r d e r of unstressed object pronouns when m o r e than one is present When two (and more rarely three) unstressed object pronouns appear before a verb, their order usually follows the pattern indicated in Table 3.E (known by generations of British schoolchildren as the 'soccer team' of pronouns with a ball (en), a goalkeeper (y), two full-backs (lui, leur), three midfield players (le, la, les) and five strikers (me, te, se, nous, vous): TABLE 3.E The order of unstressed object pronouns POSITION First me te se nous vous Second Third Fourth Fifth le la les lui y en leur Examples: Il me l'a dit He told me about it Elle le lui a dit She told him about it Elle nous les a donnés She gave them to us Nous le leur avons dit We told them about it Susanne m'en a parlé Susanne spoke to me about it Nous nous y sommes beaucoup attachés We have become very fond of it Nous y en avons beaucoup trouvé We found a lot of it there 68 Personal and impersonal pronouns Elle les y a souvent vus She has often seen them there Nous leur en avons promis beaucoup We have promised a lot of those to them Ne me le donne pas Don't give it to me Lui en auras-tu parlé avant demain? Will you have spoken to him about it before tomorrow? En voudriez-vous s'il y en avait? Would you want some if there were any? M'y accompagnerez-vous? Will you come there with me? Il y en a beaucoup There are a lot of them Nous y en avons trouvé plusieurs We found several of them there M o r e rarely three p r o n o u n s m a y occur in c o m b i n a t i o n w h e r e t h e first is a benefactive (i.e. indicates t h a t the action d e s c r i b e d by the v e r b is 'for the benefit' of the p e r s o n in question), a l t h o u g h this benefactive u s e is r e g a r d e d as colloquial: Tu vas me le lui écrire, et plus vite que ça! You will write it to her for me, and be quick about it! I n formal French the benefactive interpretation w o u l d b e e x p r e s s e d t h r o u g h other m e a n s : Tu vas me le lui écrire = Tu vas me faire le plaisir de le lui écrire 3.2.30 Restrictions on possible combinations A l t h o u g h Table 3.E describes in general the possible s e q u e n c e s of unstressed object p r o n o u n s , there are s o m e restrictions o n possible c o m b i n a t i o n s . N o pron o u n from the first c o l u m n (me, te, se, nous, vous) c a n n o r m a l l y a p p e a r in combination w i t h a p r o n o u n from the third c o l u m n (lui, leur): Whilst: Je vous présenterai Eve-Marie / will introduce Eve-Marie to you can, with two pronouns, become: Je vous la présenterai I will introduce her to you the sentence Je vous présenterai à Eve-Marie / will introduce you to Eve-Marie cannot become *Je vous lui présenterai I will introduce you to her Instead, you would use: Je vous présenterai à elle Whilst: Je vous recommande Jean-Paul / recommend Jean-Paul to you Object pronouns 69 can, with two pronouns, become: Je vous le recommande / recommend him to you the sentence Je vous recommande à Jean-Paul / recommend you to Jean-Paul cannot become *Je vous lui recommande I will recommend you to him Instead, you would use: Je vous recommande à lui Nor can any pronouns from within the same column appear together: Richard s'est joint à notre petit groupe Richard joined our little group cannot become: *I1 se nous est joint NOR *I1 nous s'est joint BUT ONLY: Richard s'est joint à nous Richard joined us 3.2.31 O r d e r of multiple pronouns with imperatives When two pronouns follow the verb in affirmative imperatives the ordering of pronouns is slightly different in that pronouns from the first column (me, te, se, nous, vous) follow pronouns from the second column (le, la, les). The other orders remain the same. Pronouns after imperatives are linked to the verb that governs them by hyphens: Donne-le-moi Give it to me (NOT *Donne-moi-le) Passez-les-nous Pass them over to us (NOT *Passez-nous-les) Nettoyez-la-moi Clean it for me (NOT *Nettoyez-moi-la) NB: Donne-moi-le, Passez-nous-les, etc., are often heard in informal spoken French. The foreign learner should avoid them, however. BUT: Donne-le-lui Give it to him Passez-les-leur Pass them over to them Parlez-lui-en Talk to him about it The pronouns me, te become moi, toi in affirmative imperatives when they are 70 Personal and impersonal pronouns the last pronoun in the sequence, but become m , t' before y or en: Donne-le-moi Donne-m'en Give it to me Give me some In these cases in informal spoken French it is not unusual to hear moi, toi I retained with a linking -z-, but the learner should avoid this usage: Parlez-moi-z-en Accroche-toi-z-y Talk to me about it Hang on to it In negative imperatives pronouns precede the verb, and the order of multiple pronouns is as indicated in the table: Ne me le donne pas Don't give it to me Ne me les nettoyez jamais! Don't you ever clean them for me! (i.e. I forbid you to ...) 3.2.32 Position of m o r e than one object pronoun w i t h faire etc. + infinitive When the verbs faire, laisser, envoyer, and perception verbs like voir, entendre, regarder, sentir axe followed by an infinitive, there are different ways of placing two pronouns depending on which verb is being used. If the verb is faire, both the pronouns come before faire (or avoir if faire is in a compound tense): Je les lui ferai manger I shall make him eat them Je les lui ai fait manger I made him eat them If the verb is laisser, envoyer or one of the perception verbs, there are the two possibilities illustrated below: Tu les lui laisses lire? Will you let her read them? Je le leur ai entendu dire / heard them say so Elle me l'envoya chercher She sent me to fetch it or She had it fetched for me Tu la laisses les lire? Will you let her read them? Je les ai entendus le dire I heard them say so Elle m'envoya le chercher She sent me to fetch it (For the structure of sentences involving faire, laisser, envoyer and perception verbs, see Chapter 12.3.8 and 12.3.9.) 3.2.33 Position of object pronouns w i t h devoir, pouvoir + infinitives After devoir, pouvoir (modal verbs) followed by an infinitive, object pronouns come before the infinitive: Je dois vous l'avouer tout de suite I must admit it to you immediately Ils peuvent nous le signaler dès son arrivée They can tell us about it as soon as he arrives 3.2.34 Object pronouns in coordinated clauses When clauses containing unstressed object pronouns are coordinated by et or ou, it is normally necessary to repeat the pronoun in the second clause: Stressed pronouns 71 Cela m'agace et m'ennuie That irritates and bores me Je les ai préconisés et les ai proposés 7 advocated and proposed them Elle l'a aidé et lui a donné de l'argent She helped him and gave him money However, where the two pronouns are identical in form and attached to an auxiliary (avoir or être), the second pronoun and auxiliary may be deleted together: Je les ai préconisés et proposés The pronouns must be identical, however, and both the pronoun and the auxiliary must be deleted together. Hence the following are impossible: NOT NOT NOT *Je les ai préconisés et ai proposés *Cela m'agace et ennuie *Elle l'a aidé et donné de l'argent In this last example it is not so much that the pronouns have different functions (le being a direct object and lui an indirect object), as that they differ in their surface forms. In the following example the first me is a direct object and the second me an indirect object, but the second me can be deleted with the auxiliary because the two me's are identical in surface form: Elle m'a aidé et m'a donné de l'argent Elle m'a aidé et donné de l'argent 3.3 Stressed pronouns TABLE 3.F Summary table of stressed pronouns Person Singular Plural First person moi me nous us Second person toi you vous you (plural or polite) Third person masculine feminine neutral non-specific lui elle cela, ça soi him her that oneself eux elles them them 3.3.1 Use of stressed pronouns for emphasis To highlight or emphasize a pronoun a common strategy is to 'double u p ' by the addition of a stressed pronoun. This can be done with: 72 Personal and impersonal pronouns Subject pronouns Toi, tu le crois peut-être mais lui, il ne le croit pas YOU might believe that, but HE doesn't Moi, je veux travailler ce soir, mais lui pas 7 want to work this evening, but HE doesn't The stressed subject p r o n o u n c o p y m a y e q u a l l y a p p e a r at the e n d of the clause w i t h the s a m e effect: Tu le crois peut-être, toi, mais il ne le croit pas, lui Je veux travailler ce soir, moi, rais pas l u i W h e n third p e r s o n subject p r o n o u n s are h i g h l i g h t e d or e m p h a s i z e d , the stressed p r o n o u n alone may, on occasions, be used: Lui pourrait le faire HE could do it Eux sauraient quoi dire THEY would know what to say This is n o t possible w i t h first a n d s e c o n d p e r s o n p r o n o u n s : NOT *Moi pourrais le faire (but Moi, je pourrais le faire) NOT *Toi saurais quoi dire (but Toi, tu saurais quoi dire) O n l y stressed p r o n o u n s a n d n o t u n s t r e s s e d subject p r o n o u n s can b e separated from the t e n s e - m a r k e d v e r b by a d v e r b s or parenthetical expressions: Lui, souvent, critique son professeur (NOT *I1 souvent critique son professeur) He often criticizes his professor Eux, par exemple, connaissent l'italien (NOT *Ils, par exemple, connaissent l'italien) They, for example, know Italian (For stressed p r o n o u n s i n t r o d u c e d by c'est/ce sont, s o m e t i m e s followed by relative clauses, see C h a p t e r 9.1.6.) Object pronouns A c o m m o n strategy is to a d d a second, stressed p r o n o u n at either the beginn i n g or the e n d of the clause: Lui, on le sait innocent HE is known to be innocent Elle se tient à l'écart, elle SHE is keeping well out of it Il me parle à moi (et pas à toi) He confides in ME (and not in you) Eux, on va leur demander de participer aux frais We'll be asking THEM for a financial contribution W h e n the unstressed p r o n o u n is an indirect object, the stressed p r o n o u n b e i n g u s e d to highlight it is p r e c e d e d by à only w h e n it is at the e n d of the clause: Stressed pronouns 73 Nous, elle nous a souvent écrit or Elle nous a souvent écrit, à nous She has often written to US Moi, cela me ferait plaisir or Cela me ferait plaisir, à moi That would give ME pleasure This 'doubling' of an unstressed pronoun by a stressed pronoun is also used to disambiguate ambiguous pronouns. In the following sentence leur is ambiguous between a masculine and a feminine interpretation: Simon leur a dit de partir Simon told them to leave But it can be disambiguated by the addition of stressed pronouns: Jean leur a dit à eux de partir Jean leur a dit à elles de partir 3.3.2 Stressed pronouns standing alone Stressed pronouns are normally used where the pronoun stands alone, or is in a phrase without a verb: Qui est là? Moi (NOT *je) Qui tu as vu? Lui (NOT *il) C'est elle qui t'aidera, pas moi (NOT *pas je) 3.3.3 Stressed pronouns used as the object of a preposition Stressed pronouns are the forms to use after all prepositions other than à (but see 3.2.19): Je suis venu malgré lui J'ai agi comme elle Ne le dites pas devant eux Elle s'est assise à côté de moi Je n'ai rien contre elles I came in spite of him I acted as she did Don't say it in front of them She sat down next to me I have nothing against them Phrases introduced by de are normally pronominalized using en, but, when humans are referred to, de followed by a stressed pronoun is more usual: Ma mère avait parlé de lui My mother had spoken of him 3.3.4 Stressed pronouns numerals with même, aussi, seul, autres, tous and Stressed pronouns are used in conjunction with the forms: même, aussi, seul, autres, tous and numerals (deux, trois, etc.): Les enfants avaient préparé la salade eux-mêmes The children had prepared the salad themselves Lui aussi aura des problèmes He too will have problems Eux seuls pourraient la convaincre They alone could persuade her Nous autres Européens, on se comprend We Europeans understand one another 74 Personal and impersonal pronouns Vous tous irez prendre une douche You will all go and have a shower N B : S o m e adjectives, like fier 'proud'', fidèle 'faithful', sûr ' s u r e ' are followed by a stressed p r o n o u n alone, a n d n o t by moi-même, lui-même, elles-mêmes, etc., when u s e d reflexively: Elle est très fière d'elle She is very proud of herself Je ne suis plus sûr de moi / am not sure of myself any more 3.3.5 Coordination of stressed pronouns O n l y stressed p r o n o u n s can b e c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r o r w i t h other noun« b y et, ou: Marianne et moi (NOT *je) en avons discuté à fond Marianne and I have discussed it in depth Lui (NOT ""il) et vous devrez vous mettre d'accord You and he ought to come to an agreement J'ai dit la même chose à vous et à lui (NOT *il) / said the same thing to you and him N B : T h e form the v e r b takes w i t h c o o r d i n a t e d subjects i n v o l v i n g stressed pron o u n s i s d e t e r m i n e d i n the following w a y : (a) If o n e of the p r o n o u n s is first p e r s o n , the v e r b will be first person: Lui et moi connaissons la famille He and I know the family Vous et moi connaissons la famille You and I know the family (b) In the absence of a first p e r s o n p r o n o u n , if o n e of t h e p r o n o u n s is second p e r s o n , the v e r b will b e s e c o n d p e r s o n : Vous et lui connaissez la famille You and he know the family (See also C h a p t e r 9.1.1.) A frequent w a y of e x p r e s s i n g t h e n o t i o n ' s o m e b o d y a n d I d i d X' is: Avec quelqu'un nous avons fait X Avec Christine nous avons ouvert les colis Christine and I opened the parcels 3.3.6 Stressed pronouns w i t h ne . . . que and ni . . . ni . . . ne Stressed p r o n o u n s are u s e d w i t h the expressions ne ... que, a n d ni... ni... ne: Ce n'est que lui It's only him Francine ne connaît qu'eux Francine only knows them Demonstrative pronouns 75 Pour moi, il n'y a qu'elle qui compte For me, she's the only one who matters Ni moi ni lui ne saurons quoi faire Neither I nor he will know what to do 3.3.7 Use of soi soi is a non-specific stressed pronoun which is normally used either when it refers to non-specific persons or things, or indefinite phrases like on, chacun, nul, aucun, personne, tout le monde. It tends to be used after prepositions, with -même, and after ne ... que: On pense à soi People think of themselves Pour une fois, personne ne songeait à soi For once, no-one was thinking of themselves On doit prendre la décision soi-même One must take the decision oneself 3.4 Demonstrative pronouns TABLE 3.G Summary table of demonstrative pronouns Proximate Non-proximate masc sing celui the one celui-ci this one; the latter celui-là that one; the former fern sing celle the one celle-ci this one; the latter celle-là that one; the former masc plur ceux the ones ceux-ci these ones; the latter ceux-là those ones; the former fern plur celles the ones celles-ci these ones; the latter celles-là those ones; the former Demonstrative pronouns are used where English uses 'the one'. They agree in gender with the noun they refer to: Sur ce mur nous voyons deux portraits. Celui qui est à droite représente le premier propriétaire de la maison On this wall we see two portraits. The one on the right is of the first owner of the house Nous avons acheté trois propriétés en Dordogne. Celle qui est près de Bergerac sera revendue la première We have bought three properties in the Dordogne. The one near Bergerac will be resold first Demonstrative pronouns are used particularly frequently to 'head' relative clauses (see Chapter 15.1): Ceux qui m'écoutent ce soir sauront que je n'ai rien à cacher Those who are listening to me tonight will know that I have nothing to hide 76 Personal and impersonal pronouns Je ne peux rien faire pour vous: il faut vous adresser à celui qui est responsable de l'administration I can do nothing for you: you must talk to the person who is responsible for administration (For ce qui, ce que, ce dont, etc., see C h a p t e r 15.9.) 3.4.1 Demonstrative pronouns with -ci and -là The forms celui-ci/celle-ci/ceux-ci/celles-ci and celui-là/celle-là/ceux-là/celles-là translate English 'this o n e / t h e s e o n e s ' a n d ' t h a t o n e / t h o s e o n e s ' respectively. These distinctions are m a i n l y u s e d in formal French: Des deux tissus qui sont sur le comptoir, là-bas, il est évident que celui-ci est plus cher que celui-là Of the two pieces of material on the counter over there, it's obvious that this one is dearer than that one Pour moi tous les diamants se ressemblent. Mais ceux-ci coûtent deux fois plus cher que ceux-là To me diamonds all look the same. But these ones here cost twice as much as those over there NB: The p r o n o u n s w i t h -ci can also m e a n ' t h e l a t t e r ' , a n d those w i t h -là 'the former': J'ai rencontré Pierre et Jean-Marie au café. Celui-là arrivait à l'instant d'un entretien avec le percepteur I met Pierre and Jean-Marie at the café. The former had just come from a meeting with the tax inspector Est-ce que vous désirez le flan ou la tarte aux pommes? Celle-ci sort directement du four Do you want the custard pie or the apple tart? The latter has just come out of the oven 3.5 Possessive pronouns TABLE 3.H First person Second person Third person Summary table of possessive pronouns msg le mien fsg la mienne mpl le nôtre mine la nôtre ours les miens fpl les miennes msg le tien fsg la tienne mpl les tiens fpl les tiennes msg le sien fsg la sienne mpl les siens fpl les siennes les nôtres le vôtre yours la vôtre yours les vôtres le leur his hers la leur theirs les leurs Possessive pronouns 77 Possessive pronouns agree in gender and number with a noun mentioned or implied elsewhere in the discourse: Voici ta clef. Rends-moi la mienne Here is your key. Give me back mine Il portait un chapeau qui n'était pas le sien He was wearing a hat which wasn't his Ils ont emporté mes notes, mais j'ai gardé les leurs They took away my notes, but I kept theirs Tu ne peux pas prendre ceux-là, ils ne sont pas à nous. Ce sont les leurs You can't take those, they don't belong to us. They are theirs. Vos idées ne sont pas toujours les nôtres Your ideas aren't always the same as ours les siens also has the special meaning of 'one's family': On travaille pour les siens 'People work for their families', and les nôtres can mean 'with us', as in: Elle n'était pas des nôtres 'She wasn't with us'. 4 Adjectives 4.1 Adjectives modifying the noun Most French adjectives follow the noun. But there is a small set which normally precede, and another set which regularly appear before and after the noun, often with a change of meaning. 4.1.1 Adjectives which normally follow the noun Since the majority of French adjectives normally follow the noun, English speakers really only need to learn those which can precede. However, here are some typical classes of adjectives which almost always follow the noun: Colour adjectives bleu, gris, vert, blanc, noir, violet, etc.: un manteau gris a grey coat une souris grise a grey mouse un gazon vert a green lawn un nuage noir a black cloud une veste verte a green jacket une robe noire a black dress Adjectives of nationality français 'French', britannique 'British', américain 'American', grec 'Greek', tunisien 'Tunisian', etc.: un livre français a French book de la bière française French beer du vin algérien Algerian wine du fromage grec Greek cheese une ville algérienne an Algerian town une antiquité grecque a Greek antique NB: Adjectives of nationality in French begin with a small letter, unlike English. When français, britannique, etc., are used as nouns, however, they begin with a capital letter. Compare: Elle est française 'She is French' with C'est une Française 'She is a Frenchwoman'. (See also 4.5 and Chapter 3.1.22.) Adjectives of shape or form: rond 'round', carré 'square', rectangulaire 'rectangular', oval 'oval', etc.: Adjectives modifying the noun 79 un bureau carré a square desk une boîte carrée a square box un plateau rond a round tray une table ronde a round table un cadre rectangulaire a rectangular frame une cour rectangulaire a rectangular courtyard Adjectives describing religious affiliation icon ' A n g l i c a n ' , catholique 'Catholic', musulman Protestant', orthodoxe ' O r t h o d o x ' , juif 'Jewish', etc.: un prêtre catholique a Catholic priest une jeune fille catholique a Catholic girl un père juif a Jewish father une mère juive a Jewish mother un garçon musulman a Muslim boy une jeune fille musulmane a Muslim girl 'Muslim', protestant Adjectives w h i c h relate to a time or place of origin une église médiévale une ambiance citadine un paysage rural un accent campagnard a medieval church an urban atmosphere a rural landscape a rustic accent Past and present participles un mariage forcé a forced marriage une grille rouillée a rusty gate un élève brillant a brilliant pupil une étoile brillante a brilliant star un voyage fatigant a tiring journey une voiture puissante a powerful car NB: Present participles, w h i c h are f o r m e d by a d d i n g -ant to the first p e r s o n plural stem of a v e r b (e.g. amus-ons/amusant, ralentiss-ons/ralentissant, devons/devant, etc.), c a n function b o t h as a v e r b in a s u b o r d i n a t e clause, a n d as an adjective. As verbs in s u b o r d i n a t e clauses p r e s e n t participles are invariable (see Chapter 17.9.2): En enfilant son manteau, elle a dit au revoir Putting her coat on, she said goodbye J'ai rencontré des touristes prenant l'air sur l'esplanade I met some tourists taking a stroll along the promenade As adjectives t h e y agree in g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r w i t h the n o u n t h e y modify, as in the examples above: une étoile brillante, (see C h a p t e r 17.9.1). A number of p r e s e n t participles are also spelled differently w h e n t h e y function as verbs in s u b o r d i n a t e clauses, a n d w h e n t h e y are adjectives. Some common cases are: 80 Adjectives Verb in subordinate clause Adjective convainquant différant équivalant fatiguant négligeant précédant convaincant différent équivalent fatigant négligent précédent convincing differing being equivalent to tiring neglecting preceding convincing different equivalent tiring negligent previous 4.1.2 Adjectives which normally occur before the noun autre beau/bel/belle bon/bonne bref/brève double haut/e joli/e mauvais/e nouveau/nouvel/nouvelle petit/e vaste vieux/vieil/vieille une autre histoire un bel homme un bon professeur un bref épisode un double whisky de hautes montagnes une jolie femme une mauvaise odeur une nouvelle maison un petit problème une vaste enceinte un vieux château another story a good-looking man a good teacher a brief episode a double whisky high mountains a pretty woman a bad smell a new house a small problem a vast arena an old castle 4.1.3 Adjectives which regularly occur before and after the noun, but w i t h a change of meaning The meaning given to a certain number of adjectives when they occur after a noun and when they occur after the verb être is the same: Cette maison est ancienne It's an old house But when these adjectives occur before the noun the meaning is different. Compare: La rue est bordée de maisons anciennes The Street is lined with old(-style) houses Son ancienne maison a été détruite His former house was destroyed When adjectives occur before the noun they tend to contribute to the meaning of the noun itself. So, un ancien soldat is someone who is 'old in the profession of soldiering', i.e. 'an old (ex-)soldier'. Un gros fumeur is not 'a fat smoker', but 'a heavy smoker' (un fumeur gros is 'a fat smoker'). Common adjectives which have different meanings when they precede or follow nouns are: certain d'un certain âge une vérité certaine an old boy/girl i.e. (ex-)pupil an old house a nice guy a courageous man middle-aged a certain truth cher mon cher ami une robe chère my dear friend an expensive dress brave un ancien élève une maison ancienne un brave type un homme brave Adjectives modifying the noun 81 chic un chic type une robe chic curieux une curieuse histoire une personne curieuse a nice guy a smart dress an odd story an inquisitive person dernier son dernier livre la semaine dernière his last book (latest) last week drôle une drôle d'histoire une histoire drôle an odd story a funny story fameux ton fameux problème un vin fameux the problem you keep on going on a delicious wine franc une franche idiote une personne franche a real idiot a frank person grand un grand homme un homme grand a great man a tall man gros un gros effort un homme gros a big effort a fat man jeune une jeune femme une femme jeune a young woman a woman who is not old méchant une méchante histoire une fille méchante a nasty business an unpleasant girl même toujours les mêmes histoires le jour même always the same stories /problems that very day pauvre un pauvre homme un homme pauvre a man you feel sorry for a man who isn't rich propre ma propre chambre une serviette propre my own bedroom a clean towel pure une pure illusion de race pure a complete illusion pure bred rare un rare moment de paix a precious moment of peace un moment rare de l'histoire an exceptional moment in history sale une sale histoire une nappe sale a nasty business a dirty tablecloth seul le seul inconvénient . . . un homme seul the only disadvantage ... a lonely man simple une simple question de . . . une question simple simply a matter of... an easy question triste une triste histoire une histoire triste a sorry story a sad story véritable un véritable problème un problème véritable a real problem (serious) a genuine problem (not invented) vert une verte réprimande une voiture verte a real dressing-down a green car vilain une vilaine action un enfant vilain a bad deed an ugly (or naughty) child NB: neuf and nouveau. Ma voiture neuve is likely to be 'my brand new car' (not 82 Adjectives second-hand), while ma nouvelle voiture is a car which is different from the one I had before (it may or may not be 'brand new'), feu 'late, deceased' can be used in two ways: feu la reine/la feue reine. Both mean 'the late queen', but note that in the first case feu does not agree with reine. Usually limited to legal papers. 4.1.4 Adjectives which normally follow the noun but can also precede, without significant changes in meaning Most adjectives which normally follow the noun can occur before it as well, without a significant change in the meaning of the adjective. Such prepositioning is usually for stylistic effect: to vary sentence structure or avoid having two or more adjectives following the same noun. The position before the noun is favoured where the adjective in some way measures or quantifies the meaning of the noun: un léger rhume une charmante soirée une forte odeur un misérable repas une importante augmentation a slight cold a delightful evening a strong smell a measly meal a large increase 4.1.5 Combinations of adjectives Multiple adjectives before the noun Cardinal numbers are usually the first in any combination of adjectives preceding a noun, but after that the order of adjectives is the same as it is in English: les deux premières semaines les quatre dernières jolies phrases au bon vieux temps une autre nouvelle maison un vrai beau grand château ce pauvre cher homme the first two weeks the last four pretty sentences in the good old days another new house a really beautiful large castle that poor dear man The exception to cardinal numbers occurring first is when a complex number is involved: Il m'a versé les derniers sept cents francs qu'il me devait He paid me the last seven hundred francs he owed me To avoid having a long string of adjectives before the noun, one or more may be combined with et, a n d / o r moved after the noun. To illustrate, 'a young pretty little cat' could be: un jeune et joli petit chat or un petit chat jeune et joli Multiple adjectives after the noun The order of adjectives after the noun is the mirror image of English. For example, 'the Spanish Civil War' becomes 'the War Civil Spanish': la guerre civile espagnole Similarly (these examples are from Waugh, 1977): des lignes parallèles invisibles invisible parallel lines Adjectives which follow verbs or verbal expressions 83 des milieux politiques américains des feuilles mortes humides un agent commercial français American political circles damp dead leaves a French business agent 4.1.6 Adjectives modified by adverbs and prepositional phrases When adjectives w h i c h n o r m a l l y p r e c e d e the n o u n are modified by a d v e r b s or prepositional p h r a s e s , t h e y m a y a p p e a r after the n o u n . The longer the m o d i fying expression, t h e m o r e likely this is: un bel homme un très bel homme un homme vraiment beau a handsome man a very handsome man a really handsome man un gros effort un effort démesurément gros a great effort an inordinately large effort une jolie figure une figure un peu trop jolie a pretty face a face which is a bit too pretty un grand jardin un jardin grand comme un mouchoir de poche a large garden a garden the size of your hand This also applies to s u p e r l a t i v e s (see 4.12.2): un bref aperçu le plus bref aperçu un aperçu des plus brefs a brief outline the briefest outline the briefest of outlines 4.1.7 Adjectives preceded by de When n o u n s are quantified by n u m b e r s , following adjectives m a y directly follow the n o u n or t h e y m a y be p r e c e d e d by de. T h e u s e w i t h de is f o u n d in informal French. For a n u m b e r of s p e a k e r s there is a difference in m e a n i n g b e t w e e n the two. W h e n de is present, the implication is that there w e r e m o r e of the things described b y the n o u n t h a n the n u m b e r indicates: Il y avait dix voyageurs de blessés There were ten travellers injured (implies that there were more than ten involved, but the rest weren't injured) Il y avait dix voyageurs blessés There were ten injured travellers (has no implication about whether there were other, non-injured travellers) J'ai une heure de libre aujourd'hui I have an hour free today (implies that all the other hours in my day are busy) J'ai une heure libre aujourd'hui I have a free hour today (has no implication about whether my other hours are busy or not) Note that the contrast in English is c a p t u r e d by w h e t h e r the adjective p r e c e d e s or follows the n o u n . 4.2 Adjectives which follow verbs or verbal expressions Some v e r b s a n d verbal expressions can be followed by adjectives. With the following v e r b s / v e r b a l expressions, adjectives m u s t agree i n n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r with the subject: 84 Adjectives avoir l'air être être considéré comme devenir se montrer paraître passer pour sembler to seem, appear to be to be thought of as to become to show oneself to be to appear to be considered to be to seem Elle est aussi belle que sa sœur She is as pretty as her sister Les enfants semblent énervés par ce temps The children seem over-excited by this weather Tous les membres de la famille passent pour pauvres AU the members of the family are thought to be poor W i t h the following v e r b s , m a i n l y those w h i c h express an opinion, adjectives m u s t agree i n n u m b e r a n d g e n d e r w i t h the direct object: croire considérer deviner imaginer s'imaginer to believe to consider to guess to imagine to imagine oneself traiter qn de trouver voir se voir to call sb sth to find to see to see oneself Je croyais la bataille perdue d'avance I thought the battle was already lost Je les devine un peu fâchés par cette histoire I guess they are a little bit annoyed by this affair Vous les voyez toujours petits; mais ils ont grandi You see them as if they were still little; but they've grown up Les enfants traitaient les petits voisins de lâches The children were calling the little neighbours cowards 4.3 Adjectives with complements S o m e adjectives can be followed by n o u n s , p r o n o u n s or infinitives, w i t h a linki n g de or à: Ils étaient blancs de colère They were white with anger Ces jeunes femmes sont très sûres d'elles These young women are very self-confident Je suis très heureux de faire votre connaissance I am very pleased to meet you Ce problème est facile à résoudre This problem is easy to solve (For the u s e of de w i t h adjectives followed by n o u n s see C h a p t e r 13.15.2; and followed by infinitives see C h a p t e r 12.7.) Adjectives used as nouns 85 4.4 Indefinite and negative noun phrases w i t h adjective complements Indefinite n o u n p h r a s e s like quelque chose ' s o m e t h i n g ' , quelqu'un ' s o m e o n e ' , ceci 'this', cela 'that', quoi? ' w h a t ? ' , a n d n e g a t i v e expressions like rien ' n o t h i n g ' , personne 'no-one', can be followed by adjectives linked by de. The adjective is invariable in this construction: quelque chose de bon quelqu'un d'intéressant rien de plus facile Quoi de neuf? something, someone interesting nothing easier What's new? 4.5 Adjectives used as nouns In French it is a l m o s t a l w a y s possible to convert an adjective into a n o u n simply by placing an article in front of it: Je ne veux que les mûrs Nous prendrons les grands Les petits sont déjà partis Les gentils gagnent à la fin Les méchants sont punis J'adore le rustique Elle aurait préféré du moderne Le plus énervant, c'est sa voix Le rouge te va bien L'important c'est de partir tôt / only want the ripe ones We'll take the big ones The small ones have already gone The goodies win in the end The baddies are punished I love rural styles She would have preferred something up-to-date It's her voice that is the most annoying thing Red suits you The important thing is to leave early As can be seen, b e c a u s e English d o e s n o t p e r m i t the creation of n o u n s w i t h such freedom, translations either h a v e to u s e v a g u e t e r m s like ' o n e s ' , 'thing(s)' or it is n e c e s s a r y to r e p h r a s e t h e sentence. NB: C o m p a r e the p o s t - v e r b a l u s e of adjectives as n o u n s w i t h the post-verbal use of n u m b e r s a n d quantifiers as n o u n s : Nous prendrons les grands Nous en prendrons deux We'll take the big ones We'll take two Nous avons acheté des ovales Nous en avons acheté plusieurs We bought some oval ones We bought several With n u m b e r s a n d quantifiers en m u s t be inserted in front of the v e r b (see Chapter 3.2.25 a n d C h a p t e r 6.1.7). Adjectives of n a t i o n a l i t y a n d n o u n s of nationality are u s u a l l y identical in form when u s e d as adjectives or n o u n s EXCEPT that the n o u n s are w r i t t e n w i t h capital letters: Elle est américaine She is American C'est une Américaine She is an American Tout Français qui se respecte aime le fromage Every true French person loves cheese Elle est de nationalité française She is of Trench nationality 86 Adjectives 4.6 Adjectives used as adverbs A limited number of adjectives can also be used as adverbs. In this case they are invariable (see also C h a p t e r 5.3): bas bon cher clair droit dur faux fin fort grand jeune juste lourd menu vieux They're talking very quietly Ils parlent bas The coffee smells good Le café sent bon That's too expensive Cela coûte trop cher I can't make much sense of his argument Je n'arrive pas à y voir clair dans son raisonnement Ils marchent droit They are walking straight They work hard Ils travaillent dur They sing out of tune Elles chantent faux Il faut couper le jambon très fin You must slice the ham very thinly They're talking too loudly Ils parlent trop fort They attempted too much Ils ont vu trop grand They dress in a youthful manner Ils s'habillent jeune You understood from the beginning Tu as vu juste dès le début That act weighs heavily on my Cet acte pèse lourd sur ma conscience conscience meat cut up finely de la viande hachée menu They look old Ils font vieux 4.7 Masculine and feminine forms of adjectives The general rule is that an -e is added to the masculine form of adjectives to produce the feminine form. 4.7.1 A change in w r i t t e n , but not spoken, French In cases where the masculine form ends in one of the following vowels or consonants, there is a change in the written form but not in the spoken form: -u Masculine Feminine absolu aigu ambigu contigu absolue aiguë ambiguë contiguë absolute high (sound) ambiguous contiguous NB: In the case of aigu, ambigu, contigu, a diaresis (ë) is added to the feminine -e in written French to indicate that the -u sound is maintained in spoken French (aigue would be pronounced rather like English 'egg' otherwise; compare long/longue). -é fermé fermée closed -er fier cher amer fière chère amère proud expensive bitter NB: In these cases, where the final r is pronounced in the masculine, a grave accent is added to the first written e. Masculine and feminine forms of adjectives 87 -l hardi hardie bold favori favorite favourite public turc publique turque grec grecque public Turkish Greek direct sûr pur directe sûre pure certain pure -al national général hivernal final nationale générale hivernale finale national general winter final -el personnel professionnel passionnel cruel nul personnelle professionnelle passionnelle cruelle nulle personal professional emotive cruel no- NB: Exception: -c NB: c is m a i n t a i n e d in: -ct -r -ul direct NB: In these cases, it is -le w h i c h is a d d e d a n d n o t just -e. espagnol puéril «vil espagnole puériie civile Spanish cMdish civil NB: In these cases t h e / is p r o n o u n c e d in the masculine. By contrast in t h e following adjectives the final -il is p r o n o u n c e d as indicated: gentil [-i] gentille [-ij] kind pareil [-ej] pareille [-ej] similar vermeil [-ej] vermeille [-ej] bright red 4.7.2 A change in w r i t t e n and spoken French In the following cases, a d d i t i o n of feminine -e to the w r i t t e n m a s c u l i n e form also c o r r e s p o n d s to the p r o n u n c i a t i o n of a final c o n s o n a n t in s p o k e n French: Addition of -e w i t h o u t further changes: petit cuit petite cuite small cooked gris mauvais grise mauvaise grey bad Addition of -e and d o u b l i n g of the final consonant "as bas basse gras grasse épais épaisse las lasse -et muet muette coquet coquette -ot sot sotte low fatty thick tired mute cute stupid 88 Adjectives Addition of -e and a grave accent complet -et inquiet secret discret concret replet complète inquiète secrète discrète concrète replète complete worried secret discreet concrete plump 4.7.3 A change f r o m a nasal vowel to an oral vowel In the following cases, addition of -e, and sometimes the doubling of the final consonant, corresponds to a change from a nasal vowel to an oral vowel + consonant in spoken French: grand paysan partisan ancien enfantin européen féminin fin grande paysanne partisane ancienne enfantine européenne féminine fine big peasant biased old childlike European feminine fine mignon bon mignonne bonne pretty good brun opportun brune opportune brown opportune NB: In some cases -ne is added and not just -e. 4.7.4 A change in the final consonant or syllable In the following cases, addition of final -e is accompanied by a change in the final consonant or the whole of the final syllable: -ais/aîche frais fraîche fresh -aux/ausse faux fausse false -er/ère premier dernier étranger première dernière étrangère first last foreign -eux/euse heureux amoureux nerveux affreux peureux heureuse amoureuse nerveuse affreuse peureuse happy in love nervous frightful frightened -eux/-eille vieux vieille old -eur/euse voleur flatteur trompeur moqueur voleuse flatteuse trompeuse moqueuse joueur joueuse dishonest flattering misleading likes to make fun of others playful vengeur vengeresse vengeful -eur/eresse Plural forms of adjectives 89 -eur/rice consolateur observateur créateur conservateur consolatrice observatrice créatrice conservatrice consoling observant creative conservative -eau/elle nouveau beau jumeau nouvelle belle jumelle new beautiful twin -c/che sec blanc franc sèche blanche franche dry white frank -f/ve neuf actif bref créatif vif neuve active brève créative vive new active brief creative lively -in/igne bénin malin bénigne maligne benign sharp, clever -ong/ongue long longue long -ou/olle mou fou molle folle soft mad douce rousse gentle red-haired -oux/ouce/oussÊ 1 doux roux NB: beau, fou, mou, nouveau, vieux also have a special masculine form - bel, fol, mol, nouvel, vieil - which appears when a following noun begins with a vowel or a so-called 'silent h': un un un un un bel effet fol espoir nouvel homme mol effort vieil hélicoptère a fine effect a vain hope a new, a changed man a weak effort an old helicopter 4.7.5 No change in w r i t t e n or spoken French In cases where the adjective already ends in -e, there is no change: manifeste sale tranquille utile masculine and feminine masculine and feminine masculine and feminine masculine and feminine obvious dirty calm useful 4.8 Plural forms of adjectives 4.8.1 T h e normal case In most cases -s is added to the singular form of the adjective and there is no change in the pronunciation: Elle est contente She is happy II est content He is happy Elles sont contentes They (fi are happy Ils sont contents They (m) are happy 90 Adjectives La veste est rouge The jacket is red Les vestes sont rouges The jackets are red Le sac est rouge The bag is red Les sacs sont rouges The bags are red If t h e w o r d e n d s in -s or -x, it will be invariable: Notre fils est heureux Our son is happy Nos fils sont heureux Our sons are happy Le cahier est gris The exercise book is grey Les cahiers sont gris The exercise books are grey 4.8.2 Adjectives which end in -eau add x rather than s Un nouveau magnétoscope A new video-tape recorder De nouveaux magnétoscopes New video-tape recorders Un beau cadre A beautiful setting De beaux cadres Beautiful settings 4.8.3 Adjectives which end in -al generally change to -aux Le chanteur principal The principal singer Des chanteurs principaux Principal singers Le principe général The general principle Des principes généraux General principles Un homme marginal A man on the margins (of society) Des hommes marginaux Men on the margins (of society) Un point de vue normal A normal point of view Des points de vue normaux Normal points of view Exceptions: banal, bancal, fatal, glacial, naval, natal Un discours banal A banal speech Des discours banals Banal speeches Un buffet bancal A sideboard with a damaged leg Des buffet bancals Sideboards with damaged legs Un revirement fatal A fatal change of heart Des revirements fatals Fatal changes of heart Un vent glacial A very cold wind Des vent glacials Very cold winds Un chantier naval A naval dockyard Des chantiers navals Naval dockyards Mon pays natal My home country Des pays natals Home countries Adjectives w h i c h alternate: idéal matinal pascal astral idéals and idéaux matinals and matinaux pascals and pascaux astrals and astraux ideal early morning related to Easter related to stars Invariable adjectives 91 4.9 Adjective agreement with nouns 4.9.1 Adjectives agreeing with just one noun Adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun whose meaning they modify. This is usually straightforward when there is just one noun: d'une voix hésitante in a faltering voice ce fameux dimanche that famous Sunday L'eau était froide The water was cold Il lançait aux passants He shot rapid and des regards rapides et insistants insistent glances at the passers-by NB: A plural noun might be modified by a string of singular adjectives, depending on the meaning: Les économies russe, bulgare et roumaine rencontrent de graves difficultés 'The Russian, Bulgarian and Romanian economies are (each) encountering serious difficulties'. 4.9.2 An adjective agreeing w i t h nouns linked by et, ou or ni The adjective may agree with the closest noun only: une table et une chaise bleue a table and a blue chair The adjective may agree with all the nouns, in which case it will be plural, and will be feminine only if all the nouns are feminine. Otherwise it will be masculine: une table et une chaise bleues Il ne portait ni de veste ni de pantalon bleus un stylo ou un cahier bleus a blue table and chair He was wearing neither a blue jacket nor a blue pair of trousers a blue pen or exercise book 4.9.3 An adjective agreeing with nouns linked by de The adjective may agree with the first or the second noun, depending on the meaning: un groupe de chanteuses talentueuses une bande de voyous agressive des bains de mer fréquents un geste de générosité déplacée a group of talented female singers an aggressive gang of layabouts frequent dips in the sea an act of misplaced generosity NB: un/une drôle de can be used adjectivally meaning 'weird', 'strange'. Its gender is determined by the following noun: une drôle d'idée 'a strange idea', un drôle de type 'a weird bloke'. 4.10 Invariable adjectives A number of adjectives do not change either in relation to gender or to number. It is sometimes argued that these are nouns being used adjectivally. un pull marron a brown pullover un carton orange an orange box une jupe marron a brown skirt une voiture orange an orange car des chaussures marron brown shoes des rideaux orange orange curtains 92 Adjectives une jupe crème a cream skirt un lecteur de cassettes bon marché une planche à roulettes bon marché des fruits bon marché des sous-vêtements crème cream underwear un pull cerise une tapisserie cerise des uniformes cerise a cherry pullover cherry-coloured wallpaper cherry-coloured uniforms un chemisier crème a cream blouse a cheap cassette player a cheap skateboard cheap fruit O t h e r invariable adjectives: angora baba bath cucu gaga gnagnan kaki pop porno riquiqui rococo snob sympa angora flabbergasted great twee nuts childish, immature khaki pop pornographic inadequate (too small, too poor etc. depending on context) rococo snobbish friendly NB: chic is invariable for g e n d e r but agrees for n u m b e r : un tailleur chic a smart suit une robe chic a smart dress des vêtements chics smart clothes 4.1 I C o m p o u n d adjectives Like c o m p o u n d n o u n s (see C h a p t e r 1.2.11) c o m p o u n d adjectives can be m a d e u p i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s . Their internal s t r u c t u r e d e t e r m i n e s t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e y agree w i t h the n o u n they modify. 4.1 I.I Adjective-adjective compounds W h e r e adjectives are c o o r d i n a t e d , b o t h agree w i t h the n o u n : sourd-muet deaf-mute Les enfants sourds-muets ont fait des progrès exceptionnels The deaf-mute children have made exceptional progress aigre-doux sweet and sour J'adore les sauces aigres-douces 1 adore sweet and sour sauces nouveau-né new-born Les bébés nouveaux-nés sont très fatigants pour leurs parents New-born babies are very exhausting for their parents dernier-né Les filles dernières-nées profitent de la présence de leurs frères et sœurs Last-born girls take advantage of the presence of their brothers and sisters last-born grand-ouvert wide open Ils dorment la bouche grande-ouverte They sleep with their mouths wide open Exception: w h e r e t h e first adjective e n d s in -i, -o, o n l y t h e s e c o n d p a r t agrees: tragi-comique tragi-comedy Toutes ses pièces étaient tragi-comiques All her plays were tragi-comédies Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives 93 franco-allemand Franco-German Dans le cadre de l'union européenne, les accords franco-allemands ont duré plus de trente ans Within the European framework, the Franco-German agreements have lasted for more than thirty years 4.11.2 Adverb-adjective compounds Where an a d v e r b a n d an adjective are c o m b i n e d , the a d v e r b (always the first element) r e m a i n s invariable a n d the adjective agrees: haut placé highly placed bien intentionné well-intentioned avant-coureur early-warning Je connais des fonctionnaires haut placés qui pourraient nous aider I know some highly placed civil servants who could help us Ce sont toujours les personnes bien intentionnées qui créent le plus de problèmes It's always the well-intentioned people who cause the most problems Voilà les signes avant-coureurs d'une maladie grave There are the early-warning signs of a serious illness 4.11.3 Colour adjective compounds Combinations of colour adjectives r e m a i n invariable: des cheveux châtain clair une veste bleu foncé une mer vert-bouteille une couverture gris-rouge light-brown hair a dark-blue jacket a bottle-green sea a red-grey cover 4.11.4 Compounds involving demi-, nu- and miIn combinations i n v o l v i n g demi-, nu- a n d mi-, demi- a n d nu- are invariable before the n o u n , b u t a g r e e w h e n t h e y follow it: une demi-heure a half-hour but une heure et demie an hour and a half une demi-page a half-page une page et demie a page and a half nu-tête bareheaded sortir tête nue to go out without a hat nu-pieds barefoot sortir pieds nus to go out barefooted mi- can only occur before t h e n o u n a n d is invariable: à mi-temps la mi-juin la mi-saison la mi-journée mi-américain mi-clos part-time (e.g. work) halfway through June middle season (Spring, Autumn) the middle of the day half-American half-open, half-closed 4.12 Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives 4.12.1 Comparatives I n English, adjectives c a n b e u s e d t o c o m p a r e o n e entity w i t h a n o t h e r b y a d d i n g -er, or p u t t i n g ' m o r e ' or 'less' in front: ' b i g g e r ' , 'lighter', ' m o r e d a n g e r o u s ' , 'less 94 Adjectives interesting'. In French, the c o m p a r a t i v e forms of adjectives are created by p u t t i n g plus ' m o r e ' or moins 'less' in front of t h e m . The adjective stays in the p o s i t i o n it w o u l d n o r m a l l y occupy, before or after the n o u n , a n d agrees w i t h the n o u n as u s u a l (see 4.9): Il désire avoir une plus grande voiture He wants to have a bigger car Je n'ai jamais fait de traversée plus dangereuse I have never made a more dangerous crossing Ce film est moins intéressant pour les enfants This film is less interesting for children Elle semble moins malade aujourd'hui She seems less ill today plus a n d moins m a k e u n e q u a l c o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n entities. A related construction is aussi ' a s ' (which often change s to si after a negation), w h i c h m a k e s a c o m p a r i s o n of e q u a l i t y b e t w e e n entities: II désire avoir une aussi grande voiture He wants to have as big a car Le courant n'est pas si dangereux par ici The current isn't as dangerous here N B : A d d i n g aussi to a p r e c e d i n g adjective d o e s n o t alter its position. This contrasts w i t h English. C o m p a r e : une aussi grande voiture w i t h 'as b i g a car'. In clauses d e p e n d e n t on n o u n s modified by c o m p a r a t i v e adjectives w i t h plus a n d moins, w r i t e r s often insert ne, le or ne le in formal w r i t t e n French: Ces virages sont plus dangereux qu'on (ne) (le) pense These bends are more dangerous than one thinks Le film est moins intéressant qu'on (ne) (l')espérait The film is less interesting than we hoped I n clauses d e p e n d e n t o n n o u n s modified b y c o m p a r a t i v e adjectives w i t h aussi, only le m a y be inserted in formal w r i t t e n French: La charge de travail est aussi lourde que je le croyais The workload is as demanding as I thought T h e r e are t w o irregular c o m p a r a t i v e forms o f adjectives w h i c h are u s e d p r o d u c t i v e l y in French: meilleur/-e pire better (comparative of bon 'good') worse (comparative of mauvais 'bad') meilleur is u s e d e v e r y w h e r e t h a t bon could b e , a n d agrees w i t h the n o u n it m o d ifies: Il désire avoir une meilleure place He wants to have a better seat Ces marchandises sont meilleures These mods are better Comparative and superlative forms of adjectives 95 Le texte est meilleur maintenant que tu l'as raccourci The text is better now you have shortened it plus bon 'more good' is only possible where English can use 'more good', but, again as in English, the form is rather unusual: Il est plus bon qu'intelligent He is more good than intelligent (For the distinction between meilleur and mieux see Chapter 5.6.6.) pire and plus mauvais both exist, plus mauvais is the most commonly used form, but pire will be used where the comparison is between two things which are already both bad: Le remède est pire que le mal The cure is worse than the illness or to refer to abstract nouns: La vérité est pénible, mais le mensonge est pire Truth hurts, but lying is worse 4.12.2 Superlatives In English, adjectives can be used to describe the best or worst of something by adding '-est' or putting 'most' or 'least' in front of them: 'biggest', 'lightest, 'most dangerous', 'least interesting'. These are superlative forms of adjectives. In French the superlative forms of adjectives are created by putting the definite article - le, la, les - in front of the comparative forms: la plus grande voiture 'the biggest car', la plus forte odeur 'the strongest smell'. When adjectives follow the noun, this means that there are two definite articles, one before the noun and one before the comparative form of the adjective: la voiture la plus puissante 'the most powerful car', les virages les plus dangereux 'the most dangerous bends'. Note that the article agrees in gender and number with the noun: C'était le plus grand joueur de tous He was the greatest player of all Elle est la moins ambitieuse de sa famille She is the least ambitious in her family C'est la route la plus dangereuse de la région It's the most dangerous road in the region NB: 'in' after superlative adjectives is usually de: la route la plus dangereuse de la région, la moins malade de sa famille. (See Chapter 13.15.3.) There are three irregular superlative forms of adjectives which are used productively in French: le/la/les meilleur(e)(s) le/la/les pire(s) le/la/les moindre(s) the best (superlative of bon 'good') the worst (superlative of mauvais 'bad') the least (superlative of petit 'small') 96 Adjectives The c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h meilleur a n d pire are u s e d are the s a m e as those described in 4.12.1: Notre chef de cuisine est le meilleur de la ville Our chef is the best in town Elle porte les meilleurs vêtements She wears the best clothes Cette solution est la pire des trois proposées This solution is the worst of the three proposed Le pire, c'était qu'elle voulait revenir The worst thing was that she wanted to come back le/la/les moindre(s) is u s e d in semi-fixed expressions, a n d w i t h abstract n o u n s : le principe du moindre effort the principle of least effort Ils ont essayé de suivre la politique du moindre mal They tried to follow the policy which would do the least harm W h e r e concrete n o u n s are involved, h o w e v e r , le/la/les plus petit(e)(s) is u s e d : Il a choisi le plus petit diamant He chose the smallest diamond W h e n adjectives w h i c h n o r m a l l y p r e c e d e n o u n s are u s e d in a superlative form, they m a y follow the n o u n t h e y modify o n the g r o u n d s that they are 'too l o n g ' to a p p e a r in front of the n o u n (see 4.1.6): un bref aperçu a brief outline le plus bref aperçu or l'aperçu le plus bref the briefest outline un jeune homme a young man le plus jeune homme or l'homme le plus jeune the youngest man 4.13 Subjunctive versus indicative in clauses dependent on a superlative adjective C l a u s e s d e p e n d e n t on n o u n s modified by a superlative adjective h a v e a v e r b in the subjunctive if the construction claims a u n i q u e status for the n o u n . For example: Ils ont acheté le plus grand sapin de Noël qu'ils aient pu trouver They bought the biggest Christmas tree that they could find (They couldn't find a bigger tree, so it is unique) But w h e r e the construction d o e s n o t claim a u n i q u e status for the n o u n , the v e r b in the d e p e n d e n t clause is in the indicative: Ils ont acheté le plus grand sapin de Noël qu'ils ont pu transporter dans leur voiture They bought the biggest Christmas tree that they could take in their car (there is no claim that it is the biggest Christmas tree available) (For m o r e on this construction see C h a p t e r s 11.1.8 a n d 15.11.3.) Absolute use of the superlative 97 4.14 Absolute use of the superlative One way of translating into French expressions like 'the simplest of all', 'the most interesting imaginable' (known as 'absolute superlatives') is to put the expression des plus in front of the adjective: des plus simple(s), des plus intéressants). In this construction the adjective must agree in gender with the noun it modifies, but if the noun is singular the adjective may be either singular or plural: C'était une journée des plus intéressante(s) It was the most interesting of days C'était un voyage des plus intéressant(s) It was the most interesting trip imaginable In modern French the plural form is probably the more frequent of the two. Other ways of expressing an absolute superlative are: Ce raisonnement est tout ce qu'il y a de plus simple This line of argument is of the simplest kind Un raisonnement on ne peut plus simple The simplest line of argument of all Il préfère des solutions les plus simples possible (possible is invariable in this construction) He prefers the simplest possible solutions 5 Adverbs 5.1 Function of adverbs A d v e r b s are w o r d s or p h r a s e s of invariable form w h i c h modify the m e a n i n g of w o r d s , p h r a s e s or w h o l e sentences: Il est entré dans un monde étrangement silencieux He entered a strangely silent world (étrangement modifies just silencieux; it is the silence which is strange, not the person or the world he enters) J'ai entendu un bruit dehors I heard a noise outside (dehors modifies just entendre un bruit; it indicates where the noise was, not where the person hearing it was) Soudain j'ai entendu un bruit Suddenly I heard a noise (soudain modifies the sentence and expresses the suddenness of the whole event) 5.2 Formation of adverbs with the ending -ment 5.2.1 Adverbs ending in -ment derived f r o m the feminine f o r m of an adjective Most adverbs ending in -ment are formed from the feminine form of a corre sponding adjective: Adjective affreux clair distinct doux mou naturel public professionnel sec sûr vif Feminine Adverb awful clear distinct gentle soft natural public professional dry sure alive affreuse claire distincte douce molle naturelle publique professionnelle sèche sûre vive affreusement awful clear clairement distinct distinctement gentle doucement soft mollement naturellement natural public publiquement professional professionnellement sèchement dry sure sûrement alive vivement awfully clearly distinctly gently softly naturally publicly professionally drily surely lively kind gentille kind kindly Exception: gentil gentiment A l t h o u g h -ment c o r r e s p o n d s b r o a d l y to English -ly, French is m u c h less prod u c t i v e t h a n English. Often English -ly a d v e r b s m u s t be translated by p h r a s e s (see 5.5). Formation of adverbs with the ending -ment 99 5.2.2 Adverbs ending in -ment derived f r o m t h e masculine f o r m of an adjective Where an adjective ends in -/' (not -oi), -é, or -u (not -eau or -ou), the adverb is formed from the masculine form: Adjective absolu ambigu aisé joli Feminine Adverb absolute ambiguous easy pretty true absolue ambiguë aisée jolie vraie absolute ambiguous easy pretty true absolument absolutely ambigument ambiguously aisément easily joliment prettily vraiment truly cheerful gaie cheerful gaiement Exception: gai cheerfully Seven adjectives which end in -u but add a circumflex accent in the adverbial form are: assidu continu cru dû goulu incongru indu assiduous continuous crude owed greedy incongruous inappropriate assidue continue crue due goulue incongrue indue assiduous continuous crude owed greedy incongruous inappropriate assidûment continûment crûment dûment goulûment incongrûment indûment assiduously continuously crudely duly greedily incongruously inappropriately 5.2.3 Adverbs ending in -amment and -eminent derived f r o m adjectives ending in -ant or -ent Adjectives ending in -ant and -ent form the adverb with -amment and -emment, respectively: Adjective abondant apparent brillant constant courant précédent prudent violent vaillant Adverb abundant apparent brilliant constant current preceding prudent violent valorous abondamment apparemment brillamment constamment couramment précédemment prudemment violemment vaillamment abundantly apparently brilliantly constantly fluently beforehand prudently violently with valour There are three forms w h i c h do n o t follow this p a t t e r n exactly: lent présent véhément slow present vehement lentement présentement véhémentement slowly presently vehemently NB: véhémentement is quite rare, and avec véhémence is usually preferred. Three forms follow the pattern, but the present participles from which they derive no longer exist in modern French: précipiter to precipitate (précipitant - old French) précipitamment precipitately 100 Adverbs noter to note (notant - old French) notamment notably (scire - old French/Latin) sciemment knowingly 5.2.4 Adverbs ending in -(é)ment derived f r o m past participles Adverbs can also be formed in a similar way from the masculine form of past participles: Verb aveugler conformer forcer préciser to blind to conform to force to make precise Past participle Adverb aveuglé conformé forcé précisé aveuglément conformément forcément précisément blindly in order necessarily precisely In a similar, but irregular, vein we find: impuni unpunished impunément with impunity 5.2.5 Adverbs ending in -ément derived f r o m adjectives ending in -e A small number of adverbs ending in -ément have been created from adjectives ending in -e: some always end in -e, others are the feminine form of adjectives: Adjectives which always end in -e Adjective énorme immense intense uniforme commode Adverb enormous immense intense uniform useful énormément immensément intensément uniformément commodément enormously immensely intensely uniformly usefully probable real probablement véritablement probably really Exceptions probable véritable F e m i n i n e forms Adjective commun confus importun obscur opportun profond profus common embarrassed disagreeable obscure appropriate deep profuse Feminine Adverb commune confuse importune obscure opportune profonde profuse communément confusément importunément obscurément opportunément profondément profusément commonly embarrassedly disagreeably obscurely appropriately deeply profusely (literary) 5.2.6 Adverbs ending in -ment derived f r o m words no longer in the language Some adverbs ending in -ment are derived from words which no longer exist in the language: Adjective Feminine Adverb bref brief (brief - old French) brève brièvement briefly Adjectives used as adverbs without addition of -ment 101 grave serious (grief - old French) grave grièvement seriously traître treacherous (traîtreux - old French) traîtresse traîtreusement treacherously (journel - old French) journellement daily (nuitantre - old French) nuitamment nightly NB: grief'is still used in certain set expressions: faire grief à quelqu'un de quelque chose 'to hold something against somebody', formuler des griefs 'to express grievances'. 5.2.7 Adverbs ending in -ment derived f r o m nouns There are a few adverbs ending in -ment which are derived from nouns and function like degree adverbs (see 5.6.2). These would be used only in spoken French: vachement in particular is used in very informal spoken French: bougrement diablement vachement C'est bougrement difficile Cette voiture est diablement lourde Elle est vachement jolie It's bloody difficult This car is hellishly heavy She's bloody good-looking 5.3 Adjectives used as adverbs without addition of -ment Not all adverbs derived from adjectives end in -ment. The masculine forms of several adjectives can be used as adverbs in combination with a particular set of verbs. They do not change in gender or in number when used in this way: Adjective Used in expressions such as bas parler bas voler bas sentir bon tenir bon servir chaud coûter cher payer cher voir clair tourner court couper court à qch s'habiller court sonner creux filer doux aller droit tomber dru travailler dur chanter faux tenir ferme parler fort servir frais parler franc manger gras parier gros risquer gros être haut placé viser juste deviner juste bon chaud cher clair court creux doux droit dru dur faux ferme fort frais franc gras gros haut juste to talk quietly to fly low to smell nice to hold on to serve hot to cost a lot to pay a lot (for sth) to see clearly to come to an abrupt end to cut sth short to wear one's skirts/dresses short to ring hollow to keep a low profile to go straight on to fall in stair-rods (rain) to work hard to sing out of tune to hold out to talk loudly to serve cool to say what you think to eat rich food to bet heavily to take big risks to be in a position of authority to aim correctly to guess right 102 Adverbs lourd mauvais net pareil profond serré peser lourd sentir mauvais s'arrêter net casser net penser pareil (informai) creuser profond jouer serré to weigh heavily to smell bad to stop dead to make a clean break to think the same to dig deep to play a close game The fact that some of these adjectives are used as adverbs has allowed the creation of related forms ending in -ment with different meanings: bon: bonnement bonnement is used almost always with tout to give tout bonnement: 'quite simply' cher: chèrement chèrement is used with the verb vendre in the set phrase: vendre chèrement sa vie: 'to sell one's life dearly'. bas: bassement bassement has taken the meaning: 'in a mean or despicable way' and is used in the set phrase agir bassement: 'to act in a mean or despicable way'. 5.4 Phrases used as adverbs A number of adverbs are composed of invariable phrases. The following are a sample: au maximum à bon escient au fur et à mesure à brûle-pourpoint à côté à l'heure à tire-larigot (informai) à tue-tête à plat ventre à qui mieux mieux à peu près à la fois à part to the utmost advisedly as we go along point blank beside on time non-stop at the top of one's voice on one's belly each one more than the next nearly at the same time separately d'ores et déjà d'habitude d'emblée de plus belle d'arrache-pied de bonne heure de temps en temps from this time onwards usually straightaway with renewed vigour flat out (to work) early from time to time en haut en bas up(stairs) down(stairs) Phrases used as adverbs 103 en en en en en en en en en en en en arrière avant retard avance amont aval dehors vain catimini général particulier définitive behind in front late early upstream downstream outside in vain in secret in general in particular finally n'importe où n'importe quand n'importe qui anywhere anytime anybody par par par par par par by chance over hill and dale in addition in the front over and above on the other hand hasard monts et par vaux ailleurs devant dessus contre dans la suite et ainsi de suite de suite par la suite in what followed and so on immediately in what followed sans cesse sans détour sur ces entrefaites continuously straight, to the point and with that tout tout tout tout tout completely immediately in a moment, later suddenly straight out à fait de suite à l'heure d'un coup de go côte à côte ça et là petit à petit sur-le-champ vaille que vaille side by side here and there little by little immediately somehow or other Borrowings from Latin, frequently h e a r d , are: grosso modo a fortiori a priori a posteriori vice versa in extremis more or less even more so a priori a posteriori vice versa at the last moment 104 Adverbs 5.5 English and French adverb formation -ly is a more productive form in English than -ment is in French. Therefore, not every English form in -ly will find a ready translation in -ment in French. The most frequent solution is an adverbial phrase introduced by a preposition such as avec, d'une manière. . ., d'une façon. . ., sur un ton . . .: avec colère, sur le ton de la colère d'une manière concise, avec concision avec charme, d'une manière charmante avec beaucoup de talent/d'imagination sur le ton de la plaisanterie de façon possessive de façon réfléchie avec tristesse avec entêtement de façon surprenante, à m a / t a grande surprise sur un ton vengeur angrily concisely charmingly creatively jokingly possessively reflectively sadly stubbornly surprisingly vengefully When colours are used as adverbs they are preceded by en: le colorier en bleu le peindre en rouge to colour it blue to paint it red When shapes are used as adverbs, they have to be turned into an expression involving a noun in French: lui donner une forme ronde le couper au carré to make it round to cut it square 5.6 Types of adverbs There are five main types of adverbs: manner adverbs, degree adverbs, time adverbs, place adverbs and sentence-modifying adverbs. Some forms fall into more than one of these categories. Typical examples of each are given in Tables 5.A, 5.B, 5.C, 5.D and 5.E (but the lists are not exhaustive). 5.6.1 M a n n e r adverbs Adverbs which describe the manner in which something is done are manner adverbs: Je dors bien Les choses tournent mal I sleep well Things are turning out badly Types of adverbs 105 TABLE 5.A Typical manner adverbs Typical manner adverbs Ending in -ment ainsi like this/that, so, thus (can also be a sentence-modifying adverb - see 5.6.17) affectueusement bien well (can also be a degree adverb - see 5.6.2) autrement differently (can also be a degree adverb - see 5.6.2) debout standing clairement clearly ensemble together confusément in a confused manner exprès purposely, on purpose correctement correctly mal badly facilement easily mieux better (for a comparison with meilleur see 5.6.6) lentement slowly vite précautionneusement cautiously soigneusement carefully vaguement vaguely quickly affectionately Invariable phrases à dessein à genoux à pied à la fois à tort de travers purposely on one's knees on foot at the same time wrongly crookedly Representative e x a m p l e s : Il s'est toujours comporté ainsi Tu chantes bien Mets-toi debout Il a mal lu l'étiquette Hier soir ça n'allait guère mieux It was hardly any better yesterday evening Je l'oublierai très facilement I'll forget it very easily Elle étendait soigneusement son tailleur She carefully laid out her suit He always behaved like that You sing well Stand up He misread the label 106 Adverbs 5.6.2 Degree adverbs Adverbs which indicate the extent to which something is the case are degree adverbs. As a class they can modify every kind of sentence element: verbs, adjectives, nouns, prepositions and other adverbs. But individually some of them may be restricted to modifying particular categories of item (e.g. très can modify adjectives, prepositions and adverbs - très heureux 'very happy', très à la mode 'very fashionable', très bien 'very well' - but not verbs *}e fume très 'I smoke very'): Je fume modérément I smoke moderately Tout est si clair maintenant Everything is so clear Ce ne sera pas tout à fait la vérité That won't be entirely the truth Je tends ma main jusqu'à presque toucher son visage I stretch out my hand almost to touch his face Elle a dressé trop brusquement la tête She lifted her head up too quickly TABLE 5.B Typical degree adverbs Typical degree adverbs Ending in -ment assez autrement much more (can also be a manner adverb see 5.6.1) sufficiently aussi as (modifies adjectives and adverbs; autant modifies verb - can also be a sentencemodifying adverb - see 5.6.17) complètement completely autant as much (modifies verbs) démesurément inordinately beaucoup much modérément moderately particulièrement particularly bien really (can also be a manner adverb - see 5.6.1) davantage more (can only modify verbs) tellement so; so much encore again; still; another terriblement terribly juste just vraiment truly même even (when it follows a noun it may correspond to English very) moins less (see 5.6.5) Invariable phrases peu little au moins at least (expresses a concrete estimate of a quantity: au moins dix personnes blessées; du moins expresses the speaker's view of an event: du moins, il n'est pas blessé - see 5.6.17) | Types of adverbs 107 TABLE 5.B (continued) Typical degree adverbs Invariable ahrases plus more (can modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions - see 5.6.5) à peine hardly à peu près nearly presque almost (does NOT contract to *presqu' in front of a vowel: presque à la fin) de loin by far si so par trop by far tant so much tout à fait completely tout completely; quite (see 5.6.7) un peu a little très very trop too plutôt rather Representative examples C'est un acteur assez connu He is quite a well-known actor La route tue autant que la guerre Road accidents are the cause of as many deaths as war Elle est autrement intelligente que sa soeur She is much more intelligent than her sister Ils ont beaucoup discuté pendant le weekend They spent a lot of time discussing over the weekend C'est bien bête That's really stupid Il y en a davantage qu'on ne le pense There are more than you think Elle a acheté un billet juste avant de prendre le train She bought a ticket just before catching the train On ramène même des souvenirs Voici le vélo même dont il s'est servi un monde si étrangement silencieux Elle est tellement plus sympathique J'ai répondu tout de travers Je suis ici depuis très longtemps Elle parle trop They even bring back souvenirs This is the very bike he used such a strangely silent world She is so much nicer 1 replied in a quite confused way I have been here for a very long time She talks too much A n u m b e r of d e g r e e a d v e r b s also function as quantifiers modifying n o u n s (see Chapter 6.9): assez d'excuses autant d'argent beaucoup de clients enough excuses as much money many customers 108 Adverbs bien des problèmes tellement de travail many problems so much work 5.6.3 Comparative and superlative forms of adverbs In English, the majority of adverbs can be made into comparative forms by putting 'more', 'less' or 'as' in front of them, and into superlative forms by putting 'the most' or 'the least' in front of them: These days I can remember it This window opens easily more easily (than I used to) less easily (than I used to) as easily (as I used to) the most easily (of all of them) the least easily (of all of them) A small set of English adverbs, however, have special comparative and superlative forms: fast She finishes faster the fastest She sings well better the best He behaves badly worse the worst A similar pattern exists in French where the majority of adverbs can be made into comparative forms by putting the degree adverbs plus, moins or aussi in front of the adverb, and into superlative forms by putting le plus or le moins in front of the adverb. In the latter case le plus and le moins do not change in gender and number: , facilement De nos jours je m'en souviens plus facilement (qu'auparavant) moins facilement (qu'auparavant) ' aussi facilement (qu'auparavant) le plus facilement (de toutes) le moins facilement (de toutes) Cette fenêtre-ci ouvre 5.6.4 bien 'well', mieux 'better', mal 'badly', pis 'worse' One adverb in French has special comparative and superlative forms: bien well mieux better le mieux the best moins bien less well le moins bien the least well Types of adverbs 109 bien mieux moins bien le mieux le moins bien Elle chante well better less well the best the least well She sings The adverb mal ' b a d l y ' h a s t w o sets of c o m p a r a t i v e a n d superlative forms, one regular a n d o n e irregular: Regular mal badly plus mal worse le plus mal the worst moins mal less badly le moins mal the least badly Irregular pis worse le pis the worst pis and le pis only occur these d a y s in fixed expressions like: tant pis Les choses vont de mal en pis {or de pis en pis) qui pis est, . . . au pis aller en mettant tout au pis, . . . too bad Things are going from bad to worse what's worse, . . . if the worse comes to the worst at the worst, . . . 5.6.S beaucoup 'much', plus ' m o r e ' , peu 'little', moins 'less* The comparative a n d s u p e r l a t i v e forms of t h e d e g r e e a d v e r b beaucoup are plus and le plus (the final s is p r o n o u n c e d except in front of w o r d s b e g i n n i n g w i t h a consonant); t h e c o m p a r a t i v e a n d superlative forms of the d e g r e e a d v e r b peu are moins a n d le moins: [ Elle mange Elle mange beaucoup plus [s] le plus [s] (de toutes) 1 autant (que moi) ( l Peu moins le moins (de toutes) aussi peu (que moi) She eats She eats a lot more the most (of all) as much (as me) little less the least (of all) as little (as me) plus a n d moins are also u s e d in expressions like: De plus en plus de femmes enceintes veulent connaître le sexe de leur bébé More and more pregnant women want to know what sex their baby is De moins en moins de femmes enceintes fument Fewer and fewer pregnant women smoke I 10 Adverbs Plus on est âgé plus on a de difficultés à s'adapter au changement The older one is, the more difficulty one has adapting to change Moins on a de revenus moins on a de choix dans la vie The less wealthy one is, the fewer choices one has in life Elle est encore plus talentueuse que je n'avais pensé She is even more talented than I had thought Ce roman est encore moins lisible que je ne croyais This novel is even less readable than I had thought 5.6.6 Difference between meilleur(e)(s) and mieux, and lellalles meilleur(e)(s) and le mieux meilleur(e)(s) a n d le/la/les meilleur(e)(s) are the c o m p a r a t i v e a n d superlative forms respectively of the adjective bon ' g o o d ' , mieux a n d le mieux are the comp a r a t i v e a n d s u p e r l a t i v e forms respectively of the a d v e r b bien 'well': Adjective bon good meilleur(s) meilleure(s) better le meilleur la meilleure les meilleur(e)s the best Adverb bien well mieux better le mieux the best Il désire avoir une meilleure place Ces marchandises sont meilleures Elle s'habille mieux que les autres Elle s'habille le mieux de toutes He wants to have a better seat These goods are better She dresses better than the others She dresses the best of all Since the a d v e r b bien 'well' can also s o m e t i m e s function as an adjective close in m e a n i n g to bon, particularly w i t h être, there are contexts w h e r e meilleur a n d mieux are b o t h possible: Tout est bien/Tout est mieux Everything is fine/Everything is better Tout est bon/Tout est meilleur Everything is good/Everything is better Elle est bien comme directeur/Elle est mieux comme directeur She is fine as a director/She is better as a director Elle est bonne comme directeur/Elle est meilleure comme directeur She is good as a director/She is better as a director On est bien ici/On est mieux ici We're fine here/We're better here C'est bon ici/C'est meilleur ici Ifs good here/It's better here 5.6.7 F o r m and uses of tout tout can function as a determiner, a quantifier, a p r o n o u n a n d an a d v e r b . It b e h a v e s differently w i t h respect to a g r e e m e n t in each of these roles, so it is important to distinguish them. Types of adverbs 111 tout as a determiner tout is a d e t e r m i n e r in constructions like the following. H e r e there is no article and tout agrees w i t h the n o u n w h i c h it d e t e r m i n e s : Tout parent veut le bien de son enfant Every parent wants what is best for his or her child Toutes taxes comprises All taxes included Les repas sont servis à toute heure Meals are served at any time Ils sont venus à toute vitesse They came as quickly as they could Un tel costume convient à toute occasion Such a suit can be worn on any occasion tout as a quantifier tout is a quantifier (see C h a p t e r 6.9) in the following e x a m p l e s . Its translation equivalent in English is u s u a l l y 'all'. It agrees w i t h the n o u n w h i c h it m o d i fies: Tous les garçons sont arrivés All the boys have arrived Toutes les chansons qu'ils passent sur cette chaîne sont dépassées All the songs they play on that station are out of date Il s'en est plaint toute la journée He complained about it all day tout as a p r o n o u n tout is a p r o n o u n w h e n it is u s e d as a subject, direct object, indirect object or follows a preposition. When it h a s t h e indefinite m e a n i n g ' e v e r y t h i n g , all' it is invariable: Tout bien considéré, j'ai décidé de ne pas le faire All things considered, I've decided not to do it Tu m'avais dit que tout serait réglé avant ce soir You told me that everything would be sorted out by this evening When it refers to p e o p l e or t h i n g s m e n t i o n e d or i m p l i e d e l s e w h e r e in the discourse, it agrees in g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r w i t h those entities, a n d takes o n e of the forms tout, toute, tous, toutes. In this u s e t h e final -s of tous is p r o n o u n c e d : Nous sommes infiniment redevables à tous (final -s pronounced) We are eternally grateful to everyone Nous allons chanter tous ensemble (final -s pronounced) We'll all sing together Je n'aime plus ces chansons. Toutes sont dépassées I don't like these songs anymore. They are alt out of date 112 Adverbs tout as an a d v e r b tout is an a d v e r b w h e n it modifies a n o t h e r a d v e r b , a p r e p o s i t i o n or an adjective. It h a s the m e a n i n g of 'completely, very'. In front of an a d v e r b or p r e p o s i t i o n it is invariable: Elle chante tout bas She is singing very quietly Son succès était tout bonnement la meilleure surprise de l'année His success was quite simply the best surprise of the year Tu fais tout de travers You do everything the wrong way round In front of an adjective it agrees if the adjective is feminine a n d b e g i n s w i t h a consonant: Les petites filles étaient toutes désemparées par l'annonce de la directrice The little girls were completely taken aback by the headmistress's announcement Tes sœurs sont toutes prêtes à venir te rejoindre Your sisters are quite ready to come out and pin you A g r e e m e n t is o p t i o n a l in front of adjectives w h i c h are feminine a n d b e g i n w i t h a v o w e l or a silent h: Tu sais bien que ta sœur serait tout (or toute) heureuse de te revoir You know full well that your sister would be delighted to see you again Les petites chattes étaient tout (or toutes) excitées par les mouvement de la bobine de fil The little kittens were thoroughly excited by the movements of the cotton reel 5.6.8 T i m e adverbs A d v e r b s w h i c h indicate the t i m e at w h i c h s o m e t h i n g takes place, or the d u r a tion or frequency of an event, are t i m e a d v e r b s (as s h o w n in Table 5.C): L'image est nette à présent The picture is clear now Il y est toujours He is still there Soudain il y a eu comme un déplacement d'air Suddenly there was a kind of movement of air Types of adverbs 113 TABLE 5.C Typical time adverbs Typical time adverbs alors then, at that time (can also be a sentence-modifying adverb - see 5.6.17) soudain suddenly aujourd'hui today souvent often auparavant beforehand tantôt tantôt . . . tantôt this afternoon one minute . . . the next . . . aussitôt immediately tard late autrefois in the past tôt early bientôt soon toujours always; still déjà already demain tomorrow Ending in -ment depuis since then actuellement currently désormais henceforth dernièrement recently dorénavant henceforth fréquemment frequently encore again; still; yet (can also be a sentence-modifying adverb - see 5.6.17) précédemment previously enfin finally prochainement soon ensuite afterwards récemment recently entre-temps meanwhile hier yesterday Invariable phrases à présent at present jadis in the (distant) past (the final -s is always pronounced) dès lors from then on jamais ever d'un instant à l'autre at any moment longtemps a long time en ce moment at the moment maintenant now par la suite subsequently naguère in the recent past tout à coup suddenly parfois sometimes tout à l'heure just now; presently quelquefois sometimes tout de suite immediately I 14 Adverbs Representative examples: Actuellement il sort avec ma sœur Il l'avait rencontrée deux ans auparavant Currently, he's going out with my sister He had met her two years before Dès lors il voulait passer sa vie avec elle From then on he wanted to spend his life with her Elle s'en est rendu compte aussitôt Ensuite il ne s'est rien passé She realized immediately Afterwards nothing happened Entre-temps elle avait rencontré quelqu'un d'autre Meanwhile she had met someone else Son sourire n'a plus été le même His smile was never the same par la suite afterwards Nous avons parlé longtemps We spoke for a long time Le bureau occupe deux étages, naguère habités Quelquefois on me conduisait à Roubaix The office occupies two floors, formerly living accommodation Sometimes they took me to Roubaix I've often wanted to do it Get out of here immediately J'ai souvent voulu le faire Sors tout de suite 5.6.9 alors alors h a s t w o distinct a d v e r b i a l uses. O n e as a time a d v e r b m e a n i n g 'then, at that t i m e ' : Il était alors directeur d'une petite agence immobilière en province At that time he was the manager of an estate agency in a small town In this u s e it can a p p e a r in the m i d d l e of a clause, as in the a b o v e e x a m p l e (for the p o s i t i o n of a d v e r b s see 5.7). Its other u s e is as a sentence-modifying a d v e r b m e a n i n g ' s o ' , w h i c h occurs at the b e g i n n i n g of a clause. This u s e is as frequent in s p o k e n French as ' s o ' is in s p o k e n English: Alors, quoi de neuf? Alors, qu'est-ce que tu en penses? So, what's new? So, what do you think about it? 5.6.10 encore a n d toujours encore a n d toujours h a v e several m e a n i n g s , a n d o v e r l a p in one of those m e a n ings, w h i c h m a k e s t h e m difficult for the learner. Both encore a n d toujours can m e a n 'still' in clauses w h i c h express an o n g o i n g state of affairs: Est-il encore/toujours là? (His being here is an ongoing state of affairs) 7s he still here? Elle se plaint encore/toujours (Her complaining is an ongoing state of affairs) She is still complaining In clauses w h i c h describe a c o m p l e t e d action, or the potential for the c o m p l e tion of an action, h o w e v e r , encore m e a n s 'again': Types of adverbs I IS Il a encore perdu sa clef (His losing of the key is a completed action) He has lost his key again J'ai peur de m'évanouir encore 7 am afraid of fainting again (Although I haven't done so yet, fainting has the potential for being a completed action) Note that if encore modifies the first clause, w h i c h expresses a state of affairs, it could m e a n either 'still' or 'again': j'ai encore peur de m'évanouir ' I ' m still afraid of fainting' or ' O n c e a g a i n I am afraid of fainting'. Where encore modifies n o u n p h r a s e s or other a d v e r b s it m e a n s 'still m o r e , further': Encore du pain, s'il vous plaît More bread, please Ils ont roulé encore dix ou vingt kilomètres They travelled a further ten or twenty kilometres Elle est encore plus douée que sa sœur She is even more gifted than her sister J'aime encore mieux votre idée que la mienne I like your idea even more than mine toujours, in a d d i t i o n to m e a n i n g 'still', can also m e a n ' a l w a y s ' : Elles ont toujours refusé de me parler They have always refused to talk to me On s'efforçait depuis toujours de me le cacher They had always tried to hide it from me In sentences n e g a t e d by pas, if toujours p r e c e d e s the pas it m e a n s 'still', if it follows it m e a n s ' a l w a y s ' : II n'est toujours pas arrivé Il n'est pas toujours arrivé He still hasn't arrived He didn't always arrive/turn up encore can only follow pas a n d m e a n s 'yet': Il n'est pas encore arrivé He hasn't yet arrived 5.6.1 I ensuite and puis ensuite a n d puis b o t h m e a n ' a f t e r w a r d s , t h e n ' , b u t ensuite is a t i m e a d v e r b w h i c h can occur in the m i d d l e of a clause (for the position of a d v e r b s see 5.7), w h i l e puis is a c o o r d i n a t i n g conjunction w h i c h can occur only at the b e g i n n i n g of a clause (see C h a p t e r 17.2): Il a payé l'addition, et il est ensuite parti He paid the bill, and afterwards left Il a payé l'addition, puis il est parti He paid the bill, then he left 5.6.12 jamais jamais is m o s t l y u s e d w i t h ne to m e a n ' n e v e r ' (see C h a p t e r 16.9). It can, h o w ever, also m e a n ' e v e r ' in q u e s t i o n s , in si- clauses or w h e n it is a c o m p l e m e n t to sans: I 16 Adverbs As-tu jamais vu une chose pareille? Have you ever seen anything like it? Si jamais tu rencontres Jules, tu lui diras bonjour de ma part If you ever meet Jules, say hello to him from me Il a fait cet exercice cent fois sans jamais se tromper He's done that exercise a hundred times without ever making a mistake 5.6.13 tard versus en retard Both of these terms translate as Tate' into English. However, en retard is restricted in meaning to the idea of 'not on time': Tu es de nouveau en retard. Tu resteras après l'école You are late again. You'll stay behind after school tard has a wider range of meaning: Il est déjà tard, nous devons rentrer It's already late, we must go home Pour toi, il est trop tard. Tu aurais dû le faire il y a plusieurs années For you it's too late. You should have done it several years ago Il n'est jamais trop tard It's never too late 5.6.14 tout à l'heure The meaning of tout à l'heure is determined by the tense of the verb in the clause which contains it. If the verb is in a past tense it means 'just now'; if the verb is in a present or future tense it means 'presently': Je suis arrivé tout à l'heure I arrived just now Elle va arriver tout à l'heure She will arrive presently 5.6.15 Choice of some t i m e adverbs relative to the m o m e n t of speaking The meaning of some time adverbs is determined by their relation to the time of speaking. If someone says: Je suis arrivé hier I arrived yesterday hier refers to the day before the day on which the person is speaking. Similarly, if someone says: J'arriverai demain I'll arrive tomorrow demain refers to the day after the day on which the person is speaking. By contrast, if someone says: Je suis arrivé la veille I arrived the day before Types of adverbs 117 they are referring to a day before some point prior to the time when they are speaking. Similarly in: Je suis arrivé le lendemain I arrived the day after le lendemain refers to the day after some point prior to the moment of speaking. Different series of adverbs must be used depending on whether they refer to before or after the actual moment of speaking, or whether they refer to before or after some point prior to the moment of speaking. Examples are presented in Tables 5.D and 5.E. TABLE 5.D Adverbs and time reference 1 More distant past Recent past Concurrent with the time of speaking Near future More distant future avant-hier the day before yesterday hier yesterday aujourd'hui today demain tomorrow après-demain the day after tomorrow maintenant now bientôt soon alors then autrefois jadis (literary) formerly hier matin ce matin hier midi ce midi hier après-midi cet après-midi/ tantôt hier soir ce soir demain demain demain midi demain yesterday morning, midday, etc. this morning, midday, this afternoon, this evening tomorrow morning, midday, etc. tout à l'heure just now actuellement currently tout à l'heure ('tantôt' in parts of France, in Belgium and Quebec) presently récemment dernièrement naguère recently matin midi aprèssoir à l'avenir in the future 118 Adverbs TABLE 5.E Adverbs and time reference 2 More distant past Recent past Prior to the time of speaking Near future More distant future I'avant-veille the day before the day before la veille the day before ce jour-là that day le lendemain the day after le surlendemain the day after the day after la veille au matin the morning of the day before ce matin-là le lendemain matin the morning of the day after la veille à midi midday of the day before ce midi-là that midday le lendemain midi midday of the day after dans l'aprèsmidi de la veille the afternoon of the day before cet aprèsmidi-là that afternoon dans l'aprèsmidi du lendemain the afternoon of the day after la veille au soir the evening of the day before ce soir-là that evening le lendemain soir the evening of the day after that morning 5.6.16 P l a c e a d v e r b s A d v e r b s w h i c h describe the place w h e r e a n e v e n t occurs are place a d v e r b s : J'entends des pas précipités dehors / hear hurried steps outside On m'a tiré en arrière J was puiled backwards Representative examples: Nous voulons habiter ailleurs Vous entrez dedans Quelqu'un, dehors, s'est inquiété Derrière il y a un champ de betteraves Vous trouverez l'étiquette dessous L'adresse est marquée dessus bras dessus bras dessous On a laissé des papiers un peu partout We want to live elsewhere You go inside Someone, outside, got nervous Behind there is a beet field You'll find the label on the bottom The address is written on the top arm in arm Papers were left almost everywhere Types of adverbs 119 TABLE 5.F Typical place adverbs Typical place adverbs ailleurs elsewhere en amont en aval upstream downstream dedans en dedans au-dedans là-dedans inside inwardly; facing inwards on the inside in there en avant en arrière in/at the front in/at the back dehors en dehors au-dehors outside outwardly; facing outwards on the outside ici here derrière par derrière behind from behind là there (used a lot to mean here: T'm here' ]e suis là) dessous en dessous au-dessous par-dessous underneath, on the bottom underneath, on the back below underneath (implying motion: passer par-dessous 'to go underneath') loin far away dessus en dessus au-dessus par-dessus over, on the top on the top, on the front above across (sauter par-dessus 'to jump across') partout everywhere ci-contre ci-dessous opposite (on a page) below (in a piece of writing: voir ci-dessous 'see below') près nearby ci-dessus ci-après ci-devant above (voir ci-dessus 'see above') later earlier en bas en haut (down) below (up) above 120 Adverbs 5.6.17 Sentence-modifying adverbs Sentence-modifying a d v e r b s fall into t w o t y p e s . T h o s e w h i c h establish a link b e t w e e n w h a t h a s b e e n said a l r e a d y a n d w h a t i s b e i n g said n o w : La porte de la pièce est fermée. Je l'ai pourtant laissée ouverte derrière moi The door to the room is closed. Yet I left it open behind me (pourtant highlights the contrast between a previous state of affairs and the current state of affairs) Les arguments en faveur de cette ligne politique sont clairs. Nous devons donc la suivre de près The arguments in favour of this policy are clear. Therefore we should follow it closely (done signals a causal link between the first sentence and the second) The s e c o n d g r o u p of sentence-modifying a d v e r b s express the s p e a k e r ' s assessm e n t of t h e probability or desirability of the event described by t h e sentence b e i n g true: Elle était pauvre, probablement She was probably poor (probablement is the speaker's judgement of the likelihood of her being poor) Je n'ai malheureusement pas pu venir Unfortunately I wasn't able to come (malheureusement is an expression of the speaker's regret at not being able to come) See table 5.G for typical cases. Representative examples: J'ai beaucoup travaillé pour terminer à temps. Cependant, ils n'ont pas voulu me payer mon treizième mois / worked very hard to finish in time. Yet they refused to pay me my bonus M Bergamote a expliqué la situation très clairement. En effet, nous devrons prendre une décision aujourd'hui même Mr Bergamote explained the situation very clearly. Indeed, we must take a decision this very day Jouer en Bourse est une bonne occupation pour ceux qui s'y connaissent. En revanche, cela peut être une catastrophe pour ceux qui n'y connaissent rien Playing the Stock Exchange is a sensible activity for those who know what they're doing. On the other hand, it can be a catastrophe for those who don't Le bateau a coulé au mois de juin. Néanmoins, la compagnie d'assurance établissait toujours les faits au mois de décembre The boat sank in June. Nonetheless, the insurance company was still trying to establish the facts in December Mon fils ne m'écrit jamais. Sa sœur, par contre, me tient au courant de tout ce qu'elle fait My son never writes to me. His sister, on the other hand, keeps me informed of everything she is doing Types of adverbs 121 Alors, que préférait-elle? So, what did she prefer? Ils me répondraient, bien sûr, que j'aurais pu le faire depuis longtemps They would reply, of course, that I could have done it long before TABLE 5.G Typical sentence-linking and speaker-oriented adverbs Typical sentence-linking adverbs Typical speaker-oriented adverbs ainsi so, in the same way (can also be a manner adverb - see 5.6.1) alors so (can also be a time adverb - see 5.6.8) au contraire assurément surely aussi so, thus (can also be a degree adverb - see 5.6.2) bien sûr of course cependant yet certainement certainly d'ailleurs moreover, what's more certes certainly conversely encore for all that (can also be a time adverb - see 5.6.8) du moins at least (expresses the speaker's reservation au moins is a degree adverb (see 5.6.2) used when 'at least' is concrete: au moins dix fois 'at least ten times') en effet indeed en général in general en revanche on the contrary évidemment evidently en somme in sum, briefly heureusement fortunately néanmoins nonetheless peut-être perhaps par conséquent en conséquence consequently probablement probably par contre on the other hand sans doute doubtlessly plutôt rather seulement only pourtant yet soit so be it quand même all the same sûrement surely toutefois nevertheless vraisemblablement in all likelihood 122 Adverbs Je n'aurais certainement pas pu le comprendre I certainly couldn't have understood it Elle ne s'en doutait certes pas She certainly didn't suspect it Le prof a du moins cette qualité qu'il articule bien The teacher has at least this quality, that he speaks very clearly C'est sans doute un ami He's probably a friend II a entrepris cette démarche avec de très bonnes intentions. Seulement, il ne possédait pas les connaissances requises He took these steps with the very best of intentions. Only he didn't have the knowledge required 5.7 Location of adverbs 5.7.1 Location of adverbs modifying adjectives, prepositions, noun phrases and other adverbs A d v e r b s w h i c h modify adjectives, prepositions, n o u n p h r a s e s , a n d other a d v e r b s a p p e a r i m m e d i a t e l y in front of those items: Je ne suis pas vraiment mauvais I'm not really bad (modifying an adjective) Nous irons loin au-delà de la frontière We'll go far beyond the frontier (modifying a preposition) Il y a au moins dix ans At least ten years ago (modifying a noun phrase) Je suis ici depuis très longtemps I have been here for a very long time (modifying an adverb) 5.7.2 Location of adverbs modifying verb phrases A d v e r b s w h i c h modify the v e r b p h r a s e (manner, degree, s o m e t i m e a n d place a d v e r b s ) a n d a d v e r b s w h i c h modify the sentence m a y h a v e several possible locations. M a n n e r , d e g r e e a n d t i m e a d v e r b s w h i c h consist o f just o n e w o r d u s u a l l y i m m e diately follow the t e n s e - m a r k e d verb: Elle a soigneusement étendu son tailleur sur le lit She carefully laid out her suit on the bed On ramène parfois des souvenirs We sometimes bring back souvenirs J'ai souvent voulu le faire 1 have often wanted to do it Ils ont beaucoup discuté pendant le weekend They discussed a lot during the weekend Location of adverbs 123 Il a mal lu l'étiquette He misread the label Elles ont toujours refusé de me parler They have always refused to talk to me NB: With v e r b s in s i m p l e tenses it is n o r m a l in French for these a d v e r b s to occur b e t w e e n the v e r b a n d its c o m p l e m e n t , b u t n o t b e t w e e n the subject a n d the verb: the reverse is the case in English: On ramène parfois des souvenirs Je veux souvent le faire Elles refusent toujours de me parler NOT NOT NOT *On parfois ramène des souvenirs *Je souvent veux le faire *Elles toujours refusent de me parler Usually m a n n e r , d e g r e e a n d t i m e a d v e r b s consisting of just o n e w o r d a n d m o d ifying the v e r b p h r a s e can also a p p e a r at the e n d of the clause: Elle a étendu son tailleur soigneusement On ramène des souvenirs parfois But some a p p e a r m o s t n a t u r a l l y in a clause-internal position after the v e r b . This t e n d s to be the case for short m o n o s y l l a b i c a d v e r b s : bien, mal, vite, trop, tant. An exception, t h o u g h , is time a d v e r b s w h i c h d e s i g n a t e specific m o m e n t s in the past or future: hier ' y e s t e r d a y ' , demain ' t o m o r r o w ' , la veille ' t h e d a y before', a n d so on. These u s u a l l y a p p e a r at the b e g i n n i n g or the e n d of a clause, not in the m i d d l e : J'ai ramassé les clefs hier I picked up the keys yesterday OR Hier j'ai ramassé les clefs La veille elle avait vendu sa maison She had sold her house the day before OR Elle avait vendu sa maison la veille Adverbs of m a n n e r , d e g r e e a n d time w h i c h consist of m o r e t h a n a single w o r d , together w i t h place a d v e r b s as a class, u s u a l l y c o m e at the b e g i n n i n g or e n d of a clause, n o t in t h e m i d d l e : II a emporté le dossier à dessin Ici tout le monde fait la vaisselle Nous voulons habiter ailleurs Derrière il y a un champ de betteraves Vous trouverez l'étiquette dessous On a laissé des papiers un peu partout He took the file away on purpose Everybody does the washing-up here We want to live elsewhere Behind there is a beet field You'll find the label on the bottom Papers were left almost everywhere It is a l w a y s possible, h o w e v e r , for s u c h a d v e r b s to occur clause-internally w i t h heavy p a u s i n g on either side (indicated by c o m m a s in w r i t t e n French). This has the effect of stressing the a d v e r b : J'ai ramassé, hier, les clefs Quelqu'un, dehors, s'est inquiété Il y a, derrière, un champ de betteraves 5.7.3 Location of adverbs modifying sentences Sentence-modifying a d v e r b s can u s u a l l y a p p e a r a t the b e g i n n i n g , in the m i d d l e or at the e n d of clauses: 124 Adverbs La porte de la pièce est fermée. Je l'ai pourtant laissée ouverte derrière moi/Pourtant je l'ai laissée ouverte derrière moi/Je l'ai laissée ouverte derrière moi pourtant The door to the room is closed. Yet I left it open behind me Il s'ensuit donc que nous devons la suivre de près/Donc il s'ensuit que nous devons la suivre de près/11 s'ensuit que nous devons la suivre de près donc It follows, therefore, that we should follow it closely Malheureusement, je n'ai pas pu venir/Je n'ai malheureusement pas pu venir/Je n'ai pas pu venir malheureusement Unfortunately, 1 wasn't able to come There is a t e n d e n c y in French n o t to p u t short constituents at the e n d of a sentence w h e r e a long constituent p r e c e d e s . This can s o m e t i m e s d e t e r m i n e a preferred location for a d v e r b s . For e x a m p l e , it is less n a t u r a l to say: Il s'ensuit que nous devons la suivre de près donc w h e r e the short donc is in sentence-final position a n d is p r e c e d e d by the long constituent que nous devons la suivre de près, than: Il s'ensuit donc que nous devons la suivre de près In a sentence like: On a laissé des papiers partout the place a d v e r b partout w o u l d n o r m a l l y a p p e a r at the e n d of the clause, rather t h a n in the m i d d l e . But if the direct object is m a d e longer, it b e c o m e s m o r e natu r a l to u t 11 it CLl at 11LC the Celnl Ud,, I leaving partout in LI the LKJ p IJULl C O V II Ltl UUI LUM-L 111 LC m 1 1 Li 1dUdUl1eC:. On a laissé partout des papiers couverts de gribouillis They left papers covered in doodles lying about everywhere 5.7.4 Inversion of subject and verb after some sentence-initial adverbs In formal w r i t t e n French, a small set of a d v e r b s ( d r a w n from several of the classes d e s c r i b e d i n this chapter) m a y p r o v o k e subject-verb inversion w h e n t h e y occur in sentence-initial position. Inversion is likely w i t h the following adverbs: A peine Pierre s'est-il assis qu'on lui a demandé de se déplacer Hardly had Pierre sat down when he was asked to move Peut-être Alice arrivera-t-elle demain Perhaps Alice will arrive tomorrow Sans doute vous a-t-elle écrit Doubtless she has written to you Toujours est-il que je ne peux pas vous payer The fact remains that 1 cannot pay you (For the p r o p e r t i e s of subject-verb inversion see C h a p t e r 14.2.3.) An alternative in the case of peut-être a n d sans doute is the use of a following que w i t h o u t inversion: Location of adverbs 125 Peut-être qu'Alice arrivera demain Sans doute qu'elle vous a écrit In spoken French peut-être que and sans doute que are frequent, but inversion is not, speakers locating the adverbs in a different position, or simply not inverting after the adverb. Other adverbs after which inversion is possible (but less likely) in formal written French are: Ainsi a-t-elle gagné le prix In that way she won the prize Il n'a plus d'argent; aussi doit-il rentrer He has no more money; so he must go home Du moins ont-ils gardé leur calme At least they kept their cool Encore ne suis-je là que pour prendre des notes For all that, I'm here just to take notes En vain a-t-il cherché In vain he searched Rarement trouve-t-on une affaire pareille Rarely does one find such a bargain 6 6^ Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers 6.1 Cardinal numbers N u m b e r s like un, deux, trois, etc., are called cardinal n u m b e r s : 0 zéro 1 un 2 deux 3 trois 4 quatre quatre is invariable and never takes a plural -s: les quatre chats 'the four cats'. 5 cinq The final q of cinq is always pronounced [k], except when it precedes cent, where it is not pronounced: cinq cents. 6 six six is pronounced with a final [s] when it is at the end of a phrase: j'en ai vu six 'I saw six'; it is pronounced with a final [z] when it precedes a noun beginning with a vowel: six hommes 'six men'. When it precedes a noun beginning with a consonant the x is not pronounced: six joueurs 'six players'. 7 sept 8 huit un (masculine) is used in contexts like the following: il porte le numéro 'un', 'He is wearing the number "one"'; à la page un, 'on page one'; la partie un, 'part one'. It is also used as a masculine pronoun: As-tu un stylo? Pierre en a un 'Have you got a pen? Pierre has one'. une (feminine) is used as a feminine pronoun: Il ne m'en reste qu'une (carte postale), 'I've only got one left (postcard)'. NB: à la une 'on the front page'. huit is pronounced with a final [t] when it is at the end of a phrase: j'en ai vu huit 'I saw eight', and when it precedes a noun beginning with a vowel: huit entreprises ont fermé 'eight firms have closed'. When it precedes a noun beginning with a consonant the t is not pronounced: huit semaines plus tard 'eight weeks later'. Cardinal numbers 127 9 neuf The final / of neuf is always pronounced [f], except in neuf ans 'nine years' and neuf hemes 'nine hours, nine o'clock' where it is pronounced [v]. 10 dix The pronunciation of dix is the same as for six. 11 onze 12 douze 13 treize 14 quatorze 15 quinze 16 seize 17 dix-sept 18 dix-huit The pronunciation of dix-huit is the same as for huit. 19 dix-neuf The pronunciation of dix-neuf is the same as for neuf. 20 vingt vingt is pronounced like vin, with the following exceptions: it is pronounced with a final [t] when it precedes a noun beginning with a vowel: vingt exercices 'twenty exercises', and also in the numbers 22-29 inclusive. 21 vingt et un vingt et unie), trente et unie), quarante et unie), etc. are used under the same conditions described for unie). 22 vingt-deux 23 vingt-trois 29 vingt-neuf 30 trente 31 trente et un 32 trente-deux 39 trente-neuf 40 quarante 41 quarante et un 42 quarante-deux 49 quarante-neuf 50 cinquante douze is invariable, and never takes a plural -s: douze hommes 'twelve men'. 128 Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers 51 cinquante et un 52 cinquante-deux 59 cinquante-neuf 60 soixante 61 soixante et un 62 soixante deux 69 soixante-neuf 70 soixante-dix 71 soixante et onze 72 soixante-douze 73 soixante-treize 79 soixante-dix-neuf 80 quatre-vingts 81 quatre-vingt-un 82 quatre-vingt-deux 89 quatre-vingt-neuf 90 quatre-vingt-dix 91 quatre-vingt-onze 92 quatre-vingt-douze 93 quatre-vingt-treize 99 qua tre-vingt-dix-neuf 100 cent 101 cent un In Belgian and Swiss French the word septante is used instead of soixante-dix: septante et un, septantedeux, etc. In Belgian and Swiss French the word nonante is used instead of quatre-vingt-dix: nonante-un, nonante-deux, etc. 'one hundred, a hundred' is simply cent: 'a hundred times' cent fois cent une réponses 'a hundred and one answers' Cardinal numbers 129 102 cent deux 111 cent onze 200 deux cents 201 deux cent un 202 deux cent deux 1000 mille 1001 mille un 1 100 onze cents or mille cent 1 101 onze cent un OR mille cent un 1200 douze cents OR mille deux cents 1201 douze cent un OR mille deux cent un 1500 quinze cents OR mille cinq cents 2 000 deux mille 2 001 deux mille un 2 101 deux mille cent un 1 000 000 un million 1 201 101 un million deux cent mille cent un The [t] of cent is NOT pronounced in cent un, cent huit, cent onze, but it is pronounced when followed by a non-numeral noun beginning with a vowel: cent ans 'a hundred years'. 'one thousand, a thousand' is simply mille: 'a thousand times' mille fois There are two ways of describing numbers between 1100 and 1999: onze cents or mille cent (1100); dixhuit cent soixante or mille huit cent soixante (1860); dix-neuf cent quatrevingt-dix-neuf or mille neuf cent quatre-vingt-dix-neuf (1999), etc. 1 000 000 000 un milliard 6.1.1 et in cardinal numbers et is used for cardinal numbers ending in -1 between 21 and 71 inclusive (note the absence of hyphens): 21 31 vingt et un trente et un 130 Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers 41 51 61 71 quarante et un cinquante et un soixante et un soixante et onze et is NOT used in numbers ending in -1 between 81 and 101 inclusive (note the use of hyphens in the case of 81 and 91), nor in 1 001, 1 000 001 and 1 000 000 001: 81 91 101 1001 1 000 001 quatre-vingt-un quatre-vingt-onze cent un mille un un million un 1 000 000 001 un milliard un 6.1.2 Hyphens in w r i t t e n cardinal numbers Compound cardinal numbers less than 100 are linked by hyphen (other than those ending in -1 between 21 and 71 inclusive): 17 18 19 22 23 dix-sept dix-huit dix-neuf vingt-deux vingt-trois 32 33 trente-deux trente-trois 72 80 81 soixante-douze quatre-vingts quatre-vingt-un But cardinal numbers of 100 and above are not linked to other numbers by hyphen, in compound numbers: 101 102 cent un cent deux 192 cent quatre-vingt-douze 10 340 dix mille trois cent quarante 520 cinq cent vingt 522 cinq cent vingt-deux 6.1.3 Plurals in cardinal numbers The numbers quatre-vingts and deux cents, trois cents, quatre cents, etc., take a plural -s in the written language when they are used in isolation or phrasefinal position: J'en ai vu quatre-vingts La capacité de la salle est de huit cents 7 saw eighty The room can hold eight hundred and when they precede non-numeral nouns: trois cents visiteurs quatre-vingts candidats three hundred visitors eighty applicants However, when these numbers precede other numerals, there is generally no plural -s: quatre-vingt-deux quatre-vingt-trois Cardinal numbers 131 deux cent deux deux cent trois trois cent mille unless those n u m e r a l s are millions or milliards: deux cents millions d'habitants cinq cents milliards de francs two hundred million inhabitants five hundred billion francs mille never takes a p l u r a l -s: mille personnes dix mille gagnants deux mille vingt lecteurs a thousand people ten thousand winners two thousand and twenty readers 6.1.4 W h e n to use figures and when to use words Numbers are u s u a l l y w r i t t e n in w o r d s , except in the following cases: in scientific or academic texts in dates: Elle arrive le 25 mars 1996 'She's arriving on the 25th of March 1996' in prices: Cela coûte 32 francs 'That costs 32 francs' in weights and measures: II mesure 1 mètre 50 'He is 1 metre 50 tall' describing kings and queens: Henri IV 'Henry the Fourth' in percentages: 22 pour cent '12 per cent' 6.1.5 Conventions for writing cardinal numbers in figures Where English u s e s a c o m m a to s e p a r a t e h u n d r e d s from t h o u s a n d s , a n d thousands from millions, French n o r m a l l y u s e s spaces; a n d w h e r e English uses a full stop to s e p a r a t e w h o l e n u m b e r s from decimals, French n o r m a l l y u s e s a comma: English French 1,200 63,321 412,633,221 1 200 63 321 412 633 221 4.25 .25 4,25 0,25 £4.50 4,50FF/4F50 (the latter is more frequent. FF tends to be restricted to banks) (For money, see 6.8.) 6.1.6 nombre, chiffre and numéro nombre refers to a n u m b e r as a concept: Pensez à un nombre nombres entiers un nombre cardinal Think of a number whole numbers a cardinal number Le nombre de femmes qui fument a augmenté The number of women who smoke has increased chiffre refers to the figures or digits w h i c h m a k e up a n u m b e r ; it can also be used to m e a n 'statistics': 132 Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers Ecrire un nombre en chiffres et en lettres To write a number in figures and words Ces chiffres ne reflètent pas la situation exacte These figures do not reflect the real situation numéro refers to a numbered entity: un numéro de téléphone le numéro d'une maison Il porte le numéro un un numéro d'immatriculation a telephone number a house number He's wearing the number one a car number plate 6.1.7 Necessity to use en when numbers are direct objects The pronoun en must be inserted before the verb when a number on its own (or followed by an adjective, e.g. deux grands) is a direct object: J'en prends deux (grands), s'il vous plaît I'll take two (big ones), please Elle lui en a offert une douzaine She offered him a dozen This is not the case, however, when a number alone (or followed by an adjective) is a subject: Deux (grands) ont disparu Une douzaine me suffira Two (big ones) have disappeared A dozen will be enough for me en must be similarly inserted before the verb when quantifiers like quelquesuns, plusieurs and certains stand alone as direct objects: J'en ai encore quelques-uns J'en ai encore plusieurs J'en ai encore certains I still have a few I still have several I still have some (For quantifiers, see 6.9.2.) 6.1.8 N o n - a g r e e m e n t of direct object numerals with coûter, peser, mesurer Although past participles normally agree with preceding direct objects (see Chapter 9.3.1), including direct objects involving numerals: Les cinq cents francs que j'ai gagnés The five hundred francs I won with the verbs coûter 'cost', peser 'weigh', mesurer 'measure', and other measure verbs, numerals are normally adverbs rather than direct objects, so there is no agreement when the numeral precedes the past participle: Les cinq cents francs que cela m'a coûté The five hundred francs which that cost me (See Chapter 9.3.5.) 6.1.9 Simple arithmetic (le calcul) trois et quatre font sept (trois plus quatre égale sept) 3+4=7 Ordinal numbers 133 trois moins un égale deux (trois ôtez un reste deux) 3-1=2 deux fois cinq font dix (cinq multiplié par deux égale dix) 2 x 5 = 10 dix divisé par deux égale cinq 10 -r 2 = 5 NB: As in English, the verbs can vary between singular and plural: trois et quatre fait/font sept 'three plus four makes/make seven'. 6.2 Ordinal numbers Numbers like premier, deuxième, troisième, etc., are called ordinal numbers: English French 1st 2nd 1 er/ère 2e 3rd 4th 5 th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st 22nd 3e 4e 5e 6e 7e 8e 9e 10e lie 12e 13e 14e 15e 16e 17e 18e 19e 20e 21e 22e premier, première deuxième or second, seconde, (deuxième and second are interchangeable except in en seconde 'in second class'; 'in the fifth form') troisième quatrième cinquième sixième septième huitième neuvième dixième onzième douzième treizième quatorzième quinzième seizième dix-septième dix-huitième dix-neuvième vingtième vingt et unième vingt-deuxième 40th 41st 40e 41e quarantième quarante et unième 70th 71st 70e 71 e soixante-dixième soixante et onzième 80th 81st 80e 81e quatre-vingtième qua tre-vingt-unième 90th 91th 90e 91e quatre-vingt-dixième quatre-vingt-onzième 100th 100e centième 1000th 1000e millième 134 Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers 6.3 Fractions 6.3.1 Ordinal numbers as fractions T h e majority of fractions can be constructed from the ordina l n u m b e r s , a n d are m a s c u l i n e in gender. T h e y are u s u a l l y i n t r o d u c e d by the definite article (as o p p o s e d to the indefinite article or absence of article in English): Le cinquième des élèves ont été recalés A fifth of the pupils have failed Les sept dixièmes de la population du monde sont pauvres Seven-tenths of the world's population are poor 6.3.2 ' h a l f , «third','quarter' ' H a l f , ' t h i r d ' , ' q u a r t e r ' h a v e their o w n n a m e s . ' H a l f is translated by la moitié (de) w h e n it is a n o u n (i.e. is followed by de or s t a n d s alone): La moitié des conducteurs ont dépassé la limite de vitesse Half of all drivers have broken the speed limit La moitié seront recyclés Half will be retrained H o w e v e r , ' h a l f is t r a n s l a t e d by demi w h e n it is p a r t of a c o m p o u n d n o u n (and is invariable): un demi-verre de cognac une demi-heure la demi-finale a half-glass of brandy a half an hour the semi-final It is also t r a n s l a t e d by demi in c o m p o u n d s involving et, b u t here it agrees w i t h the p r e c e d i n g n o u n i n g e n d e r : deux heures et demie un litre et demi deux kilos et demi two and a half hours one and a half litres two and a half kilos S o m e c o m p o u n d s are c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h invariable mi-: la mi-trimestre à mi-chemin mi-clos half-term half-way half-closed ' T h i r d ' is t r a n s l a t e d by tiers: Un tiers des étudiants ont des dettes A third of students are in debt Les deux tiers des blessés ont été évacués Two-thirds of the injured were evacuated N B : le tiers monde 'the Third World'. ' Q u a r t e r ' is t r a n s l a t e d by quart: Un quart seulement des accidents ont lieu sur les autoroutes Only a quarter of accidents happen on motorways Cardinal and ordinal numbers in Trench and English 135 Les trois quarts étaient des hommes Three-quarters were men NB: Il est deux heures et quart It's quarter past two or II est deux heures un quart Il est deux heures moins le quart It's quarter to two cinq kilos et quart or cinq kilos un quart five and a quarter kilos (See 6.7 for time.) 6.3.3 Verb agreement w i t h fractions Verbs are usually plural when fractions are subjects and refer to plural entities: Le cinquième (des élèves) ont été recalés A fifth (of the pupils) have failed La moitié (des conducteurs) ont dépassé la limite de vitesse Half (of all drivers) have broken the speed limit Un tiers (des étudiants) ont des dettes A third (of students) are in debt Verbs are singular when fractions are subjects and refer to singular entities: La moitié (de l'année) est déjà passée Half (of the year) has already passed Un tiers (du livre) reste à écrire A third (of the book) remains to be completed 6.4 Some differences in the use of cardinal and ordinal numbers in French and English 6.4.1 Dates While English uses ordinal numbers in dates French uses cardinal numbers, with the exception of 'first', which is premier. le premier janvier le deux février le trois mars the first of January the second of February the third of March In letter headings the normal way of writing dates is: le I er Janvier 2001 le 2 février 2001 le 3 mars 2001 or where the day is included: le lundi 1er janvier 2001 le vendredi 2 février 2001 or or lundi, le 1er janvier 2001 vendredi, le 2 février 2001 NB: Months and days are written with a lower case initial letter in French, but with a capital letter in English. 136 Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers 6.4.2 Kings, queens and popes As with dates, where English uses ordinal numbers, French uses cardinal numbers, with the exception of 'first' premier. François premier Elizabeth première Henri deux Louis quatorze Jean vingt-trois François I Elizabeth I Henri II Louis XIV lean XXIII Francis the First Elizabeth the First Henry the Second Louis the Fourteenth Pope John the Twenty-third 6.4.3 Ordinal number abbreviations The abbreviated forms of premier, première are: 1 er 1 è er 1st ère where and are superscripts. The abbreviation for all other ordinal numbers is an e which can either be a superscript or a simple lower case letter: 2e 3L' 4e 2e 3e 4e 2nd 3rd 4th etc 6.4.4 O r d e r of cardinal numbers and adjectives In English, cardinal numbers follow adjectives: the last nine chapters the other four guests the first three winners In French they precede adjectives: les neuf derniers chapitres les quatre autres invités les trois premiers gagnants 6.4.5 Page numbers, bus numbers, etc. As in English, French page numbers, bus numbers and so on are cardinal numbers which follow the noun; un is invariable in this usage. A definite article always accompanies the noun in French: à la page un Prenez le trente-deux Le train part du quai vingt on page one Catch the number 32 The train leaves from platform twenty 6.4.6 Addresses Like English, address numbers are cardinal numbers in French. But the French for 'a', 'b', 'c' is bis, ter, quater: 12, rue Lamarck 12bis, rue Lamarck 12ter, rue Lamarck NB: In addresses, rue, avenue, boulevard, etc., usually begin with lower case letters. 6.4.7 'hundreds','thousands','millions' and'billions' The numeral nouns centaine, millier, million, milliard are always followed by de when they are followed by other nouns: Cardinal and ordinal numbers in French and English 137 des centaines de personnes des milliers de personnes un million de dollars des millions de personnes cinq milliards de dollars des milliards de personnes des centaines de milliers de personnes des centaines de millions de personnes hundreds of people thousands of people a million dollars millions of people five billion dollars billions of people hundreds of thousands of people hundreds of millions of people 6.4.8 mille, milliers, milliards These n u m b e r s are often confused by English speakers: mille 'thousand' is directly followed by a noun: mille francs 'a thousand francs' des milliers 'thousands' is followed by de when followed by another noun: des milliers de francs 'thousands of francs' des milliards 'billions' is also followed by de when followed by another noun: des milliards de francs 'billions of francs' 6.4.9 'once','twice','three times', etc.;'both','all three','all four', etc. Whereas English h a s the forms 'once', 'twice', t h e n a regular p a t t e r n from 'three' o n w a r d s : ' t h r e e t i m e s ' , 'four t i m e s ' etc., French h a s a fully regular pattern from ' o n e ' on: une fois deux fois trois fois quatre fois once twice three times four times French has alternative forms for ' b o t h ' , 'all three', 'all four', one w i t h a definite article a n d o n e w i t h o u t (found only in formal w r i t t e n French); b u t from 'all five' o n w a r d s the definite article m u s t be used: tous /toutes les deux tous/toutes les trois tous/toutes les quatre tous/toutes les cinq tous/toutes les six tous/toutes deux tous/toutes trois tous/toutes quatre NOT *tous/toutes cinq NOT *tous/toutes six Tous les deux sont arrivés Je les ai invitées toutes les six both all three all four all five all six Both have arrived I invited all six NB: These expressions c a n n o t p r e c e d e a n o u n directly. To translate p h r a s e s like 'both p l a y e r s ' , 'all six singers', either u s e t h e definite article a n d a n u m e r a l alone: les deux joueurs, les six chanteuses: Les deux joueurs sont arrivés J'ai invité les six chanteuses or, w h e n the p h r a s e is in subject position, m o v e the tous/toutes (les) X to a position after the v e r b m a r k e d for tense: Les joueurs sont tous deux arrivés (See also 6.9.5.) 138 Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers 6.5 Measurements and comparisons 6.5.1 N u m b e r s w i t h l e n g t h , h e i g h t , d e p t h e t c . With the v e r b être, n u m b e r s specifying length, height, d e p t h , w i d t h , distance a n d so on, are p r e c e d e d by de: La piscine est longue de 50 mètres La longueur de la piscine est de 50 mètres The swimming pool is 50 metres long Cette tour est haute de 20 mètres La hauteur de cette tour est de 20 mètres This tower is 20 metres high Le lac est profond de 300 mètres La profondeur du lac est de 300 mètres The lake is 300 metres deep Le fleuve est large de 2 kilomètres à cet endroit La largeur du fleuve à cet endroit est de 2 kilomètres The river is 2 kilometres wide at this point La distance de Londres à Paris est de 500 kilomètres The distance from London to Paris is 500 kilometres An alternative w a y of describing s o m e of these m e a s u r e m e n t s is w i t h the verbs faire a n d avoir; in this case de p r e c e d e s long, haut, large, etc., w h i c h r e m a i n invariable in form: La piscine fait/a 50 mètres de long Cette tour fait/a 20 mètres de haut Le fleuve fait/a 2 kilomètres de large In talking a b o u t h o w tall p e o p l e are, the v e r b s mesurer, faire are u s u a l l y used: Je mesure 1,97 mètres Elle fait 1,80 mètres I am 1.97 metres tall She is 1.80 metres tall The v e r b s mesurer, faire are the e q u i v a l e n t of English 'is' in describing d i m e n sions: La table mesure (or fait) trois mètres sur deux The table is three metres by two 6.5.2 N u m b e r s in comparisons W h e n n u m b e r s figure in c o m p a r i s o n s w i t h t h e v e r b être, t h e y are often p r e c e d e d by de: Elle est mon aînée de six ans She is six years older than me La fenêtre est trop grande de cinq centimètres The window is five centimetres too big Elle est plus lourde de huit kilos She is eight kilograms heavier Measurements and comparisons 139 In some of these cases alternative expressions w i t h avoir are possible: Elle a six ans de plus que moi J'ai six ans de moins qu'elle Translating ' m o r e t h a n ' a n d 'less t h a n ' into French often causes English speakers some difficulty, b e c a u s e there are t w o possibilities: plus de moins de plus que moins que plus de, moins de i m p l y that t h e r e is a specific b e n c h m a r k against w h i c h s o m e thing is m e a s u r e d as b e i n g ' m o r e t h a n ' or 'less t h a n ' , a n d this is often a number: Elle gagne plus de 30 000FF par mois She earns more than 30,000 francs a month (30 000FF is the benchmark - she earns more than this) Il travaille moins de deux heures par jour He works less than two hours a day (deux heures is the benchmark - he works less than this) Interdit aux moins de 15 ans Not suitable for children under fifteen (15 ans is the benchmark - below this age, children are not allowed) plus que, moins que i m p l y a c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n o n e p e r s o n or t h i n g a n d another, w i t h o u t a specific b e n c h m a r k b e i n g m e n t i o n e d : Elle gagne plus que moi She earns more than me (how much I earn isn't specified - but she earns more) Il travaille moins que son frère He works less than his brother (how much his brother works isn't specified - but he works less) The difference b e t w e e n the t w o can be illustrated in the following p a i r of sentences: Elle a réuni plus de cinquante de ses collègues pour la fête She.got more than fifty of her colleagues together for the party (cinquante de ses collègues is the benchmark - she managed to persuade more colleagues than this to come) Elle a gagné plus que tous ses collègues ensemble pendant l'année She earned more than all her colleagues during the year (her colleagues earned an unspecified amount during the year - however much it was, she earned more than this) NB: The following expressions c o m p a r e o n e m e a s u r e m e n t w i t h another: quatre mètres sur trois un Français sur sept une chose à la fois 20% par an deux heures par jour four metres by three one French person in seven one thing at a time 20% a year two hours a day 140 Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers 'miles per gallon' is measured in French by the number of litres consumed per hundred kilometres: dix litres aux cent (kilomètres) (roughly 30 miles per gallon). 6.5.3 Numeral nouns and approximations The following numeral nouns describe approximate, rather than specific, numbers: une une une une une une une une dizaine quinzaine vingtaine trentaine quarantaine cinquantaine soixantaine centaine ten or so fifteen or so twenty or so thirty or so forty or so fifty or so sixty or so a hundred or so Je reviendrai dans une quinzaine (une huitaine) de jours I'll come back in about a fortnight (a week) or so Il a environ la trentaine He is thirty something Elle a une quarantaine d'années She is in her forties J'approche de la cinquantaine I'm approaching my fifties une douzaine (une demi-douzaine), however, means 'a dozen (a half-dozen)' exactly: une douzaine d'œufs 'a dozen eggs'. A variety of other expressions, when used with numbers, also express approximations: Ça coûte environ 300F/à peu près 300F/dans les 300F/près de 300F That costs around/about/nearly 300 francs Il a cinquante ans et quelques He is over fifty Il a autour de cinquante ans He is around fifty Elle va sur ses vingt-six ans She is going on twenty-six Le train arrive vers llh/aux alentours de llh/aux environs de 11 heures The train arrives around 11 a.m. NB: ans is always present when describing a person's age. 6.6 Dates, days, years 6.6.1 D a t e s Dates always begin with le (which does not contract to /' even before numbers beginning with a vowel: le huit mars, le onze septembre): le 1er janvier le 2 mai le 8 mars lundi le 11 juin Dates, days, years 141 Quelle est la date d'aujourd'hui? C'est le 2 janvier On est le combien? On est le 2 janvier NB: When writing dates, months always begin with lower case letters. 6.6.2 Days When days of the week are used without a determiner, they usually refer to a specific day: Je viendrai vous voir lundi I'll come and see you on Monday (But in dates, days of the week are preceded by le: le lundi 8 août.) When days of the week are preceded by a definite article they usually describe what habitually happens: Le magasin est fermé le lundi (or tous les lundis) The shop is closed on Mondays le matin, l'après-midi, le soir, la nuit are used in the same way: Elle se lève tôt le matin She gets up early in the mornings (versus Elle s'est levée tôt lundi matin 'She got up early on Monday morning'.) Seasons can be used in a similar way: faire du ski l'hiver (also en hiver) jouer au tennis l'été (also en été) to go skiing in winter to play tennis in summer But the definite article may be used to stress that an event occurred on a particular day: Le concours s'est déroulé le lundi The competition took place on the Monday Note the following expressions: dimanche en huit vendredi en quinze tous les deux jours a week on Sunday a fortnight on Friday every other day 6.6.3 Years In referring to years in a date, cent is obligatory (while 'hundred' is often omitted in English): 1945 dix-neuf or mille neuf cent quarante-cinq nineteen (hundred and) forty-five le 2 mai 1993 le deux mai dix-neuf cent quatrevingt-treize the second of May nineteen (hundred and) ninety-three 'BC' is av. J-C (avant Jésus-Christ): 'AD' is ap. J-C (après Jésus-Christ): 50 av. J-C 500 ap. J-C 142 Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers If mille is u s e d in AD dates, it can be w r i t t e n optionally mille or (very rarely) mil: en mille neuf cent quinze or en mil neuf cent quinze in nineteen fifteen an is u s e d in Van 2000 'the y e a r 2000', en Van 1789 'in t h e y e a r 1789', etc.; but année is u s e d in les années 60 'the 60s', les années 30 'the 30s', etc. (See Chapter 1.4 for an/année.) 6.7 Clock time In telling time, 'it is' is a l w a y s il est, n e v e r *c'est: Quelle heure est-il? (Or Quelle heure avez-vous?) What time is it? heures is obligatory: Il est deux heures vingt; il est trois heures moins vingt It's two twenty; it's twenty to three et links quart a n d demi to t h e h o u r in times p a s t t h e h o u r - demi agrees in gender with the noun: onze heures et quart midi et quart minuit et quart onze heures et demie midi et demi minuit et demi a quarter past eleven a quarter past midday a quarter past midnight half past eleven half past midday half past midnight 'a quarter to' the hour is moins le quart (or moins un quart): onze heures moins le quart a quarter to eleven As in English, o n e can equally say onze heures quinze 'eleven fifteen', midi trente 'thirty m i n u t e s p a s t m i d d a y ' , etc. In French timetables, times are u s u a l l y w r i t t e n as 21h35 or 21:35. N B : à l'heure à temps à deux heures on time in time précises justes sonnantes tapantes at two o'clock precisely (official report) exactly two o'clock (looking at watch) hang on two o'clock (for effect) spot on two (for effect, more informal) vers deux heures/vers les deux heures/autour de deux heures/ about two à deux heures environ/dans les environs de deux heures o'clock Je peux faire mes comptes dans une heure 1 can do my accounts in an hour's time Je peux faire mes comptes en une heure 1 can do my accounts within an hour (See C h a p t e r s 13.14.4 a n d 13.26.3.) Quantifiers 143 6.8 Money franc is always present in quoting prices, but centime is optional: huit francs cinquante (centimes) eight francs fifty (centimes) deux cents francs quatre-vingts (centimes) two hundred francs eighty (centimes) Foreign currencies are described in the same way: deux livres cinquante two pounds fifty trois dollars cinquante three dollars fifty Prices can be written in various ways: F8,50 FF8,50 8,50F 8,50FF 8F50 (usually found on price labels) Ça va chercher dans les quatre cents francs That'll fetch around four hundred francs (informal spoken style) 6.9 Quantifiers 6.9.1 C o m m o n quantifiers Quantifiers, like numbers, determine 'how much' there is of something, but are less specific than numbers: assez de enough autant de as many beaucoup de many bien des clients (s) many certains particular chaque every chacun des each one of the customer(s) 144 Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers une majorité de a majority of une minorité de a minority of moins de fewer nombre de a lot of une partie des a portion of peu de few pas mal de (informal French) quite a lot of la plupart des clients(s) most plus de more plusieurs several quantité de a lot of quelques some, a few le reste des the rest of the tous les all the customer(s) 6.9.2 Direct object quantifiers and en When a quantifier on its own is a direct object, en must be inserted in front of the verb, as in the case of numbers (see 6.1.7): J'en ai encore certains Ils n'en consomment qu'une partie Il en a vendu la plupart I still have some They only consume a portion He has sold most of it NB: When quelques 'some, a few' stands alone, it becomes quelques-un(e)s: II y avait quelques clients dans le magasin Il y en avait quelques-uns dans le magasin There were a few customers in the shop There were a few in the shop 6.9.3 de or du, de la, des after quantifiers The indefinite article des and the partitive articles du, de la, des (see Chapter 2.3.1 and 2.4) are omitted when a noun phrase follows one of the quantifiers listed with de in 6.9.1: assez de enough + autant de as much + peu de not much + des clients customers de l'argent money du travail work assez de clients enough customers autant d'argent as much money peu de travail not much work Quantifiers listed in 6.9.1 with des, however, are those which are followed by Quantifiers 145 des, du or de la: bien des clients many customers la plupart de l'argent most of the money une partie du travail part of the work When the quantifiers listed with de in 6.9.1 are followed by a noun with a definite article, this is not omitted. Compare: Beaucoup d'étudiants (indefinite) dorment moins qu'ils ne le souhaitent Many students sleep less than they would wish Beaucoup des étudiants interviewés (definite) dorment moins qu'ils ne le souhaitent Many of the students interviewed sleep less than they would wish See also Chapter 2.3.2 and 2.4. 6.9.4 Quantifiers and personal pronouns certains some beaucoup many them eux peu few them elles plusieurs d'entre several nous us most la plupart you vous chacun of each The preposition d'entre is used with quantifiers which precede stressed pronouns (for stressed pronouns see Chapter 3.3): One can also find certains parmi eux 'some of them', chacun de nous 'each of us'. 6.9.5 tout and chaque tous/toutes, like other quantifiers, can appear with the nouns they quantify or on their own: Toutes les assiettes sont sales/Toutes sont sales AU the plates are dirty/All are dirty J'ai cassé toutes les assiettes/Je les ai toutes cassées I broke all the plates/1 broke them all When tous/toutes quantifies a subject, it can be optionally moved to a position after the verb: Tous les invités sont maintenant arrivés or Les invités sont maintenant tous arrivés All the guests have arrived now/The guests have all arrived now 146 Numbers, measurements, time and quantifiers W h e n tous/toutes is u s e d alone as a direct object, it can be optionally m o v e d to a p o s i t i o n after the verb: Je les ai tous vus Je les ai vus tous 1 saw them all chaque m e a n s 'each, every': Chaque passager est prié de se présenter à la porte 12 Every passenger is requested to go to gate 12 chaque c a n n o t s t a n d alone: it b e c o m e s chacun(e): Chaque assiette est peinte à la main/ Chacune est peinte à la main Every plate is hand painted/Every one is hand painted (For a d v e r b i a l u s e of tout, as in toute blanche, tout blanc, see C h a p t e r 5.6.7.) 6.9.6 Subject-verb agreement when subject quantifiers are present With s o m e quantifiers, the v e r b agrees n o t w i t h the quantifier b u t w i t h the noun: Beaucoup de professeurs sont surmenés Many teachers are overworked Similar quantifiers are: bien des, nombre de, pas mal de, peu de, la plupart de, quantité de, trop de With other quantifiers, h o w e v e r , the v e r b m a y agree w i t h the n o u n o r w i t h the quantifier: La majorité de nos étudiants ont/a moins de quarante ans The majority of our students are under forty Une bonne partie de ses clients viennent/vient de l'étranger A good portion of his customers come from abroad Similar quantifiers are: une minorité de, le reste de, la moitié de, un tiers de, a n d n u m e r a l n o u n s like une dizaine de, une vingtaine, etc. (See C h a p t e r 9.1.5.) 7 Verb forms 7.1 Introduction As in many languages, verbs in French have different forms for the different functions they perform in sentences. It is traditional (and easiest for reference) to present verb forms in paradigms (i.e. lists), and this is what we do in this chapter. We follow Judge and Healey (1983) in dividing the paradigms into simple forms, compound forms and double compound forms. Simple forms are made up of stems to which endings are attached (see 7.3 for stems and endings). Compound forms are made up of forms of the auxiliary verbs avoir and être plus a past participle. Double compound forms are made up of forms of the compound auxiliary verbs avoir eu or avoir été plus a past participle. The set of verb forms that this produces is illustrated below, using the third person singular form of the verb donner 'to give' (stems are in normal type, endings are in bold). Not all books and teachers use the terminology we employ here, so we have added other terms in common use in brackets: Simple tenses Present Imperfect Simple past (past historic) Future Conditional Present subjunctive Imperfect subjunctive Example II donn-e II donn-ait II donn-a II donn-era II donn-erait Qu'il donn-e Qu'il donn-ât Simple non-finite forms Simple infinitive Present participle Past participle Imperative Compound tenses Compound past (perfect) Pluperfect Past anterior Compound future (future perfect) Compound conditional (conditional perfect) Compound past subjunctive Pluperfect subjunctive donn-er donn-ant donn-é donn-e donn-ez donn-ons Il a donné Il avait donné Il eut donné Il aura donné Il aurait donné Qu'il ait donné Qu'il eût donné 148 Verb forms C o m p o u n d non-finite forms Compound Compound Compound Compound infinitive present participle past participle imperative avoir donné ayant donné eu donné aie donné ayez donné ayons donné Double compound tenses Double compound past Compound pluperfect Double compound future Double compound conditional Double compound past subjunctive II a eu donné II avait eu donné II aura eu donné II aurait eu donné Qu'il eût eu donné D o u b l e c o m p o u n d non-finite forms Double compound infinitive Double compound participle avoir eu donné ayant eu donné 7.2 Conjugations For the p u r p o s e s of systematic p r e s e n t a t i o n , French v e r b s are best g r o u p e d into four c o n j u g a t i o n s . These are: (1) Verbs w h o s e infinitive e n d s in -er (e.g. donner, chanter, parler). This is by far the largest g r o u p . (2) Verbs w h o s e infinitive e n d s in -ir. Within this g r o u p there are t w o subgroups: (a) v e r b s w h o s e s t e m s s o m e t i m e s e n d in -iss- (e.g. finir: fin-iss-ons, fin-issant, fin-iss-aient, etc.); (b) v e r b s w h o s e s t e m s do n o t a d d -iss- (e.g. dormir, mentir). (3) Verbs w h o s e infinitive e n d s in -re (e.g. vendre, rendre). (4) Verbs w h o s e infinitive e n d s in -oir (e.g. recevoir). Verbs w h i c h differ from this p a t t e r n are i n c l u d e d in the list of irregular verbs u n d e r 7.6.8. 7.2.1 O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e p a r a d i g m s T h e p a r a d i g m s w h i c h follow in this chapter are d i v i d e d into eight sections: 7.6.1 and 7.6.2 describe the forms of avoir and être, because these two verbs are essential to all the compound forms. 7.6.3 describes the forms of regular verbs belonging to the -er conjugation (e.g. dormer, chanter, parler). 7.6.4 and 7.6.5 describe the forms of regular verbs belonging to the -ir conjugation. These subdivide into those whose stem sometimes ends in -iss- (like finir: fin-iss-ons, fin-iss-ant, fin-iss-aient, etc. - these are the majority of verbs in the -ir conjugation), and those whose stem does not add -iss (like dormir: dormons, dorm-ant, dorm-aient, etc.). There are only about 30 of these verbs. 7.6.6 describes the forms of regular verbs belonging to the -re conjugation (e.g. vendre, rendre). 7.6.7 describes the forms of regular verbs belonging to the -oir conjugation (e.g. recevoir, décevoir, concevoir). 7.6.8 lists the forms of irregular verbs (i.e. those whose stems change idiosyncratically at various points in the paradigm). Easy ways of generating some parts of the paradigms 149 7.3 Easy ways of generating some parts of the paradigms A number of the parts of the verb paradigms can be productively generated using a few simple rules. It is sometimes easier to learn these rules than learning every verb form individually. However, be aware that these only work with regular verbs - irregular verbs have idiosyncratic forms which have to be learned. 7.3.1 An easy way of generating the present tense For regular verbs ending in -er (like donner), -ir (the finir kind whose stems sometimes end in -iss-: fin-iss-ons, fin-iss-ant, fin-iss-aient, etc., but NOT the dormir kind - see 7.6.4 and 7.6.5) or -re (like vendre), take the infinitive form of the verb, omit the ending -er, -ir or -re (this creates a stem: donn-, fin-, vend-) and add the following endings: je tu il/elle nous vous ils/elles -er verbs -e -es -e -ons -ez -ent -ir verbs (most verbs - see 7.6.4) -is -is -it -issons -issez -issent -re verbs -s -s - -ons -ez -ent For example: Infinitive donner finir vendre Stem donnfinvend- Present tense je donn- e, etc. je fin- is, etc. je vend- s, etc. 7.3.2 An easy way of generating the imperfect tense For all regular verb conjugations, take the first person plural nous form of the present tense, omit -ons and add the following endings: je tu il/elle nous vous ils/elles -ais -ais -ait -ions -iez -aient For example: Infinitive donner commencer partager finir dormir vendre recevoir First person plural donnons commençons partageons finissons dormons vendons recevons Stem donncommençpartagefinissdormvendrecev- Imperfect tense je donn- ais, etc. je commenç- ais, etc. je partage- ais, etc. je finiss- ais, etc. je dorm- ais, etc. je vend- ais, etc. je recev- ais, etc. 150 Verb forms 7.3.3 An easy way of generating the simple past (past historic) For -er verbs, take the first person plural nous form of the present tense, omit -ons and add the following endings: -ai, -as, -a, -âmes, -âtes, -èrent. For -ir (both finir and dormir types - see 7.6.4 and 7.6.5) and -re verbs, take the past participle, omit the final vowel, and add the following endings: -is, -is, it, -îmes, -îtes, -irent. For -oir verbs, take the past participle, omit the final vowel, and add the following endings: -us, -us, -ut, -ûmes, -ûies, -urent. tu je il/elle nous vous ils/elles -er verbs (most verbs - see 7.6.3) -ai -as -a -âmes -âtes -èrent -ir verbs -re verbs -is -is -it -îmes -îtes -irent -oir verbs -us -us -ut -ûmes -ûtes -urent For e x a m p l e : Infinitive donner commencer partager First person plural donnons commençons partageons Stem donncommençpartage- Simple past tense je donn- ai, etc. je commenç- ai, etc je partage- ai, etc. finir dormir vendre recevoir Past participle fini dormi vendu reçu findormvendreç- je fin- is, etc. je dorm- is, etc. je vend- is, etc. je reç- us, etc. 7.3.4 An easy way of generating the future and conditional Take the infinitive form of -er, -ir and -re verbs (deleting the final e in the latter case) and add the following endings: For example: je tu il/elle nous vous ils/elles Future -ai -as -a -ons -ez -ont Conditional -ais -ais -ait -ions -iez -aient initive donner Stem donner- finir finir- dormir dormir- vendre vendr- Future/conditional je donner- ai, etc. je donner- ais, etc. je finir- ai, etc. je finir- ais, etc. je dormir- ai, etc. je dormir- ais, etc. je vendr- ai, etc. je vendr- ais, etc. (For the doubling of consonants in verbs like je jetterai, j'appellerai, the change Easy ways of generating some parts of the paradigms 151 from e to e in verbs like j'achèterai, il gèlera, and the change from é to e in verbs like j'espérerai, je compléterai, etc., see 7.4.) 7.3.5 An easy way of generating the present subjunctive For all regular verb conjugations, take the third person plural ils/elles form of the present tense, omit -ent and add the endings: je tu il/elle nous vous ils/elles -e -es -e -ions -iez -ent For example: Infinitive donner finir dormir vendre recevoir Third person plural donnent finissent dorment vendent reçoivent Stem donnfinissdormvendreçoiv- Present subjunctive je donn- e, etc. je finiss- e, etc. je dorm- e, etc. je vend- e, etc. je reçoiv- e, etc. NB: The stem reçoiv- changes when the ending does not begin with -e: reçoive, but recevions, receviez. 7.3.6 An easy way of generating the imperfect subjunctive For all regular verb conjugations, take the first person singular je form of the simple past tense, omit the last letter and add the endings: je tu il/elle nous vous ils/elles -sse -sses -At -ssions -ssiez -ssent For example: Infinitive donner commencer partager finir dormir vendre recevoir First person simple past donnai commençai partageai finis dormis vendis reçus Stem donnacommençapartageafinidormivendireçu- Imperfect subjunctive je donna- sse, etc. je commença- sse, etc. je partagea- sse, etc. je fini- sse, etc. je dormi- sse, etc. je vendi- sse, etc. je reçu- sse, etc. 7.3.7 An easy way of generating t h e imperative For all verbs (with four exceptions - see below) take the second person singular tu form, the second person plural vous form and the first person plural nous form of the present tense, delete the subject and the final -s of any verb which ends in -es or -as. For example: Infinitive donner aller Present tense tu donnes vous donnez nous donnons tu vas vous allez nous allons Imperative donne! donnez! donnons! va! allez! allons! 152 Verb forms finir dormir vendre recevoir tu finis vous finissez nous finissons tu dors vous dormez nous dormons tu vends vous vendez nous vendons tu reçois vous recevez nous recevons finis! finissez! finissons! dors! dormez! dormons! vends! vendez! vendons! reçois! recevez! recevons! N B : T h e final -s w h i c h d i s a p p e a r s from s e c o n d p e r s o n singular v e r b s ending in -es or -as r e a p p e a r s w h e r e the p r o n o u n s y or en follow the i m p e r a t i v e : aller Va! Vas-y! Parles-en! Parle! parler F o u r exceptions: Infinitive être avoir savoir vouloir Present tense tu es vous êtes nous sommes tu as vous avez nous avons tu sais vous savez nous savons tu veux vous voulez nous voulons Imperative sois! soyez! soyons! aie! ayez! ayons! sache! sachez! sachons.1 veuille veuillez not used (Both veuille a n d veuillez m e a n 'please'.) N B : A l t h o u g h vouloir h a s irregular i m p e r a t i v e forms, t h e related v e r b en vouloir à qn 'to h o l d a g r u d g e against s b ' h a s regular forms: Tu ne lui en veux pas Vous ne lui en voulez pas Nous ne lui en voulons pas Ne lui en veux pas! Ne lui en voulez pas! Ne lui en voulons pas! 7.4 Changes in t h e stem f o r m of some -er conjugation verbs The s t e m s of a n u m b e r of v e r b s of the -er conjugation c h a n g e their form w h e n t h e y are followed by an e. (See also listings u n d e r irregular v e r b s , Table 7.H.) T h e majority of v e r b s e n d i n g in -eler or -eter d o u b l e the final c o n s o n a n t of the s t e m w h e n it is followed by -e in the present, future, conditional a n d p r e s e n t subjunctive: appeler Present Future Conditional Present Subjunctive j'appelle, tu appelles, il/elle appelle, ils/elles appellent j'appellerai, . . ., nous appellerons, etc. j'appellerais, . . ., nous appellerions, etc. que j'appelle, que tu appelles, qu'il/elle appelle, qu'ils/elles appellent Verbs whose stems end in c- or g- 153 jeter Present je jette, . . . etc. Future je jetterai, . . . etc. Conditional je jetterais, . . . etc. Present subjunctive que je jette, . . . etc. The following verbs, however, do not double the final stem consonant, but change the first e to è: acheter, celer, ciseler, corseter, crocheter, démanteler, écarteler, fureter, geler, haleter, marteler, modeler, peler (together with verbs derived from these like congeler, dégeler, etc.): acheter Present Future j'achète, . . . etc. j'achèterai, . . . etc. Other verbs which have an unstressed e in the syllable before the final -er also change that vowel to è in the same circumstances, for example mener, semer: mener Present Future je mène, . . . etc. je mènerai, . . . etc Verbs which have an é in the syllable before the final -er change that vowel to è in the same circumstances, for example espérer, révéler: espérer Present Future j'espère, . . . etc. j'espérerai, . . . etc Verbs of the -er conjugation whose stem ends in -y, for example employer, nettoyer, essayer, change the y to i in the same circumstances: employer Present Future j'emploie, . . etc. j'emploierai, . . . etc 7.4.1 T h e forms of créer, nier, scier, rire, etc. Verbs whose stems end in -é or -i behave just like any other verb: the final vowel does not change, for example: je crée (present tense) j'ai créé (compound past) l'entreprise que j'ai créée (past participle agreement with a preceding feminine direct object - see Chapter 9.3.) nous rions (present tense) nous riions (imperfect tense or present subjunctive) etc. 7.5 Verbs whose stems end in c- or gVerbs whose stems end in c- (pronounced [s]) change to c- before an ending beginning with -a, -o, or -u, e.g. commenc-er, rec-evoir: commenc-er rec-evoir nous commenç- ons (present) je commenç- ais (imperfect) nous commenç- âmes (simple past) etc. je reç- ois (present) nous reç- unies (simple past) etc. 154 Verb forms Verbs whose stems end in a g- (pronounced like 'je') change to ge- before an ending beginning with -a or -o, e.g. partag-er, protég-er: partag-er nous partage- ons (present) je partage- ais (imperfect) nous partage- âmes (simple past) etc. 7.6 Verb paradigms 7.6.1 T h e irregular verb avoir TABLE 7.A Infinitive: Past participle: Present participle: avoir eu ayant Compound infinitive: Compound present participle: Simple forms Compound forms Present: Compound past: J'ai Tu as Il a Nous avons Vous avez Ils ont Imperfect: J'avais Tu avais Il avait J'ai eu Tu as eu Il a eu Nous avions Vous aviez Ils avaient J'avais eu Tu avais eu Il avait eu Past anterior: J'eus Tu eus Il eut J'eus eu Tu eus eu Il eut eu Nous eûmes Vous eûtes Ils eurent Future: Nous avons eu Vous avez eu Ils ont eu Nous avions eu Vous aviez eu Ils avaient eu Nous eûmes eu Vous eûtes eu Ils eurent eu Compound future: Nous aurons Vous aurez Ils auront Conditional: J'aurais Tu aurais Il aurait ayant eu Pluperfect: Simple past (past historic): J'aurai Tu auras Il aura avoir eu J'aurai eu Tu auras eu Il aura eu Nous aurons eu Vous aurez eu Ils auront eu Compound conditional: Nous aurions Vous auriez Ils auraient J'aurais eu Tu aurais eu Il aurait eu Nous aurions eu Vous auriez eu Ils auraient eu Verb paradigms 155 TABLE 7.A (continued) Present subjunctive: Compound past subjunctive: que j'aie que tu aies qu'il ait que j'aie eu que tu aies eu qu'il ait eu que nous ayons que vous ayez qu'ils aient que nous ayons eu que vous ayez eu qu'ils aient eu Imperfect subjunctive: Pluperfect subjunctive: que j'eusse que tu eusses qu'il eût que j'eusse eu que nous eussions eu que tu eusses eu que vous eussiez eu qu'il eût eu qu'ils eussent eu que nous eussions que vous eussiez qu'ils eussent Imperative: Compound imperative: aie ayons ayez not used 7.6.2 The irregular verb être TABLE 7.B Infinitive: Past participle: être été Present participle: étant Compound infinitive: Compound past participle: Compound present participle: Simple forms Compound forms Present: Compound past: Je suis Tu es Il est Nous sommes Vous êtes Ils sont Nous étions Vous étiez Ils étaient J'avais été Tu avais été Il avait été Simple past (past historic): Past anterior: Je fus Tu fus Il fut J'eus été Tu eus été Il eut été Nous fûmes Vous fûtes Ils furent ayant été Nous avons été Vous avez été Ils ont été Nous avions été Vous aviez été Ils avaient été Nous eûmes été Vous eûtes été Ils eurent été Compound future: Future: Je serai Tu seras Il sera eu été Pluperfect: Imperfect: J'étais Tu étais Il était J'ai été Tu as été Il a été avoir été Nous serons Vous serez Ils seront J'aurai été Tu auras été Il aura été Nous aurons été Vous aurez été Ils auront été 156 Verb forms TABLE 7.B (continued) Compound conditional: Conditional: Je serais Tu serais Il serait Nous serions Vous seriez Ils seraient J'aurais été Tu aurais été Il aurait été Nous aurions été Vous auriez été Ils auraient été Present subjunctive: Compound past subjunctive: que je sois que tu sois qu'il soit que j'aie été que tu aies été qu'il ait été que nous soyons que vous soyez qu'ils soient que nous ayons été que vous ayez été qu'ils aient été Imperfect subjunctive: Pluperfect subjunctive: que je fusse que tu fusses qu'il fût que j'eusse été que nous eussions été que tu eusses été que vous eussiez été qu'il eût été qu'ils eussent été que nous fussions que vous fussiez qu'ils fussent Imperative: Compound imperative: sois soyons soyez not used 7.6.3 Conjugation I : verbs whose infinitive ends in -er TABLE 7.C Infinitive: Past participle: parler parlé Present participle: parlant Compound infinitive: Compound past participle: Compound present participle: Simple forms Compound forms Present: Compound past: Je parle Tu parles Il parle Nous parlons Vous parlez Ils parlent Imperfect: Je parlais Tu parlais Il parlait J'ai parlé Tu as parlé Il a parlé avoir parlé eu parlé ayant parlé Nous avons parlé Vous avez parlé Ils ont parlé Pluperfect: Nous parlions Vous parliez Ils parlaient J'avais parlé Tu avais parlé Il avait parlé Simple past (past historic): Past anterior: Je parlai Tu parlas Il parla J'eus parlé Tu eus parlé Il eut parlé Nous parlâmes Vous parlâtes Ils parlèrent Nous avions parlé Vous aviez parlé Ils avaient parlé Nous eûmes parlé Vous eûtes parlé Ils eurent parlé Verb paradigms 157 TABLE 7.C (continued) Future: Je parlerai Tu parleras Il parlera Compound future: Nous parlerons Vous parlerez Ils parleront Nous aurons parlé Vous aurez parlé Ils auront parlé Compound conditional: Conditional: Je parlerais Tu parlerais Il parlerait J'aurai parlé Tu auras parlé Il aura parlé Nous parlerions Vous parleriez Ils parleraient J'aurais parlé Tu aurais parlé Il aurait parlé Nous aurions parlé Vous auriez parlé Ils auraient parlé Present subjunctive: Compound past subjunctive: que je parle que tu parles qu'il parle que j'aie parlé que nous ayons parlé que tu aies parlé que vous ayez parlé qu'il ait parlé qu'ils aient parlé que nous parlions que vous parliez qu'ils parlent Imperfect subjunctive: Pluperfect subjunctive: que je parlasse que nous parlassions que tu parlasses que vous parlassiez qu'il parlât qu'ils parlassent que j'eusse parlé que nous eussions parlé que tu eusses parlé que vous eussiez parlé qu'il eût parlé qu'ils eussent parlé Imperative: Compound imperative: parle (but parles-en) parlons parlez NB: Verbs whose stem ends in c or g are written ç and ge respectively before endings which begin with a or o: e.g. nous commençons, je mangeais - see 7.5. NB: Verbs of the -er conjugation whose stem changes, like compléter, espérer (and other verbs ending in -éter, -érer), appeler, mener, jeter, employer, nettoyer (and other verbs ending in -oyer - see 7.4) are individually listed under irregular verbs. 158 Verb forms 7.6.4 Conjugation 2 (a): verbs whose infinitives end in -ir, and whose stems end in -iss- in certain paradigms TABLE 7.D Infinitive: Past participle: finir fini Present participle: finissant Compound infinitive: Compound past participle: Compound present participle: Simple forms Compound forms Present: Compound past: Je finis Tu finis Il finit Nous finissons Vous finissez Ils finissent Nous finissions Vous finissiez Ils finissaient J'avais fini Tu avais fini Il avait fini Simple past (past historic): Past anterior: Je finis Tu finis Il finit J'eus fini Tu eus fini Il eut fini Nous finîmes Vous finîtes Ils finirent Future: Je finirai Tu finiras Il finira Nous finirons Vous finirez Ils finiront Nous avons fini Vous avez fini Ils ont fini Nous avions fini Vous aviez fini Ils avaient fini Nous eûmes fini Vous eûtes fini Ils eurent fini J'aurai fini Tu auras fini Il aura fini Nous aurons fini Vous aurez fini Ils auront fini Compound conditional: Nous finirions Vous finiriez Ils finiraient J'aurais fini Tu aurais fini Il aurait fini Nous aurions fini Vous auriez fini Ils auraient fini Compound past subjunctive: Present subjunctive: que je finisse que tu finisses qu'il finisse ayant fini Compound future: Conditional: Je finirais Tu finirais Il finirait eu fini Pluperfect: Imperfect: Je finissais Tu finissais Il finissait J'ai fini Tu as fini Il a fini avoir fini que nous finissions que vous finissiez qu'ils finissent que j'aie fini que tu aies fini qu'il ait fini Imperfect subjunctive: Pluperfect subjunctive: que je finisse que tu finisses qu'il finît que j'eusse fini que tu eusses fini qu'il eût fini que nous finissions que vous finissiez qu'ils finissent que nous ayons fini que vous ayez fini qu'ils aient fini que nous eussions fini que vous eussiez fini qu'ils eussent fini Verb paradigms 159 TABLE 7.D (continued) Imperative: finis finissons finissez Compound imperative: aie fini ayons fini ayez fini NB: Verbs which approximate to this pattern but which have significant differences are: fleurir, haïr. These are listed as irregular verbs. 7.6.5 Conjugation 2 ( b ) : verbs whose infinitives end in -ir, and whose stems do not end in -iss- (e.g. dormir) TABLE 7.E Infinitive: Past participle: dormir dormi Present participle: dormant Compound infinitive: Compound past participle: Compound present participle: Simple forms Compound forms Present: Compound past: Je dors Tu dors Il dort Nous dormons Vous dormez Ils dorment Imperfect: Je dormais Tu dormais Il dormait J'ai dormi Tu as dormi Il a dormi Nous dormions Vous dormiez Ils dormaient J'avais dormi Tu avais dormi Il avait dormi Past anterior: Je dormis Tu dormis Il dormit J'eus dormi Tu eus dormi Il eut dormi Nous dormîmes Vous dormîtes Ils dormirent ayant dormi Nous avons dormi Vous avez dormi Ils ont dormi Nous avions dormi Vous aviez dormi Ils avaient dormi Nous eûmes dormi Vous eûtes dormi Ils eurent dormi Compound future: Future: Nous dormirons Vous dormirez Ils dormiront Conditional: Je dormirais Tu dormirais Il dormirait eu dormi Pluperfect: Simple past (past historic): Je dormirai Tu dormiras Il dormira avoir dormi J'aurai dormi Tu auras dormi Il aura dormi Nous aurons dormi Vous aurez dormi Ils auront dormi Compound conditional: Nous dormirions Vous dormiriez Ils dormiraient J'aurais dormi Tu aurais dormi Il aurait dormi Nous aurions dormi Vous auriez dormi Ils auraient dormi 160 Verb forms TABLE 7.E (continued) Present subjunctive: que je dorme que tu dormes qu'il dorme Compound past subjunctive: que nous dormions que vous dormiez qu'ils dorment que j'aie dormi que tu aies dormi qu'il ait dormi Imperfect subjunctive: Pluperfect subjunctive: que je dormisse que tu dormisses qu'il dormît que j'eusse dormi que tu eusses dormi qu'il eût dormi que nous dormissions que vous dormissiez qu'ils dormissent Imperative: Compound imperative: dors dormons dormez aie dormi ayons dormi ayez dormi que nous ayons dormi que vous ayez dormi qu'ils aient dormi que nous eussions dormi que vous eussiez dormi qu'ils eussent dormi NB: S'endormir, servir, desservir, mentir, démentir, partir, repartir, se repentir, sentir, consentir, ressentir, sortir and ressortir conjugate like dormir BUT asservir, impartir, répartir, assortir, conjugate like finir. Verbs which are similar to one or other of these -ir conjugations are: cueillir, accueillir, recueillir, assaillir, tressaillir, couvrir, découvrir, recouvrir, offrir, ouvrir, rouvrir, souffrir but they have special characteristics. They are listed individually as irregular verbs. 7.6.6 Conjugation 3: verbs with infinitives which end in -re (e.g. vendre) TABLE 7.F Infinitive: Past participle: vendre vendu Present participle: vendant Compound infinitive: Compound past participle: Compound present participle: Simple forms Compound forms Present: Compound past: Je vends Tu vends Il vend Nous vendons Vous vendez Ils vendent Imperfect: Je vendais Tu vendais Il vendait J'ai vendu Tu as vendu Il a vendu avoir vendu eu vendu ayant vendu Nous avons vendu Vous avez vendu Ils ont vendu Pluperfect: Nous vendions Vous vendiez Ils vendaient J'avais vendu Tu avais vendu Il avait vendu Nous avions vendu Vous aviez vendu Ils avaient vendu Verb paradigms 161 TABLE 7.F (continued) Simple past (past historic): Past anterior: Je vendis Tu vendis Il vendit J'eus vendu Tu eus vendu Il eut vendu Nous vendîmes Vous vendîtes Ils vendirent Future: Je vendrai Tu vendras Il vendra Compound future: Nous vendrons Vous vendrez Ils vendront Conditional: Je vendrais Tu vendrais Il vendrait J'aurai vendu Tu auras vendu Il aura vendu Nous aurons vendu Vous aurez vendu Ils auront vendu Compound conditional: Nous vendrions Vous vendriez Ils vendraient J'aurais vendu Tu aurais vendu Il aurait vendu Nous aurions vendu Vous auriez vendu Ils auraient vendu Compound past subjunctive: Present subjunctive: que je vende que tu vendes qu'il vende Nous eûmes vendu Vous eûtes vendu Ils eurent vendu que nous vendions que vous vendiez qu'ils vendent que j'aie vendu que nous ayons vendu que tu aies vendu que vous ayez vendu qu'il ait vendu qu'ils aient vendu Imperfect subjunctive: Pluperfect subjunctive: que je vendisse que tu vendisses qu'il vendît que j'eusse vendu que nous eussions vendu que tu eusses vendu que vous eussiez vendu qu'il eût vendu qu'ils eussent vendu que nous vendissions que vous vendissiez qu'ils vendissent Imperative: Compound imperative: vends vendons vendez aie vendu ayons vendu ayez vendu A few verbs follow this pattern in its entirety, especially those ending in -andre, -endre, -ondre, -erdre, -ordre, e.g. épandre, répandre, attendre, défendre, descendre, détendre, entendre, étendre, fendre, prétendre, rendre, tendre, vendre, confondre, correspondre, fondre, pondre, répondre, tondre, mordre, perdre, tordre. Other verbs which have sufficient differences to be listed individually as irregular verbs are: prendre (and compounds of prendre), rompre (and compounds of rompre), battre (and compounds of battre), vaincre (and compounds of vaincre), verbs ending in -a/e/oindre: contraindre, craindre, plaindre, enfreindre, éteindre, étreindre, astreindre, atteindre, ceindre, dépeindre, déteindre, enceindre, feindre, geindre, peindre, restreindre, teindre, joindre, and verbs ending in -aître: apparaître, connaître, disparaître, méconnaître, paraître, reconnaître, repaître, accroître, décroître, croître. A distinct group of verbs end in -uire, e.g. conduire, construire, cuire, déduire, 162 Verb forms détruire, enduire, introduire, produire, séduire, traduire. These all follow the same pattern which is illustrated by construire in the table of irregular verbs. 7.6.7 Conjugation 4: verbs with infinitives which end in -o/r (e.g. recevoir) TABLE 7.G Infinitive: Past participle: recevoir reçu Present participle: recevant Compound infinitive: Compound past participle: Compound present participle: Simple forms Compound forms Present: Compound Past: Je reçois Tu reçois Il reçoit Nous recevons Vous recevez Ils reçoivent Nous recevions Vous receviez Ils recevaient J'avais reçu Tu avais reçu Il avait reçu Simple past (past historic): Past anterior: Je reçus Tu reçus Il reçut J'eus reçu Tu eus reçu Il eut reçu Nous reçûmes Vous reçûtes Ils reçurent Future: Je recevrai Tu recevras Il recevra ayant reçu Nous avons reçu Vous avez reçu Ils ont reçu Je recevrais Tu recevrais Il recevrait Nous avions reçu Vous aviez reçu Ils avaient reçu Nous eûmes reçu Vous eûtes reçu Ils eurent reçu Compound future: Nous recevrons Vous recevrez Ils recevront Conditional: J'aurai reçu Tu auras reçu Il aura reçu Nous aurons reçu Vous aurez reçu Ils auront reçu Compound conditional: Vous recevrions Vous recevriez Ils recevraient J'aurais reçu Tu aurais reçu Il aurait reçu Nous aurions reçu Vous auriez reçu Ils auraient reçu Compound past subjunctive: Present subjunctive: que je reçoive que tu reçoives qu'il reçoive eu reçu Pluperfect: Imperfect: Je recevais Tu recevais Il recevait J'ai reçu Tu as reçu Il a reçu avoir reçu que nous recevions que vous receviez qu'ils reçoivent que j'aie reçu que tu aies reçu qu'il ait reçu Imperfect subjunctive: Pluperfect subjunctive: que je reçusse que tu reçusses qu'il reçût que j'eusse reçu que tu eusses reçu qu'il eût reçu que nous reçussions que vous reçussiez qu'ils reçussent que nous ayons reçu que vous ayez reçu qu'ils aient reçu que nous eussions reçu que vous eussiez reçu qu'ils eussent reçu Verb paradigms 163 TABLE 7.G (continued) Imperative: Compound imperative: reçois recevons recevez aie reçu ayons reçu ayez reçu NB: A number of verbs, e.g. voir and derivatives, do not follow this pattern. They are listed individually as irregular verbs. 7.6.8 Irregular verbs TABLE 7.H Infinitive: abattre to knock down Present indicative: j'abats nous abattons tu abats vous abattez il abat ils abattent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): abattant j'abattrai j'abattis j'abattais que j'abatte que j'abattisse abattu Infinitive: absoudre to absolve Present indicative: j'absous nous absolvons tu absous vous absolvez il absout ils absolvent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): absolvant j'absoudrai absous/ absoute (f) Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): accru accroissant j'accroîtrai j'accrus j'accroissais que j'accroisse que j'accrusse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): achetant acheté j'achèterai (è in all forms) j'achetai j'achetais que j'achète que nous achetions que vous achetiez que j'achetasse j'absolvais que j'absolve Infinitive: s'abstenir de to abstain from: see tenir Infinitive: abstraire to abstract: see traire Infinitive: accourir to run up: see courir Infinitive: accroître to increase Present indicative: j'accrois nous accroissons tu accrois vous accroissez il accroît ils accroissent Infinitive: accueillir to welcome: see cueillir Infinitive: acheter to buy Present indicative: j'achète nous achetons tu achètes vous achetez il achète ils achètent Subj (imp): 164 Verb forms TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: achever to finish: is like acheter in the distribution of è Infinitive: acquérir to acquire Present indicative: j'acquiers nous acquérons tu acquiers vous acquérez il acquiert ils acquièrent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): acquérant j'acquerrai j'acquis j'acquérais que j'acquière que j'acquisse acquis Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): allant j'irai j'allai j'allais que j'aille que j'allasse allé Infinitive: adjoindre to join with: see joindre Infinitive: admettre to let in: see mettre Infinitive: advenir to occur: see venir Infinitive: aller to go Present indicative: je vais nous allons tu vas vous allez il va ils vont Infinitive: amener to bring: is like mener in the distribution of è in certain forms Infinitive: apparaître to appear Present indicative: j'apparais nous apparaissons tu apparais vous apparaissez il apparaît ils apparaissent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): apparu apparaissant j'apparaîtrai j'apparus j'apparaissais que j'apparaisse que j'apparusse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): appelé appelant j'appellerai (11 in all forms) j'appelai j'appelais que j'appelle que nous appel ions que vous appel Lez que j'appelasse Infinitive: appartenir to belong: see tenir Infinitive: appeler to call Present indicative: j'appelle nous appelons tu appelles vous appelez il appelle ils appellent Subj (imp): Infinitive: apprendre to learn, to teach: see prendre Verb paradigms 165 TABLE 7.H Irregular verbs (continued) Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): Imperative: Infinitive: assaillir to assail Present indicative: j'assaille nous assaillons tu assailles vous assaillez il assaille ils assaillent Infinitive: s'asseoir to sit down Present indicative: Participles: je m'assieds nous nous asseyons Future: tu t'assieds vous vous asseyez il s'assied ils s'asseyent Simple past: Imperfect: (Also possible are: je m'assois tu t'assois il s'assoit assaillant assailli j'assaillirai j'assaillis j'assaillais que j'assaille que j'assaillisse assaille (assailles before y and en) Subj (près): Subj (imp): s'asseyant assis je m'assiérai (or je m'assoirai) je m'assis je m'asseyais (or je m'assoyais) que je m'asseye que je m'assisse nous nous assoyons vous vous assoyez ils s'asseoient) Infinitive: astreindre to oblige Present indicative: j'astreins nous astreignons tu astreins vous astreignez il astreint ils astreignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): astreignant astreint j'astreindrai j'astreignis j'astreignais que j'astreigne que j'astreignisse Infinitive: atteindre to attain Present indicative: j'atteins nous atteignons tu atteins vous atteignez il atteint ils atteignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): atteignant atteint j'atteindrai j'atteignis j'atteignais que j'atteigne que j'atteignisse Infinitive: avancer to advance Present indicative: j'avance nous avançons tu avances vous avancez il avance ils avancent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): avançant avancé j'avancerai j'avançai j'avançais que j'avance que j'avançasse NB: Always ç before an 'a' or 'o' Infinitive: battre to beat Present indicative: je bats nous battons tu bats vous battez il bat ils battent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): battant je battrai je battis je battais que je batte que je battisse battu Infinitive: boire to drink Present indicative: je bois nous buvons tu bois vous buvez il boit ils boivent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): buvant je boirai je bus je buvais que je boive que je busse bu 166 Verb forms TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: bouillir to boil Present indicative: je bous nous bouillons tu bous vous bouillez il bout ils bouillent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): bouillant bouilli je bouillirai je bouillis je bouillais que je bouille que je bouillisse Infinitive: braire to bray Present indicative: il brait ils braient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): brayant il braira Infinitive: bruire to buzz (of insects) Present indicative: il bruit ils bruissent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): il brayait il bruira - Infinitive: céder to give up: is like espérer and compléter in the way é and è are distributed Infinitive: ceindre to put sth around sth (rare) Present indicative: je ceins nous ceignons tu ceins vous ceignez il ceint ils ceignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): ceignant ceint je ceindrai je ceignis je ceignais que je ceigne que je ceignisse Infinitive: choir to fall (rare) Present indicative: je chois tu chois il choit ils choient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): chu je choirai je chus - Infinitive: circonscrire to circumscribe: see écrire Infinitive: circonvenir to circumvent: see venir Infinitive: clore to conclude, close Present indicative: je clos tu clos il clôt ils closent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): je clorai que je close Verb paradigms 167 TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: combattre to fight Present indicative: je combats nous combattons tu combats vous combattez il combat ils combattent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): combattant combattu je combattrai je combattis je combattais que je combatte que je combattisse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): complétant complété je compléterai je complétai je complétais que je complète que nous complétions que vous complétiez que je complétasse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): concluant conclu je conclurai je conclus je concluais que je conclue que je conclusse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): confisant je confirai je confis je confisais que je confise Infinitive: commettre to commit: see mettre Infinitive: comparaître to appear before a court: see paraître Infinitive: complaire à to humour: see plaire Infinitive: compléter to complete Present indicative: je complète nous complétons tu complètes vous complétez il complète ils complètent Infinitive: comprendre to understand: see prendre Infinitive: compromett re to compromise: see mettre Infinitive: conclure to conclude Present indicative: je conclus nous concluons tu conclus vous concluez il conclut ils concluent Infinitive: concourir to converge: see courir Infinitive: conduire to drive: see construire Infinitive: Present indicative: confire je confis nous confisons to preserve in tu confis vous confisez fat or sugar il confit ils confisent " confit 168 Verb forms TABLE 7.H Infinitive: connaître to know (continued) Present indicative: je connais nous connaissons tu connais vous connaissez il connaît ils connaissent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): connaissant c e connaîtrai e connus e connaissais que je connaisse que je connusse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): construisant construit je construirai je construisis je construisais que je construise que je construisisse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): contraignant contraint je contraindrai je contraignis je contraignais que je contraigne que je contraignisse Infinitive: conquérir to conquer: see acquérir Infinitive: construire to build Present indicative: je construis nous construisons tu construis vous construisez il construit ils construisent Infinitive: contenir to contain: see tenir Infinitive: contraindre to constrain Present indicative: je contrains nous contraignons tu contrains vous contraignez il contraint ils contraignent Infinitive: contredire to contradict: see interdire Infinitive: contrefaire to imitate: see faire Infinitive: contrevenir to contravene: see venir Infinitive: convaincre to convince: see vaincre Infinitive: convenir to agree: see venir Infinitive: corrompre to corrupt Present indicative: je corromps nous corrompons tu corromps vous corrompez il corrompt ils corrompent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): corrompant corrompu je corromprai je corrompis je corrompais que je corrompe que je corrompisse Infinitive: coudre to sew Present indicative: je couds nous cousons tu couds vous cousez il coud ils cousent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): cousant cousu je coudrai je cousis je cousais que je couse que je cousisse Verb paradigms 169 TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: courir to run Present indicative: je cours nous courons tu cours vous courez il court ils courent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): courant couru je courrai je courus je courais que je coure que je courusse Infinitive: couvrir to cover Present indicative: je couvre nous couvrons tu couvres vous couvrez il couvre ils couvrent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): Imperative: couvrant couvert je couvrirai je couvris je couvrais que je couvre que je couvrisse couvre (couvres before y and en) Infinitive: craindre to fear Present indicative: je crains nous craignons tu crains vous craignez il craint ils craignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): craignant craint je craindrai je craignis je craignais que je craigne que je craignisse Infinitive: créer to create (regular verb) Present indicative: je crée nous créons tu crées vous créez il crée ils créent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): créant je créerai je créai je créais que je crée que je créasse créé Infinitive: croire to believe Present indicative: je crois nous croyons tu crois vous croyez il croit ils croient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): croyant je croirai je crus je croyais que je croie que je crusse cru Infinitive: croître to increase Present indicative: je croîs nous croissons tu croîs vous croissez il croît ils croissent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): croissant je croîtrai je crûs je croissais que je croisse que je crûsse crû (crue) Infinitive: cueillir to pick Present indicative: je cueille nous cueillons tu cueilles vous cueillez il cueille ils cueillent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): Imperative: cueillant cueilli je cueillerai je cueillis je cueillais que je cueille que je cueillisse cueille (cueilles before y and en) NB: The future and conditional have cueiller as a base and not cueillir. The same is true of accueillir and recueillir (but not assaillir). 170 Verb forms TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: débattre to discuss Present indicative: je débats nous débattons tu débats vous débattez il débat ils débattent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): Infinitive: déchoir to decline Present indicative: je déchois nous déchoyons tu déchois vous déchoyez il déchoit ils déchoient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): débattant débattu je débattrai je débattis je débattais que je débatte que je débattisse déchu je déchoirai je déchus que que que que je déchoie nous déchoyions vous déchoyiez je déchusse Infinitive: découdre to unstitch: see coudre Infinitive: découvrir to discover Present indicative: Participles: je découvre nous découvrons Future: tu découvres vous découvrez Simple past: il découvre ils découvrent Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): Imperative: découvrant découvert je découvrirai je découvris je découvrais que je découvre que je découvrisse découvre (découvres before y and en) Infinitive: décrire to describe: see écrire Infinitive: décroître to decrease Present indicative: Participles: je décrois nous décroissons Future: tu décrois vous décroissez Simple past: Imperfect: il décroît ils décroissent Subj (près): Subj (imp): Infinitive: se dédire de to go back on: see interdire Infinitive: déduire to deduce: see construire Infinitive: défaillir to become feeble: see assaillir Infinitive: défaire to undo: see faire Infinitive: démettre to dislocate: see mettre décroissant décru je décroîtrai je décrus je décroissais que je décroisse que je décrusse Verb paradigms 171 TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: dépeindre to describe Present indicative: je dépeins nous dépeignons tu dépeins vous dépeignez il dépeint ils dépeignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): dépeignant dépeint je dépeindrai je dépeignis je dépeignais que je dépeigne que je dépeignisse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): déteignant déteint je déteindrai je déteignis je déteignais que je déteigne que je déteignisse Infinitive: déplaire à to displease: see plaire Infinitive: désapprendre to unlearn: see prendre Infinitive: déteindre to fade Present indicative: je déteins nous déteignons tu déteins vous déteignez il déteint ils déteignent Infinitive: détenir to be in possession of: see tenir Infinitive: détruire to destroy: see construire Infinitive: dévêtir to undress: see vêtir Infinitive: devoir must Present indicative: je dois nous devons tu dois vous devez il doit ils doivent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): devant je devrai je dus je devais que je doive que je dusse dû (due) Infinitive: dire to say Present indicative: je dis nous disons tu dis vous dites il dit ils disent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): disant je dirai je dis je disais que je dise que je disse dit Infinitive: disconvenir à to be unsuited to: see venir Infinitive: discourir to hold forth: see courir Infinitive: disjoindre to sever: see joindre 172 Verb forms TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: disparaître to disappear Present indicative: je disparais nous disparaissons tu disparais vous disparaissez il disparaît ils disparaissent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): disparu disparaissant je disparaîtrai je disparus je disparaissais que je disparaisse que je disparusse Participles: Future: Simple past: échéant il échoira il échut échu Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): écrivant j'écrirai j'écrivis j'écrivais que j'écrive que j'écrivisse écrit ému Infinitive: dissoudre to dissolve: see absoudre Infinitive: distraire to distract: see traire Infinitive: s'ébattre to frolic: see battre Infinitive: échoir to fall due Present indicative: il échoit ils échoient Infinitive: éclore to blossom: see clore Infinitive: écrire to write Present indicative: j'écris nous écrivons tu écris vous écrivez il écrit ils écrivent Infinitive: élire to elect: see lire Infinitive: émettre to emit: see mettre Infinitive: émouvoir to excite Present indicative: j'émeus nous émouvons tu émeus vous émouvez il émeut ils émeuvent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): émouvant j'émouvrai j'émus j'émouvais que j'émeuve que j'émusse Infinitive: employer to use Present indicative: j'emploie nous employons tu emploies vous employez il emploie ils emploient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): employant employé j'emploierai j'employai j'employais que j'emploie que j'employasse Infinitive: empreindre to stamp: see craindre Verb paradigms TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: s'en aller to go away: see aller Infinitive: enceindre to surround: see ceindre Infinitive: enclore to fence in: see clore Infinitive: encourir to incur: see courir Infinitive: enduire to coat, render: see construire Infinitive: enfreindre to infringe Present indicative: j'enfreins nous enfreignons tu enfreins vous enfreignez il enfreint ils enfreignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): enfreint enfreignant j'enfreindrai j'enfreignis j'enfreignais que j'enfreigne que j'enfreignisse Infinitive: s'enfuir to flee: see fuir Infinitive: enjoindre to call upon: see joindre Infinitive: enlever to remove: is like mener in the use of è in some forms of the verb Infinitive: s'enquérir to make enquiries: see acquérir Infinitive: s'ensuivre to result, follow; see suivre An impersonal verb used only in the infinitive and third singular form Infinitive: s'entremettre to intervene: see mettre Infinitive: entreprendre to undertake: see prendre Infinitive: entretenir to maintain: see tenir Infinitive: entrevoir to make out: see voir Infinitive: entrouvrir to half-open: see ouvrir 173 174 Verb forms TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: envoyer to send Present indicative: j'envoie nous envoyons tu envoies vous envoyez il envoie ils envoient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): envoyant envoyé j'enverrai j'envoyai j'envoyais que j'envoie que j'envoyasse Infinitive: épeler to spell: is like appeler in the distribution of single l and double '//' Infinitive: s'éprendre de to fall in love with: see prendre Infinitive: équivaloir à to be equivalent to: see valoir Infinitive: espérer to hope Present indicative: j'espère nous espérons tu espères vous espérez il espère ils espèrent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): espéré espérant j'espérerai j'espérai j'espérais que j'espère que j'espérasse Infinitive: éteindre to extinguish Present indicative: j'éteins nous éteignons tu éteins vous éteignez il éteint ils éteignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): éteignant éteint j'éteindrai j'éteignis j'éteignais que j'éteigne que j'éteignisse Infinitive: étreindre to embrace Present indicative: j'étreins nous éteignons tu étreins vous étreignez il étreint ils étreignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): étreignant étreint j'étreindrai j'étreignis j'étreignais que j'étreigne que j'étreignisse Infinitive: exclure to exclude: see conclure Infinitive: extraire to extract: see traire Infinitive: Present indicative: faillir to almost do, nearly do e.g. j'ai failli/il a failli, etc., tomber I/he nearly fell Je ne faillirai pas à mon devoir i won't fail in my duty Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): je faillirai je faillis je taillais - failli Verb paradigms 175 TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: faire to do Present indicative: je fais nous faisons tu fais vous faites il fait ils font Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): faisant je ferai je fis je faisais que je fasse que je fisse fait Infinitive: falloir to be necessary, 'must' Present indicative: il faut Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): - fallu Infinitive: feindre to feign Present indicative: je feins nous feignons tu feins vous feignez il feint ils feignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): feint feignant je feindrai je feignis je feignais que je feigne que je feignisse il faudra il fallut il fallait qu'il faille qu'il fallût Infinitive: fleurir: has two present participles depending on meaning: fleurissant for the meaning of 'coming into flower', but florissant for 'flourishing' a;, in 'a flourishin g business'. Infinitive: frire to fry Present indicative: je fris tu fris il frit Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): _ frit je frirai - Infinitive: fuir to flee Present indicative: je fuis nous fuyons tu fuis vous fuyez il fuit ils fuient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): fuyant je fuirai je fuis je fuyais que je fuie que je fuisse Infinitive: geindre to groan Present indicative: je geins nous geignons tu geins vous geignez il geint ils geignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): geignant geint je geindrai je geignis je geignais que je geigne que je geignisse fui Infinitive: geler to freeze: is like mener in the use of è in some forms Infinitive: Present indicative: gésir je gis nous gisons to be at rest, tu gis vous gisez (as in grave), il gît ils gisent lie about (as clothes on floor) NB: ci-gît ... here lies ... Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): gisant je gisais ~ - 176 Verb forms TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: haïr to hate Present indicative: je hais nous haïssons tu hais vous haïssez il hait ils haïssent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): haïssant je haïrai je haïs je haïssais que je haïsse que je haïsse haï NB: The ï (i with trema) indicates two syllables. The verb is regular apart from the use of the tréma. Infinitive: induire to induce: see construire Infinitive: inscrire to inscribe: see écrire Infinitive: instruire to instruct: see construire Infinitive: interdire to forbid Present indicative: j'interdis nous interdisons tu interdis vous interdisez il interdit ils interdisent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): interdisant interdit j'interdirai j'interdis j'interdisais que j'interdise que j'interdisse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): jetant jeté je jetterai je jetai je jetais que je jette que nous jetions que vous jetiez que je jetasse Infinitive: intervenir to intervene: see venir Infinitive: introduire to insert: see construire Infinitive: jeter to throw Present indicative: je jette nous jetons tu jettes vous jetez il jette ils jettent Infinitive: joindre to join Present indicative: je joins nous joignons tu joins vous joignez il joint ils joignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): joignant joint je joindrai je joignis je joignais que je joigne que je joignisse Infinitive: lire to read Present indicative: je lis nous lisons tu lis vous lisez il lit ils lisent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): lisant je lirai je lus je lisais que je lise que je lusse lu Verb paradigms 177 TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: luire to shine: is similar to construire, except that its past participle is 'lui' and it normally does not have a simple past or an imperfect subjunctive. Infinitive: maintenir to maintain: see tenir Infinitive: manger to eat Present indicative: je mange nous mangeons tu manges vous mangez il mange ils mangent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): mangeant mangé je mangerai je mangeai je mangeais que je mange que je mangeasse NB: Insert 'e' after 'g' before 'a' or 'o' to ensure correct pronunciation. Infinitive: maudire to curse Present indicative: je maudis nous maudissons tu maudis vous maudissez il maudit ils maudissent Participles: Future: Simple parff: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): maudissant je maudirai je maudis je maudissais que je maudisse que je maudisse Infinitive: méconnaître je to misunderstand Present indicative: méconnais nous méconnaissons tu méconnais vous méconnaissez il méconnaît ils méconnaissent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): méconnaissant méconnu je méconnaîtrai je méconnus je méconnaissais que je méconnaisse que je méconnusse Infinitive: mener to lead Present indicative: je mené nous menons tu mènes vous menez il mène ils mènent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): menant mené je mènerai je menai je menais que je mène que nous menions que vous meniez que je menasse Subj (imp): maudit NB: è in cases where the following syllable contains a 'silent' 'e Infinitive: se méprendre to be mistaken: see prendre Infinitive: mettre to put Present indicative: je mets nous mettons tu mets vous mettez il met ils mettent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): mettant je mettrai je mis je mettais que je mette que je misse mis 178 Verb forms TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: moudre to grind Present indicative: je mouds nous moulons tu mouds vous moulez il moud ils moulent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): moulant moulu je moudrai je moulus je moulais que je moule que je moulusse Infinitive: mourir to die Present indicative: je meurs nous mourons tu meurs vous mourez il meurt ils meurent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): mourant mort je mourrai je mourus je mourais que je meure que je mourusse Infinitive: mouvoir to move Present indicative: je meus nous mouvons tu meus vous mouvez il meut ils meuvent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): mouvant mû (mue, mus) je mouvrai je mus je mouvais que je meuve que je musse Infinitive: naître to be born Present indicative: je nais nous naissons tu nais vous naissez il naît ils naissent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): naissant né je naîtrai je naquis je naissais que je naisse que je naquisse Infinitive: nettoyer to clean Present indicative: je nettoie nous nettoyons tu nettoies vous nettoyez il nettoie ils nettoient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): nettoyant nettoyé je nettoierai je nettoyai je nettoyais que je nettoie que je nettoyasse Infinitive: nuire to harm: is similar to construire, except that its past participle is 'nui' and it normally does not have a simple past or an imperfect subjunctive. Infinitive: obtenir to obtain: see tenir Infinitive: offrir to give Present indicative: j'offre nous offrons tu offres vous offrez il offre ils offrent Infinitive: omettre to omit: see mettre Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): Imperative: offrant offert j'offrirai j'offris j'offrais que j'offre que j'offrisse offre (offres before y and en) Verb paradigms 179 TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: ouvrir to open Present indicative: j'ouvre nous ouvrons tu ouvres vous ouvrez il ouvre ils ouvrent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): Imperative: ouvrant ouvert j'ouvrirai j'ouvris j'ouvrais que j'ouvre que j'ouvrisse ouvre (ouvres before y and en) Infinitive: paraître to seem Present indicative: je parais nous paraissons tu parais vous paraissez il paraît ils paraissent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): paraissant paru je paraîtrai je parus je paraissais que je paraisse que je parusse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): peignant peint je peindrai je peignis je peignais que je peigne que je peignisse Infinitive: parcourir to travel through: see courir Infinitive: parfaire to perfect: see faire Infinitive: parvenir to reach: see venir Infinitive: peindre to paint Present indicative: je peins nous peignons tu peins vous peignez il peint ils peignent Infinitive: permettre to allow: see mettre Infinitive: peser to weigh: is like mener in the use of è in some forms Infinitive: se plaindre to complain Present indicative: Participles: je me plains nous nous plaignons Future: tu te plains vous vous plaigne2 Simple past: Imperfect: il se plaint ils se plaignent Subj (près): Subj (imp): Infinitive: plaire to please Present indicative: je plais nous plaisons tu plais vous plaisez il plaît ils plaisent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): se plaignant se plaint je me plaindrai je me plaignis je me plaignais que je me plaigne que je me plaignisse plaisant je plairai je plus je plaisais que je plaise que je plusse plu 180 Verb forms TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: Present indicative: pleuvoir il pleut to rain (impersonal) Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): pleuvant il pleuvra il plut il pleuvait qu'il pleuve qu'il plût plu Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): pourvoyant pourvu je pourvoirai je pourvus je pourvoyais que je pourvoie que je pourvusse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): pouvant je pourrai je pus je pouvais que je puisse que je pusse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): prenant pris je prendrai je pris je prenais que je prenne que nous prenions que vous preniez que je prisse Infinitive: poursuivre to pursue: see suivre Infinitive: pourvoir to provide Present indicative: je pourvois nous pourvoyons tu pourvois vous pourvoyez il pourvoit ils pourvoient Infinitive: Present indicative: pouvoir je peux nous pouvons to be able to tu peux vous pouvez il peut ils peuvent (alternative: je puis) pu Infinitive: prédire to predict: see interdire Infinitive: prendre to take Present indicative: je prends nous prenons tu prends vous prenez il prend ils prennent Subj (imp): NB: Two 'n's when 'ri is followed by a 'silent' e: prenne, prennes, prennent. Infinitive: prescrire to prescribe: see écrire Infinitive: prévaloir to prevail: see valoir Infinitive: prévenir to anticipate: see venir Infinitive: prévoir to foresee Present indicative: je prévois nous prévoyons tu prévois vous prévoyez il prévoit ils prévoient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): prévoyant prévu je prévoirai je prévis je prévoyais que je prévoie que je prévisse Verb paradigms 181 TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: produire to produce: see construire Infinitive: projeter to plan: is like jeter in the use of single ' ' and double 'tt' Infinitive: promettre to promise: see mettre Infinitive: proscrire to outlaw: see écrire Infinitive: protéger to protect: is like espérer, compléter in the distribution of é and è Infinitive: provenir de to arise from: see venir Infinitive: r-, re-, ré-: for derived verbs with these prefixes, e.g. rasseoir, reconstruire, réélire, etc., see the entry for the non-prefixed counterpart, i.e. s'asseoir, construire, lire, etc. Infinitive: rabattre to pull down (e.g. hat) Present indicative: je rabats nous rabattons tu rabats vous rabattez il rabat ils rabattent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): rabattant rabattu je rabattrai je rabattis je rabattais que je rabatte que je rabattisse Infinitive: (se) rappeler to recall: is like appeler in the distribution of single T and double '11' Infinitive: Present indicative: reconnaître je reconnais nous reconnaissons to recognize tu reconnais vous reconnaissez il reconnaît ils reconnaissent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): reconnaissant reconnu je reconnaîtrai je reconnus je reconnaissais que je reconnaisse que je reconnusse Infinitive: recouvrir to cover Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): recouvrant recouvert )e recouvrirai je recouvris je recouvrais que je recouvre que je recouvrisse Present indicative: je recouvre nous recouvrons tu recouvres vous recouvrez il recouvre ils recouvrent Infinitive: refléter to reflect: is like espérer and completer in the distribution of é and è Infinitive: rejeter to throw back: is like jeter in the use of single 't' and double 'tt' 182 Verb forms TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: Present indicative: renvoyer je renvoie nous renvoyons to sack, send back tu renvoies vous renvoyez il renvoie ils renvoient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): renvoyant renvoyé je renverrai je renvoyai je renvoyais que je renvoie que je renvoyasse Infinitive: répéter repeat: is like espérer and compléter in the distribution of e and è (second syllable) Infinitive: résoudre to resolve Present indicative: je résous nous résolvons tu résous vous résolvez il résout ils résolvent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): résolvant résolu je résoudrai je résolus je résolvais que je résolve que je résolusse Infinitive: restreindre to restrain Present indicative: je restreins nous restreignons tu restreins vous restreignez il restreint ils restreignent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): restreignant restreint je restreindrai je restreignis je restreignais que je restreigne que je restreignisse Infinitive: rire to laugh Present indicative: je ris nous rions tu ris vous riez il rit ils rient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): riant je rirai je ris je riais que je rie que je risse Infinitive: rompre to break Present indicative: je romps nous rompons tu romps vous rompez il rompt ils rompent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): rompant rompu je romprai je rompis je rompais que je rompe que je rompisse Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): sachant je saurai je sus je savais que je sache que je susse ri Infinitive: satisfaire to satisfy: see faire Infinitive: savoir to know Present indicative: je sais nous savons tu sais vous savez il sait ils savent Infinitive: secourir to help: see courir Infinitive: séduire to seduce: see construire su Verb paradigms 183 TABLE 7.H (continued) l Infinitive: semer to sow: is like mener in the distribution of è in certain forms Infinitive: souffrir to suffer Present indicative: je souffre nous souffrons tu souffres vous souffrez il souffre ils souffrent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): souffrant souffert je souffrirai je souffris je souffrais que je souffre que je souffrisse Infinitive: soumettre to submit: see mettre Infinitive: sourire to smile: see rire Infinitive: souscrire to sign: see écrire Infinitive: soustraire to withdraw: see traire Infinitive: soutenir to support: see tenir Infinitive: se souvenir de to remember: see venir Infinitive: subvenir to subsidize: see venir Infinitive: suffire to suffice (impersonal) Present indicative: il suffit Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): suffisant il suffira il suffit il suffisait qu'il suffise qu'il suffît Infinitive: suivre to follow Present indicative: je suis nous suivons tu suis vous suivez il suit ils suivent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): suivant suivi je suivrai je suivis je suivais que je suive que je suivisse Infinitive: surprendre to surprise: see prendre suffi 184 Verb forms TABLE 7.H Infinitive: surseoir to postpone (continued) Present indicative: je sursois nous sursoyons tu sursois vous sursoyez il sursoit ils sursoient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): sursoyant je surseoirai je sursis je sursoyais que je sursoie que je sursisse Infinitive: survenir to happen: see venir Infinitive: survivre à to survive: see vivre Infinitive: se taire to be quiet Present indicative: je me tais nous nous taisons tu te tais vous vous taisez il se tait ils se taisent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): se taisant tu je me tairai je me tus je me taisais que je me taise que je me tusse Infinitive: teindre to dye Present indicative: je teins nous teignons tu teins vous teignez ils teignent il teint Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): teignant teint e teindrai e teignis e teignais que je teigne que je teignisse Infinitive: tenir to hold Present indicative: je tiens nous tenons tu tiens vous tenez il tient ils tiennent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): tenant je tiendrai je tins je tenais que je tienne que je tinsse tenu Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): trayant je trairai trt Infinitive: traduire to translate: see construire Infinitive: traire to milk Present indicative: je trais nous trayons tu trais vous trayez il trait ils traient Subj (imp): Infinitive: transcrire to transcribe: see écrire Infinitive: transmettre to transmit: see mettre Infinitive: transparaître to show through: see paraître je trayais que je traie que nous trayions que vous trayiez Verb paradigms 185 TABLE 7.H (continued) Infinitive: vaincre to defeat Present indicative: je vaincs nous vainquons tu vaincs vous vainquez il vainc ils vainquent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): vainquant vaincu je vaincrai je vainquis je vainquais que je vainque que je vainquisse Infinitive: valoir to be worth Present indicative: je vaux nous valons tu vaux vous valez il vaut ils valent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): valant je vaudrai je valus je valais que je vaille que je valusse valu Infinitive: venir to come Present indicative: je viens nous venons tu viens vous venez il vient ils viennent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): venant je viendrai je vins je venais que je vienne que je vinsse venu Infinitive: vêtir to clothe Present indicative: je vêts nous vêtons tu vêts vous vêtez il vêt ils vêtent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): vêtant je vêtirai je vêtis je vêtais que je vête que je vêtisse vêtu Infinitive: vivre to live Present indicative: je vis nous vivons tu vis vous vivez il vit ils vivent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): vivant vécu je vivrai je vécus je vivais que je vive que je vécusse Infinitive: voir to see Present indicative: je vois nous voyons tu vois vous voyez il voit ils voient Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): voyant je verrai je vis je voyais que je voie que je visse Infinitive: vouloir to want Present indicative: je veux nous voulons tu veux vous voulez il veut ils veulent Participles: Future: Simple past: Imperfect: Subj (près): Subj (imp): voulant voulu je voudrai je voulus je voulais que je veuille que je voulusse vu 8 Verb constructions 8.1 Relations between verbs and their complements Verbs can be classified by the kinds of complement they take. Table 8.A outlines the main types dealt with in this chapter. TABLE 8.A Classification of verbs by the complements they take Complement type Verb type Direct object Prepositional object Intransitive (8.2) e.g. partir Jeanne partira No No Directly Transitive (8.3) e.g. fermer Il ferme Yes No les yeux - Indirectly Transitive (8.4) e.g. hériter Yvon hérite No Yes Ditransitive (8.5) e.g. planter Hervé a planté Yes Yes le jardin de roses d'une fortune " Pronominal (8.7) (a) se is a direct object e.g. s'évanouir (a) Marie s'est évanouie - (b) se is an indirect object e.g. se faire mal - (b) Elle s'est fait mal (à ellemême) 8.2 Intransitive constructions Intransitive verbs have no object: Depuis Janvier les prix ont augmenté Il a acquiescé L'eau scintillait La neige tombe Since January prices have gone up He agreed The water sparkled Snow is falling Intransitive constructions 187 La fête continue Elle avait disparu Vous descendez? Il ne souffrira pas The party is going on She had disappeared Are you going down? He won't suffer They may be accompanied (usually optionally, but sometimes obligatorily) by adverbs (see Chapter 5). Examples shown in brackets indicate that the adverb is optional: Elle part (en vacances) She is going (on holiday) Un léger brouillard montait (de la mer) A mist rose (from the sea) Il a respiré fortement He breathed deeply Christian serait tombé (du haut de Christian apparently fell la falaise) (from the cliff) Elle est descendue (péniblement) She went down (gingerly) Cet homme avait vécu plus de 90 ans That man had lived into his nineties Louis tremblait (de tous ses membres) Louis was trembling (all over) Les minutes passaient (lentement) The minutes passed (slowly) 8.2.1 Intransitive verbs and auxiliary avoir Most intransitive verbs employ the auxiliary avoir in compound tenses: Depuis Janvier les prix ont augmenté Il aurait acquiescé La fête avait continué Elle avait disparu Il n'a pas souffert La situation aura probablement empiré Since January prices have gone up He agreed, apparently The party had gone on She had disappeared He didn't suffer The situation will probably have got worse A small set of verbs, including commencer, changer, disparaître, vieillir, normally appear with the auxiliary avoir in compound tenses, but their past participles may be used with être to describe a state of affairs. In this case the past participle is used in very much the same way as an adjective (for adjectives, see Chapter 4). Compare the following sentences: Il a commencé à lire ce roman La pièce est commencée Il a changé les pneus de sa voiture Depuis dix ans elle est vraiment changée He began to read this novel The play has begun He changed the tyres on his car She has really changed in ten years NB: With être and a state of affairs, there will be agreement between the past participle and the subject. With avoir and an action there will not. (See Chapter 9.2 and 9.3.) 8.2.2 Intransitive verbs and auxiliary être Intransitive verbs with être A small set of intransitive verbs, some very frequently used, appear with the auxiliary être in compound tenses: Un léger brouillard est monté de la mer Christian est tombé du haut de la falaise Elle était descendue Marie-Christine est née en 1968 A mist rose from the sea Christian fell from the cliff She had gone down Marie-Christine was born in 1968 188 Verb constructions The verbs which take être in this way are: aller arriver décéder demeurer descendre devenir entrer monter mourir naître partir rentrer rester retourner revenir sortir tomber venir to go to arrive to die to remain to go down to become to enter to go up to die to be born to leave to go home to stay to return to come back to go out to fall to come and verbs derived from the above: redescendre, remonter, renaître, repartir, retomber, parvenir and survenir. Intransitive verbs with avoir or être A further set of intransitive verbs, e.g. accourir, apparaître, passer, can appear either with avoir or with être in compound tenses. It would seem that the use of être is now more common and avoir may appear dated: Quand il a appris la nouvelle il est When he heard the news he came accouru quickly Il nous est apparu que le gardien It became apparent to us that the avait menti porter had lied Il est passé nous voir He came to see us (See 8.3.4. for intransitive verbs which can be used with avoir when used transitively.) 8.3 Directly transitive verbs Directly transitive verbs have direct objects: lire la nouvelle dans le journal quitter le Pays de Galles composter un billet fumer une cigarette ouvrir la portière prendre le train rencontrer un ami expliquer les faits étouffer un juron lever la tête to read the item in the newspaper to leave Wales to punch a ticket to smoke a cigarette to open the (car, train) door to take the train to meet a friend to explain the facts to stifle an oath to raise one's head 8.3.1 Directly transitive verbs without objects Sometimes the objects of transitive verbs may be omitted. When this happens the object is still understood', but with a general or non-specific interpretation: Clément boit La vitesse tue Gustave enseigne Il ne sait pas conduire On attend Clément drinks ('alcohol' understood) Speed kills ('people' understood) Gustave teaches ('pupils' understood) He can't drive ('cars' understood) We're waiting ('for something to happen' understood) 8.3.2 Directly transitive verbs take the auxiliary avoir All transitive verbs take the auxiliary avoir in compound tenses, whether the object is present or omitted: Directly transitive verbs 189 Elle a quitté le Pays de Galles J'ai rencontré un ami Dans la bousculade Laurent avait reçu des coups On a attendu She has left Wales I met a friend In the confusion Laurent had been hit We waited 8.3.3 Verbs w i t h intransitive and transitive uses Some verbs can be u s e d intransitively ( w i t h o u t an object) a n d transitively (with an object): Les prix augmentent La chaîne augmente ses prix Prices are going up The store is increasing its prices Il rentre Il rentre la voiture au garage He is going home He is putting the car in the garage Elle sort Elle sort son appareil-photo She is going out She is getting her camera out Le moteur a calé Alain a calé le moteur The engine stalled Alain stalled the engine 8.3.4 être and avoir with verbs used intransitively and transitively Intransitive v e r b s w h i c h t a k e the auxiliary être in c o m p o u n d tenses take avoir when t h e y are u s e d transitively: Pierre est descendu BUT Pierre a descendu les valises Pierre went down Marie est montée prendre son maillot de bain BUT Marie avait monté un sac de charbon Marie has gone up to fetch her swimming costume Pierre has taken the suitcases down Marie had taken a sack of coal up Mickey est sorti BUT Mickey a sorti une pièce d'identité Mickey has gone out Bernard sera rentré BUT Bernard avait rentré la voiture au garage Bernard ivill have gone home Eliane était retournée à la banque BUT Eliane a retourné tout l'appartement Mickey got out some identification Bernard had put the car in the garage Eliane had gone back to the bank Eliane has turned the flat upside down The verbs descendre a n d monter also take the auxiliary avoir in c o m p o u n d tenses when t h e y are u s e d w i t h a d v e r b i a l s of place like l'escalier, la rue, la côte: Il a descendu l'escalier/la rue Elle a monté la côte He went down the stairs/the street She went up the hill Compare with: Il est descendu vers la rue Elle est monté à l'échelle He went down towards the street She climbed up the ladder 190 Verb constructions 8.3.5 Verbs which are directly transitive in French but whose translation equivalents involve the object of a preposition in English English s p e a k e r s s h o u l d p a y special attention to the following verbs. Unlike their English c o u n t e r p a r t s , their objects are n o t p r e c e d e d by a preposition: approuver un choix attendre le train chercher une enveloppe demander un verre d'eau descendre la rue écouter la radio espérer une récompense habiter une maison, une ville, une région longer la falaise monter la côte payer un tour de manège payer une tournée présider une séance regarder le soleil viser la cible to approve of a choice to wait for the train to look for an envelope to ask for a glass of water to go down the street to listen to the radio to hope for a reward to live in a house, in a town, in a region to go along the cliff to go up the hill to pay for a ride on a roundabout to pay for a round (of drinks) to be the chairperson of a session to look at the sun to aim at the target habiter also appears in constructions like: habiter à la campagne, habiter en ville, habiter en France. Here à la campagne, en ville and en France are not objects but adverbials; t h e y can co-occur w i t h direct objects: habiter une petite maison à la campagne, habiter un bon quartier en ville, etc. Examples: Il approuve mon choix J'attends le train Nous cherchons la gare Cette publicité vise les jeunes (NOT (NOT (NOT (NOT *I1 approuve de mon choix) "J'attends pour le train) *Nous cherchons pour la gare) *Cette publicité vise aux jeunes) (See C h a p t e r 3.2 to see h o w this influences the choice of object p r o n o u n s . ) 8.4 Indirectly transitive verbs Indirectly transitive v e r b s take an object i n t r o d u c e d by a preposition: Introduced by à assister à une réunion compatir à la douleur de quelqu'un croire au diable en vouloir à son cousin participer aux activités penser à son avenir pourvoir aux besoins de quelqu'un réfléchir à son passé songer à un voyage en Italie veiller au bon règlement d'une affaire to be present at a meeting to feel for somebody in their sorrow to believe in the devil to hold a grudge against one's cousin to take part in the activities to think about one's future to provide for somebody's needs to reflect on one's past to envisage a trip to Italy to see to the proper handling of a matter N B : (a) Croire à is u s e d to m e a n 'to believe in the existence of s o m e p h e n o m e n o n ' : croire aux fées 'to believe in fairies', croire au bonheur 'to believe in ( h u m a n ) h a p p i n e s s ' . Croire can also take direct objects: Je crois cette histoire T believe this Indirectly transitive verbs 191 story', Elle le croit 'She believes h i m ' . Croire en m e a n s 'to believe in' in the sense of 'to h a v e faith in': croire en Dieu 'to believe in G o d ' , croire en ses co-équipiers 'to believe in o n e ' s t e a m - m a t e s ' . (b) Penser can also take an object p r e c e d e d by de w i t h the m e a n i n g 'to h a v e an opinion about something': Qu'est-ce que vous pensez de son article? 'What do y o u think of his article?' (c) veiller sur quelqu'un m e a n s 'to w a t c h over s o m e b o d y ' . Introduced by de déborder d'eau déjeuner de fruits dépendre des circonstances dîner de moules et de frites fourmiller d'abeilles gémir de douleur grouiller de fourmis parler de ses amis regorger de richesses répondre de son ami rire de ses compagnons rougir de honte tenir de sa mère trembler de peur triompher de son adversaire vivre de l'air du temps vivre de presque rien to overflow with water to lunch on fruit to depend on the circumstances to dine on mussels and french fries to swarm with bees to groan with pain to swarm with ants to speak of one's friends to abound in wealth to answer for one's friend to laugh at one's friends to go red with shame to take after one's mother to tremble with fear to overcome one's opponent to live on fresh air alone to live on next to nothing (For p r o n o m i n a l v e r b s w h i c h take p r e p o s i t i o n a l objects (s'habituer à, s'éloigner de, etc.) see 8.7.3.) 8.4.1 Verbs w h i c h a r e indirectly t r a n s i t i v e in F r e n c h b u t w h o s e t r a n s l a t i o n e q u i v a l e n t s a r e d i r e c t l y t r a n s i t i v e in English Special attention s h o u l d be given to the following verbs because, while they are indirectly transitive in French, their English c o u n t e r p a r t s are directly transitive. Objects introduced by à contravenir à la réglementation convenir à Julie (dé)plaire à son professeur (dés)obéir à ses parents échapper à la police échouer à un examen jouer au football, au rugby, au tennis nuire à la réputation de quelqu'un parvenir au sommet plaire à quelqu'un remédier à la situation renoncer à l'alcool résister à une force ressembler à son chien subvenir aux besoins de quelqu'un succéder à son père to break the rule to suit Julie to (dis)please one's teacher to (dis)obey one's parents to evade capture by the police to fail an exam to play football, rugby, tennis to harm somebody's reputation to reach the summit to please somebody to rectify the situation to give up alcohol to resist a force to look like one's dog to look after somebody financially to succeed one's father 192 Verb constructions survivre à un accident téléphoner à quelqu'un toucher aux affaires de quelqu'un to survive an accident to telephone somebody to mess about with somebody's things While échapper à m e a n s 'to e v a d e c a p t u r e ' , s'échapper de m e a n s 'to escape from': s'échapper de la prison. Examples: Il joue au football Il a téléphoné à sa femme Elle ressemble beaucoup à sa mère Le nouveau poste plaisait à Antoine (NOT (NOT (NOT (NOT *I1 joue football) *I1 a téléphoné sa femme) *Elle ressemble beaucoup sa mère) *Le nouveau poste plaisait Antoine) See C h a p t e r 3.2 for the relevance of this distinction to the choice of object pronoun. Objects introduced by de abuser de son héritage douter de la vérité d'une histoire hériter d'une fortune jouer du p i a n o / d u violon/de la flûte jouir de privilèges sans précédent médire de son voisin redoubler d'efforts to misuse one's inheritance to doubt the truth of a story to inherit a fortune to play the piano/violin/flute to enjoy unprecedented privileges to slander one's neighbour to double one's efforts N o t e t h a t entrer is u s u a l l y followed by dans: entrer dans la maison. Grimper is u s u a l l y followed either by sur or by à: grimper sur un escabeau 'to climb a stepl a d d e r ' , grimper à l'échelle 'to climb a l a d d e r ' . Examples: Elle espère hériter d'une fortune Elle jouait du piano (NOT *Elle espère hériter une fortune) (NOT *Elle jouait le piano) (For p r o n o m i n a l verbs w h i c h take prepositional objects - s'apercevoir de, se servir de, etc. - see 8.7.3.) 8.5 Ditransitive verbs Ditransitive v e r b s preposition. take a direct object a n d an object i n t r o d u c e d by a Introduced by à and corresponding typically to English 'to' accoutumer un apprenti au métier admettre un invité à la fête appeler quelqu'un au téléphone apprendre le français à des élèves avouer un crime à la police condamner un malfaiteur à une peine de prison conduire les hôtes à leur chambre contraindre les rebelles à l'obéissance convier des amis à une fête dire ses quatre vérités à quelqu'un to get an apprentice used to a trade to admit a guest to the party to call somebody to the phone to teach French to pupils to cotifess to the police about a crime to condemn a criminal to prison to take the guests to their room to force the rebels into obedience to invite friends to a party to shout the bare truth at somebody Ditransitive verbs 193 destiner son fils à une belle carrière dire des mensonges à sa famille emmener les invités à leur hôtel exposer sa famille à des dangers forcer les citoyens à la révolution habituer les motocyclistes au port du casque inciter les ouvriers à la révolte inviter les syndicalistes à une réunion jurer l'amour éternel à quelqu'un louer une voiture à un touriste obliger ses créanciers au remboursement ordonner la retraite à ses troupes provoquer quelqu'un à une réaction trop vive réduire quelqu'un à la mendicité rendre le magnétoscope à son voisin suggérer une idée à un collègue to arrange a great career for one's son to tell lies to one's family to take guests to their hotel to expose one's family to danger to drive the citizens to revolution to get motorcycle riders used to wearing a helmet to incite workers to revolt to invite the trade union representatives to a meeting to swear eternal love to somebody to rent a car to a tourist to force one's debtors to pay up to order one's troops to retreat to provoke somebody into a hasty reaction to reduce somebody to beggary to return the video recorder to one's neighbour to suggest an idea to a colleague NB: louer une voiture à un garagiste is likely to m e a n : 'to hire a car from a g a r a g e owner'. Introduced by à and corresponding typically to English 'from' or 'for' to buy a lorry from a garage owner acheter un camion à un garagiste arracher de l'argent à un avare to prise money from a miser cacher la catastrophe à sa famille to hide the disaster from one's family dérober de l'argent à ses enfants to steal money from one's children emprunter cinq cents francs à un ami to borrow five hundred francs from a friend to take the revolver away from the thief enlever le pistolet au voleur to remove a splinter from somebody's flesh ôter une écharde à quelqu'un to hire a van from the garage owner louer une camionette au garagiste to prepare the family for very sad news préparer la famille à de bien tristes nouvelles to be angry with one's husband for having reprocher une liaison à son mari had an affair to reserve some seats for the guests réserver des sièges aux invités retirer son permis au conducteur to take the driver's licence away from him soustraire une grosse somme à une to swindle an old lady out of a large sum vieille dame to steal a ring from one's cousin voler une bague à sa cousine Introduced by de and corresponding typically to English 'with' or 'in' or, less frequently, 'from' or 'on' accabler son amie de cadeaux to overwhelm one's girl friend with presents to bring sarcasm into one's comments accompagner ses commentaires de sarcasme affranchir une population de l'esclavage to free a population from slavery armer ses soldats de mitrailleuses to arm one's soldiers with machine guns charger un voisin d'une commission to entrust an errand to a neighbour coiffer un enfant d'un chapeau de paille to put a straw hat on a child's head combler ses invités de gentillesses to cover one's guests in kindness 194 Verb constructions couvrir sa petite amie de cadeaux cribler un corps de balles éloigner sa fille de ses admirateurs encombrer la voiture d'affaires de sport entourer la famille de bons amis to drown one's girl friend in presents to riddle a body with bullets to remove one's daughter from her admirers to clutter up the car with sports equipment to surround the family with good friends envelopper le cadeau d'un papier de soie habiller son mari de vêtements sport menacer ses employés d'une réduction de salaire munir les étudiants du savoir nécessaire orner le parebrise d'autocollants planter le jardin de roses pourvoir un réfugié d'un faux passeport remplir l'auditoire de terreur semer un champ de haricots souiller un drap de sang tacher un pantalon de graisse tapisser la chambre d'un papier peint rose vêtir un cardinal d'une robe de pourpre to wrap the present in tissue paper to buy casual styles of clothes for one's husband to threaten one's employees with reduction in salary to provide students with the necessary knowledge to decorate the windscreen with stickers to plant the garden with roses to provide a refugee with a false passport to fill the audience with terror to sow a field with beans to soil a sheet with blood to stain trousers with grease to paper the bedroom in pink to dress a cardinal in a purple robe 8.5.1 In French, unlike English, double object constructions with no preposition are impossible S o m e ditransitive v e r b s in English allow the p r e p o s i t i o n i n t r o d u c i n g the seco n d object to be o m i t t e d a n d the o r d e r of the objects to be s w i t c h e d a r o u n d . This is n o t possible in French: to give a present to one's uncle offrir un cadeau à son oncle BUT NOT to give one's uncle a present *offrir son oncle un cadeau to pass the salt to one's neighbour passer le sel à son voisin BUT NOT to pass one's neighbour the salt *passer son voisin le sel (See 8.6.3 for the c o n s e q u e n c e s of this in forming a passive.) 8.6 The passive By u s e of the p a s s i v e , e m p h a s i s m a y be placed on the receiver of an action (usually w h a t w o u l d be the object in the e q u i v a l e n t active sentence) r a t h e r t h a n on the a g e n t of the action (usually the subject). 8.6.1 Formation of the passive Passives are p r o d u c e d from directly transitive sentences by m o v i n g the object n o u n p h r a s e into the position of the grammatical subject, introducing the verb être a n d , optionally, m o v i n g the erstwhile subject into a p h r a s e introduced by par or de: Nantes a battu Paris St Germain Nantes beat Paris St Germain The passive 195 becomes: Paris St Germain a été battu (par Nantes) Paris St Germain were beaten (by Nantes) Quand elle est arrivée au commissariat, son mari l'accompagnait When she got to the police station, her husband was with her becomes: Quand elle est arrivée au commissariat, elle était accompagnée de son mari When she got to the police station, she was in the company of her husband Note that the rules of agreement for the past participle are those of être (see Chapter 9.2.2): i.e. it agrees with the subject: Delphine a été battue au tennis (par Suzanne) Delphine was beaten at tennis by Suzanne Georges a été battu au tennis par Jean-Claude George was beaten at tennis by Jean-Claude NB: The use of the preposition par to introduce the subject usually implies some degree of voluntary involvement; the use of de suggests more a state of affairs. See also Chapter 13.15.5. 8.6.2 Problems in the formation of the passive arising f r o m different kinds of direct objects Most verbs which have a direct object (directly transitive verbs - see 8.3) will convert into a passive, but there are limitations to whether the meaning is sensible or not. Aimer can be turned into a sensible passive: Juliette aime Georges Juliette loves George Georges est aimée par Juliette George is loved by Juliette but lire produces a less natural sentence: Je lis ce livre I am reading this book Ce livre est lu par moi (???) This book is being read by me (???) Usually passives which make an inanimate direct object a subject and put an animate subject in a par or de phrase are unnatural. NB: The verb avoir is used in the passive only in the colloquial J'ai été eu T have been had' in the sense of 'swindled'. 8.6.3 Possible confusions between English and French over what is a direct object: English 'double object' verbs English has a set of verbs which allow two structures for a similar meaning: one has a direct object and a prepositional object, the other has two nonprepositional objects and the word order is different: 196 Verb constructions John gave flowers to Naomi John gave Naomi flowers In b o t h sentences ' N a o m i ' is the indirect object of the v e r b ' g i v e ' a n d 'flowers' is the direct object, b u t in the ' d o u b l e object' construction ' N a o m i ' directly foll o w s the v e r b , w h i c h gives the i m p r e s s i o n that it is the direct object. English allows either object to b e c o m e the subject in a passive sentence: Floivers were given to Naomi by John Naomi was given flowers by John French, h o w e v e r , only allows the prepositional object construction offrir quelque chose à quelqu'un: Jean a offert des fleurs à Naomi (NOT *Jean a offert Naomi des fleurs) F u r t h e r m o r e , French only allows the direct object to b e c o m e the subject in a p a s s i v e sentence. T h u s : Des fleurs furent offertes à Naomi par Jean Flowers were given to Naomi by Jean is an acceptable French sentence, b u t ""Naomi fut offerte des fleurs par Jean is entirely u n a c c e p t a b l e . Sentences c o n s t r u c t e d w i t h similar verbs r u n into the s a m e p r o b l e m s : English To teach somebody something: I taught French to John I taught John French French was taught to John by me John was taught French by me French Enseigner quelque chose à quelqu'un: But Therefore But English To tell somebody something: J'ai enseigné le français à Jean *J'ai enseigné Jean le français is unacceptable Le français fut enseigné à Jean par moi is acceptable *Jean fut enseigné le français par moi is unacceptable I told a story to John I told John a story A story was told to John by me John was told a story by me French Raconter quelque chose à quelqu'un: But Therefore But J'ai raconté une histoire à Jean *J'ai raconté Jean une histoire is unacceptable Une histoire fut racontée à Jean par moi is acceptable *Jean fut raconté une histoire par moi is unacceptable C o m m o n French v e r b s w h o s e prepositional objects m u s t k e e p the preposition a n d c a n n o t be m a d e the subject of a p a s s i v e are listed below: accorder qc à qn apprendre qc à qn to grant sb sth to teach sb sth Pronominal verbs 197 commander qc à qn conseiller qc à qn défendre qc à qn demander qc à qn donner qc à qn écrire qc à qn enseigner qc à qn laisser qc à qn montrer qc à qn offrir qc à qn pardonner qc à qn passer qc à qn permettre qc à qn prescrire qc à qn prêter qc à qn promettre qc à qn refuser qc à qn to order sb to do sth/to order sth from sb to advise sb to do sth to forbid sb sth to ask sb sth to give sb sth to write sb sth to teach sb sth to leave sb sth to show sb sth to offer sb sth, treat sb to sth to forgive sb sth to pass sb sth to allow sb sth to prescribe sb sth to lend sb sth to promise sb sth to refuse sb sth 8.7 Pronominal verbs Pronominal verbs are a c c o m p a n i e d by an unstressed pronoun which agrees with the subject, a n d is one of me, te, se, nous, vous. This can function as a direct object: Direct object se laver 'to wash (oneself)' je me lave tu te laves Paul se lave Virginie se lave nous nous lavons vous vous lavez ils se lavent elles se lavent or as an indirect object: Indirect object se laver le visage 'to wash one's face' (literally: 'to wash the face to oneself) je me lave le visage tu te laves le visage Paul se lave le visage Virginie se lave le visage nous nous lavons le visage vous vous lavez le visage ils se lavent le visage elles se lavent le visage Some verbs exist in b o t h a p r o n o m i n a l a n d n o n - p r o n o m i n a l form, as laver does: laver la voiture 'to w a s h the car', se laver le visage 'to w a s h o n e ' s face'. O t h e r s are a l w a y s p r o n o m i n a l , for e x a m p l e s'évanouir 'to faint', s'enorgueillir de 'to take pride in', s'évertuer à 'to try v e r y h a r d to'. All p r o n o m i n a l verbs are conjugated w i t h être in c o m p o u n d tenses. (For the agreement of p a s t participles w i t h p r o n o m i n a l v e r b s see 8.7.7 a n d C h a p t e r 9.4.) 8.7.1 Pronominal verbs used reflexively When p r o n o m i n a l v e r b s are u s e d to describe s o m e t h i n g w h i c h the subject d o e s to herself, himself, t h e m s e l v e s , etc., they are b e i n g u s e d reflexively: Je me vois dans la glace Je me déteste I can see myself in the mirror / hate myself 198 Verb constructions Il s'est fait mal Elle s'était cassé la jambe He hurt himself She had broken her leg N o t e that English translations of p r o n o m i n a l verbs u s e d reflexively do not a l w a y s require a form of -self. In French, however, the reflexive p r o n o u n is a l w a y s required: le me lave Il se rase Il s'est roulé par terre I am washing (myself) He is shaving (himself) He rolled (himself) on the ground The p r o n o u n itself m a y be the direct or indirect object of the verb. If the verb in its n o n - p r o n o m i n a l form is directly transitive, the p r o n o u n will be a direct object. If the v e r b in its n o n - p r o n o m i n a l form is indirectly transitive, the pron o u n will be an indirect object p r o n o u n . For e x a m p l e , laver takes a direct object: laver la voiture. Therefore in Je me lave the pronoun is direct. But parler (parler à qn) takes an indirect object, e.g. parler à une amie. Therefore in Je me parle the p r o n o u n is indirect. The reflexive p r o n o u n is the direct object le me lave à l'eau froide Elle est maladroite et se blesse fréquemment Il se coiffe pendant des heures Tu te baignes tous les jours? Suzanne s'habille très mal Jean-Pierre se nourrit très bien Marianne se cache dans l'armoire I wash in cold water She is clumsy and often injures herself He spends hours doing his hair Do you have a swim every day? Suzanne dresses very badly Jean-Pierre has a healthy diet Marianne is hiding in the cupboard The reflexive p r o n o u n is the indirect object Je me parle constamment en me promenant En répétant des confidences on ne peut que se nuire Tu t'achèteras un nouveau blouson pour la rentrée Je me reproche ces bêtises Je me jure de continuer à travailler Il faut bien s'admettre la vérité Marianne se cache la vérité I constantly talk to myself when I go for a walk By repeating secrets you only succeed in doing yourself harm You'll buy yourself a new jacket to go back to school I feel bad about this foolishness I promise myself that I will continue to work We just have to accept the truth Marianne is hiding the truth from herself The difference b e t w e e n direct object reflexives a n d indirect object reflexives is clear from the last e x a m p l e in each set: Marianne se cache dans l'armoire Marianne se cache la vérité In the first e x a m p l e the se is the p e r s o n w h o dans l'armoire. In the s e c o n d e x a m p l e it is la is the indirect object: Marianne cache la vérité significant w h e n it c o m e s to p a s t participle C h a p t e r 9.4). is h i d d e n : Marianne cache Marianne vérité w h i c h is h i d d e n a n d the se à Marianne. These differences are a g r e e m e n t (see 8.7.7 b e l o w and Pronominal verbs 199 Many ordinarily directly transitive, indirectly transitive a n d ditransitive verbs can be u s e d p r o n o m i n a l l y as reflexives, for e x a m p l e : II critique son patron He criticizes his boss II se critique He criticizes himself Je juge le prisonnier coupable I consider the prisoner guilty Je me juge coupable I consider myself guilty Elle regarde son amie She is looking at her girlfriend Elle se regarde She is looking at herself Tu offres un cadeau à Philippe You are giving a present to Philip Tu t'offres un cadeau You are giving a present to yourself II parle à sa mère He's talking to his mother II se parle He's talking to himself Elle cache la vérité à son mari She is hiding the truth from her husband Elle se cache la vérité She is hiding the truth from herself 8.7.2 Pronominal verbs and body parts The n o r m a l w a y of d e s c r i b i n g e v e n t s in w h i c h subjects do things to their o w n bodies is to u s e a p r o n o m i n a l v e r b a n d the p a r t of the b o d y p r e c e d e d by a definite or indefinite article, a n d n o t by a possessive d e t e r m i n e r as in English: Je me lave toujours les mains avant de déjeuner I always wash my hands before lunch Elle va se couper le doigt si elle ne fait pas attention She will cut her finger if she's not careful Nathan s'est cassé la jambe en jouant au football Nathan broke his leg playing football Tu as encore oublié de te brosser les dents! You forgot to brush your teeth again! J'aime bien me brosser les cheveux / like brushing my hair Elle s'est cassé une dent de devant She broke one of her front teeth (See also Chapter 2.2.8 for the u s e of the definite article w i t h p a r t s of the body.) 8.7.3 Pronominal verbs w i t h o u t a reflexive interpretation Some verbs i n c l u d e a p r o n o u n b u t it is impossible to see in w h a t w a y they can be assigned a reflexive interpretation, e.g. s'abstenir, se douter, s'en aller, s'enfuir, s'évanouir, se repentir, se taire etc.: Je m'abstiendrai de tout commentaire / will refrain from making any comment Tu t'es toujours douté qu'il lui ferait faux bond You always guessed he would let her down II reste encore aujourd'hui mais il s'en va demain He's staying today but he is going tomorrow A la vue de tout ce sang, ils se sont évanouis At the sight of so much blood they fainted Il s'est toujours repenti de ces paroles Ne a/zvays regretted' t/iose words 200 Verb constructions Ils se sont tus pour protéger leur camarade They kept quiet to protect their friend C o m m o n p r o n o m i n a l v erbs w h i c h do n o t h a v e a reflexive interpretation: s'abstenir de tout commentaire s'accouder au parapet s'accoutumer à conduire la nuit s'accroupir derrière un arbre s'affaiblir lentement s'affaisser/s'affaler/s'écrouler par terre s'agenouiller près de quelqu'un s'amuser en vacances s'apercevoir de qch s'appeler Dupont s'approcher de qn s'appuyer au rebord de la fenêtre s'arrêter aux feux s'asseoir dans un fauteuil s'assoupir au volant s'avancer vers la montagne se blottir contre sa mère se briser/se casser en miettes se charger d'une tâche se comporter mal se contenter d'une carrière médiocre se coucher tôt se dépêcher de poser sa candidature se déshabiller dans le noir se diriger vers la maison se distinguer par son intelligence se douter de qc se dresser contre une injustice s'écarter du chemin s'échapper/s'évader d'une prison s'écouler vite s'écrier s'éloigner de la ville s'emparer de son adversaire s'en aller ailleurs s'endormir dans la voiture s'enfuir dans les bois s'ennuyer à la campagne s'enquérir auprès de l'ambassade s'étonner de la vitesse de la voiture s'évanouir se fâcher de qc se fatiguer facilement se fermer doucement se fier à ses collègues s'habiller en tenue de soirée s'habituer à un nouvel emploi s'intéresser au latin se lever tard se méfier de la police se mêler à la conversation se mettre debout se moquer de qn to refrain from making any comment to lean on one's elbows on the parapet to get used to driving at night to crouch behind a tree to get slowly weaker to collapse on the ground to kneel down next to somebody to have fun on holiday to notice something to be called Dupont to approach somebody to lean on the windowsill to stop at the lights to sit down in an armchair to doze off at the wheel to advance towards the mountain to cuddle up to one's mother to break into pieces to take on a task to behave badly to make do with a mediocre career to go to bed early to hurry to apply for the job to get undressed in the dark to go towards the house to stand out by one's intelligence to suspect something to protest against an injustice to stray from the track to escape from a prison to pass quickly (of time) to shout, exclaim to move away from the town to get hold of one's opponent to go away somewhere else to go to sleep in the car to flee into the woods to become bored in the country to enquire at the Embassy to be surprised at the speed of the car to faint to get annoyed at something to get easily tired to close gently to trust one's colleagues to wear evening dress to get used to a new job to be interested in Latin to get up late to distrust the police to join in the conversation to stand up to make fun of somebody Pronominal verbs 201 se nourrir de pain s'occuper de ses enfants se passer de cigarettes se plaindre du temps se rappeler une amie se raviser brusquement se réfugier sous les arbres se repentir de ses paroles se retourner se réunir le dimanche se réveiller se servir d'une scie se soucier de la santé de qn se souvenir d'une amie se taire se tenir droit se tromper to live on bread to look after one's children to go without cigarettes to complain about the weather to remember a friend to change one's mind suddenly to take refuge under the trees to regret one's words to turn around to meet on Sundays to wake up to use a saw to worry about somebody's health to remember a friend to keep quiet to stand straight to be wrong 8.7.4 se faire and se laisser se faire and se laisser are u s e d to c o n v e y the idea that the subject causes s o m e event to befall himself or herself w i t h o u t necessarily i n t e n d i n g that it should: Julie was run over by a lorry Pierre got (himself sent off the field ]ean got Christine to kiss him She let herself be persuaded by her father He let himself be led Il se laissait guider Guido s'est laissé pousser les moustaches Guido allowed his moustache to grow Julie s'est fait écraser par un camion Pierre s'est fait sortir du terrain Jean s'est fait embrasser par Christine Elle s'est laissé convaincre par son père (See Chapter 9.4 for a g r e e m e n t of the p a s t participle oî faire a n d kisser in this construction.) 8.7.5 Pronominal verbs used reciprocally When a p r o n o m i n a l v e r b is u s e d in the p l u r a l a n d describes a situation w h e r e several subjects are d o i n g t h i n g s to each other, it is b e i n g u s e d reciprocally: D'ordinaire, les journalistes se consultent avant de publier un article de ce genre Journalists usually consult each other before publishing this kind of article Ils se rencontreront à Paris Nous nous connaissons Les enfants se disputent They will meet (each other) in Paris We know each other The children are arguing (with each other) The p r o n o u n can be a direct object, as in the a b o v e e x a m p l e s , or an indirect object, as in t h e following e x a m p l e s : Souvent les participants s'écrivent et restent en contact après la conférence Participants often write to one another and keep in touch after the conference Il a ensuite été demandé aux élèves de se poser des questions sans le secours du professeur Pupils were then required to ask each other questions without the teacher's help Nous nous envoyons des cadeaux à Noël chaque année We send each other presents every year at Christmas 202 Verb constructions S o m e t i m e s there is a possible a m b i g u i t y b e t w e e n a reflexive interpretation of the p r o n o u n a n d a reciprocal interpretation, for example: Les boxeurs se sont blessés The boxers hurt each other or The boxers hurt themselves (i.e. each hurt himself but not the other) Les participants se sont posé des questions The participants asked each other questions or The participants asked questions of themselves O n e w a y t o m a k e t h e reciprocal interpretation entirely clear i s t o a d d the expression l'un l'autre 'each o t h e r ' in its a p p r o p r i a t e form. For e x a m p l e , w h e r e a direct object is involved: Les boxeurs se sont blessés l'un l'autre The boxers hurt each other But w h e r e an indirect object is involved: Les participants se sont posé des questions l'un à l'autre The participants asked each other questions l'un l'autre also v a r i e s for g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r . If the subjects are feminine in g e n d e r l'une l'autre is required: On s'aide l'une l'autre pour la garde des enfants We help each other out with looking after the children If m o r e t h a n just t w o subjects are i n v o l v e d a p l u r a l form of l'un l'autre is required: Les universitaires du monde entier peuvent se contacter les uns les autres par courrier électronique Academics all over the world can contact each other by electronic mail (For a g r e e m e n t of the p a s t participle see 8.7.7 a n d C h a p t e r 9.4.) 8.7.6 Pronominal verbs used as passives P r o n o m i n a l v e r b s are increasingly u s e d w i t h a m e a n i n g equivalent to an English passive: Les jeux électroniques se vendent comme des petits pains Computer games are selling like hot cakes Ces verbes se conjugent avec 'être' These verbs are conjugated with 'être' Le français se parle au Canada et en Afrique Trench is spoken in Canada and in Africa Les baskets s'achètent dans les magasins de sport Trainers can be bought in sports shops Les valeurs se maintiennent à la Bourse Stocks and shares are holding up on the Stock Exchange Cela ne se fait pas Ce vin se boit chambré That is just not done This wine is drunk at room temperature La vengeance est un plat qui se mange froid Revenge is a meal to be eaten cold C'est une revue qui se lit facilement This journal is easy to read Pronominal verbs 203 8.7.7 Pronominal verbs, the auxiliary être and the agreement of the past participle Pronominal verbs are always conjugated with être in their compound tenses, and the question arises as to when the past participle is marked for agreement. Whereas the past participle of non-pronominal verbs which take être always agrees with the subject (elle est arrivée, nous sommes arrivés, elles sont arrivées see Chapter 9.2), the participle with pronominal verbs only agrees with a direct object pronoun. For example: (a) Where the meaning of the pronoun is reflexive and it is a direct object: Je (fern) me suis lavée à l'eau froide I washed in cold water Elle était maladroite et s'était fréquemment blessée She was clumsy and often injured herself Suzanne s'est très mal habillée Suzanne dressed very badly Marianne s'est cachée dans l'armoire Marianne hid in the cupboard (See also 8.7.1) (b) Where the meaning of the pronoun is reciprocal and it is a direct object: Les deux équipes se sont rencontrées à Paris The two teams met (each other) in Paris Nous nous sommes attendus les uns les autres avant de rentrer We waited for each other before going home Jean-Pierre et Richard se sont rencontrés à Lyon Jean-Pierre and Richard met in Lyons Marianne et sa mère se sont attendues à la gare Marianne and her mother waited for each other at the station (c) Where the pronoun has no detectable reflexive or reciprocal meaning, but is an integral part of the verb, and is a direct object: A la vue de tout ce sang, elles se sont évanouies At the sight of so much blood, they fainted Ils se sont toujours repentis de ces paroles They always regretted those words Ils se sont tus dès qu'ils ont vu le directeur They kept quiet as soon as they saw the headmaster This includes when the pronominal verb is used as a passive: Les jeux vidéo se sont vendus comme des petits pains Video games sold like hot cakes BUT the past participle will not agree in any case where the pronoun is an indirect object (see 8.7.1). In particular this will be the case: (i) where the non-pronominal version of the verb has a prepositional indirect object e.g. nuire à an, cacher qch à qn, écrire à an and therefore the se is seen as an indirect object: 204 Verb constructions Elle s'est nui en faisant de telles demandes She did herself harm by these requests Marianne s'est caché la vérité Marianne hid the truth from herself Les participants se sont écrit The participants wrote to each other (ii) where the pronoun is indirect, given that the direct object is a body part (as in 8.7.2): Je (fern) me suis lavé les mains avant de déjeuner I washed my hands before lunch Elle s'est coupé le doigt parce qu'elle ne faisait pas attention She cut her finger because she was careless Nathan s'est cassé la jambe en jouant au football Nathan broke his leg playing football NB: Where the pronoun is an indirect object (and hence the participle does not agree with it), the participle may nevertheless agree with a preceding direct object, as in: Les deux valises qu'il s'est achetées sont cassées The two suitcases he bought are broken Combien de valises s'est-il achetées? How many suitcases did he buy? (See Chapter 9 for the general rules of past participle agreement.) 8.8 Impersonal verbs A number of verbs only exist in an impersonal (and infinitive) form. They only take the pronoun il as their subject, which in this case does not refer to a person or thing: i.e. it is an impersonal use. 8.8.1 Weather verbs The best-known group of impersonal verbs describe the weather: II pleut Il pleut des cordes Il neige Il grêle II tonne Il vente Il bruine It's raining It's raining cats and dogs It's snowing It's sleeting There's thunder about It's windy It's drizzling More generally climatic conditions can be expressed by an impersonal use of faire followed by an adjective or a noun: Il fait beau It's a nice day Il fait du soleil It's sunny Il fait mauvais It's not a nice day Il fait chaud It's hot Il fait lourd The weather is oppressive Il fait sec It's very dry Il fait humide It's very humid Il fait du brouillard It's foggy Impersonal verbs 205 Il fait de l'orage Il fait un froid de canard It's stormy It's very cold 8.8.2 falloir falloir only exists in i m p e r s o n a l forms (see the list of irregular verbs in C h a p t e r 7). It m a y be followed by a n o u n , by an infinitive, by a clause - w i t h the verb in the subjunctive - a n d it m a y be p r e c e d e d by a p r o n o u n acting as indirect object: Il faut du temps Il faut partir Il faut que nous partions Il nous faut partir Il nous faudra revenir dans trois semaines Il a fallu trois mois pour que nous nous décidions Il faudrait être certain que cela soit la bonne décision Time is needed It is time to leave We must leave We must leave We must come back in three weeks It took us three months to make up our minds We need to be sure that this is the right decision 8.8.3 il y a il y a ('there is' or 'there are') also exists only in the i m p e r s o n a l form. It is u s u ally followed directly by a n o u n b u t m a y also be followed by an infinitive introduced by à or by de quoi. It is frequently u s e d in s p o k e n French in the construction: il y a + n o u n + relative clause. In s p o k e n French the p r o n u n c i a tion often r e d u c e s to / j a / : Il y a quelques problèmes au garage There are a few problems at the garage Il y a eu de bons gouvernements, autrefois There have been good governments, in the past Il y avait toujours quelque chose à faire There was always something to be done Il y a à faire dans la cuisine There are things to do in the kitchen Il y a à boire et à manger dans le frigo There's something to eat and drink in the fridge Il y a de quoi vous occuper ici There's lots to do here Il y avait de quoi vous faire peur la nuit It was enough to make you afraid at night Il y a des gens qui vous attendent dehors There are people waiting for you outside Il y a ceux qui prétendent tout savoir There are those who think they know everything Il y en a qui disent du mal des autres Some people say bad things about others 8.8.4 il s'agit de il s'agit de is only ever u s e d impersonally. It m a y be followed by a n o u n , by an infinitive a n d , rarely, by a clause. English-speaking learners frequently a t t e m p t to u s e it w i t h a p e r s o n a l subject, e.g. *ce livre s'agit de. . . . This is impossible. 206 Verb constructions Il s'agit de votre frère It's about your brother Il s'agit de faire ce qui vous intéresse You have to do what interests you Il s'agit de convaincre votre tante It is a matter of convincing your aunt Il s'agissait de vous faire changer d'avis It was an attempt to make you change your mind Tout au long de cette affaire il s'est agi de mon honnêteté Throughout this matter it has been a question of my honesty Il ne s'agit pas que vous preniez toute la responsabilité sur vous There is no question of your taking on the whole responsibility Il ne s'agit pas de prendre du retard We'd better not get behind schedule 8.8.5 Verbs which take a personal subject can also on occasions be used impersonally Il se passe ici des choses qui vous intéresseront sûrement There are things going on here which will probably interest you Il est arrivé hier soir un événement très curieux A very unusual event took place yesterday evening Il convient d'être très circonspect de nos jours It is sensible to be very careful these days Il nous arrive assez souvent de recevoir des personnalités importantes We quite often have important people as guests II manque des couverts à cette table This table has not been laid properly Il y va de sa vie His life is at stake Il nous manque plusieurs de nos camarades ce soir Several of our comrades are missing tonight Il ne me souvient pas d'avoir été présenté à cette personne / don't (seem to) remember having been introduced to this person (formal language) être can also be u s e d impersonally, either in set expressions or m o r e formally as an alternative to il y a: Il est grand temps que nous partions Il n'est absolument pas question d'attendre Il est dommage d'avoir attendu si longtemps Est-il besoin de vous le rappeler? Il est des jours où l'on souhaiterait être ailleurs It is high time we went There can be no question of waiting It is a pity to have waited so long Is there any need to remind you ? (formal style) There are days when one would wish to be elsewhere There are t w o set p h r a s e s u s e d to i n t r o d u c e fairy stories: Il était une fois . . . and Il y avait une fois . . . Once upon a time . . . Verbs which take noun + adjective or noun + noun complements 207 8.9 Verbs which take noun + adjective or noun + noun complements A small number of verbs allow an adjective or predicative noun (président, directeur, etc.) to follow the noun which is the direct object: to drink sth chilled boire qc frais to consider sth unlikely considérer qc peu probable to believe sb happy croire qn heureux to elect sb president élire qn président estimer qn inapte to reckon sb unsuitable juger qn maladroit to judge sb clumsy laisser qn tranquille to leave sb alone manger qc chaud to eat sth hot nommer qn directeur to appoint sb director rendre qn malade to make sb ill trouver qc difficile to find sth difficult Note that 'to make somebody happy, sad, etc.' or 'to make something difficult, easy, etc' is the verb rendre, and NOT * faire: rendre qn heureux, rendre qn triste, rendre qc difficile, rendre qc facile. 9 Verb and participle agreement 9.1 Subject-verb agreement As in English, French v e r b s agree w i t h their subject in p e r s o n a n d n u m b e r : Je ne voulais pas jouer I didn't want to play Elle voulait partir en vacances She wanted to go on holiday Les garçons voulaient tous participer au match The boys all wanted to take part in the match 9.1.1 A g r e e m e n t with m o r e than one subject linked by et If o n e of the subjects is a first person pronoun, the v e r b will be in the first person p l u r a l form: Hubert et moi sommes allés vous chercher Hubert and 1 went to look for you Ma sœur et moi serons dans la même famille en France My sister and I are staying with the same family in France Toi/Vous et moi sommes toujours d'accord You and I always agree If o n e of the subjects is a second person p r o n o u n a n d there is no first person p r o n o u n , the v e r b will be in the s e c o n d p e r s o n p l u r a l form: Toi et ton copain avez intérêt à nettoyer cette pièce avant que tes parents ne rentrent. You and your friend had better clean this room before your parents get back Vous et vos amis devrez vous dépêcher si vous voulez prendre le train de 15 heures You and your friends will have to hurry if you want to catch the 3 o'clock train If all the subjects are third person, the v e r b will be in a third p e r s o n plural form: Jeanne et Suzanne sont venues toutes les deux Jeanne and Suzanne both came Le groupe Alsthom et le groupe GEC sont arrivés à un accord pour le développement d'une nouvelle locomotive Alsthom and GEC have reached agreement on the development of a new train Subject-verb agreement 209 (See also C h a p t e r 3.3.5 for c o o r d i n a t e d stressed p r o n o u n s . ) 9.1.2 A g r e e m e n t with m o r e than one subject linked by: ni... ni, ' n e i t h e r . . . nor', s o / t . . . soit, ' e i t h e r . . . or' and ou, 'or' French t e n d s to m a k e a distinction b e t w e e n the t w o k i n d s of m e a n i n g w h i c h may be c o n v e y e d by t h e s e m e t h o d s of coordination. If t h e m e a n i n g e m p h a sizes the i n d i v i d u a l a n d d o e s n o t ' a d d t h e m t o g e t h e r ' , the v e r b m a y well b e singular: Ni Simon ni Steven n'a pu me dire où se trouvaient les autres Neither Simon nor Steven was able to tell me where the others were C'est soit lui soit sa sœur qui doit te téléphoner Either he or his sister must be responsible for telephoning you If, on the other h a n d , the i n t e n t i o n is to consider the t w o elements as a g r o u p , the verb will be plural: Ni Lord Byron ni Chateaubriand n'ont pu comprendre l'inutilité des rêveries romantiques Neither Lord Byron nor Chateaubriand could understand how useless romantic dreams are The s a m e p r i n c i p l e u n d e r l i e s a g r e e m e n t w i t h ni l'un ni l'autre. W h e r e they are 'additive' t h e v e r b is likely to be p l u r a l , w h e r e t h e y act as 'alternative i n d i viduals' the v e r b is likely to be singular: Ni Alberte ni Suzanne n'avaient pu rencontrer le peintre Neither Alberte nor Suzanne managed to meet the painter Ni l'une ni l'autre n'ont pu rencontrer le peintre Neither the one nor the other was able to meet the painter Ni Alberte ni Suzanne ne viendra Neither Alberte nor Suzanne will come Ni l'une ni l'autre ne viendra Neither the one nor the other will come 9.1.3 Verb a g r e e m e n t w i t h collective noun subjects Normally collective n o u n s w h i c h are singular require the v e r b to be in a singular form, u n l i k e English w h e r e s p e a k e r s u s e either a singular or p l u r a l verb form: Le gouvernement a décidé de modifier la loi sur la nationalité The government has/have decided to change the nationality law Le comité a proposé une réunion pour 16 heures The committee has/have suggested a meeting at 4 o'clock La famille passe les vacances de Noël en Bretagne The family is/are spending the Christmas holidays in Brittany NB: Tout le monde a l w a y s agrees w i t h a s i n g u l a r v e r b : Tout le monde vient passer le weekend chez moi Everybody's coming to my place for the weekend This m a y c h a n g e , h o w e v e r , w h e n t h e collective n o u n i s followed b y a p l u r a l 210 Verb and participle agreement complement. The verb may then be in the singular or the plural (although some speakers still have a preference for the singular): L'équipe de footballeurs anglais a (or ont) dû quitter la ville très rapidement The team of English football players had to leave town in a hurry La foule des supporters ont (or a) été rapidement dispersé(e)(s) The crowd of supporters were rapidly dispersed Note that in English there is a preference for a plural verb in these cases. 9.1.4 Verb agreement with fractions When fractions (see Chapter 6.3) are subjects and have plural complements, whether they are present or implied, verbs normally agree with those complements: La moitié (des gens) se sont exprimés Half (of the people) made their views known Un tiers (de ceux qui étaient présents) se sont exprimés A third (of those present) made their views known But when the fraction has a singular complement, whether present or implied, verbs agree with the fraction: La moitié (de la population) s'est exprimée Half (the population) made their view known Un tiers (de la maison) a été détruit A third (of the house) was destroyed NB: les deux tiers and percentages usually agree with a plural verb: Les deux tiers des électeurs ont voté pour la droite Two-thirds of the electorate voted for the right 66% ont voté pour la droite 66% voted for the right 9.1.5 Verb agreement with numeral nouns and quantifiers When numeral nouns like une dizaine 'ten or so', une vingtaine 'twenty or so' une douzaine 'a dozen' etc. (see Chapter 6.5.3) are subjects, the verb can agree with the numeral noun or its complement, depending on where the emphasis lies: Nous sommes vingt ce midi à la maison: une douzaine d'œufs ne nous suffira pas There are twenty of us having lunch at home today: a dozen eggs won't be enough Une vingtaine de policiers ont été blessés Twenty or so policemen were injured When most quantifiers (like la plupart de 'most', (un grand) nombre de 'a large number of, quantité de 'a lot of, beaucoup de 'many') are subjects, the verb agrees with their complement, whether it is present or implied: La plupart (des habitants) partagent mes sentiments Most (of the inhabitants) share my feelings Subject-verb agreement 211 La plupart (d'entre eux) sont prêts à nous aider Most (of them) are ready to help us Un grand nombre (de locataires) sont déjà allés se plaindre A large number (of the tenants) have already been to complain Beaucoup (de manifestants) se présenteront à la mairie cet après-midi A lot (of demonstrators) will go to the Town Hall this afternoon With la majorité de ' t h e majority o f , une minorité de 'a m i n o r i t y o f , le reste de 'the rest of, the v e r b can agree either w i t h the quantifier or its c o m p l e m e n t : La majorité (de nos étudiants) ont/a moins de quarante ans The majority, (of our students) are under forty Plus d'un t e n d s to be singular: Plus d'un ami m'a incité à me présenter au premier tour More than one friend suggested I should stand in the first round But moins de t e n d s to be p l u r a l : Moins de dix personnes m'ont indiqué leur désaccord Fewer than ten people told me they disagreed 9.1.6 A g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e verb être Where t w o n o u n s are linked b y t h e v e r b être, the v e r b n o r m a l l y agrees w i t h the p r e c e d i n g subject, a l t h o u g h s o m e s p e a k e r s will m a k e it agree w i t h w h a t follows: Mon problème était mes enfants, car je n'avais personne pour les garder My problem was my children, for I had no-one to look after them When ce is the subject of être, there is a choice b e t w e e n u s i n g c'est or ce sont. Whereas m o s t n o u n s a n d p r o n o u n s follow c'est, for example: C'est m o i / n o u s It's me/us C'est toi / v o u s /lui /elle It's you/him/her C'est le facteur It's the postman I n formal French, p l u r a l n o u n s a n d third p e r s o n p l u r a l p r o n o u n s are s u p p o s e d to follow ce sont: Ce sont mes parents Ce sont eux It's my parents It's them However, m o s t s p e a k e r s ( a n d e v e n writers) of formal French u s e c'est in these cases t h e s e d a y s : C'est mes parents C'est eux Where n u m b e r s are involved , c'est is a l w a y s used: C'est 1 000 francs que je vous dois It's 1,000 francs that I owe you The c'est/ce sont construction is often u s e d w i t h relative clauses, a n d it is i m p o r tant to r e m e m b e r that the v e r b in the relative clause agrees in p e r s o n a n d n u m ber w i t h t h e c o m p l e m e n t of c'est/ce sont: 212 Verb and participle agreement C'est moi qui suis le plus âgé It's me who's the oldest C'est nous qui sommes les responsables We are the ones responsible C'est vous qui avez pris ma serviette de bain Ifs you who has taken my towel Ce sont elles qui ont fait cela They are the ones who did that 9.2 A g r e e m e n t of the past participle w i t h the subject of être There are three cases where the past participle agrees with the subject of être: (a) with intransitive verbs which select the auxiliary être in compound tenses; (b) in passives; (c) where the past participle functions like an adjective. 9.2.1 A g r e e m e n t of t h e past participle w i t h the subject of intransitive verbs which select auxiliary être in compound tenses The past participles of aller 'to go', monter 'to go up', mourir 'to die', naître 'to be born', sortir 'to go out', tomber 'to fall', etc (see Chapter 8.2.2 for the full list) agree with the subject in gender and number in compound tenses: Les Durand étaient allés à Morlaix Suzanne est sortie Elles sont tombées Jean-Paul et Janine sont montés au troisième NB: also iary and The Durands had gone to Morlaix Suzanne went out They fell over ]ean-Paul and Janine went up to the third floor Some intransitive verbs which select auxiliary être in compound tenses can be used transitively (see Chapter 8.3.4). In this case they select the auxilavoir in compound tenses and there is no agreement between the subject the past participle: Jean-Paul et Janine ont monté les valises au troisième Jean-Paul and Janine took the cases up to the third floor 9.2.2 A g r e e m e n t of the past participle following être with the subject of a passive Passives are constructed from transitive verbs by turning the direct object into the subject and making the verb an être + past participle construction (see Chapter 8.6). The past participle agrees with the subject in gender and number in these cases: La guerre a été déclenchée par un malentendu The war was started by a misunderstanding Les bourgeois de Calais ont été choqués par l'œuvre de Rodin The burghers of Calais were shocked by Rodin's work of art 9.2.3 Past participles used as adjectives with être When past participles are used like adjectives and follow être, they agree with the subject: Agreement of the past participle with a preceding direct object 213 La piscine est couverte The swimming pool is indoors Les guichets sont fermés The (ticket office) windows are closed 9.3 Agreement of the past participle of verbs conjugated with avoir w i t h a preceding direct object There are three cases where past participles agree with preceding direct objects in the compound tenses of verbs conjugated with avoir: (a) when the preceding direct object is an unstressed pronoun like le, la, les, me, te etc., e.g. Je les ai vus 'I saw them'; (b) when the preceding direct object is the head of a relative clause: e.g. La lettre que j'ai écrite 'The letter which I wrote'; (c) in questions, when the direct object has been moved to a position preceding the past participle, e.g. Quelle lettre a-t-il écrite? 9.3.1 A g r e e m e n t of t h e past participle w i t h preceding direct object pronouns In compound tenses, the past participle of verbs conjugated with avoir normally agrees with preceding unstressed direct object pronouns: J'ai vu Marie: Je l'ai vue I saw Marie: I saw her Les policiers avaient repéré les voleurs: Les policiers les avaient repérés The police had found the thieves: The police had found them Les voisins ont appelé ma sœur et moi (fem): Les voisins nous ont appelées The neighbours called my sister and me: The neighbours called us NB: le used to refer to a clause is invariably masculine (see Chapter 3.2.8), and so there is no agreement with the past participle: Sa mère est malade; il l'a souvent dit His mother is ill; he has often said so Past participles do NOT agree with any other preceding pronouns, nor with indirect objects, nor with en: j'ai parlé à Marie: Je lui ai parlé (NOT *parlée) I spoke to Marie: I spoke to her j'ai indiqué le chemin à Jean-Claude et Paul: Je leur ai indiqué (NOT "indiqués) le chemin I told Jean-Claude and Paul how to get there: I told them how to get there Ce matin il y a eu des vaches qui sont passées dans le champ du voisin. J'en ai vu (NOT * vues) hier aussi This morning there were some cows which got into the neighbour's field. I saiv some yesterday as well 9.3.2 Recognizing when an unstressed pronoun is a direct object Whilst English speakers may learn to remember to make the agreement between a preceding direct object pronoun and the past participle without too much difficulty, they often still have problems in recognizing when a preceding pronoun is a direct object and when it is not. This is particularly the case where the pronouns are me, te, nous, vous which can function either as direct object or indirect object pronouns, and when the verbs involved are directly 214 Verb and participle agreement transitive in English b u t h a v e indirectly transitive c o u n t e r p a r t s in French (see C h a p t e r 8.4.1). For e x a m p l e , there is no a g r e e m e n t in the following cases b e c a u s e the p r o n o u n s are all indirect objects: convenir à qn désobéir à qn nuire à qn La situation nous a convenu Lucien vous a désobéi Hubert m'a nui succéder à qn Suzanne m'a succédé téléphoner à qn résister à qn Les voisins vous ont téléphoné Les voleurs nous ont résisté The situation suited us Lucien disobeyed you Hubert did me (fern) some damage Suzanne succeeded me (fem) The neighbours phoned you The thieves resisted us 9.3.3 A g r e e m e n t with a preceding direct object pronoun when the participle is followed by infinitives W h e n a v e r b is p r e c e d e d by a direct object p r o n o u n a n d followed by an infinitive, it is u s u a l l y said that the participle only agrees w h e n the p r o n o u n is the subject of the infinitive and is the direct object of the verb containing the participle. There will be no agreement w h e n it is the object of the infinitive. This m e a n s t h a t there will be a g r e e m e n t in cases like the following: Nathalie a vu une voiture écraser son chien Nathalie saw a car run her dog over {une voiture is the subject of écraser and the object of vu) Nathalie l'a vue écraser son chien Nathalie saw it run her dog over Hubert-Jean a regardé sa fille gagner la course Hubert-Jean watched his daughter win the race (sa fille is the subject of gagner and the object of regardé) Hubert-Jean l'a regardée gagner la course Hubert-Jean watched her win the race On a entendu les voix résonner dans la caverne We heard the voices echoing in the cave (les voix is the subject of résonner and the object of entendu) On les a entendues résonner dans la caverne We heard them echoing in the cave But no a g r e e m e n t in cases like the following: Nathalie a vu écraser sa maison par une énorme roche Nathalie saw her house crushed by a huge rock (sa maison is the object of écraser) Nathalie l'a vu écraser par une énorme roche Nathalie saw it crushed by a huge rock Hubert-Jean a regardé détruire la forêt par des bulldozers Hubert-Jean watched the forest being destroyed by bulldozers (la forêt is the object of détruire) Hubert-Jean l'a regardé détruire par des bulldozers Hubert-Jean watched it being destroyed by bulldozers Derrière la haie, j'ai entendu chanter une vieille chanson Agreement of the past participle with a preceding direct object 215 Behind the hedge I heard (someone) singing an old song (une vielle chanson is the object of chanter) Derrière la haie, je l'ai entendu chanter Behind the hedge I heard (someone) singing it Verbs w h i c h are likely to be p r e c e d e d by direct object p r o n o u n s a n d followed by infinitives are p e r c e p t i o n v e r b s like écouter 'to listen to', entendre 'to h e a r ' , voir 'to see', etc. (see C h a p t e r 12.3.8). Verbs of m o v e m e n t like amener 'to b r i n g ' , emmener 'to t a k e ' , envoyer 'to s e n d ' may also be followed by infinitives w i t h subjects w h i c h give rise to agreement: J'ai emmené les invités prendre le petit déjeuner à l'hôtel I took the guests to have breakfast at the hotel (les invités is the subject of prendre and the object of emmené) Je les ai emmenés prendre le petit déjeuner à l'hôtel I took them to have breakfast at the hotel Jean-Claude a envoyé les secrétaires chercher du papier à lettres Jean-Claude sent the secretaries to look for some typing paper (les secrétaires is the subject of chercher and the object of envoyer) Jean-Claude les a envoyées chercher du papier à lettres Jean-Claude sent them to look for some typing paper. The v e r b laisser follows the s a m e p a t t e r n : Nous avons laissé les enfants partir en vacances tout seuls We let the children go on holiday on their own (les enfants is the subject of partir and the object of laisser) Nous les avons laissés partir en vacances tout seuls We let them go on holiday on their own Les voisins ont laissé les chiens jouer dans le jardin The neighbours let the dogs play in the garden (les chiens is the subject of jouer and the object of laissé) Les voisins les ont laissés jouer dans le jardin The neighbours let them play in the garden (But see 9.4 for a g r e e m e n t of se laisser.) Taire, h o w e v e r , is an exception. W h e n it is followed by an infinitive, its p a s t participle n e v e r agrees w i t h a p r e c e d i n g direct object: Nous les avons fait (NOT *faits) partir en vacances tout seuls We made them go on holiday on their own Les voisins les ont fait (NOT *faits) jouer dans le jardin (See also C h a p t e r 12.3.9. For object p r o n o u n s in this construction see C h a p t e r 3.2.32. See 9.4 for a g r e e m e n t of se faire.) NB: Perception v e r b s a n d laisser m a y allow a following infinitive w i t h either a p r e c e d i n g or following subject: 216 Verb and participle agreement J'ai entendu les voisins parler or J'ai entendu parler les voisins I heard the neighbours talk(ing) J'ai laissé les enfants partir or J'ai laissé partir les enfants I let the children leave In either case, if the subject of the infinitive is t u r n e d into an u n s t r e s s e d pron o u n , it will give rise to a g r e e m e n t w i t h the p a s t participle: Je les ai entendus parler I heard them talkOng) Je les ai laissés partir I let them go (See C h a p t e r 3.2.32 for p o s i t i o n of p r o n o u n s . ) 9.3.4 A g r e e m e n t of past participles with preceding direct objects in relative clauses W h e n t h e h e a d of a relative clause (see C h a p t e r 15.1) is the i m p l i e d direct object of t h a t clause, a n d it p r e c e d e s t h e v e r b , a p a s t participle agrees w i t h it in gender and number: Voilà l'homme que j'ai rencontré à la gare hier There's the man I met at the station yesterday Voilà la femme que j'ai rencontrée à la gare hier There's the woman I met at the station yesterday Voilà les enfants que j'ai rencontrés à la gare hier There are the children I met at the station yesterday Voilà les jeunes filles que j'ai rencontrées à la gare hier There are the girls I met at the station yesterday NB: The p a s t participles of i m p e r s o n a l verbs (see C h a p t e r 8.8), like il y a 'there i s / a r e ' , n e v e r agree w i t h a p r e c e d i n g c o m p l e m e n t : II y a eu des problèmes There were problems Les problèmes qu'il y a eu (NOT *eus) ont été vite oubliés The problems that there were were quickly forgotten It is i m p o r t a n t to d i s t i n g u i s h this i m p e r s o n a l use from the p e r s o n a l u s e w h e r e a g r e e m e n t w o u l d take place: Les problèmes qu'il a eus ont été vite oubliés The problems which he had have been quickly forgotten 9.3.5 Recognizing when the head of a relative clause is a direct object S o m e t i m e s it is n o t easy to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r the h e a d of a relative clause is a direct object or not. Verbs like courir 'to r u n ' , coûter 'to cost', dormir 'to sleep', marcher 'to w a l k ' , mesurer 'to m e a s u r e ' , payer 'to p a y ' , peser 'to w e i g h ' , valoir 'to be w o r t h ' , vivre 'to live' can take c o m p l e m e n t s w h i c h look like direct objects, b u t are in fact m e a s u r e a d v e r b s : Agreement of the past participle with a preceding direct object 117 Ce livre m'a coûté cinquante francs This book cost me fifty francs La valise pèse vingt kilos The suitcase weighs twenty kilos Il a marché une dizaine de kilomètres He walked ten kilometres or so Elle a dormi deux heures She slept for two hours In each of these cases the phrase in bold is a measure adverb and not a direct object. One test you can use to find out if the complement of a verb is a direct object or not is to try to make it the subject of a passive sentence most direct objects can be turned into passive subjects. None of the above examples can be: you cannot say * Cinquante francs ont été coûté par ce livre, nor *Une dizaine de kilomètres ont été marché, etc. If the head of a relative clause is an adverb, there is no agreement between it and the past participle: Les cinquante francs que ce livre m'a coûté ... The fifty francs that this book cost me... Les deux heures qu'elle a dormi... The two hours she slept... But to make matters more confusing, some of these verbs can also take direct objects. When direct objects are the heads of relative clauses there is agreement with the past participle: J'ai pesé la valise J weighed the suitcase (direct object) La valise a pesé vingt kilos The suitcase weighed twenty kilos (adverb) La valise que j'ai pesée ... Les vingts kilos que la valise a pesé... 9.3.6 A g r e e m e n t with a preceding direct object in a relative clause when t h e participle is followed by an infinitive As in the case of preceding direct object pronouns (see 9.3.3), when a verb is preceded by a direct object which is the head of a relative clause and followed by an infinitive, the participle only agrees when that head is the implied direct object of the verb containing the participle and the subject of the infinitive. This means that there will be agreement in cases like the following: Nathalie a vu une énorme roche écraser sa maison Nathalie saw a huge rock crush her house Voilà l'énorme roche que Nathalie a vue écraser sa maison There's the huge rock which Nathalie saw crush her house On a entendu les voix résonner dans la caverne We heard the voices echoing in the cave 218 Verb and participle agreement Ce sont les voix qu' on a entendues résonner dans la caverne Those are the voices we heard echoing in the cave But no agreement in cases like the following: Nathalie a vu écraser sa maison par une énorme roche Nathalie saw her house crushed by a huge rock C'est sa maison que Nathalie a vu écraser par une énorme roche It's her house that Nathalie saw crushed by a huge rock Hubert-Jean a regardé détruire la forêt par des bulldozers Hubert-jean watched the forest being destroyed by bulldozers Voilà la forêt que Hubert-Jean a regardé détruire par des bulldozers There's the forest that Hubert-Jean watched being destroyed by bulldozers As in the case of preceding direct object pronouns, the types of verb which give rise to these contexts are perception verbs, movement verbs and laisser (but not faire) (see 9.3.3). 9.3.7 A g r e e m e n t of past participles with preceding direct objects in questions Questions can be formed in various ways (see Chapter 14). When they are constructed in such a way that the direct object precedes the past participle in compound tenses, the past participle agrees with it in gender and number: Quel livre as-tu acheté? Which book did you buy? Quelle voiture as-tu achetée? Which car did you buy? Laquelle a-t-il choisie? Which one did he buy? Lesquels ont-ils acceptés? Which ones did they accept? Combien de citrons as-tu achetés? How many lemons did you buy? Combien de bouteilles de vin as-tu achetées? How many bottles of wine did you buy? NB: The past participles of impersonal verbs (see Chapter 8.8), like il y a 'there is/are', never agree with a preceding questioned complement: Quels problèmes y a-t-il eu (NOT *eus)? What problems were there? This must be distinguished from the personal use where agreement would take place: Quels problèmes a-t-il eus? What problems did he have?' 9.3.8 Recognizing when a questioned phrase is a direct object Sometimes it is not easy to determine whether a questioned phrase is a direct object or not. Verbs like courir 'to run', coûter 'to cost', dormir 'to sleep', marcher Agreement of the past participle with a preceding direct object 119 'to walk', mesurer 'to m e a s u r e ' , payer 'to p a y ' , peser 'to w e i g h ' , valoir 'to be worth', vivre 'to live' can take c o m p l e m e n t s w h i c h look like direct objects, b u t are in fact m e a s u r e a d v e r b s . W h e r e s u c h p h r a s e s are q u e s t i o n e d there is no agreement w i t h a p a s t participle (see also 9.3.5): Elle a dormi deux heures She slept for two hours Combien d'heures a-t-elle dormi (NOT *dormies)? How many hours did she sleep? Ce livre m'a coûté cinquante francs This book cost me fifty francs Combien de francs ce livre a-t-il coûté (NOT *coûtés)? How many francs did this book cost? 9.3.9 A g r e e m e n t with a preceding questioned direct object when the participle is followed by an infinitive As in t h e case of p r e c e d i n g direct object p r o n o u n s (see 9.3.3), w h e n a v e r b is preceded by a q u e s t i o n e d direct object a n d followed by an infinitive, the p a r ticiple o n l y agrees w h e n t h e q u e s t i o n e d p h r a s e is the i m p l i e d direct object of the verb c o n t a i n i n g the participle a n d is the subject of the infinitive. This m e a n s that there will be a g r e e m e n t in cases like the following: Nathalie a vu une voiture écraser son chien Nathalie saw a car run her dog over Quelle voiture Nathalie a-t-elle vue écraser son chien? Which car did Nathalie see run her dog over? On a entendu les voix résonner dans la caverne We heard voices echoing in the cave Quelles voix avez-vous entendues résonner dans la caverne? What voices did you hear echoing in the cave? But no a g r e e m e n t in cases like the following: Nathalie a vu écraser sa maison par une énorme roche Nathalie saw her house crushed by a huge rock Quelle maison Nathalie a-t-elle vu écraser par une énorme roche? Which house did Nathalie see crushed by a huge rock? Hubert-Jean a regardé détruire la forêt par des bulldozers Hubert-Jean watched the forest being destroyed by bulldozers Quelle forêt Hubert-Jean a-t-il regardé détruire par des bulldozers? Which forest did Hubert-Jean see destroyed by bulldozers? As in the case of p r e c e d i n g direct object p r o n o u n s , the t y p e s of verb w h i c h give rise to t h e s e contexts are p e r c e p t i o n v e r b s , m o v e m e n t verbs a n d laisser (but n o t faire). 220 Verb and participle agreement 9.4 Agreement of the past participle of pronominal verbs in compound tenses Pronominal verbs (see Chapter 8.7) include an unstressed object pronoun which agrees with the subject: Je me rase Elle se lève I'm shaving She's getting up In compound tenses the past participle agrees with this preceding object pronoun only if it is a direct object. The problem is determining when it is a direct object and when it is not. With verbs where the pronoun is not understood as a reflexive (that is, where it does not mean anything, but is just a part of the verb - see Chapter 8.7.3), the participle always agrees, with one exception: Elle s'est levée Ils se sont tus Nous nous sommes abstenus de tout commentaire She got up They fell silent We refrained from making any comment Exception: se rire de 'to make light of: Ils se sont ri de vos menaces 'They made light of your threats'. Where a pronominal verb is used reflexively (see Chapter 8.7.1), it will have a non-reflexive counterpart. If the verb has a direct object in its non-reflexive counterpart, the reflexive pronoun is a direct object, and a past participle will agree with it in compound tenses: Reflexive use Non-reflexive counterpart Je me rase I am shaving Le coiffeur rase son client The barber is shaving his client Elle se sert la première She serves herself first Elle sert sa fille la première She serves her daughter first Ils se sont rasés de bonne heure They shaved early Elle s'est servie la première She served herself first If the verb has an indirect object in its non-reflexive counterpart, the reflexive pronoun is an indirect object, and there will be no agreement with a past participle: Reflexive use Non-reflexive use Elle s'offre un gâteau She treats herself to a cake Elle offre un gâteau à Jean She treats Jean to a cake Nous nous cachons la vérité We hide the truth from ourselves Nous cachons la vérité à nos amis We hide the truth from our friends Agreement of the past participle of prono§minal verbs 221 Elle s'est offert (NOT *offerte) un gâteau She treated herself to a cake Nous nous sommes caché (NOT *cachés) la vérité We hid the truth from ourselves The past participles of p r o n o m i n a l verbs u s e d w i t h p a r t s of the b o d y do n o t agree with the p r e c e d i n g p r o n o u n w h e r e the b o d y p a r t is a direct object: Elle s'est coupé (NOT "coupée) le doigt (= Elle a coupé le doigt à elle-même, although you cannot say this) She cut her finger (can even mean 'Her finger was cut off) But where t h e b o d y p a r t is an indirect object, the p r o n o u n is a direct object a n d a past participle agrees w i t h it: Elle s'est coupée au doigt (= Elle a coupé sa main au doigt, although again you cannot say this) She cut her finger (can only mean a surface cut) There is no a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n the p a s t participle a n d the p r e c e d i n g p r o n o u n with se laisser + infinitive, se faire + infinitive or se voir + infinitive: Elle s'est laissé (NOT *laissée) convaincre She let herself be persuaded Julie s'est fait (NOT *faite) écraser par un camion Julie got run over by a lorry Jeanette s'est vu (NOT *vue) offrir des fleurs par Georges jeanette has been given flowers by Georges 10 Tense 10.1 Introduction One of the essential functions of verbs is to express distinctions in time. Tenses serve (a) to situate events as taking place in the Present, Past or Future; (b) to indicate the time at which events occur relative to other events. The verb forms for each of the tenses mentioned in this chapter are given in full in Chapter 7. 10.2 The present (a) The present tense is used to refer to an action or a state of affairs which exists at the time of speaking: Je ne peux pas lui parler parce que je suis dans mon bain I can't speak to him because I'm in the bath II vous téléphone pour demander votre aide He's phoning to ask for your help (b) It is used to express timeless facts: L'eau se transforme en vapeur quand elle bout Water turns to steam when it boils La terre tourne autour du soleil The earth goes round the sun (c) It is used to refer to an action which is habitual: Je prends un bain tous les matins à huit heures I take a bath every morning at eight o'clock II vient me voir toutes les semaines pour s'assurer que tout va bien He comes to see me every week to check that everything's OK (d) In certain contexts, notably when the context provides a clear temporal reference to the future, it can refer to the future: Je viens demain, c'est sûr I'll come tomorrow for sure Demain, il part pour Paris Tomorrow he will be leaving for Paris (e) Some writers use the present tense to refer to past events when they wish to render the past event more immediate. This can be found particularly in the writings of historians, journalists, novelists, and so on: The past 223 Grâce au vignoble, les villes sont prospères dès le 16e siècle The vineyard enabled the towns to prosper from the 16th century 10.2.1 Differences between French and English in the use of the present tense French simple present for the English progressive English indicates that an event is in progress via a special form of the verb called the 'progressive': 'be + V-ing', e.g. 'I am thinking'. French does not have an equivalent special form for this. The English present progressive will normally be translated into French by the simple present: Je réfléchis I think or I am thinking However, if it is important to stress the length of time, or the simultaneity of the event, French can use en train de: Je suis en train de réfléchir I am thinking Thus, when French uses a present tense, this may correspond either to the simple present or the present progressive of English. The meaning will depend on the context. For example, Je promène mon chien will be T walk my dog' in the first example below, but T am walking my dog' in the second: Je promène mon chien tous les matins aux Champs Elysées I walk my dog in the Champs Elysées every morning (Simple present in English because it expresses an habitual action) Qu'est-ce que vous faites? What are you doing? Je promène mon chien 7 am walking my dog (Progressive form in English because it stresses the ongoing nature of the current action) French simple present for English perfect English has a form of the verb called the 'perfect': 'have + V-ed/V-en', e.g. T have walked', 'He has spoken'. It is used for reference to an event which happened in the past, but whose consequences continue into the present. In some cases the English perfect will be translated by the simple present in French: J'envisage souvent de partir I have often thought of leaving Je vous apporte des fraises I have brought you some strawberries 10.3 The past Three forms are available to express PAST events: The imperfect: The simple past (past historic): The compound past (perfect): Je jouais du piano Je jouai du piano J'ai joué du piano 224 Tense 10.3.1 T h e imperfect (a) This t e n s e is u s e d to describe o n g o i n g p a s t e v e n t s w i t h o u t reference to a time of starting or finishing: Pierre lisait Il était tard La ville dormait Pierre was reading It was late The town was sleeping In n a r r a t i v e s , the imperfect typically p r o v i d e s a b a c k g r o u n d of o n g o i n g events against w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r c o m p l e t e d events are acted out. If the n a r r a t i v e is written, these c o m p l e t e d e v e n t s will b e i n the c o m p o u n d p a s t a n d / o r simple past; if t h e n a r r a t i v e is s p o k e n , t h e y will be in the c o m p o u n d p a s t (see 10.3.3): Il était tard. M. Dupont arrêta sa voiture devant un café H was late. M. Dupont pulled up in front of a café Les voleurs faisaient beaucoup de bruit. Les gendarmes se glissèrent dans la pièce sans se faire remarquer The thieves were making a great deal of noise. The policemen slipped into the room without being noticed Je somnolais tranquillement quand quelqu'un a sonné à la porte I was dozing quietly when someone rang the door bell (b) It also typically refers to an h a b i t u a l action in the past. This is generally d e s c r i b e d in English t h r o u g h the u s e of the forms ' u s e d t o ' or ' w o u l d ' : M. Dupont s'arrêtait toujours au café quand il avait le temps M. Dupont always used to stop at the café when he had the time or M. Dupont would always stop at the café when he had the time Since ' w o u l d ' can also express the conditional in English, it is i m p o r t a n t for the English s p e a k e r to d i s t i n g u i s h the ' w o u l d ' w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to the French imperfect from t h e ' w o u l d ' w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e French conditional. If ' w o u l d ' is imperfect, it s h o u l d be possible to replace it w i t h ' u s e d t o ' a n d still h a v e a g r a m m a t i c a l sentence. If substitution of ' w o u l d ' by ' u s e d t o ' p r o d u c e s an u n g r a m m a t i c a l sentence, it is a conditional: Le dimanche, j'allais manger dans un restaurant à Paris On Sundays, I would ('used to' is OK) go to a restaurant in Paris Si tu me donnais de l'argent, j'irais manger dans un restaurant à Paris dimanche If you gave me some money, I would (NOT *'used to', therefore a conditional) go to a restaurant in Paris on Sunday (See 10.4.2 for the conditional tense. See C h a p t e r 11.3.1 for the u s e of ' w o u l d ' . ) (c) It can be u s e d to describe c o m p l e t e d p a s t events w h e r e the s p e a k e r or writer w i s h e s to m a k e the p a s t event m o r e i m m e d i a t e by p r e s e n t i n g it as if it w e r e in p r o g r e s s : Je courais jusqu'à la voiture. J'attendais un instant, puis je faisais marche arrière. Je roulais en me répétant: « Fais attention » I ran to the car. I waited a moment, then I put it into reverse. I drove, repeating to myself. 'Be careful' The past 225 10.3.2 The simple past (past historic) The simple past tense refers to completed events in the past which are not seen as having any particular relevance to the present from the point of view of the speaker. Nowadays the use of the simple past (past historic) is restricted to written or very formal spoken French (e.g. very formal speeches): Les Jeux Olympiques eurent lieu à Montréal en 1982 The Olympic Games took place in Montreal in 1982 Les dinosaures vécurent au jurassique Dinosaurs lived in the Jurassic period Le président partit à 22h pour New York The president left at 10 p.m. for New York 10.3.3 T h e compound past (perfect) The compound past tense refers to a completed event in the past. In contrast to the simple past (past historic), however, if may refer to an action in the past whose effect continues into the present. It is available both in spoken and written French: Nous sommes arrivés hier de Dijon We came in from Dijon yesterday Ils ont vendu leur maison et ils sont partis à l'étranger They sold their house and went abroad Ils ont acheté six croissants pour notre petit déjeuner They bought six croissants for our breakfast In some texts the simple past and the compound past are used together. The simple past refers to completed events which do not give rise to consequences continuing into the present, from the perspective of the writer. The compound past, by contrast, refers to past events whose consequences do continue to have present relevance, from the perspective of the writer. For example, the following extract from a newspaper article marking the fiftieth anniversary of the death of the French airman and novelist Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, opens with the following passage: Le 31 juillet 1944, quand un officier porta [simple past] officiellement disparu le Lightning P38 no. 223 piloté par Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, un colosse trop à l'étroit dans sa combinaison d'aviateur est entré [compound past] dans la légende On 31 July 1944, when an officer officially reported as lost the Lightning P38 no. 223 piloted by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry, a giant of a man, too big for his aviator's suit, became a legend The simple past porta describes an event which is seen as over and done with; the compound past est entré describes an event which is seen as having a continuing consequence for the present, from the perspective of the writer: SaintExupéry became and still is a legendary figure. 226 Tense 10.3.4 A n illustration o f t h e w o r k i n g o f t h e p a s t t e n s e s i n c o n t e x t C o m p o u n d p a s t (perfect) a n d i m p e r f e c t H e r e is a literary e x a m p l e t a k e n from the n o v e l L'Eté meurtrier by Sébastien Japrisot. T h e c o m p l e t e d events are in the c o m p o u n d p a s t because, a l t h o u g h w r i t t e n , this particular piece of n a r r a t i v e is told in the first p e r s o n from the p o i n t of v i e w of o n e of the characters, giving the effect of a s p o k e n narrative. These e v e n t s are set against a descriptive b a c k g r o u n d defined by the imperfect: J'ai connu Gabriel [compound past - completed event] en avril 1945, quand nous avons fui Berlin [compound past - completed event], et que je suivais [imperfect - background context] avec ma mère et d'autres réfugiés, les colonnes des soldats qui allaient [imperfect - background context] vers le sud. C'était dans un village [imperfect - background context] un matin très tôt, près de Chemnitz. Nous avions déjà perdu ma cousine Herta [pluperfect - see 10.4.1 - earlier completed event] qui avait trois ans de plus que moi [imperfect - background context] entre Torgën et Leipzig, parce qu'elle avait trouvé un camion et nous un autre [pluperfect see 10.5.1 - earlier completed event]. Et c'est ce matin-là que j'ai perdu ma mère [compound past - completed event]. Je crois qu'elle a changé de direction [compound past - completed event], qu'elle est allée vers Kassel [compound past - completed event], à l'ouest, où elle avait des amis [imperfect - background context]... I met Gabriel in April 1945 when we fled from Berlin, and when I was following, with my mother and other refugees, the columns of soldiers going south. It was in a village very early one morning, near Chemnitz. We had lost my cousin Herta, who was three years older than me, between Torgën and Leipzig because she had found one lorry, and we another. And it was the same morning that I lost my mother. I believe she changed direction, and that she went towards Kassel, to the West, where she had friends ... S i m p l e p a s t (past historic) The s i m p l e p a s t tense refers to c o m p l e t e d e v e n t s in the p a s t w h i c h are n o t seen as h a v i n g a n y particular relevance to the p r e s e n t from the p o i n t of v i e w of the speaker. For e x a m p l e , consider the following n a r r a t i v e from a n o t h e r n o v e l by Sébastien Japrisot, La Dame dans l'auto avec des lunettes et un fusil. H e r e a series of events are over a n d d o n e w i t h at s o m e p o i n t prior to w h e n the n a r r a t o r is speaking: Elle ramassa ses vêtements épars [simple past - completed event with no consequences continuing into the present from the perspective of the narrator]. Elle les rangea soigneusement dans sa valise noire [simple past - completed event with no continuing consequences]. Elle ne prit pas la route déserte [simple past - completed event with no continuing consequences] par où ils étaient venus [pluperfect - see 10.5.1 - earlier completed event]. Elle gravit à nouveau la colline [simple past - completed event with no continuing consequences] et, sur la roche plate où ils s'étaient assis [pluperfect see 10.5.1 - earlier completed event], elle étala [simple past - completed event with no continuing consequences], ouvert en deux, le sac en papier qui avait enveloppé [pluperfect - see 10.5.1 - earlier completed event] ses nu-pieds neufs. Elle écrivit dessus [simple past - completed event with no continuing consequences] . . . She picked up her scattered clothes. She packed them carefully into her black suitcase. She didn't take the deserted road along which they had come. She climbed the hill again and, on the flat rock where they had sat, she spread the opened-out paper bag which had contained her new flip-flops. She wrote on it ... The past 227 In modern French the simple past tense is restricted to written French. It is found in literary texts (novels, plays, poems) and in newspaper articles. It is used typically in passages of impersonal third person narration, as in the above example. Engel (1990) has conducted a survey of the use of the simple past in newspaper articles. Among other things, she found that the simple past was likely to be used in formal, objectivity-seeking articles, in sports reports, in faits divers (reports of accidents, fires, rescues, etc.), and in items on the arts. As noted above, the simple past is not found in all contexts in written French, even in literary French. Where a narrative is told from a personal, first person perspective (and hence is more like spoken French than written) it is very likely that it will be told in the compound past. Japrisot, for example, in the novel quoted from above, has passages narrated in the third person and simple past tense, and passages narrated in the first person and compound past. The extract cited above would become the following if recounted from the point of view of the woman in question: J'ai ramassé mes vêtements épars. Je les ai rangés dans ma valise noire. Je n'ai pas pris la route déserte par où nous étions venus. J'ai gravi à nouveau la colline et, sur la plate roche où nous nous étions assis, j'ai étalé, ouvert en deux, le sac en papier qui avait enveloppé mes nu-pieds neufs. J'ai écrit dessus... 10.3.5 Differences between French and English in the use of past tense forms French compound past/simple past and imperfect for English simple past The English simple past is used in a range of contexts where French distinguishes between the compound past/simple past on the one hand and the imperfect on the other. Take, for example, the English sentence 'He slept all afternoon'. This can describe a one-off, completed past event, in which case the French equivalent would be a compound past or a simple past form of the verb: (Hier) il a dormi tout l'après-midi (Hier) il dormit tout l'après-midi (compound past or simple past (past historic) because it is a completed action in the past) (Yesterday) he slept all afternoon Or it can describe an habitual action, in which case the French equivalent would be an imperfect form of the verb: (Quand il était plus jeune,) il dormait tout l'après-midi (When he was younger,) he slept all afternoon (= he used to sleep ...) Note that there is a distinction between viewing an action as habitual and viewing it as repeated. Repeated actions which are completed are described by verbs in the compound past/simple past in French: Tous les jours de cette année-là elle a travaillé d'arrache-pied/elle travailla d'arrache-pied (compound past or simple past because each of the repeated actions, i.e. the work carried out each day, is envisaged as a completed action in the past) Every day that year she worked like mad 228 Tense French imperfect for English past progressive English indicates that an event was in progress in the past via a special form of the verb known as the 'progressive': 'was/were V-ing', e.g. 'He was sleeping'. French does not have an equivalent special form for this. The English past progressive will normally be translated into French by the imperfect tense: Quand je l'ai trouvé, il dormait paisiblement sur la plage When I found him he was sleeping peacefully on the beach Nous allions vers l'Arc de Triomphe quand les avions sont passés/passèrent audessus de nous We were going towards the Arc de Triomphe when the planes flew over us If there is a need to emphasize the duration, en train de can be used: Elle était en train de mettre la dernière touche à son dessin quand on a frappé/frappa à la porte She was putting the finishing touches to her drawing when someone knocked at the door 10.4 The future Two tenses are used to refer to future time: the future and the conditional, although the conditional also expresses meanings which are not simply related to future time. 10.4.1 T h e future tense The future tense has three main functions: (a) It is used to describe events which take place in the future: Quand il ira à Paris il m'achètera des livres When he goes to Paris he will buy me books (b) As in English, it can be used as a more polite alternative to the imperative to give orders: Vous fermerez la porte, s'il vous plaît Will you close the door, please je prendrai un kilo de vos prunes jaunes TU have a kilo of your yellow plums Vous m'excuserez Will you excuse me (c) It is sometimes the equivalent of English 'may', when a speaker is speculating about possible causes or outcomes: Elle aura encore sa migraine She may have her headache again Peut-être qu'elle viendra She may perhaps come (See Chapter 11.3.4 for more on 'may'.) The future 229 NB: The future can be replaced by a p r e s e n t tense form of the v e r b aller + an infinitive w h e r e a greater certainty a b o u t the likelihood of an e v e n t taking place is implied t h a n is given by the future. In m a n y contexts the future a n d aller + an infinitive can be i n t e r c h a n g e d , e.g.: Tu vas y aller, je le sais bien or Tu iras, je le sais bien I'm quite sure you will go But in s o m e contexts t h e r e is a clear difference in m e a n i n g b e t w e e n the t w o : Elle va avoir un bébé She will have a baby or She's having a baby (i.e. She's pregnant) Compared w i t h : Elle aura un bébé (un jour, mais elle n'est pas pressée) She will have a baby (one day, but she is in no hurry) 10.4.2 The conditional tense The conditional h a s six m a i n functions: (a) It refers to e v e n t s w h i c h w o u l d take place in the future if certain conditions were met: Il m'achèterait des livres à Paris si je lui donnais l'argent He would buy me books in Paris if I gave him the money Je l'accompagnerais volontiers si je ne devais pas retourner à Dijon I would love to go with him if I didn't have to go back to Dijon (b) In r e p o r t e d s p e e c h (see 10.7) it is the equivalent of a future tense in direct speech: II a dit: 'Je viendrai' He said: T will come' Il a dit qu'il viendrait He said he would come Je lui ai demandé: "Est-ce tu pourras venir?' 1 asked him, 'Will you be able to come?' Je lui ai demandé s'il pourrait venir I asked him if he could come (c) The conditional is u s e d , especially in journalistic l a n g u a g e , to state s o m e thing as an ' a l l e g e d ' fact, i.e. o n e w h i c h the w r i t e r d o e s n ' t w i s h to state as definitely true a n d often o n e a t t r i b u t e d to other sources: Selon des sources bien informées, le Prince de Galles rejoindrait le reste de la famille royale aux sports d'hiver la semaine prochaine According to reliable sources, the Prince of Wales will be joining the rest of the royal family for a skiing holiday next week D'après notre correspondant à Tel Aviv, un accord de paix serait réalisable dans la semaine à venir According to our correspondent in Tel Aviv, a peace agreement will be possible in the coming week (d) The c o n d i t i o n a l ( a n d e v e n t h e c o m p o u n d conditional - see 10.5.5) can be used in F r e n c h as ' c o u l d ' a n d ' w o u l d ' are in English to m a k e a r e q u e s t s o u n d 230 Tense more polite: Je voudrais réserver deux places, s'il vous plaît I would like to book two seats, please Je voudrais vous demander un renseignement J'aurais voulu vous demander un renseignement I was wondering if I could ask you for information (e) Sometimes the conditional can be the equivalent of English 'might' when the speaker is speculating about possible causes or outcomes - it expresses greater uncertainty than the future tense used for the same purpose: Elle aurait encore sa migraine She might have her headache again Peut-être qu'elle viendrait She might come, perhaps (See Chapter 11.3.5 for more on 'might'.) (f) In formal French the conditional can be used as an alternative to a clause with si (see also Chapter 17.3.7): II me proposerait un million de francs que je n'irais pas! Even if he offered me a million francs I still wouldn't go! (For tenses in si clauses see 10.8 and Chapter 17.3.6.) 10.4.3 Differences between French and English in t h e use of future and conditional tenses In English, verbs in clauses introduced by conjunctions like 'when', 'as soon as', 'as long as', 'after', 'once' are usually in a present or past tense verb form: When she comes I'll tell her He will arrive as soon as I have left Where such clauses refer to events which are yet to happen (as they mostly do), in French you must use a future, conditional, compound future or compound conditional, as appropriate. These clauses are introduced by conjunctions like: quand, lorsque, aussitôt que, dès que, sitôt que, dès lors que, tant que, après que, une fois que. Quand elle viendra (NOT *vient), je le lui dirai Il arrivera dès que je serai parti (NOT *suis parti) Une fois que nous serons passés à l'hôtel je pourrai enfin me débarrasser de ces valises Once we've been to the hotel I will finally be able to get rid of these suitcases A good indicator that the event has yet to happen is the verb in the other clause, which will be in a future tense, conditional tense, etc., in English: 'He will The future 231 arrive as s o o n as I h a v e left'. (See also C h a p t e r 17.3.2.) 10.4.4 Use of tenses with depuis, il y a and pendant depuis In clauses c o n t a i n i n g t h e p r e p o s i t i o n depuis 'for' or 'since', t h e tense of the verb differs systematically b e t w e e n French a n d English. (a) In the case of the present, there are t w o p o i n t s in time, n o w a n d an event in the past. W h e r e the c o n s e q u e n c e s of the event in the p a s t continue into the present, from the p e r s p e c t i v e of the speaker, French uses a p r e s e n t tense, while English u s e s the perfect: Je suis ici depuis plus d'un an I have been here for more than a year (My being here continues at the time I am speaking) Elle habite notre village depuis Pâques She has been living in our village since Easter (She is still living there at the time of speaking) However, if the e v e n t d o e s not h a v e consequences w h i c h c o n t i n u e into the present, a p a s t tense form of the v e r b will be u s e d in French: II n'est pas venu ici depuis plus d'un an He hasn't been here for more than a year (The last time he was here was over a year ago, so the event does not continue at the time of speaking) Il a arrêté de fumer depuis plus d'un an He has stopped smoking for more than a year (His giving up smoking was an event which was completed more than a year ago, and so does not continue at the time of speaking) Compare w i t h : Il fume depuis plus d'un an He has been smoking for more than a year (His smoking started more than a year ago and continues into the present) (b) In the case of the p a s t , there are also t w o p o i n t s in time, one in the p a s t and one further b a c k in the past. If the c o n s e q u e n c e s of the event further back in the p a s t c o n t i n u e f o r w a r d s to the event in the past, French u s e s the i m p e r fect tense w h e r e English u s e s the pluperfect: J'étais là depuis plus d'un an I had been there for more than a year But if the m o r e d i s t a n t e v e n t d o e s n o t h a v e c o n t i n u i n g consequences, a pluperfect form of the v e r b will be u s e d in French: II avait arrêté de fumer depuis plus d'un an quand il est tombé malade He had stopped smoking for more than a year when he became ill 232 Tense (For depuis que see C h a p t e r 17.3.4.) il y a By contrast il y a ' a g o ' focuses on the c o m p l e t i o n of an event in the past, a n d t h e t e n s e u s e d in French is a p a s t tense, just as it is in English: Je suis arrivé il y a un an I arrived a year ago Elle a commencé à habiter notre village il y a six mois She began living in our village six months ago Nous y sommes allés il y a plus de dix ans We went there more than ten years ago pendant pendant 'for', enables the speaker to indicate the length of t i m e associated w i t h an event, w h e t h e r it is in the present, future or is a c o m p l e t e d e v e n t in the past: Jean-Paul prétend qu'il veut maintenir son silence pendant trois semaines Jean-Paul says that he wants to keep quiet about it for three weeks Ensuite nous irons passer des vacances en Irlande pendant quinze jours After that we will spend a fortnight on holiday in Ireland J'y suis resté pendant trois semaines l'année dernière I stayed there for three weeks last year (For il y a un mois que ... 'it's a month since . . . ' , voilà/voici plusieurs ans que ... 'it's several y e a r s since . . . ' , see C h a p t e r 17.3.4.) 10.5 O t h e r tenses indicating the t i m e at which events occur relative to other events 10.5.1 T h e pluperfect tense W h e r e a s the s i m p l e p a s t a n d c o m p o u n d p a s t tenses refer to events c o m p l e t e d in the p a s t from the p e r s p e c t i v e of the s p e a k e r or writer, the pluperfect describes e v e n t s c o m p l e t e d at s o m e p o i n t e v e n before these p a s t events: La police laissa une balise pour indiquer où l'accident était arrivé The police left a marker to show where the accident happened/had happened (Pluperfect - an event which occurred prior to the police marking the spot) Je n'ai pas pris la route déserte par où nous étions venus 7 didn't take the very quiet road along which we had come (Pluperfect - an event which occurred prior to me taking a different road) 10.5.2 T h e past anterior tense The p a s t anterior is n o t u s e d v e r y frequently a n d can only occur in texts in w h i c h the s i m p l e p a s t is u s e d . It h a s t w o functions: (a) It refers to a p a s t e v e n t w h i c h i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d e s a n o t h e r p a s t e v e n t described b y the s i m p l e p a s t (as o p p o s e d t o o n e p a s t event p r e c e d i n g another Other tenses indicating the time at which events occur 233 without any specification of the length of the period between the two events - in this case a pluperfect would be used). A typical context for the past anterior is a clause introduced by the conjunctions quand, lorsque 'when', aussitôt que, dès que, sitôt que, dès lors que 'as soon as', tant que 'as long as', après que 'after', une fois que 'once': Après qu'elle fut sortie, il enleva la nappe After she left, he removed the tablecloth (Her leaving immediately preceded his removing the tablecloth) Dès que j'eus fini, je me rendis chez moi As soon as 1 had finished, I went home (My finishing immediately preceded my going home) (b) It is used with adverbs like vite 'quickly', bientôt 'soon' where the idea of speed or urgency is expressed, and the verb would otherwise be in the pluperfect: Elle eut bientôt écrit la lettre She had soon written the letter Il fut vite envoyé chercher un médecin He had quickly been sent to fetch a doctor (See also Chapter 17.3.3.) 10.5.3 T h e double compound past and compound pluperfect tenses The double compound past tense and compound pluperfect tense can be used in spoken French where the past anterior is used in written French, to describe an event which immediately precedes another past event (typically in clauses introduced by quand, lorsque 'when', etc. - see 10.5.2), or to express speed or urgency. Where the verb describing the main past event is in a compound past tense form, the verb describing the preceding event is in a double compound past form: Ils ont gardé le silence pendant tout mon discours, mais ils ont applaudi quand j'ai eu fini They were quiet throughout my speech but they applauded when 1 had finished (The main past event is their applauding, and the verb is in a compound past form; my finishing the speech immediately precedes their applauding, and is in a double compound past form) Where the verb describing the main past event is in a pluperfect tense form, the verb describing the preceding event is in a compound pluperfect form: Quand ils avaient eu fini de préparer leurs questions, ils les avaient données au Président de séance When they had finished preparing their questions, they had given them to the Chair of the session (The main past event is their having given the questions to the Chair, and the verb is in a pluperfect form; their finishing preparing the questions immediately precedes their giving the questions to the Chair, and is in a compound pluperfect form) 234 Tense In expressing speed or urgency, only the double compound past tense is possible: J'ai eu vite fini le livre I quickly finished the book The use of the double compound past and compound pluperfect tenses is not obligatory and is in fact relatively rare. Ordinary compound past and pluperfect tenses are the normal forms to use in these contexts. 10.5.4 T h e compound future tense (future perfect) Typically the compound future tense describes a future event from the perspective of its completion (as opposed to the future tense, which views an event simply from the perspective of its futurity). It usually corresponds to English 'will have': J'aurai fini mon travail dès lundi I will have finished my work from Monday (versus: Je finirai mon travail lundi 'I will finish my work on Monday') Given this perspective, a compound future can describe an event which takes place before another event in the future: J'aurai fini mon travail avant de partir en vacances I will have finished my work before going on holiday The compound future can also be the equivalent of English 'may have', when a speaker is speculating about an event which may have occurred before another in the past: Elle aura fini peut-être ses devoirs avant de vous téléphoner She may perhaps have finished her homework before she telephoned you 10.5.5 T h e compound conditional tense (conditional perfect) The compound conditional has four main functions: (a) It refers to events which would have taken place if certain conditions had been met (but weren't): C'aurait été la chute du gouvernement, s'il y avait eu des élections à ce moment-là The government would have fallen if there had been elections at that time Tu l'aurais vu partir si tu étais venu plus tôt You would have seen him leave if you had come earlier (b) In reported speech (see 10.7) it is the equivalent of a compound future in direct speech: Direct speech: Il a dit: 'J'aurai fini mon travail avant de partir en vacances' He said: T will have finished my work before going on holiday' Reported speech: Il a dit qu'il aurait fini son travail avant de partir en vacances' He said he would have finished his work before going on holiday Combining tenses 235 (c) The compound conditional can be used to indicate that the speaker is stating something as a possible fact and not as a certainty, most often a fact asserted by others: Le Président serait déjà parti pour l'Allemagne (It is said that) the President may have already left for Germany (i.e. I have been told he has but I am not repeating it as a fact) Selon mes collègues, j'aurais dit que le président allait prendre sa retraite According to my colleagues, I said that the chairman was going to retire This is widely used in the press to express unsubstantiated or alleged facts: On ne sait donc toujours pas si l'assassin présumé, qui aurait avoué son crime, était bien le seul tireur ou s'il avait été aidé de plusieurs complices We therefore still do not know whether the suspected killer, who has allegedly admitted his crime, was indeed the only one who fired or whether he was helped by several accomplices (d) In formal French the compound conditional can be used as an alternative to a si clause containing a verb in the pluperfect (see also Chapter 17.3.7): Il me l'aurait dit plus tôt, j'aurais pu m'y prendre autrement S'il me l'avait dit plus tôt, j'aurais pu m'y prendre autrement If he'd told me earlier, I could have done it another way 10.5.6 T h e double compound future The double compound future can be used (but need not be) to describe an event completed in the future immediately before another future event. Typical contexts where it might be found are clauses introduced by dès que, quand, lorsque, aussitôt que, and so on (see 10.5.2 for the list): Dès qu'ils auront eu bu leur café, il faudra qu'ils se dépêchent de partir As soon as they have drunk their coffee, they will have to hurry up and leave 10.6 Combining tenses When it is necessary to use tenses to indicate one moment in time relative to another, French is much more precise than English. In many sentences one clause establishes the main tense and another situates a second event in relation to it. When this is the case, it is essential to express the relative time relationship clearly in French by use of the appropriate tense as exemplified below. 10.6.1 T i m e relative to the present (a) Assuming that one clause of a sentence relates to the present, events which precede the present will be in: the imperfect if one wishes to stress the duration of the action; the compound past (perfect) if one wishes to link the past action to the present or to leave that possibility open; and in the simple past (past historic) if one wishes to indicate, in written French, that the action is definitely completed. 236 Tense The English sentence: She often played the violin, now she plays the piano c o u l d be r e n d e r e d into French in each of the following w a y s , d e p e n d i n g on w h i c h of three possible m e a n i n g s is i n t e n d e d : (i) If ' p l a y e d ' refers to an h a b i t u a l action in the p a s t c o m p a r e d w i t h the situation n o w , t h e n the imperfect will be the a p p r o p r i a t e tense: Elle jouait souvent du violon, maintenant elle joue du piano (jouait indicates that she was in the habit of playing the violin: a meaning which could have been conveyed by the English "used to' or 'would') (ii) If ' p l a y e d ' refers to an e v e n t c o m p l e t e d in t h e p a s t b u t possibly still relev a n t t o the present, t h e n the c o m p o u n d p a s t (perfect) will b e the a p p r o p r i a t e tense: Elle a souvent joué du violon, maintenant elle joue du piano (a joué indicates that on several occasions in the past, she played the violin: it is neutral about whether she still plays it or not but leaves open that possibility) (iii) If ' p l a y e d ' refers to an e v e n t (or a r e p e a t e d set of events) seen as comp l e t e d i n t h e p a s t a n d w i t h n o relevance t o the present, the s i m p l e p a s t (past historic) will be the a p p r o p r i a t e tense in writing: Elle joua souvent du violon, maintenant elle joue du piano (joua suggests that for a specified period in the past (e.g. up to the age of ten), she played the violin but that the event is sharply cut off from the present) (b) A s s u m i n g that o n e clause of the sentence relates to the present, events w h i c h follow the p r e s e n t will be expressed t h r o u g h the future: J'exige une excellente performance de mes employés aujourd'hui, et je l'exigerai encore demain I demand a high-level of performance from my employees now and I will continue to do so in the future II pleut aujourd'hui et il va pleuvoir encore demain It's raining today and it will rain again tomorrow (c) An e v e n t w h i c h occurs i m m e d i a t e l y before an e v e n t w h i c h is in the p r e sent, c a n be e x p r e s s e d by t h e p r e s e n t tense of venir de. T h e English translation u s u a l l y involves 'just': Mais non! Tu ne fais que répéter ce que je viens de te dire! Not at all! You are simply repeating what I have just told you! Nous venons de présenter nos idées aux clients We have just presented our ideas to the clients Nous reviendrons sur la question que nous venons d'évoquer We will come back again to the topic we have just been discussing Combining tenses 237 10.6.2 T i m e r e l a t i v e t o t h e p a s t (a) A s s u m i n g t h a t o n e clause of a sentence indicates that an event h a s taken place in the past, the following forms are u s e d to indicate events further in the past t h a n the g i v e n p a s t event. W h e r e the p a s t event is expressed by the compound p a s t (perfect) or the s i m p l e p a s t (past historic), an event further in the past will be e x p r e s s e d by the pluperfect (see 10.5.1), or, in certain styles, the past anterior (see 10.5.2). T h e s e differences are frequently n o t expressed in the equivalent English sentences w h e r e simple p a s t forms are used: Elle a voulu revendre le meuble dès qu'elle l'avait acheté She wanted to sell the piece of furniture as soon as she bought it Quand elle eut fini de jouer du violon elle joua du piano When she finished playing the violin, she played the piano It is frequently possible for English to u s e the pluperfect ' h a d b o u g h t ' , ' h a d finished p l a y i n g ' , etc. b u t m o s t often u s e r s prefer t h e simpler forms a n d leave t h e interpretation to the reader: n o r m a l l y it is clear in context w h a t is m e a n t . However, d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t English frequently d o e s n o t m a r k these t e m p o ral distinctions, they c a n n o t be left v a g u e in French: Papa veut savoir à quelle heure elle est rentrée hier soir Dad wants to know at what time she came in last night Papa a voulu savoir à quelle heure elle était rentrée hier soir Dad wanted to know at what time she came in last night On déposa des fleurs sur le trottoir pour indiquer où l'accident était arrivé Flowers were left (or people left flowers) on the pavement to show where the accident happened Quand je suis entré dans la pièce je me suis rendu compte que Jean était arrivé avant moi When I went into the room I realized that John was there before me (b) The d o u b l e c o m p o u n d p a s t is u s e d in cases w h e r e it is required that the event further i n t h e p a s t i s m a r k e d a s c o m p l e t e d : Ils ont gardé le silence pendant tout mon discours, mais ils ont applaudi quand j'ai eu fini They were quiet throughout my speech but they applauded when I had finished (c) The c o m p o u n d conditional is u s e d to refer to a hypothetical e v e n t related to an e v e n t in the past: Nous aurions acheté votre maison si nous en avions entendu parler à temps We would have bought your house if we had heard of it in time Vous auriez pu l'acheter si vous aviez voulu You could have bought it if you had wanted to (d) T h e imperfect of venir de can be u s e d w h e n o n e e v e n t is indicated as just h a v i n g b e e n c o m p l e t e d p r i o r to a n o t h e r o n e a l r e a d y expressed in the p a s t tense. N o t e t h a t t h e F r e n c h imperfect m u s t b e t r a n s l a t e d b y a n English pluperfect ' h a d t o l d / p r e s e n t e d etc.': 238 Tense Il ne faisait que répéter ce que je venais de lui dire He simply repeated what I had just told him Nous venions de conclure notre présentation quand la panne d'électricité est survenue We had just finished our presentation when there was a power cut La question que nous venions d'évoquer avait soulevé beaucoup de controverse The matter we had just discussed raised a great deal of controversy 10.6.3 Time relative to the future (a) A sequential relationship b e t w e e n t w o events in the future can be expressed t h r o u g h the c o m p o u n d future: Est-ce qu'elle aura fini ses devoirs avant de partir demain matin? Will she have finished her homework before she leaves tomorrow morning? m a r k s a future action w h i c h p r e c e d e s the indicated future p o i n t in time. Est-ce qu'elle finira ses devoirs après avoir pris sa douche demain matin? Will she finish her homework after having her shower tomorrow morning? m a r k s a future action w h i c h f o l l o w s the indicated future p o i n t in time. (Note the preferred translation w i t h '-ing'.) Une fois que nous serons passés à l'hôtel je pourrai enfin me débarrasser de ces valises Once we've been to the hotel I will finally be able to get rid of these suitcases Lorsqu'il m'aura fourni des explications valables, nous pourrons nous mettre d'accord sur la solution à adopter Once he has provided me with a satisfactory explanation, we shall be able to agree on the solution to be chosen both m a r k a future action w h i c h p r e c e d e s a n o t h e r future action. (Note the translation i n t o English by a p r e s e n t perfect.) (b) T h e d o u b l e c o m p o u n d future is u s e d to indicate the c o m p l e t e d n a t u r e of the e v e n t p r e c e d i n g a n o t h e r e v e n t i n t h e future: Quand vous aurez eu fini de préparer vos questions, vous les présenterez au Président de séance When you have finished preparing your questions, you (will) give them to the Chair of the session 10.7 Tenses in direct and r e p o r t e d descriptions of events W h e n d e s c r i p t i o n s of events (e.g. Le prisonnier s'est évadé par la fenêtre 'The prisoner e s c a p e d t h r o u g h the w i n d o w ' ) or the utterances of others ('direct s p e e c h ' - e.g. «Je viens demain» ' I ' m c o m i n g t o m o r r o w ' ) are r e p o r t e d to a third party, the tense of the v e r b in the original sentence can c h a n g e in certain circumstances, a n d there m a y also b e consequential changes i n a n y associated t i m e adverbs: Tenses in direct and reported descriptions of events 239 Direct description: Le prisonnier s'est évadé par la fenêtre The prisoner escaped through the window Reported description: La police croyait que le prisonnier s'était évadé par la fenêtre The police thought that the prisoner had escaped through the window Direct speech: Je viens demain I'm coming tomorrow Reported speech: Il a dit qu'il venait le lendemain He said that he was coming the following day (For the choice of appropriate time adverbs see Chapter 5.6.8.) Verbs which introduce reported descriptions or reported speech are those like dire que 'to say that', expliquer que 'to explain that', penser que, croire que 'to think, believe that', maintenir que 'to maintain that', prétendre que 'to claim that', and so on. Mostly, the tense of the verb in the reported clause is the same as the tense of the verb in the original statement or utterance. But where the reporting verb is in a past tense - imperfect, compound past/simple past or pluperfect - the following systematic changes occur in the tense of the reported verb: Original tense present (compound) future compound/simple past —> —» Reported tense imperfect (compound) conditional pluperfect Table 10.A illustrates the pattern. TABLE I O.A Tenses following a reporting verb in a past tense Direct description Reporting verb (imperfect, compound or simple past, pluperfect) Elle parle (present) She is speaking Ils croyaient qu' Ils ont cru/crurent qu' They thought that Reported verb elle parlait (imperfect) she was speaking/spoke Ils avaient cru qu' They had thought that Elle parlera (future) She will speak Ils croyaient qu' Ils ont cru/crurent qu' They thought that elle parlerait (conditional) she would speak Elle aura parlé (compound future) She will have spoken Ils avaient cru qu' They thought that elle aurait parlé (compound conditional) she would have spoken Elle a parlé (compound past) She spoke/has spoken Ils croyaient qu' Ils ont cru/crurent qu' They thought that elle avait parlé (pluperfect) she had spoken Elle parla (simple past) She spoke Ils avaient cru qu' They had thought that 240 Tense Other tenses of reported verbs remain the same as the original. To take some typical examples: Direct description Reported Elle parlait Ils avaient cru qu'elle parlait They had thought that she was speaking Elle aurait parlé Ils ont cru qu'elle aurait parlé They thought that she would have spoken Elle avait parlé Ils croyaient qu'elle avait parlé They thought that she had spoken And where the reporting verb is in a non-past tense (i.e. present or any form of the (compound) future or (compound) conditional) the tense of the reported verb remains the same as the original: Direct description Reported Elle parle Ils croiraient qu'elle parle They would think that she is speaking Elle parlera Ils croient qu'elle parlera They think that she will speak Elle a parlé Ils auraient cru qu'elle a parlé They would have thought that she spoke 10.8 Tenses w i t h si si has two distinct functions. One is to introduce indirect questions, and corresponds to English 'if when it can also mean 'whether': Elle m'a demandé si je voulais y aller 'She asked me if/whether I wanted to go there'. Tenses following indirect question si are determined in exactly the same way as for reported speech, as described in 10.7. (See also Chapter 17.3.6.) The other function of si is to introduce 'hypothetical clauses'. In this use it corresponds to English 'if when it cannot alternate with 'whether', e.g. 'I won't stay if (NOT *whether) he comes' Je ne resterai pas s'il vient. The tense of the verb in the hypothetical si clause can never be in the (compound) future or (compound) conditional tense. Rather, it will typically obey one of the following patterns: Je ne reste pas s'il vient I'm not staying if he comes Je ne resterai pas s'il vient I won't stay if he comes Je ne resterais pas s'il venait I wouldn't stay if he came Je ne serais pas resté s'il venait/était venu I wouldn't have stayed if he came/had come Je ne restais pas s'il venait I wasn't staying if he was coming Il The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives 11.1 The attitude of the subject to events: the subjunctive The subjunctive is expressed by a particular set of forms which verbs can typically take only in subordinate clauses (but see 11.4.4 for an exception). The selection of the subjunctive in a subordinate clause (rather than the normal indicative) is always determined by the nature of the clause on which it is dependent. It should be noted that in many cases there is no choice about whether to use the subjunctive or indicative: certain types of main clause ALWAYS select subjunctive in a dependent subordinate clause; others ALWAYS select the indicative. However, some main clause constructions are ambiguous, and allow the verb in a dependent subordinate clause to be either subjunctive or indicative: the choice of one or the other produces different meanings. The majority of main clause constructions which select the subjunctive have a general property in common, and it is useful to consider the subjunctive from this perspective. The subjunctive is selected in a subordinate clause where the subject of the main clause views the event described in the subordinate clause with a significant degree of personal interpretation. This notion of 'personal interpretation' can be broken down into three types, which are illustrated below: (a) The subject judges an event to be more towards the 'unlikely' end of a scale going from 'probable' to 'unlikely'. (b) The subject projects his or her personal desires or feelings on to an event. (c) The subject cannot present an event as probable from his or her point of view, because it is in some way conditional on other events, is hypothetical, is unknowable or is simply vague. Subjunctive: dependent on the subject's belief that an event is unlikely to occur Where the subject of the main clause expresses a belief in the relative probability of an event's occurring (whether in the past or the future), the indicative will be used. For example, expressions like the following give rise to the indicative in dependent subordinate clauses: 242 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives Jean affirme que Jean pense que Jean imagine que Pierre est venu Jean declares that Jean thinks that Jean reckons that Pierre came In the case of impersonal subjects - il est certain que, il est probable que, etc. - or with verbs where the subject is in the first person - je crois que, j'imagine que, etc. - it is the speaker of the sentence who expresses a belief in the probability of an event's occurring and this equally gives rise to the indicative: Je crois que Je juge que Je pense que Je suppose que Il est certain que Il est probable que Pierre viendra I believe that I reckon that I think that I suppose that It's certain that It's probable that Pierre will come BUT where the main clause expresses the subject's belief that an event is unlikely to occur or to have occurred, the subjunctive is required. For example, where the above expressions are negated or questioned, or when other terms suggesting less certainty are used, the event becomes more 'unlikely' than 'probable'. This gives rise to the subjunctive in dependent subordinate clauses: Jean ne pense pas que Jean n'imagine pas que etc. Pierre soit venu Jean doesn't think that Jean doesn't imagine that etc. Pierre came Je ne crois pas que Il n'est pas certain que Il est possible que etc. Pierre vienne I don't believe thai It's not certain that It's possible that etc. Pierre will come Est-il certain que Crois-tu que etc. Pierre vienne? Is it certain that. . . Do you think that etc. Pierre will come? Est-ce que Jean pense que Est-ce que Jean imagine que etc. Does Jean think that . . . Pierre soit venu? Does Jean imagine that etc. Pierre came? Subjunctive: dependent on the subject's attitude to an event Where the construction which introduces the subordinate clause inherently presents the event as simply a matter of fact, the indicative will be used. For example, after the verb savoir que 'to know that' the indicative will always be used because savoir que states the subject's view of an event as a matter of fact, uncoloured by a significant degree of personal interpretation: Il sait que Pierre est venu (il sait que states 'Pierre's having come' as a factual reality) BUT where the construction which introduces the subordinate clause inherently expresses the subject's personal desires or feelings, the subjunctive will The attitude of the subject to events: the subjunctive 243 be required. For example, after the verb regretter que 'to be sorry that', the subjunctive will always be used because regretter places the event in the context of an emotional, personal interpretation by the subject: Il regrette que Pierre soit venu ('Pierre's having come' is not in doubt, but il regrette que expresses a personal attitude towards that event) Thus, where a subject places a particular personal interpretation on an event described in a subordinate clause, the subjunctive is likely to be used - even if the factual reality of the event is not in doubt. It is the attitude towards the event, the way the subject wishes it to be seen, which is more important than the reality or otherwise of the event. For example, Josette Alia, writing in the Nouvel Observateur in 1990 about the beginning of the feminist movement wrote: L'essentiel, pour nous, était que le scandale fût là The most important thing for us was that there should have been a scandal To have written the following, equally grammatical, sentence would have changed the meaning in an important way: L'essentiel, pour nous, était que le scandale fut là The most important thing for us was that there was a scandal In using the subjunctive Josette Alia does not lay the stress on the concept that there actually was a scandal (although she certainly thinks that there was) because that, from her point of view, is not what is important: she wishes to stress that the important thing was for the early feminists (with whom she identifies herself) to have created one - hence the subjunctive. Subjunctive: dependent on the subject's view of an event as conditional, hypothetical, unknowable or vague In cases where the idea of conditionality is expressed overtly through the conditional word si, the indicative is always used (for tenses with si see 10.8): Si tu viens demain nous pourrons nous promener au bord du lac If you come tomorrow, we will be able to go for a walk beside the lake S'ils avaient répondu à ma première lettre, j'aurais cessé de les importuner If they had replied to my letter, I would have stopped bothering them BUT certain expressions introducing dependent clauses place a condition on an event; the subject can then only present it as something which, from his or her point of view, is possible in certain circumstances, but no more than that. Therefore with expressions such as à condition que 'on the condition that' and à moins que 'unless', the subjunctive is obligatory: Je veux bien y aller, à condition qu'on prenne l'avion I'd be very pleased to go, as long as we take the plane lean-Charles devra changer ses habitudes à moins qu'il veuille qu'on le prenne pour un imbécile Jean-Charles will have to change his ways unless he wants people to think he is a complete idiot 244 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives When time constraints make the outcome of events unknowable by the subject, references to events in an unknown time scale tend to be in the subjunctive: avant que 'before' and jusqu'à ce que 'until' must be followed by the subjunctive: Avant que tu (ne) me le dises, je te promets que je serai là à l'heure Before you say anything to me, I promise that I will be there on time Je veux attendre ici jusqu'à ce qu'il soit arrivé chez lui I want to stay here until he has got home When subjects are confronted with a degree of vagueness which means that they do not know enough about the situation to be certain of anything they say, the subjunctive is used: quoi que, quel(le(s)) que 'whichever, whatever' must be followed by the subjunctive: Quoi qu'il fasse, il ne mettra plus jamais les pieds chez moi Whatever he does, he will never set foot in my house again Quels que soient ses problèmes, je ne vois pas très bien comment je pourrais l'aider Whatever her problems may be, 1 can't easily see how I could help her SUMMARY Contexts which give rise to the subjunctive (a) The subjunctive is used mainly in subordinate clauses (but see 11.4.4). (b) The subordinate clause is dependent on constructions which express a significant degree of personal interpretation of events: these interpretations present events as more unlikely than probable, and/or in a way which is coloured by the desires or feelings of the subject, and/or as conditional, hypothetical or unknowable. NB: (a) As noted above, in the great majority of cases where the subjunctive is used, there is no choice: it is required after the relevant expression. However, in some limited subordinate contexts there is a genuine choice between using the indicative and the subjunctive because the construction on which the subordinate clause is dependent can be used with more than one meaning. This is the case in the example from Josette Alia used above. It is also the case in the following examples (the first from Judge and Healey, 1983:131). A speaker trying to find a student who speaks Chinese might say: Je cherche un étudiant qui sait parler chinois I'm looking for a student who can speak Chinese This would be used if the speaker is reasonably sure that there is such a student in a known group (i.e. T know one of the students speaks Chinese - I'm looking for that student'). By contrast, if the speaker said: Je cherche un étudiant qui sache parler chinois I'm looking for a student who can speak Chinese The attitude of the subject to events: the subjunctive 245 he or she would be expressing reservations about whether such a student is likely to be available (i.e. 'I'm looking for any student who speaks Chinese I don't know whether any of them do'). An irate parent waiting for a teenager who is coming in late might say: Je suppose que tu vas me dire que tu es allé au cinéma avec ta copine 1 suppose you're going to tell me that you went to the cinema with your girlfriend. The indicative is used because the parent wants to express his or her certainty about what excuses are likely to be offered. By contrast, an insurance agent wanting to sell holiday insurance to a client might say: Supposez toujours que vous soyez aux Etats-Unis et que vous tombiez malade, qu'est-ce que vous allez faire sans assurance? fust suppose that you are in the United States and you fall ill, how could you manage without health insurance? Here the whole issue is hypothetical. Hence the subjunctive. (b) Although the subjunctive is typically marked in verbs in subordinate clauses introduced by que, not every subordinate clause introduced by que requires the verb to be in the subjunctive - in fact most of them don't! It is only when the subordinate clause is dependent on a construction which expresses a significant degree of subjective interpretation of the event along the lines described above, usually through the use of one of the specific ways of introducing the subordinate clause, that the subjunctive is used. I I.I.I Forms of the subjunctive The conjugation of verbs in the subjunctive is described fully in Chapter 7. Here is a brief summary of the way that regular verbs form the subjunctive in the various tenses (but see Chapter 7 for irregular verbs). Present subjunctive For many verbs, take the third person plural, present tense form of the indicative, delete -ent: for example: (ils) parlent finissent dorment vendent reçoivent and add the endings: -e -es -e -ions -iez -ent —» —> —> —» —> parlfiniss dormvendreçoiv- 246 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives for example: park, parles, parle, parlions, parliez, parlent finisse, finisses, finisse, finissions, finissiez, finissent etc. NB: The stem reçoiv- changes when the ending does not begin with -e: reçoive, reçoives, reçoive, recevions, receviez, reçoivent. Imperfect subjunctive For many verbs, take the first person singular, simple past tense form of the indicative, delete the last letter: for example: (je) parlai finis dormis vendis reçus —> —> —> —> —» parlafinidormivendireçu- and add the endings: -sse -sses -Af -ssions -ssiez -ssent for example: * parlasse, parlasses, parlât, parlassions, parlassiez, parlassent finisse, finisses, finit, finissions, finissiez, finissent reçusse, reçusses, reçût, reçussions, reçussiez, reçussent etc. Compound past and pluperfect subjunctive The compound past subjunctive is formed from the present subjunctive forms of avoir or être, as appropriate, followed by the past participle. The pluperfect subjunctive is formed from the imperfect subjunctive of avoir or être, as appropriate, followed by the past participle. (See Chapter 7 for details.) I 1.1.2 W h i c h tense of the subjunctive should be used? In formal written French it is still possible to use all of the tenses of the subjunctive: present, imperfect, compound past and pluperfect. In such cases the tense to use is determined in a broadly similar way to the choice of tenses with indicative forms of the verb (see Chapter 10). The only difference is that because there is no future or conditional subjunctive, the present tense form of the subjunctive is normally used in contexts where the future or conditional would be appropriate. However, in less formal written French, and generally in spoken French, only the present tense and the compound past tense of the subjunctive are used. In this case, the present tense forms of the subjunctive typically cover all cases where present, imperfect, simple past, future or conditional tenses of the indicative would be used. For example: The attitude of the subject to events: the subjunctive 247 Nous préférons qu'il soit au courant We prefer him to know about it (Compare: Nous savons qu'il est au courant - present tense) Le professeur se plaignait que ses élèves ne sachent pas employer correctement le subjonctif The teacher used to complain that his pupils didn't know how to use the subjunctive correctly (Compare: Le professeur disait que ses élèves ne savaient pas employer correctement le subjonctif - imperfect tense) Il était heureux dans le bureau jusqu'à ce que le patron embauche une nouvelle secrétaire He was happy in the office until the boss hired a new secretary (Compare: Il était heureux dans le bureau. Mais alors le patron embaucha une nouvelle secrétaire - simple past tense) Je démissionnerai tout de suite à moins que vous ne la renvoyiez I'll resign immediately unless you sack her (Compare: Vous ne la renverrez pas? Alors je démissionnerai - future tense) Il serait peu probable que nos amis sachent que nous sommes partis It would be unlikely that our friends ivould know that we have left (Compare: Il serait probable que nos amis sauraient que nous sommes partis conditional tense) T h e c o m p o u n d p a s t tense forms of t h e subjunctive typically cover all cases w h e r e c o m p o u n d p a s t , pluperfect, c o m p o u n d future o r c o m p o u n d conditional tenses of the indicative w o u l d be u s e d . For example: Quoiqu'ils aient fait de gros efforts, l'entreprise reste en difficulté Although they have made considerable efforts, the company is still in difficulty (Compare: Ils ont fait de gros efforts, mais l'entreprise reste en difficulté compound past tense) N'ont-ils pas cru que l'autre équipe ait été éliminée? Didn't they think that the other team had been eliminated? (Compare: Ils ont cru que l'autre équipe avait été éliminée - pluperfect tense) Quoi que mes parents aient décidé, je n'y consentirai pas Whatever my parents have decided, I won't agree to it (Compare: Mes parents auront décidé, mais je n'y consentirai pas - compound future tense) Crois-tu que les élèves aient obtenu d'aussi bonnes notes si quelqu'un d'autre avaient été leur professeur? Do you believe that the pupils would have got such good marks if someone else had been their teacher? (Compare: Je crois que les élèves auraient obtenu d'aussi bonnes notes si quelqu'un d'autre avait été leur professeur - compound conditional tense) I 1. 1.3 Subjunctive after verbs, adjectives and nouns which express the personal desires, orders, expectations, fears, regrets or other emotional states of the subject in relation to the event Verbs and adjectives Verbs a n d adjectives of w i s h i n g , o r d e r i n g , expressing fears a n d other e m o t i o n a l states are n o r m a l l y followed by subjunctive s u b o r d i n a t e clauses. The verb in 248 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives s u b o r d i n a t e clauses d e p e n d e n t on the following verbs is a l m o s t a l w a y s in the subjunctive: aimer que attendre que s'attendre à ce que avoir envie que commander que consentir que être content que craindre que demander que désirer que être désolé que être dommage que douter que s'étonner que exiger que être heureux que insister pour que ordonner que permettre que avoir peur que préférer que être ravi que regretter que se réjouir que souhaiter que être surpris que tenir à ce que être triste que veiller à ce que vouloir que to wish that to wait for to expect that to really want that to order that to agree or to accept that to be pleased that to fear that to ask that to wish that to be sorry that to be a pity or to be regretted that to doubt that to be surprised that to require that to be happy that to insist that to order that to allow that to be afraid that to prefer that to be delighted that to regret that to rejoice that to wish that to be surprised that to be anxious that to be sad that to be careful that to want that J'aimerais que tous les étudiants puissent trouver du travail en fin d'études. / would like all the students to be able to obtain a job at the end of their period of study 'Attendez que ma joie revienne et que soit mort le souvenir . . .' (chanson de Barbara) 'Wait until I can be happy again and for the memory to die . . .' Je consens que tu fasses ce stage de photo mais n'oublie pas que tu devras quand-même aller à tes cours I agree that you can go on this photography course, but don't forget that you will still have to go to your lectures Je crains que cela (ne) soit vrai I'm afraid that may be true II est dommage que le gouvernement n'ait pas pu obtenir la libération des otages plus tôt It is to be regretted that the government was not able to obtain the release of the hostages at an earlier date Personnellement, je ne doute pas que leur version soit véridique mais ils auront du mal à convaincre leurs parents I don't doubt that their version is true but they will find it difficult to convince their parents The attitude of the subject to events: the subjunctive 249 Je m'étonne que nous n'ayons pas encore reçu la marchandise I'm surprised that we haven't yet received the goods Il a exigé que nous l'emmenions jusqu'à Paris He demanded that we should take him all the way to Paris Elle était ravie que ses copains aient obtenu l'autorisation de passer dans la classe supérieure She was very happy that her friends had been allowed to move up to the next class J'ordonne que les prisonniers soient libérés tout de suite I order that the prisoners should be freed immediately ]'ai peur que la vérité soit différente I'm afraid that the truth might be different Nous préférons qu'il soit au courant We prefer him to know about it Je suis ravi que tu aies trouvé l'âme sœur I am delighted that you have found your partner for life Je veux que tu sois là à la naissance I want you to be present at the birth (For the use of non-negative ne in subordinate clauses see Chapter 16.16.) Nouns The subjunctive is normally required in clauses dependent on nouns which express similar meanings to the verbs listed above, i.e. wishing, ordering, being pleased, sad, surprised, etc.: l'attente que, la crainte que, le désir que, l'ordre que, la peur que, le souhait que: La crainte qu'il soit relâché a provoqué une manifestation devant la prison The fear that he might be freed gave rise to a demonstration in front of the prison Yvonne et Pierre ont exprimé le désir qu'elle soit invitée Yvonne and Pierre have said that they want her to be invited L'ordre qu'il soit execute a été donné au plus haut niveau The order that he should be executed was given at the highest level NB: Where the subject of the main clause is unspecified, as in a passive, or is the same as the subject of the subordinate clause, the subjunctive can be avoided by the use of an infinitive with la crainte de, le désir de, la peur de, l'ordre de etc.: L'ordre qu'il soit exécuté a été donné au plus haut niveau L'ordre de l'exécuter a été donné au plus haut niveau I I.I.4 Subjunctive after verbs of saying, thinking and believing in negatives and questions Verbs of saying, thinking and believing - affirmer que 'to state that', croire que 'to believe that', déclarer que 'to declare that', imaginer que 'to imagine that', penser que 'to think that', trouver que 'to find that', and so on - normally present an event simply as a fact and, where they are followed by a dependent subordinate clause, the verb in this clause is in the indicative: 250 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives Ils ont cru que l'autre équipe avait été éliminée They thought that the other team had been eliminated But w h e n s u c h v e r b s are negated or questioned, this introduces u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t the likelihood of the e v e n t occurring, a n d verbs in the d e p e n d e n t clause are in the subjunctive: N'ont-ils pas cru que l'autre équipe ait été éliminée? Didn't they think that the other team had been eliminated! Nous n'affirmons pas que l'accident soit de votre faute, mais les circonstances prêtent à croire que cela pourrait être le cas We are not saying that the accident was your fault, but the circumstances lead us to believe that this might be the case Croyez-vous que la guerre froide soit vraiment terminée? Do you think the cold war is really over? Peut-on dire que cette statue soit un bon exemple du style de Michel-Ange? Would you say that this statue is a good example of Michelangelo's style? Je ne pense pas que cela soit vrai I don't think that is correct Je ne trouve pas que votre plaisanterie soit de mauvais goût, mais simplement déplacée dans ce contexte I don't think that your joke was in bad taste but merely out of place in this context Similarly, w h e n v e r b s of saying, t h i n k i n g a n d believing are u s e d to i n t r o d u c e hypothetical cases, v e r b s in clauses d e p e n d e n t on t h e m will be in the s u b junctive: Imaginez quelle ait été sa surprise Just imagine what her surprise must have been Supposons que nous ayons gagné la loterie nationale Let's suppose that we won the national lottery On imagine mal que ce film ait été tourné par Godard It's difficult to imagine that this film was made by Godard NB: N o t e that espérer que 'to h o p e t h a t ' d o e s N O T give rise to the subjunctive in a d e p e n d e n t clause, e v e n w h e n n e g a t e d or questioned: Ils espéraient que l'autre équipe avait été éliminée They hoped the other team had been eliminated N'espéraient-ils pas que l'autre équipe avait été éliminée? Didn't they hope that the other team had been eliminated? I 1. 1.5 Subjunctive after impersonal verbs expressing the belief t h a t an event is unlikely as opposed to probable S o m e i m p e r s o n a l v e r b s a n d expressions p r e s e n t t h e occurrence of events described in d e p e n d e n t s u b o r d i n a t e clauses as probable: verbs in these clauses are in t h e indicative. E x a m p l e s of s u c h cases are: il est certain que 'it is certain that', il s'ensuit que 'it follows that', il est évident que 'it is o b v i o u s that', il est probable que 'it is probable that', il me semble que T think that', il est vrai que 'it is t r u e that': The attitude of the subject to events: the subjunctive 25 I II est probable que nous arriverons à Paris après-demain It is probable that we will arrive in Paris the day after tomorrow Il me semble que tout ce travail valait la peine / think that all this work was worth it But others p r e s e n t the events as less probable, only possible or e v e n impossible; these require the subjunctive in d e p e n d e n t clauses: il n'est pas certain que 'it is n o t certain that'; il est douteux que 'it is doubtful that'; il est impossible que 'it is impossible that'; il est invraisemblable que 'it is unbelievable that'; il se peut que, il est possible que 'it is possible that'; il est peu probable que 'it is unlikely that'; il n'est pas sûr que 'it is n o t sure that'; il n'est pas vrai que 'it is not true that'. N o t e particularly the following contrasts: il il il il est est est est certain que + indicative probable que + indicative sûr que + indicative vrai que + indicative il il il il n'est pas certain que + subjunctive est peu probable que + subjunctive n'est pas sûr que + subjunctive n'est pas vrai que + subjunctive Il n'est pas certain que tes explications soient acceptées par tous It is not certain that your explanations would be accepted by everyone Il est douteux que le contrat ait été signé à temps It is doubtful the contract will have been signed on time Il est invraisemblable qu'ils aient pu s'enfuir sans être remarqués It is incredible that they should have been able to escape without anyone noticing Il se peut que nous rencontrions nos camarades à la sortie de la ville We may meet up with our friends on the outskirts of town II est possible que nous puissions trouver une solution à votre problème It is possible that we may be able to find a solution to your problem Il est peu probable que vous réussissiez le permis la première fois It is not very likely that you'll pass your driving test first time Il n'est pas sûr que nous ayons choisi la meilleure solution We can't be sure that we have chosen the best solution Il n'est pas vrai que Juliette nous ait proposé de rester sur place It is not true that Juliette proposed that we should stay where we were Some i m p e r s o n a l constructions express the subjective desires or feelings of the s p e a k e r of the sentence: il faut que 'it is necessary t h a t ' (often equivalent to ' m u s t ' ) ; il est important que 'it is i m p o r t a n t that'; il est nécessaire que 'it is necessary that'; il est regrettable que 'it is regrettable that'; il semble que 'it s e e m s that'; il est temps que 'it is t i m e that'; il vaut mieux que 'it is better if'. Il faut qu'ils soient prêts à partir tout de suite They must be ready to leave immediately II est important que tous comprennent la nécessité d'améliorer la productivité It is important that everyone understands the need to increase productivity Il est nécessaire que vous partiez avec eux: il serait trop dangereux de les laisser voyager seuls It is necessary for you to go with them: it would be too dangerous to let them travel on their own 252 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives II est regrettable que nous n'ayons pas pu transmettre ces renseignements It is a pity that we were not able to pass on this information Il semble que l'ennemi soit mieux préparé It seems that the enemy is better prepared II est temps que nous nous préparions à aider les sans-abri It is time for us to get ready to help the homeless Il vaut mieux que ce soit Jean-Claude qui fournisse les explications It is better that it should be Jean-Claude who puts forward the explanations NB: N o t e in p a r t i c u l a r the contrast: il me semble que + indicative II me semble que l'ennemi est mieux préparé 1 think that the enemy is better prepared il semble que + subjunctive II semble que l'ennemi soit mieux préparé It seems that the enemy is better prepared I 1.1.6 Subjunctive after certain conjunctions S o m e s u b o r d i n a t i n g conjunctions i n t r o d u c e h y p o t h e t i c a l situations or establish conditions: t h e s e are n o r m a l l y followed b y v e r b s i n t h e subjunctive i n the s u b o r d i n a t e clause: afin que pour que in order that en attendant que whilst waiting for non que ce n'est pas que not that à moins que unless à supposer que supposé que en supposant que en admettant que supposing that bien que quoique encore que malgré que although de façon que de manière que de sorte que si bien que so that, in such a way that de peur que de crainte que for fear that pour peu que si peu que however little that pourvu que à condition que provided that sans que without The attitude of the subject to events: the subjunctive 253 soit que whether tel que such as Couvrez vos cahiers afin qu'ils ne se salissent pas Cover your exercise books so that they won't get dirty Ils sont allés habiter à Paris pour que leur fils puisse suivre des cours à Henri IV They moved to Paris so that their son could study at the 'lycée Henri TV' En attendant que le beau temps revienne, on passait les soirées à lire au coin du feu Waiting for the fine weather to return, we spent the evenings reading by the fireside Je lui ai demandé de modifier le manuscrit; non que je sois déçu, mais je voudrais qu'il y ait plus de dialogue I asked her to change the manuscript; it's not that I am disappointed, but I would like there to be more dialogue Je passe te prendre à six heures à moins que tu ne m'appelles avant I'll call by to pick you up at six unless you ring me beforehand A supposer que la réponse soit favorable, qu'est-ce que vous allez faire? Supposing that the reply is positive, what will you do? Bien que ces arguments soient en partie valables, ils ne justifient pas votre comportement Although these arguments are valid to a certain degree, I do not think that they justify your behaviour Quoique les ouvrières aient fourni de gros efforts, la compagnie est toujours en difficulté Although the workers have made considerable efforts, the company is still in difficulty J'ai branché le répondeur de crainte qu'on ne me dérange pendant la réunion I've switched on the answering machine for fear that I might be interrupted during the meeting Ils ont fait mettre leur numéro sur la liste rouge de peur qu'on ne les dérange chez eux They have gone ex-directory for fear of being disturbed at home Je te montrerai comment cela fonctionne de façon que tu puisses l'expliquer à Georges plus tard TU show you how it works so that you can explain it to George later Je mets les chaises au jardin de manière que tu puisses lire au soleil TU set out the garden chairs in such a way that you can read in the sun Expliquez-moi ce que vous avez décidé de sorte que je sois en mesure de rédiger un rapport Let me know in detail what you have decided, so that I may write a report Je veux bien vous conduire jusqu'à Lyon à condition que vous payiez mon billet de retour I am quite willing to drive you to Lyons as long as you pay for me to come back Nous nous offrirons des vacances cette année, pourvu que nos marges bénéficiaires nous le permettent We will take some holidays this year, provided that we make sufficient profit 254 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives Elle aurait bien pu quitter le village sans que je m'en aperçoive She could well have left the village without my noticing Et s'il avait créé un scandale tel que vous ayez été obligé de céder, vous auriez perdu beaucoup d'argent And if he had created such a scandal that you had been obliged to give in, you would have lost a lot of money The conjunctions de façon que, de manière que, de sorte que, si bien que 'so that' h a v e t w o distinct m e a n i n g s . O n the o n e h a n d they express a w i s h that s o m e t h i n g w h i c h h a s n o t yet h a p p e n e d m i g h t h a p p e n . With this m e a n i n g they h a v e the force of 'creating the conditions for a n o t h e r event to o c c u r ' a n d are foll o w e d b y the subjunctive: Je te montrerai comment cela fonctionne de façon que tu puisses l'expliquer à Georges VU show you how it works so that ('creating the conditions for you to') you can explain it to George Dis-m'en un peu plus sur ce qui se passe au bureau, de sorte que je puisse te conseiller Tell me a little more about what's happening at the office so that ('creating the conditions for me to') I can advise you On the other h a n d , t h e y can describe a causal effect of o n e event on another. With this m e a n i n g t h e y h a v e the force of ' w i t h the result t h a t ' a n d are followed b y the indicative: Le mécanicien a réglé le fonctionnement des vitesses de façon que tu peux t'en servir de nouveau The mechanic has adjusted the gears so that ('with the result that') you can use them again Tu ne me racontes plus jamais ce qui se passe au bureau, de sorte que je suis incapable de te conseiller You never tell me any more about what's happening at the office so that ('with the result that') 1 cannot advise you (See also C h a p t e r 17.3.8.) I 1.1.7 Subjunctive after t i m e conjunctions With t h e t i m e conjunctions: avant que 'before' a n d jusqu'à ce que 'until' the s u b junctive is a l w a y s u s e d : Il faut réagir rapidement, avant que le problème ne devienne insurmontable We must react quickly before the problem becomes impossible to deal with Sébastien va s'assurer de sa situation financière avant qu'il ne démissionne Sebastien will sort out his financial position before he resigns Il a persisté jusqu'à ce qu'elle sorte avec lui He kept on until she went out with him avant que can be replaced by avant de w h e n the subject of the v e r b in the s u b o r d i n a t e clause is the s a m e as t h a t in t h e i n t r o d u c i n g clause: Sébastien va s'assurer de sa situation financière avant qu'il ne démissionne Sébastien va s'assurer de sa situation financière avant de démissionner The attitude of the subject to events: the subjunctive 255 The conjunction après que 'after' is n o r m a l l y followed by the indicative a n d n o t the subjunctive: Nous avons commencé après qu'ils étaient arrivés We began after they arrived H o w e v e r , p r e s u m a b l y by a n a l o g y w i t h avant que, y o u will often h e a r p e o p l e u s i n g the subjunctive after après que. (See also C h a p t e r 17.3.1.) (For the u s e of n o n - n e g a t i v e ne in d e p e n d e n t clauses see C h a p t e r 16.16, a n d for n o n - n e g a t i v e ne in clauses d e p e n d e n t on conjunctions see C h a p t e r 17.3.8.) I 1.1.8 Subjunctive in clauses dependent on expressions which claim a unique status for an entity Verbs in clauses w h i c h are d e p e n d e n t on superlatives, on n o u n s modified by one of the adjectives dernier, premier, seul, unique, or on personne or rien, are in the subjunctive if the sentence m a k e s the claim that the entity referred to is ' p e e r l e s s ' (i.e. is t h e biggest, best, w o r s t , first, last, only o n e of its k i n d ever): Ce chou-fleur est le plus gros que j'aie jamais vu This cauliflower is the biggest I have ever seen Jennifer est la meilleure spécialiste que j'aie entendue sur ce sujet Jennifer is the best specialist I have heard on this subject Jeanne est la seule qui soit capable de le faire Jeanne is the only woman who could do it Mon frère est l'unique candidat qui ait été sélectionné My brother is the only candidate who has been selected Je ne connais personne qui soit mieux qualifié que lui pour exprimer les espoirs de la jeune génération I don't know anyone better qualified than him to express the aspirations of the young II possède la dernière des voitures qui soit équipée d'un moteur spécial He owns the last of the cars which have a special engine H o w e v e r , w h e r e there is no claim a b o u t the ' p e e r l e s s ' quality of the entity (e.g. w h e n it is d e s c r i b e d as t h e biggest, best, w o r s t , first etc. of a p a r t i c u l a r set, b u t there m a y be other bigger, better, w o r s e , etc., entities in the w o r l d ) the v e r b is in the indicative: C'est le premier film que j'ai vu That's the first film 1 saw There is n o t h i n g peerless a b o u t this. It is s i m p l y the assertion of a fact. O t h e r p e o p l e see their first film as well. But c o m p a r e with: C'était la première personne qui ait fait l'ascension du Matterhorn He was the first person to scale the Matterhorn This w a s a ' p e e r l e s s ' first, a n d so the subjunctive is u s e d . Similarly, c o m p a r e : Je ne connais personne qui soit plus doué pour le piano que vous 1 don't know anyone more gifted for the piano than you (peerless) 256 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives Je ne connais personne qui sait jouer du violon I don't know anyone who plays the violin (not peerless - there are plenty of people in the world who can play the violin; it's just that one of them is not in my set of acquaintances) O t h e r e x a m p l e s of n o n - p e e r l e s s cases: C'est la dernière fois que je viens vous voir This is the last time I am coming to see you La première fois que je t'ai vu, je t'ai trouvé un peu farfelu The first time I saw you I thought you were a bit eccentric Le livre de cuisine est le seul qui est tombé de l'étagère The cook book is the only one which fell off the shelf (See also C h a p t e r 15.11.3.) I 1. 1.9 Use of the indicative in clauses introduced by an adverb W h e n an a d v e r b , like peut-être que ' p e r h a p s ' , heureusement que 'luckily', certainement que 'of c o u r s e ' , apparemment que ' a p p a r e n t l y ' , is u s e d in the first p a r t of a clause, d e s p i t e t h e fact t h a t t h e y often express the m e a n i n g s w h i c h in other clauses give rise to the subjunctive, the subjunctive is N O T used: Peut-être qu'il viendra, peut-être qu'il viendra pas Maybe he'll make it, maybe not Heureusement que tu étais là, sinon j'aurais eu peur Lucky you were here otherwise I'd have been afraid Certainement que ton copain peut coucher ici Of course your friend can sleep here NB: This construction is m o r e frequent in informal t h a n formal French. I 1.1.10 Use of the subjunctive in hypothetical clauses coordinated by et que W h e n a h y p o t h e t i c a l clause i n t r o d u c e d by si is e x t e n d e d by a coordinated clause, the s e c o n d clause is i n t r o d u c e d by que a n d the v e r b is usually in the subjunctive: S'il retéléphone demain et qu'il veuille savoir où j'étais, dis-lui que j'étais chez ma mère If he rings again tomorrow and he wants to know where I was, tell him I was at my mother's Si Hélène hérite de la maison et qu'elle la vende, tante Zoë sera furieuse If Helen inherits the house and sells it, Aunt Zoë will be furious C'est curieux, mais, si Paris St Germain gagne le championnat et qu'ils perdent la Coupe d'Europe, ils seront mieux placés pour la saison suivante It's odd but, if Paris St Germain win the league and lose the European cup, they will be in a better position for next season (See also C h a p t e r 17.5.) A related construction is an adverbial clause i n t r o d u c e d by que w h i c h also The attitude of the subject to events: the subjunctive 257 requires the subjunctive, a n d is translated by ' w h e t h e r . . . o r ' in English: Que Jeanne vienne ou ne vienne pas, il faudra inviter sa fille Whether Jeanne cornes or not, we will have to invite her daughter Que tu sois présent ou que tu sois absent, cela m'indiffère totalement Whether you are present or absent is all the same to me I I.I.I I S u b j u n c t i v e in s u b j e c t c l a u s e s W h e n a clause, rather t h a n a n o u n p h r a s e , is the subject of a sentence, the v e r b in that clause is in the subjunctive: Que des Allemands soient présents à la cérémonie du souvenir ne peut que renforcer la solidarité européenne European solidarity can only be reinforced by the fact that Germans are present at the commemoration Que Suzanne et Jean-Paul aient choisi le mariage religieux a pu paraître choquant à certains de leurs amis (The fact) That Suzanne and Jean-Paul chose to get married in church may have been a shock for some of their friends The subjunctive is also u s e d w h e n s u c h subject clauses are i n t r o d u c e d by le fait que ' t h e fact that', or l'idée que ' t h e idea that': Le fait que Suzanne et Jean-Paul aient accepté de se marier . . . L'idée que tu veuilles assister à cette cérémonie . . . N o t e that the subjunctive is r e q u i r e d in subject clauses e v e n w i t h verbs a n d adjectives w h i c h n o r m a l l y require the indicative w h e n s u b o r d i n a t e clauses are n o t in subject position. C o m p a r e : II est probable que nous arriverons à Paris après-demain (indicative) It is likely that we will arrive in Taris the day after tomorrow Que nous arrivions à Paris après-demain est probable (subjunctive) That we shall arrive in Paris the day after tomorrow is likely Il me semble certain qu'il est parti (indicative) J think it certain that he has left Qu'il soit parti me semble certain (subjunctive) That he has left seems certain I 1. 1. 12 U s e of t h e s u b j u n c t i v e in c l a u s e s d e p e n d e n t on indefinite expressions Verbs in s u b o r d i n a t e clauses following the indefinite expressions qui que ' w h o e v e r ' , quoi que ' w h a t e v e r ' , où que ' w h e r e v e r ' , quelque + [noun] que 'whichever, whatever [noun]', quel que 'whatever', quelque/si/aussi/pour + [adjective] que ' h o w e v e r [adjective]', are in the subjunctive: 258 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives Qui que vous soyez, je n'accepterai pas ce comportement Whoever you are, I won't accept that behaviour Quoi qu'en disent mes parents, j'ai décidé d'y aller Whatever my parents say, I have decided to go there Où qu'il se cache, je le trouverai Wherever he is hiding, I will find him Quelques bêtises que tu aies faites, ton père et moi te, pardonnons Whatever stupid things you may have done, your father and I forgive you Quelles que soient les raisons qui vous ont amené chez nous, je suis heureux de vous accueillir Whatever might be the reasons which have brought you to us, I am happy to welcome you Quelque rares que soient ces pierres, on arrivera quand même à les vendre However rare these stones may be, we will manage to sell them anyway N o t e t h a t in this last e x a m p l e quelque d o e s n o t agree w i t h rares or pierres. (For m o r e on these constructions see C h a p t e r 15.10 a n d 15.11.1.) M o r e generally, w h e r e a s u b o r d i n a t e clause is d e p e n d e n t on an indefinite expression w h i c h describes a hypothetical, r a t h e r t h a n real, state of affairs, the v e r b in t h e s u b o r d i n a t e clause is likely to be in the subjunctive: S'il connaissait un endroit qui convienne, il le dirait If he knew of a place which was suitable, he would say so (There is no particular place that he knows of) Elle veut acheter une maison qui ait une piscine She wants to buy a house with a swimming pool (She has no particular house in mind) Compare with: S'il connaît un endroit qui convient, allons-y If he knows of a suitable place, let's go there Elle veut acheter une maison qui a une piscine (Which suggests that there is a specific house with a swimming pool which she wants to buy) (See also C h a p t e r 15.11.2 a n d 15.11.4.) I 1.2 The use of devoir, pouvoir, savoir, falloir The m o d a l v e r b s devoir, pouvoir, savoir a n d falloir enable a s p e a k e r to express a n u m b e r of a t t i t u d e s a b o u t events a n d the participants in events: the likelihood of an e v e n t occurring; the ability of a p a r t i c i p a n t to p e r f o r m s o m e action; h o w obligated a p a r t i c i p a n t is in an event. M o d a l verbs are also u s e d in g r a n t i n g p e r m i s s i o n a n d i n f o r m u l a s e x p r e s s i n g politeness. In this section we describe t h e v a r i o u s u s e s of these four verbs. T h e n in 11.3 The use of devoir, pouvoir, savoir, falloir 259 w e t a k e a different p e r s p e c t i v e a n d describe h o w t h e English m o d a l s w o u l d ' , ' s h o u l d ' , ' c o u l d ' , ' m a y ' , ' m i g h t ' , ' o u g h t t o ' a n d ' m u s t ' are r e n d e r e d i n French. I 1.2.1 devoir devoir expresses four m a i n m e a n i n g s : (a) s o m e t h i n g w h i c h the s p e a k e r sees as v e r y p r o b a b l e , usually b e c a u s e it is logical; (b) s o m e t h i n g w h i c h the s p e a k e r sees as a m o r a l obligation; (c) s o m e t h i n g w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r t h i n k s of as p l a n n e d or agreed; (d) s o m e t h i n g w h i c h the s p e a k e r thinks of as an act, u s u a l l y in the past, w h i c h w a s a n e c e s s a r y o u t c o m e of events. Probability (logical necessity) Les nouveaux joueurs sont les premiers sélectionnés du département, donc l'équipe devrait maintenant faire de meilleures performances The new -players are the best in the département, so the team should now produce some better performances Cela doit être vrai It must be true Il doit être revenu puisqu'il recommence le travail demain He must have come back because he starts work again tomorrow Il pleut depuis trois semaines presque constamment. Nous devrons nous attendre à des inondations It has been raining almost constantly for three weeks. We must expect floods Y ai dû payer la facture puisque je n'ai reçu aucun courrier de relance I must have paid the bill since I haven't had a reminder Moral obligation II est absolument essentiel que je parle à Sylvain. Vous savez où il est et vous devez me le dire It is absolutely essential that I should speak to Sylvain. You know where he is and you must tell me Tu dois revenir demain sinon maman sera très déçue You must come back tomorrow or Mum will be very disappointed Vous êtes allés dîner chez eux, maintenant vous devrez les inviter chez vous You have been to dinner at their house, now you will have to invite them to yours Ce toit est dangereux; vous devriez en parler au propriétaire This roof is dangerous; you should speak to the landlord about it A p l a n n e d event (usually w h i c h did not or w i l l not happen) Ils devaient annoncer le nom du gagnant à 18 heures mais une panne d'électricité est survenue They were about to reveal the name of the winner when the power cut happened Le jour de l'accident je devais accompagner mon père à Paris The day of the accident I was to accompany my father to Paris 260 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives A necessary outcome of events Plus tard, il devait souvent repenser à ces quelques instants Later on he was often to reflect on these few moments Même si elle avait voulu occulter ces faits, elle ne le pouvait plus. Elle devait en tirer les conséquences Even if she had wanted to remain unaware of these facts, she could no longer do so. She was obliged to accept what followed from them 50 ans après la fin de la guerre, son héroïsme devait être reconnu par le gouvernement Fifty years after the end of the war his heroism was to be recognised by the government I 1.2.2 pouvoir pouvoir expresses five m a i n m e a n i n g s : (a) T h e g r a n t i n g or refusing of p e r m i s s i o n by the speaker; (b) An indication t h a t the s p e a k e r believes s o m e o n e else is capable of d o i n g something; (c) An i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e s p e a k e r feels t h a t s o m e t h i n g is p r o b a b l e in the future; (d) A general assertion b y t h e s p e a k e r a b o u t w h a t m a y h a p p e n ; (e) An expression of politeness by the speaker. The granting or refusing of p e r m i s s i o n by the speaker Vous pouvez disposer! You are dismissed! Non, tu ne peux pas aller chez ce garçon No, you cannot go to this boy's house Il pourra m'en parler quand il voudra He may talk to me about it when he wishes Vous pourrez partir dès que la réunion sera terminée mais pas avant You may go as soon as the meeting is over but not before An indication that the speaker b e l i e v e s s o m e o n e is capable of d o i n g something Elle a déjà fait la cuisine pour toute la famille: elle peut très bien s'occuper du repas de nos invités She has already cooked for the whole family: she is quite capable of preparing the meal for our guests Un grand garçon comme toi! Bien sûr que tu pourras porter ma valise jusqu'à ma chambre A big boy like you! Of course you will be able to carry my case up to my room Nous ne pourrons prendre notre décision que lorsque les experts nous aurons remis leur rapport We will only be able to take our decision once the experts have put in their report The use of devoir, pouvoir, savoir, falloir 261 An indication that the speaker feels that s o m e t h i n g is quite probable in the future Votre lettre peut très bien arriver lundi matin; elle a sans doute été retardée à cause des fêtes de Noël Your letter may very well arrive on Monday morning; it has probably been delayed by the Christmas holidays S'ils continuent à jouer comme ça, ils pourraient gagner le championnat If they go on playing like that, they could well win the title Tu passes trop de temps devant ton écran d'ordinateur: tu peux t'abîmer la vue You spend too much time working on your computer: you could damage your eyesight La gouttière fuit: si cela continue, l'eau pourrait abîmer le mur The gutter's leaking: if it goes on, the water could ruin the wall Il faut soigner cette égratignure, elle pourrait s'infecter Treat this scratch, it could get infected A general assertion by the speaker about w h a t m a y h a p p e n On peut toujours faire mieux It is always possible to do better Dans une pièce où il y a une cheminée, une étincelle peut toujours mettre le feu In a room with an open hearth, a spark can always cause a fire Il n'est pas trop tard; il peut encore venir It is not too late; he may still come Comme papa a trouvé du travail, on va pouvoir déménager Since dad has got a job we'll be able to move house An expression of p o l i t e n e s s by the speaker Puis-je vous demander de m'aider? May I request your assistance? Pourriez-vous m'indiquer le chemin de Douaumont? Could you show me the way to Douaumont? On pourrait voir les choses sous cet angle, mais personnellement je pense que l'important est ailleurs It would be possible to see things in this way but I personally think that there is a much more important point I 1.2.3 savoir savoir expresses t w o m a i n m e a n i n g s : (a) 'to k n o w ' in the sense of 'to possess k n o w l e d g e about'; (b) 'to k n o w ' in the sense of 'to k n o w h o w to do s o m e t h i n g ' . 'to k n o w ' (possess k n o w l e d g e ) Je sais mes leçons par cœur I know my lessons by heart Jean et Marie savent où nous trouver Jean and Marie know where to find us 262 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives Monet savait beaucoup de choses sur l'utilisation de la couleur en peinture Monet knew a lot about the use of colour in painting 'to k n o w ' ( k n o w h o w t o . . . ) N'ayez pas peur. Je sais nager Don't worry. I can swim Elle n'a que quatre ans mais déjà elle sait lire She is only four but already she can read Tu n'as pas besoin de parler si lentement. Ils savent parler français You don't need to speak so slowly. They can speak Trench Nous n'avons pas peur d'y aller. Nous savons nous défendre We are not frightened to go there. We know how to look after ourselves N B : There can be confusion b e t w e e n pouvoir a n d savoir in this area. Savoir is 'to k n o w h o w to in p r i n c i p l e ' a n d pouvoir is 'to be able to do it in a particular situation': Oui je sais réparer le moteur mais je ne peux pas le faire sans outils Yes I can (= I know how to) repair the engine, but I can't do it (= I am unable to do so here and now) without tools If p e o p l e w e r e feeling t h r e a t e n e d in s o m e way, t h e y m i g h t say: Nous savons nous défendre We can look after ourselves to indicate that t h e y h a v e n e c e s s a r y skills (karate, boxing, a willingness to fight etc.). In a situation w h e r e t h e y m a y h a v e to m a k e u s e of these skills, t h e y w o u l d say: Nous pourrons nous défendre contre les attaques de l'extrême droite We can defend ourselves against attacks by the extreme right to i n d i c a t e that t h e y t h i n k t h e y will be able to a p p l y these skills in these circumstances. I 1.2.4 falloir falloir (impersonal) expresses o n e m a i n m e a n i n g : it is equivalent to English: ' m u s t ' , o r ' o u g h t to': Il faut qu'ils viennent m'aider They must come and help me Il aurait fallu que les Anglais restent en dehors de l'Union Européenne The English should have stayed out of the European Union I 1.3 The French equivalents of the English modal verbs: 'would', 'should', 'could', 'may', 'might', 'ought to', and 'must' As can be seen from the translations in the p r e c e d i n g section, devoir, pouvoir, savoir a n d falloir can be t r a n s l a t e d in a n u m b e r of w a y s d e p e n d i n g on the context. The m o s t frequent translations are ' w o u l d ' , ' s h o u l d ' , 'can', 'could', ' m a y ' , The French equivalents of the English modal verbs 263 'might', 'ought to', and 'must'. The problems which arise in this area for English speakers are mainly to do with errors in establishing how these forms relate to the English modal verbs which express many of the same meanings. The English modal verbs also, however, express a number of other meanings. For correct usage, it is essential that learners should be able to distinguish the meanings of the English modals in order to know which French forms to use. In some cases one of the French modal verbs is appropriate; in other cases, a sentence with si, a conditional tense, an imperfect tense, a present or future tense or a subjunctive may be the appropriate form. I 1.3.1 'would' 'would' has three main meanings: (a) 'would' may be used in English to express possible future behaviour which is dependent on some condition. It will usually be rendered by the conditional form of the verb in French: Je viendrais à ton anniversaire si j'avais assez d'argent pour me payer le train I would come to your birthday party if I had enough money to pay the train fare (the conditional form viendrais is used to denote a possible future action envisaged IF certain other events take place) (b) 'would' may be used to indicate something which is desired or not desired. In this case it is often rendered by a form of the verb vouloir. Elle n'a pas voulu me dire où le trouver She wouldn't tell me where to find him (the 'wouldn't' in English is quite close in meaning to 'did not want to': it is therefore rendered as n'a pas voulu) (c) 'would' may also indicate an habitual action in the past. This is generally rendered by the imperfect form of the verb in French: Ces événements avaient souvent lieu pendant les vacances d'été These events would often take place during the summer holidays (The imperfect tense is used to indicate an habitual action in the past - see Chapter 10.3.1.) 11.3.2 'should* 'should' has four main meanings: (a) 'should' may indicate a moral obligation. This is usually rendered by the use of devoir. Tu devrais téléphoner chez toi plus souvent You should phone home more often (devoir in the conditional form to indicate the moral duty) Note also that the English 'should have' is rendered by aurait dû plus an infinitive and not by a participle form of the main verb: 264 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives Tu aurais dû me dire (not *avoir dit) cela plus tôt You should have told me that before falloir is also possible here: Il aurait fallu me le dire plus tôt (b) ' s h o u l d ' m a y c o n v e y a conditional. This is u s u a l l y r e n d e r e d by a conditional form of the v e r b in French: Si j'avais su cela, je ne serais pas venu If I had known about that I should not have come (c) ' s h o u l d ' m a y express a p r o b a b l e future action. D e p e n d i n g on the degree of probability, this m a y be r e n d e r e d by a form of devoir or by a future tense: Le livre devrait sortir le mois prochain Le livre devra sortir le mois prochain Le livre sortira le mois prochain The book should be coming out next month These t h r e e sentences indicate an increasing d e g r e e of probability g o i n g from top to bottom. (d) ' s h o u l d ' can also indicate a chance event. This m a y be translated by s o m e m e a n s of expression other t h a n the verb: Si par hasard vous entendez parler d'un appartement à louer, dites-le moi If you should hear of a flat to let, do let me know (a present tense plus an adverb expressing the idea of chance conveys the meaning of 'should') S o m e t i m e s a simple p r e s e n t tense will c o n v e y the m e a n i n g of ' s h o u l d ' : Si Jean téléphone, dis-lui que je le rappellerai If John should telephone, tell him I'll call him back W h e r e o n e w a n t s to stress the improbability of the chance event occurring, a form of devoir can be u s e d : Si Jean devait téléphoner, il faudrait lui dire que je le rappellerai In the unlikely event of John telephoning, tell him I'll call him back (For m o r e on t h e u s e of tenses w i t h si see C h a p t e r 10.8 a n d C h a p t e r 17.3.6.) 11.3.3 ' c o u l d ' ' c o u l d ' h a s four m a i n m e a n i n g s : (a) ' c o u l d ' m a y be a s i m p l e p a s t tense of the v e r b ' c a n ' i.e. ' w a s able to'. This is particularly frequent in r e p o r t e d speech. There is little difficulty h e r e in u s i n g pouvoir: Malgré tout le mal qu'on s'est donné, il n'a quand même pas pu venir After all the trouble we had taken he still couldn't come The French equivalents of the English modal verbs 265 Il a dit: 'Je peux venir' He said: 'I can come' a n d i n r e p o r t e d speech: Il a dit qu'il pouvait venir He said he could come (See C h a p t e r 10.7.) (b) ' c o u l d ' m a y indicate a possibility. This will n o r m a l l y be a conditional or a form of the i m p e r s o n a l v e r b il se peut que: Il faut que tu fasses attention; cela pourrait être un piège You must be careful; it could be a trap Cela fait plusieurs jours que je ne le vois plus: il se peut qu'il soit parti I haven't seen him for a few days: he could have left (c) ' c o u l d ' m a y indicate that p e r m i s s i o n h a s b e e n given. This m a y be r e n d e r e d by t h e u s e of pouvoir or by a n o t h e r v e r b , s u c h as permettre: Sa mère a dit qu'il pouvait venir Sa mère lui a permis de venir Her mother said he could come (d) ' c o u l d ' m a y i m p l y t h a t s o m e t h i n g s h o u l d b e d o n e o r s h o u l d h a v e b e e n d o n e : this can be r e n d e r e d by a suitable tense of pouvoir: Elle aurait pu me dire qu'elle ne pourrait pas le faire She could have told me that she couldn't do it 11.3.4 ' m a y ' ' m a y ' h a s four m a i n m e a n i n g s : (a) ' m a y ' indicates s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is s i m p l y envisaged. Sometimes, especially in informal speech, an a d v e r b will suffice. Or the i m p e r s o n a l forms cela se peut, il se peut que + subjunctive: Peut-être qu'elle viendra, ou peut-être qu'elle ne viendra pas She may come or she may not Cela se peut mais nous ne pouvons en être certains That may be the case but we can't be sure II se peut que ce soit lui le coupable mais cela reste à prouver He may be the guilty party but it has yet to be proved The subjunctive on its o w n is u s e d v e r y often w h e n possible consequences are feared: Je fais photocopier le certificat de peur que tu ne le perdes 1 am photocopying the certificate because I am frightened you may lose it (b) ' m a y ' can indicate p e r m i s s i o n . This is m o s t often r e n d e r e d by the u s e of pouvoir: 266 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives Cendrillon peut aller au bal, dit la méchante belle-mère 'Cinderella may go to the ball', said the wicked stepmother Vous pouvez rester jusqu'à onze heures You may stay till eleven (c) 'may' can be a kind of blessing. This will normally be rendered by a subjunctive in the main clause: Que Dieu vous bénisse tous May God bless you all Que Dieu nous protège May God protect us (d) 'may' can indicate an open-ended possibility. This is often rendered by a subjunctive: Quoi qu'il en soit, je n'ai toujours pas récupéré mon argent That's as may be, I still haven't got my money back Quoi qu'il dise, je ne le croirai pas Whatever he may say I won't believe him 11.3.5 'might' 'might' has three main meanings: (a) 'might' is sometimes simply a past 'may' as in giving permission in indirect speech. In this case a form of pouvoir is to be expected: Elle a dit: Vous pouvez y aller She said: You may go Elle a dit qu'on pouvait y aller si on finissait nos devoirs d'abord She said we might go if we finished our homework first (b) 'might' indicates something which is envisaged. The French equivalents are the same as for 'may' (see 11.3.4.(a)). Sometimes, especially in informal speech, an adverb will suffice. Or the impersonal form il se peut que + subjunctive may be used. Or the subjunctive on its own may be used when possible consequences are feared: Peut-être qu'elle viendra, ou peut-être pas Il se peut qu'elle vienne, (on ne sait pas) She might come or she might not ]e surveillais les enfants de peur qu'ils ne se fassent mal I kept an eye on the children for fear that they might hurt themselves (c) 'might' can be a polite form. This usually corresponds to a form of pouvoir, or a use of permettre: Puis-je vous suggérer d'essayer autre chose? Might I suggest that you try something else? Exclamatives 267 Permettez-moi de vous demander pourquoi vous êtes venu? Might I ask why you have come? 11.3.6 'ought t o ' 'ought to' conveys one main meaning: 'ought to' expresses a moral obligation. It is usually rendered by devoir, often in a conditional form: Vous devriez sortir davantage You ought to get out more Tu devrais renouveler ta garde-robe You ought to buy some new clothes falloir is also possible: Il faut que tu sortes davantage Il faut que tu renouvelles ta garde-robe 11.3.7 'must' 'must' has two main meanings: (a) 'must' can express moral obligation. This usually requires devoir ox falloir: Vous devez venir: nous ne pourrions pas prendre de décision sans vous Il faut que vous veniez: nous ne pourrions pas prendre de décision sans vous Il vous faut venir: nous ne pourrions pas prendre de décision sans vous You must come: we couldn't decide without you (b) 'must' can indicate a logical possibility/ certainty. This is usually rendered by devoir: Si elle le dit, c'est que ça doit être vrai . . . If she says so, then it must be the case . . . Vous avez dû sortir l'atlas de la voiture parce qu'il n'y est plus You must have got the road map out of the car because it isn't there now I 1.4 E x c l a m a t i v e s Exclamatives are the direct expression of a speaker's surprise, disgust, anger, fervour and analogous emotions: Comme elle a grandi! Que de monde! Que le diable l'emporte! Vive la France! How she's grown! What a lot of people! The devil take him! Long live France! There are four types of exclamative in French. I 1.4.1 Exclamatives formed with comme or que + the indicative Sentences can be turned into exclamations simply by putting comme or que in front of them, and without changing word order. The verb remains in the 268 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives indicative: Pierre a changé Pierre has changed Comme Pierre a changé! Que Pierre a changé! How Pierre has changed! Il se plaignait He used to complain Comme il se plaignait! Qu'il se plaignait! How he used to complain! C'est dégoûtant It's disgusting Comme c'est dégoûtant! Que c'est dégoûtant! How disgusting it is! Elle parle vite She speaks quickly Comme elle parle vite! Qu'elle parle vite! How quickly she speaks! NB: In informal French, ce que and qu'est-ce que are common alternatives to comme and que: Ce que Pierre a changé! Qu'est-ce qu'il se plaignait!, etc. When exclamations are reported - that is when they follow verbs like savoir, raconter, dire, and so on - comme/que are replaced by combien: Elle sait combien Pierre a changé She knoivs how Pierre has changed Ils ont raconté combien il se plaignait They recounted how he used to complain I 1.4.2 Exclamatives f o r m e d with quel Exclamations can bear specifically on nouns. French uses quel to perform this function. Where a sentence is involved, the quel-phrase is placed at the beginning of the sentence and quel agrees in gender and number with the noun: Quel vent! Quelle surprise! Quels progrès ces étudiants ont faits! What a wind! What a surprise! What progress these students have made! Avec quelle adresse il a résolu With what skill he solved the problem! le problème! When the direct object is the focus of the exclamation, in formal French it is possible optionally to invert the subject and the verb (in an operation known as 'stylistic inversion' - see Chapter 14.3.7), providing that there is no other material following the verb: Quels progrès ces étudiants ont faits! Quels progrès ont faits ces étudiants! Imperatives 269 I 1.4.3 que de + noun meaning 'what a lot of X!' que de followed by a noun is used to create an exclamative of the form 'what a lot of X!', or 'so m u c h / s o many X!': Que de monde! Que de difficultés! What a lot of people'. So many difficulties! Que de problèmes on doit affronter! What a lot of problems we have before us! I 1.4.4 T h e subjunctive used in t w o kinds of main clause exclamative Although the subjunctive normally only occurs in subordinate clauses, it can be used in main clause exclamations like: Vive la Bretagne! Dieu soit loué! Sauve qui peut! Puissiez-vous réussir! Long live Brittany! Praise God! Every man for himself! May you succeed! and also those headed by que: Que la Sainte Vierge vous bénisse! May the Holy Virgin bless you! Que Dieu nous protège! May God help us! Qu'il aille au diable! The devil take him! Qu'il aille se faire voir ailleurs! May he get lost'. Both of these types of exclamation are remnants from an earlier period in the history of French, and are rather formal and archaic. Only Vive X! and Qu'il/elle/ils/elles V! are used productively in modern French (Vive les vacances! 'Long live the holidays!', Vive la révolution! 'Long live the revolution!'; Qu'il m'attende! 'Let him wait for me!', Qu'elle cherche ailleurs! 'Let her look elsewhere!', etc.). I 1.5 Imperatives Imperatives in French are used very much as they are in English to give orders, express encouragement, give advice, and so on: Asseyez-vous Allez la France! Allons-y Fais attention! I 1.5.1 Sit down Come on, France! Let's go Watch out! F o r m of imperatives Imperatives are formed from the second person, singular and plural, and the first person plural of the present tense forms of verbs. Delete the subject and the final -s of any verb that ends in -es or -as: 270 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclamatives and imperatives tu parles vous parlez nous parlons parle parlez parlons speak speak let's speak tu vas vous allez nous allons va allez allons Ko tu ouvres vous ouvrez nous ouvrons ouvre ouvrez ouvrons open open let's open tu finis vous finissez nous finissons finis finissez finissons finish finish let's finish tu dors vous dormez nous dormons dors dormez dormons sleep sleep let's sleep tu reçois vous recevez nous recevons reçois recevez recevons receive receive let's receive g° let's go There are four verbs with irregular imperative forms: être sois soyez soyons avoir be let's be savoir sache sachez sachons aie ayez ayons have have let's have vouloir know know let's know veuille veuillez — (used almost exclusively to mean please see 11.5.5) Verbs which double a consonant in their present tense singular forms (like appeler - tu appelles, jeter - tu jettes) or change a vowel (like acheter - tu achètes, espérer - tu espères, nettoyer - tu nettoies) carry this change over to the imperative: appelle!, jette!, nettoie!, etc. (See Chapter 7.4 for these changes.) The final -s which disappears from the second person singular of verbs ending in -es or -as reappears when the verb is followed by y or en: parle speak g° parles-en vas-y speak about it go on The equivalent of English constrastive imperatives like 'you go (instead of me)', 'you shut up (instead of me)' are the forms vous-même, toi-même: Allez-y vousmême, Tais-toi toi-même. I 1.5.2 Pronominal verbs in imperatives Pronominal verbs like se lever 'to get up', se réveiller 'to wake up', se servir 'to help (serve) oneself, se taire 'to shut up', etc., drop their subjects in the imperative, but keep their object pronouns: Imperatives 271 tu te lèves vous vous levez nous nous levons lève-toi levez-vous levons-nous get up get up let's get up tu te sers vous vous servez nous nous servons sers-toi servez-vous servons-nous help yourself help yourself let's help ourselves I 1.5.3 Location and order of pronouns with imperatives I n affirmative i m p e r a t i v e s , direct a n d indirect object p r o n o u n s , a n d t h e p r o n o u n s y a n d en, c o m e i m m e d i a t e l y after the v e r b w h i c h g o v e r n s t h e m . T h e p r o n o u n s me a n d te b e c o m e the stressed forms moi a n d toi. P r o n o u n s are linked to their g o v e r n i n g v e r b in w r i t t e n French by h y p h e n s (see also C h a p t e r 3.2.5): Prends-les Suivez-nous Ecoutez-moi Tais-toi Take them Follow us Listen to me Shut up NB: P r o n o u n s g o v e r n e d b y a n infinitive following a n i m p e r a t i v e are N O T linked to the i m p e r a t i v e by a h y p h e n : Monte les chercher Go up and look for them (les is the object of chercher) Courez lui téléphoner Run and phone him (lui is the indirect object of téléphoner) W h e n m o r e t h a n o n e p r o n o u n i s p r e s e n t the o r d e r is: verb - direct object - indirect object - y/en moi a n d toi b e c o m e m', t' if t h e y are followed by y or en: Donne-le-moi Donnez-le-lui Donne-m'en Accroche-t'y Give it to me Give it to him Give me some of it Hang on to it (See also C h a p t e r 3.2.31.) I n n e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e s p r o n o u n s p r e c e d e the v e r b a n d the order i s the s a m e as in s i m p l e n o n - i m p e r a t i v e sentences (see C h a p t e r 3.2.5 a n d 3.2.31): Ne Ne Ne Ne me le donne pas le lui donnez pas m'en donne pas t'y accroche pas Don't Don't Don't Don't give it to me give it to him give me any hang on to it I 1.5.4 C o m p o u n d imperatives C o m p o u n d i m p e r a t i v e s are f o r m e d from the i m p e r a t i v e of avoir or être, as a p p r o p r i a t e , a n d a p a s t participle. T h e y are u s e d to express orders to be fulfilled in the future: Ayez tapé cette lettre avant la fin de la journée Type the letter before the end of the day 272 The subjunctive, modal verbs, exclatnatives and imperatives I 1.5.5 Toning down imperatives Orders can be toned down by the use of veuillez, which is an equivalent of s'il vous plaît: Asseyez-vous Veuillez vous asseoir Asseyez-vous, s'il vous plaît Sit down Please sit down Sit down, please or by the use of a non-imperative declarative sentence with a future tense: Vous fermerez la porte, s'il vous plaît Close the door, please Vous me donnerez deux baguettes Give me two baguettes (French loaves), please I 1.5.6 Infinitives used as imperatives Infinitives can be used in French as imperatives when the addressee is nonspecific (e.g. in road signs addressed to all road users, or in instructions addressed to the purchasers of a food product): Ralentir Slow down Ouvrir doucement Open carefully (See also Chapter 12.10.) I 1.5.7 T h i r d person imperatives Third person imperatives which are formed in English by the use of 'let', are formed in French by the use of que + a verb in the subjunctive (see 11.4.4): Qu'il s'asseye Let him sit down Qu'elle descende me commander Let her go down and order me a beer une bière Qu'ils te le donnent Let them give it to you 12 The infinitive 12.1 Introduction: what are infinitives? 'Infinitive' m e a n s ' n o t expressing tense'. The infinitive forms of the v e r b are those like aller 'to g o ' , finir 'to finish', descendre 'to go d o w n ' , recevoir 'to receive'. Whereas in English the infinitive form of the v e r b is signalled by the presence of 'to': 'to g o ' , in French the infinitive is signalled by an infinitive e n d i n g : aller. There are four infinitive e n d i n g s , a n d all French v e r b s take o n e of these e n d ings in their infinitive form: -er -ir -re -oir(e) e.g. aimer, placer, arriver, étudier e.g. finir, courir, venir, dormir e.g. vendre, rire, être, paraître e.g. s'asseoir, recevoir, avoir, boire, croire Most dictionaries, by c o n v e n t i o n , u s e the infinitive form of the v e r b as the h e a d w o r d for the e n t r y for all p a r t s of the verb. There are FIVE m a i n w a y s in w h i c h infinitives are u s e d in French: (a) As c o m p l e m e n t s to other verbs: Marie refuse de sortir Marie refuses to come out (b) As c o m p l e m e n t s to adjectives: C'est utile à savoir It's useful to know (c) As c o m p l e m e n t s to nouns: Défense de fumer No smoking (d) As subordinate infinitive clauses: Se détendre le week-end, c'est important pour la santé To relax at weekends is important for one's health (e) As polite c o m m a n d s : Ralentir Slow down Soulever, écarter doucement Lift and separate carefully (instructions for opening a packet of coffee) 274 The infinitive 12.2 Infinitives as complements to other verbs Infinitives may immediately follow other verbs: Marie veut partir Marie wants to leave or they may follow the direct object or the indirect object of another verb: Christine a encouragé Jean à démissionner (follows the direct object) Christine has encouraged Jean to resign Pierre a ordonné à Miguel de revenir (follows the indirect object) Pierre ordered Miguel to come hack In such cases it is important to know whether there is a linking preposition: ...a encouragé Jean à démissionner,... a ordonné à Miguel de revenir, or no preposition at all: ... veut partir. This is a difficult area for English speakers because in English infinitives are only ever preceded by to. It is not easy to give firm rules because usage is sometimes idiosyncratic. However, rough rules-of-thumb can be given by grouping verbs together into loose meaning classes. Each class tends to select one option or the other - à, de or no linking preposition - when followed by an infinitive. The classes are listed in the following sections. Within each section verbs are listed alphabetically, and at the end of the chapter there is a comprehensive, alphabetically ordered, quick reference index to all the verbs taking infinitive complements listed in this chapter. There are special rules dealing with the agreement of the past participle in verb + infinitive constructions. These are dealt with as part of the general treatment of the agreement of the past participle in Chapter 9.3. 12.3 Verbs which take infinitive complements without a linking preposition 12.3.1 ' M o v e m e n t ' verbs without objects Movement verbs which do not have objects typically take infinitive complements without a preceding preposition: aller dîner quelque part s'en aller vivre ailleurs arriver réparer la machine à laver courir téléphoner à la police descendre commander une bière monter chercher ses lunettes partir s'installer à Paris rentrer prendre son maillot de bain retourner faire des courses revenir ouvrir les fenêtres sortir acheter un journal to go and have dinner somewhere to go and live somewhere else to come to repair the washing machine to run and phone the police to go down and order a beer to go up and look for one's glasses to leave to go to live in Paris to go home and get one's swimming costume to go back to do some shopping to come back to open the windows to go out to buy a newspaper Verbs which take infinitive complements without a linking preposition 275 The verb être in the p a s t tense, w i t h an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t , is s o m e t i m e s used to m e a n ' g o ' : nous avons été la voir ' w e w e n t to see h e r ' . 12.3.2 ' M o v e m e n t ' verbs w i t h objects Movement v e r b s w i t h objects typically t a k e infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s w i t h o u t a preceding preposition: amener un copain dîner chez soi emmener ses enfants jouer au square envoyer Marie chercher le docteur mener son oncle voir le château to bring a friend home for dinner to take one's children to play in the park to send Marie to fetch the doctor to take one's uncle to see the castle 12.3.3 'Modal' verbs Verbs of 'obligation', 'necessity' a n d 'possibility' - m o d a l verbs - t a k e infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s w i t h o u t a p r e c e d i n g p r e p o s i t i o n (see also C h a p t e r 11.2): devoir parler au directeur oser critiquer son patron pouvoir persuader son oncle savoir parler italien vouloir construire un périphérique to have to speak to the director to dare to criticize one's boss to be able to persuade one's uncle to be able to speak Italian to want to build a ring-road 12.3.4 Verbs o f saying' Verbs of s a y i n g typically take infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s w i t h o u t a p r e c e d i n g preposition: affirmer connaître le patron confirmer avoir reçu le paquet déclarer comprendre ce livre dire s'intéresser à la psychologie nier avoir brisé l'assiette prétendre être heureux reconnaître s'être trompé to state that one knows the boss to confirm that one received the package to declare that one understands this book to say that one is interested in psychology to deny having broken the plate to claim to be happy to admit that one was wrong dire, w i t h an indirect object, can also be u s e d as a v e r b of o r d e r i n g (see 12.5.16). In this case it takes an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by the p r e p o s i t i o n de: dire à quelqu'un de fermer la porte 'to tell s o m e b o d y to close the d o o r ' . 12.3.5 Verbs o f thinking' and 'imagining' Verbs of t h i n k i n g a n d i m a g i n i n g typically take infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s w i t h o u t a p r e c e d i n g preposition: croire avoir fini estimer pouvoir prendre le train (s')imaginer avoir gagné la partie penser rencontrer un ami se rappeler avoir visité l'abbaye to believe that one has finished to reckon to be able to take the train to imagine having won the match to think one might meet a friend to remember having visited the abbey But se souvenir 'to r e m e m b e r ' takes infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s w i t h t h e p r e p o s i tion de: se souvenir d'avoir visité l'abbaye. 276 The infinitive 12.3.6 Verbs expressing'personal attitude' to something Verbs w h i c h express 'liking', ' w i s h i n g ' or 'inclination' typically take infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s w i t h o u t a p r e c e d i n g preposition: adorer dîner au restaurant aimer travailler le soir aimer autant rester chez soi aimer mieux éviter les embouteillages compter commencer bientôt daigner donner son opinion désirer dormir un peu entendre être obéi espérer partir en vacances préférer manger seul souhaiter faire la connaissance de quelqu'un to love eating out to like to work in the evenings to just as soon stay at home to prefer to avoid traffic jams to count on starting soon to deign to give one's opinion to want to sleep a little to mean to be obeyed to hope to go on holiday to prefer to eat alone to wish to make somebody's acquaintance aimer can s o m e t i m e s be f o u n d w i t h an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: aimer à travailler le soir. 12.3.7 S e e m sembler 'to s e e m ' , a n d verbs w i t h similar m e a n i n g to sembler take infinitive comp l e m e n t s w i t h o u t a p r e c e d i n g preposition: s'avérer être efficace paraître dire la vérité se révéler avoir des conséquences inattendues sembler préférer les légumes to turn out to be effective to appear to be telling the truth to turn out to have unexpected consequences to seem to prefer vegetables 12.3.8 'Perception' verbs Verbs e x p r e s s i n g the m a n n e r in w h i c h an event is p e r c e i v e d take infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s w i t h o u t a p r e c e d i n g preposition: écouter les enfants réciter une poésie entendre l'horloge sonner trois heures regarder le chien manger sentir ses pieds s'enfoncer dans la boue voir Paul partir to listen to the children reciting a poem to hear the clock strike three o'clock to watch the dog eating to feel one's feet sink into the mud to see Paul leave 12.3.9 faire and laisser T h e v e r b s faire a n d laisser take infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s w i t h o u t a p r e c e d i n g preposition: faire travailler Pierre faire payer les gens laisser Pierre travailler laisser travailler Pierre laisser tomber le football pour le rugby to make Pierre work to make people pay to let Pierre work to let Pierre work to drop football and take up rugby instead (For t h e p l a c e m e n t of object p r o n o u n s in these constructions see C h a p t e r 3.2.32.) Verbs which take infinitive complements preceded by the preposition à 277 It is possible, b u t n o t necessary, to delete se in t h e v e r b s se taire 'to be quiet' and s'asseoir ' t o sit d o w n ' w h e n t h e y follow faire ( a n d s o m e t i m e s also laisser): Il a fait (se) taire les enfants He made the children be quiet Elle a fait (s')asseoir tout le monde She got everyone to sit down 12.4 Verbs which take infinitive complements preceded by the preposition à 12.4.1 Verbs o f beginning' and 'continuing' Verbs w h i c h signal the b e g i n n i n g or c o n t i n u a t i o n of an action typically take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: se mettre à rédiger un rapport persister à demander une réponse to start to draft a report to persist in asking for a reply Commencer a n d continuer are v e r b s w h i c h t a k e an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e ceded i n t e r c h a n g e a b l y by à or by de: commencer à/d'écrire ses mémoires to begin to write one's memoirs continuer à/de faire des efforts to continue to make an effort The following v e r b s can take infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s p r e c e d e d by par: commencer par enlever le papier peint to begin by removing the wallpaper finir par vendre sa maison to finish by selling one's house These are n e a r l y a l w a y s r e n d e r e d in English by a construction i n v o l v i n g ' b y + verb + i n g ' , a n d c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e u s e of t h e s a m e v e r b s w i t h infinitives p r e ceded by à or de: commencer à/d'enlever le papier peint finir de tondre le gazon to begin to remove the wallpaper to finish mowing the lawn 12.4.2 Verbs expressing'manner' Verbs w h i c h express t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h an action is c o n d u c t e d typically take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: s'abaisser jusqu'à demander de to stoop to asking one's family and l'argent à ses proches friends for money s'appliquer à apprendre le russe to apply oneself to learning Russian s'apprêter à parler to get ready to speak s'attarder à bavarder dans le restaurant to linger chatting in the restaurant se borner à considérer les points principaux to limit oneself to considering the main points concourir à assurer la défaite de l'ennemi to combine to defeat the enemy condescendre à faire quelque chose to condescend to do something conspirer à produire une catastrophe to conspire to produce a catastrophe s'entêter à découvrir la vérité to be bent on discovering the truth se limiter à corriger les plus grosses erreurs to limit oneself to correcting the worst errors s'obstiner à découvrir la vérité to be bent on discovering the truth 278 The infinitive s'oublier à lire un roman s'en tenir à changer quelques détails travailler à se faire aimer to become absorbed in reading a novel to stick to changing a few details to work to get oneself liked 12.4.3 Pronominal verbs expressing an 'emotional reaction' P r o n o m i n a l v erbs w h i c h express a subject's e m o t i o n a l reaction to an event t y p ically take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: s'abêtir à trop travailler s'abrutir à regarder la télévision s'affoler à imaginer le pire s'amuser à mettre le professeur en colère se délecter à visiter Bruges s'énerver à rattacher constamment ses lacets s'ennuyer à faire un travail monotone s'irriter à expliquer qc se plaire à tout critiquer to become stupid by working too hard to become stupefied from watching television to panic imagining the worst to have fun making the teacher angry to take delight in visiting Bruges to get annoyed constantly retying one's laces to get bored doing a monotonous job to get more and more annoyed as one tries to explain sth to take pleasure in criticizing everything Exceptions: s'étonner d'être si calme s'inquiéter de trouver la route bloquée s'irriter d'avoir à expliquer chaque point 3 fois se réjouir de/à écrire des contes pour enfants to be surprised to be so calm to worry about finding the road blocked to be annoyed by having to explain each point three times to take real pleasure in writing children's stories 12.4.4 Pronominal verbs o f ' e f f o r t ' P r o n o m i n a l v e r b s w h i c h express the effort w i t h w h i c h an action is u n d e r t a k e n typically take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: s'acharner à trouver une solution s'égosiller à appeler les enfants s'épuiser à travailler s'éreinter à traîner une valise s'essoufler à monter la côte s'évertuer à conclure l'affaire se fatiguer à répéter l'avertissement se tuer à le dire s'user à repeindre la maison to be bent on finding a solution to go hoarse calling the children to exhaust oneself working to tire oneself out dragging a suitcase along to get out of breath climbing the hill to do one's utmost to close the deal to tire oneself out repeating the warning to be sick and tired of saying it to wear oneself out repainting the house 12.4.5 Pronominal verbs expressing 'dedication' P r o n o m i n a l v e r b s w h i c h express t h e d e d i c a t i o n w i t h w h i c h a n action i s u n d e r t a k e n typically take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: Verbs which take infinitive complements preceded by the preposition à 279 s'attacher à traduire la pensée du maître to be careful to convey the master's thoughts s'aventurer à faire des suggestions se décider à prendre sa retraite s'essayer à gérer un restaurant to be so bold as to make suggestions to persuade oneself to retire to try one's hand at running a restaurant to venture to go up a mountain to resign oneself to losing everything to come to terms with having to change jobs to take risks by playing the Stock Exchange se hasarder à faire une course en montagne se résigner à tout perdre se résoudre à changer d'emploi se risquer à jouer en Bourse Note t h e following differences in m e a n i n g w h e n s o m e of these v e r b s are u s e d with à a n d w i t h de: se décider à prendre sa retraite décider de prendre sa retraite s'essayer à gérer un restaurant essayer de gérer un restaurant se risquer à investir à l'étranger risquer de tout perdre se résoudre à changer d'emploi résoudre de changer d'emploi to persuade oneself to retire to decide to retire to try one's hand at running a restaurant to try to run a restaurant to take risks by investing abroad to risk losing everything to accept having to change jobs to resolve to change jobs 12.4.6 Verbs expressing'aspiration' and 'success' Verbs w h i c h e x p r e s s the a s p i r a t i o n to do s o m e t h i n g , or success in achieving it, typically take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: arriver à obtenir gain de cause aspirer à dominer sa peur chercher à faire fortune être disposé à favoriser qn incliner à quitter son emploi parvenir à battre un adversaire réussir à gagner la course tendre à éviter les problèmes tenir à lire un livre viser à remporter la victoire to manage to get one's way to aspire to overcome fear to seek to make one's fortune to be inclined to favour sb to be inclined to give up one's job to succeed in beating one's opponent to succeed in winning the race to have a tendency to avoid problems to be bent on reading a book to aim to be victorious 12.4.7 Verbs expressing'unwillingness' Verbs w h i c h express an u n w i l l i n g n e s s to do s o m e t h i n g typically take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: hésiter à critiquer qn rechigner à vendre ses livres renoncer à tout relire répugner à tout faire soi-même to hesitate to criticize sb to baulk at selling one's books to give up on the idea of re-reading everything to be very reluctant to do the work oneself 12.4.8 Verbs o f forcing' Verbs w h i c h express the p r e s s u r e p u t o n s o m e o n e t o d o s o m e t h i n g typically take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: 280 The infinitive condamner qn à vivre sans ressources contraindre Julie à revenir forcer une entreprise à baisser ses prix obliger Pierre à partir to condemn sb to live in poverty to force Julie to come back to make a company reduce its prices to make Pierre leave N o t e that the following v e r b s , w h e n u s e d in the p a s s i v e , take an infinitive comp l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by de: être contraint de démissionner être forcé de rentrer être obligé de travailler à l'étranger to be obliged to resign to have to go home to be forced to work abroad 12.4.9 Verbs of 'inviting* Verbs w h i c h invite s o m e o n e to do s o m e t h i n g typically take an infinitive comp l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: appeler un tiers à arbitrer assigner le témoin à comparaître autoriser les clients à s'en servir inviter Robert à donner son avis to call on a third party to arbitrate to call on the witness to appear to authorize the clients to make use of it to invite Robert to give his opinion 12.4.10 Verbs of 'training' and 'teaching' Verbs w h i c h train or teach s o m e o n e to do s o m e t h i n g typically take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: accoutumer un malade à prendre moins de calmants apprendre à ses élèves à parler italien dresser un chien à aller chercher le journal enseigner à Jacques à jouer au tennis habituer un citadin à travailler en plein air préparer quelqu'un à traverser une période de chômage to get a sick person used to taking fewer painkillers to teach one's pupils to speak Italian to train a dog to fetch the newspaper to teach Jacques to play tennis to get a town-dweller used to working in the open air to prepare somebody for a period of unemployment N o t e that apprendre, enseigner are the only t w o verbs in French w h i c h take both an indirect object p r e c e d e d by à a n d an infinitive p r e c e d e d by à: apprendre à quelqu'un à faire quelque chose to teach somebody to do something enseigner à quelqu'un à faire quelque chose to teach somebody to do something Verbs w h i c h English s p e a k e r s often t h i n k h a v e indirect objects, b u t w h i c h in fact h a v e direct objects, are: aider quelqu'un à faire quelque chose inviter quelqu'un à faire quelque chose obliger quelqu'un à faire quelque chose to help somebody to do something to invite somebody to do something to make somebody do something 12.4.1 I Verbs of 'encouragement' and 'cajoling' Verbs w h i c h e n c o u r a g e or cajole s o m e o n e to do s o m e t h i n g typically take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: amener Jean à reparler de l'accident to bring Jean to talk about the accident again Verbs which take infinitive complements preceded by the preposition à 281 conduire quelqu'un à se repentir to bring somebody to repent convier son frère à réfléchir to suggest that somebody's brother should think something over décider quelqu'un à changer de cap to make somebody decide to change direction déterminer quelqu'un à s'inscrire à l'université to make somebody decide to go to university encourager sa secrétaire à chercher un nouvel emploi to encourage one's secretary to find another job engager quelqu'un à repenser un projet to bring somebody to reconsider a plan entraîner des adolescents à voler des voitures to encourage youngsters to steal cars exhorter quelqu'un à mener campagne to exhort somebody to campaign inciter le gouvernement à agir to incite the government to act pousser Claudine à se marier to push Claudine into getting married Note also the following contrasts i n v o l v i n g décider: décider quelqu'un à partir décider de partir se décider à partir to bring somebody to leave to decide to leave decide to leave (after much thought) to 12.4.12 Verbs expressing 'the dedication of t i m e , money to doing something* consacrer ses loisirs à faire des croquis to spend one's free time making sketches dépenser de l'argent à réparer sa voiture to spend money repairing one's car mettre deux heures à ranger ses affaires to take two hours to tidy one's things occuper son temps à lire des romans to spend one's time reading crime policiers novels passer son temps à faire des mots croisés to spend one's time doing crosswords utiliser ses connaissances à améliorer le to use one's knowledge to improve the sort de ses semblables lot of one's fellow beings 12.4.13 Verbs of 'discovering' attraper qn à pêcher sans permis prendre qn à fouiller dans un tiroir surprendre qn à voler des livres to to to catch sb fishing without a licence catch sb going through a drawer catch sb stealing books 282 The infinitive 12.5 Verbs which take an infinitive complement preceded by de There is no real c o m m u n i t y of m e a n i n g in the verbs w h i c h take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d b y d e b u t s o m e g r o u p i n g b y m e a n i n g i s possible. 12.5.1 Verbs of advising somebody to do or not to do something' avertir qn de ne pas recommencer to warn sb not to do it again conjurer qn de laisser les choses comme elles sont to plead with sb to leave things as they are conseiller (à qn) de ne pas intenter de procès to advise sb not to bring something to court convaincre son employeur de hausser les salaires to convince one's employer to raise salaries déconseiller (à qn) de prendre l'autoroute to advise sb not to take the motorway désaccoutumer qn de fumer to encourage sb to lose the habit of smoking déshabituer qn de s'endormir en écoutant la radio to get sb out of the habit of going to sleep whilst listening to the radio dissuader qn de manifester dans la rue to persuade sb not to demonstrate in the street enjoindre à qn de s'inscrire à un parti politique to suggest to sb that they join a political party persuader qn de vendre sa maison to persuade sb to sell his/her/their house recommander (à qn) de ne pas trop insister to suggest to sb not to insist too much suggérer à qn de téléphoner to suggest to sb that they telephone N o t e t h a t w h i l e décourager takes an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by de, encourager takes an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: encourager sa secrétaire à démissionner to encourage one's secretary to resign 12.5.2 Verbs of 'allowing', 'admitting' and 'agreeing' accepter de sortir les poubelles to choisir de poursuivre ses études à Paris convenir de retrouver qn à 20h to décider de prendre sa retraite to dispenser un étudiant de faire un test to agree to put the dustbins out choose to pursue one's studies in Paris agree to meet up with sb at 8.00 p.m. decide to retire to exempt a student from a test Verbs which take an infinitive complement preceded by de 283 entreprendre de réétablir des liens jurer à son père de lui rendre visite obtenir de pouvoir sortir tôt permettre (à qn) de rembourser sans payer les intérêts résoudre de ne plus boire de café to to undertake to re-establish links to swear to one's father to visit him to get permission to go out early to allow somebody to pay back without interest resolve to drink no more coffee 12.5.3 Verbs expressing the idea of anger' enrager d'avoir perdu son argent to be very angry about having lost one's money être furieux d'être exclu du groupe to be furious at being excluded from the group s'indigner de se voir refuser l'entrée du club to be indignant at being refused entry to the club menacer les grévistes de les licencier to threaten the strikers with being sacked 12.5.4 Verbs o f asking for' and o f a t t e m p t i n g t o ' demander à Pierre de surveiller les enfants to ask Pierre to keep an eye on the children essayer de chanter une chanson to try to sing a song implorer qn de revenir to implore sb to come back parler de faire le tour du monde to speak of doing a world tour prier qn de bien vouloir partir to ask sb to kindly leave proposer à une municipalité de construire to put to a town hall the idea of un théâtre building a theatre supplier qn de faire attention to beg sb to be careful tâcher de terminer le travail à temps to try to finish the work on time tenter de résoudre le problème sans avoir to attempt to resolve the problem recours à l'extérieur without asking for outside help Note: demander à qn de faire qc 'to ask s o m e b o d y to do s o m e t h i n g ' , b u t demander à faire qc 'to a s k to do s o m e t h i n g ' . 12.5.5 Verbs o f blaming','making responsible for' accuser qn d'avoir collaboré avec l'ennemi to accuse sb of having collaborated with the enemy blâmer qn d'avoir été négligent to blame sb for having been careless charger qn d'apporter à manger tous les jours to make sb responsible for bringing in food every day gronder son fils d'avoir perdu les clefs de la voiture to tell your son off for having lost the car keys reprocher à qn d'avoir perdu les clefs to hold it against sb that they lost the keys soupçonner qn d'avoir dissimulé la vérité to suspect sb of not having told the truth 284 The infinitive 12.5.6 Verbs o f (self-)congratulation' s'applaudir d'avoir écrit au président to be pleased with oneself for having written to the president féliciter qn d'avoir terminé sa thèse to congratulate sb on finishing their thesis se flatter d'être le meilleur joueur to imagine that one is the best player se glorifier d'avoir monté l'équipe tout seul to be very proud of having put together the team unaided louer qn d'avoir gagné une course to praise sb for having won a race mériter de gagner to deserve to win se vanter d'être le meilleur joueur de l'équipe to boast of being the best player in the team 12.5.7 Verbs o f denial» s'abstenir de boire du vin to se disculper d'avoir voulu supplanter qn refuser de s'abaisser à un compromis to abstain from drinking wine to exonerate oneself from having wanted to take over from sb refuse to stoop to a compromise Exception: nier takes an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t w i t h o u t a linking preposition: nier être impliqué dans l'affaire to deny being implicated in the affair 12.5.8 Verbs of 'excusing' and 'pardoning' excuser qn d'être arrivé en retard to overlook sb's late arrival pardonner (à qn) d'avoir fait souffrir la famille to pardon sb for having caused the family pain 12.5.9 Verbs of 'forbidding' défendre à qn d'afficher des avis au mur to forbid sb to stick up notices on the wall interdire (à qn) de coller des affiches to prohibit bill posting 12.5.10 Verbs of 'being fearful' appréhender de devoir se présenter devant un tribunal to be fearful of having to appear before a court avoir peur de conduire to be afraid to drive craindre de devoir partir à l'étranger to be afraid of having to go abroad Verbs which take an infinitive complement preceded by de 285 frémir de penser à ce qui aurait pu arriver to shudder to think what might have happened s'inquiéter d'avoir à rentrer to worry about having to go home pâlir de voir un collègue promu avant soi to blanch at seeing a colleague promoted before oneself redouter de devoir rembourser les billets to fear having to reimburse the tickets se soucier de créer une bonne impression to care about making a good impression trembler de penser qu'on a failli se faire écraser to tremble to think that one nearly got run over 12.5.1 I Verbs of forgetting' négliger de fermer la porte à clé to neglect to lock the door omettre de préciser à son hôte qu'on arrivera en retard to forget to tell one's host that one will be late oublier de signaler une absence to forget to report an absence 12.5.12 Verbs o f hurrying' or'delaying' se dépêcher d'aller chez le boulanger avant la fermeture to hurry to get to the baker's before it shuts se hâter de mettre en œuvre ses propres idées to want to quickly put one's own ideas into operation 12.5.13 Verbs o f delighting' o r ' r e g r e t t i n g ' avoir regret de ne pas avoir vu qn avant sa mort to regret not having seen sb before he died regretter d'avoir choisi la solution de facilité to regret having chosen the easy way out se réjouir d'avoir été élu to be delighted at having been elected se repentir d'avoir commis une erreur to regret having made a mistake 12.5.14 Verbs o f pretending' affecter de ne pas être au courant de ce qui se passe to pretend not to know what's happening faire semblant de ne pas avoir entendu to pretend not to have heard feindre d'être malade to pretend to be ill 286 The infinitive 12.5.15 Verbs o f pre-planning' envisager de vivre sur une île déserte méditer de changer de métier to imagine living on a desert island to think about changing jobs préméditer de quitter sa femme projeter de quitter le pays proposer de partir tout seul dans le Midi to plan on leaving one's wife to think about leaving the country to propose going to the south of France on one's own to have it in mind to write one's memoirs ruminer d'écrire ses mémoires 12.5.16 Verbs o f ordering' chuchoter à qn de fermer la porte commander à un bataillon de se préparer dire à Pierre de rejoindre la compagnie écrire à Marie d'aller voir sa mère hurler à qn de passer le ballon ordonner à qn de quitter les lieux prescrire à qn de se reposer répondre à qn de se taire sommer qn de venir aussi vite que possible téléphoner à sa mère d'envoyer de l'argent to whisper to sb to close the door to order a bataillon to get ready to tell Pierre to rejoin the company to write to Marie to go and see her mother to shout to sb to pass the ball to order sb to leave the premises to order sb to rest to tell sb in response to be quiet to instruct sb to come as quickly as possible to phone one's mother to send money 12.5.17 Verbs o f finishing' and o f stopping somebody doing something' s'abstenir de fumer pendant trois mois to refrain from smoking for three months achever de construire sa maison to finish building one's house arrêter de faire l'idiot en cours to stop playing the fool in class cesser de participer aux matchs de football to stop taking part in football matches empêcher qn de partir en vacances to stop sb going on holiday éviter de faire les mêmes erreurs to avoid making the same mistakes finir de se préparer to finish getting ready 12.5.18 Verbs of 'thanking' remercier qn de vous avoir invité à manger to thank sb for having invited you for a meal savoir gré à qn de bien vouloir répondre rapidement to be grateful to sb for replying quickly 12.5.19 Impersonal verbs expressing'personal reaction' to an event C o m p a r e s o m e of the the i m p e r s o n a l verbs below, w h i c h take de, w i t h the same v e r b s u s e d personally, w h i c h take à (see 12.4.3): Ça m'agace de les voir sans occupation Ça m'amuse de le voir en colère Ça l'attriste d'apprendre qu'elle est malheureuse Ça me consterne de l'apprendre Ça me dégoûte de voir ce gaspillage It annoys me to see them idle It amuses me to see him angry It saddens him to learn that she is unhappy It dismays me to learn that It appals me to see this waste Verbs which take an infinitive complement preceded by de 287 Ça m'ennuie d'être suivi par des journalistes I find it wearing to be followed by reporters Ça la fâche d'avoir à se justifer auprès de toi It irritates her to have to justify herself to you Ça les fatigue de faire la navette Ça l'intéresse de voir le manuscrit Ça l'intrigue de savoir ce qu'ils ont dit Ça nous irrite d'avoir à refaire le travail It tires them to commute It interests him to see the manuscript It intrigues him to know what they said It irritates us to have to do the work again 12.5.20 O t h e r verbs w i t h infinitive complements preceded by de s'affliger d'avoir causé de la peine à qn to be sorry to have caused sb pain ambitionner de paraître dans un film to have ambitions to appear in a film avoir droit de donner son avis to have the right to give one's opinion en avoir marre de tout faire à la maison to be fed up with doing everything in the house brûler de jouer dans l'équipe du collège to have a great desire to play in the school team comploter de renverser le gouvernement to plot to overthrow the government consoler qn d'avoir perdu un parent to console sb for having lost a relative se contenter de vivre à la campagne to be happy to live in the country dédaigner d'accorder un entretien à un journaliste to be snooty about giving an interview to a journalist défier qn de dire la vérité to challenge sb to tell the truth dégoûter qn de manger des fraises to put sb off eating strawberries désespérer de pouvoir sortir de prison to despair of getting out of prison douter de pouvoir faire qc to doubt that one will be able to do sth s'efforcer de manger du chou to force oneself to eat cabbage entreprendre de récupérer l'argent perdu to undertake to get back the money 288 The infinitive envier qn d'avoir démissionné to envy sb for having resigned être tenu de remplir ses obligations to be obliged to meet one's obligations se garder de raconter la vérité to make sure not to tell the truth gémir d'avoir à payer ses dettes to groan at having to pay one's debts se mêler de monter une affaire to take it upon oneself to start a business offrir de dédommager les victimes to offer to recompense the victims plaindre qn de ne pas avoir d'enfants to pity sb because they don't have children presser qn de s'acquitter de ses dettes to put pressure on sb to pay off their debts prévoir de gagner beaucoup d'argent to foresee making lots of money promettre d'emmener toute la famille aux Etats Unis to promise to take the whole family to the United States réclamer de pouvoir s'asseoir où on veut to demand to be allowed to sit ivhere one wishes se remettre d'avoir été attaqué dans la rue to recover from having been attacked in the street se réserver de déterminer soi-même le jour de sa mort to reserve the right to decide for oneself the day of one's death rêver de devenir milliardaire to dream of becoming a millionaire rougir de devoir parler en public to blush at having to speak in public sourire de voir les enfants s'amuser dans le jardin to smile at seeing the children playing in the garden 12.6 Omission of objects before infinitives T h e direct or indirect objects of v e r b s w i t h infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s m a y be omitted in F r e n c h w h e n t h e y h a v e a non-specific or indefinite interpretation: Le succès encourage à continuer Success encourages one to continue Ce résultat force à repenser le problème This result forces us to rethink the problem Infinitives as complements to adjectives 289 Dans cette région, c'est l'irrigation qui a permis d'améliorer le rendement agricole The irrigation of the region has allowed farmers to improve crop yield L'expérience enseigne à être prudent Experience teaches one to be careful Cette déclaration autorise à penser que les dirigeants ont changé d'avis This declaration allows us to think that the leaders have changed their opinion 12.7 Infinitives as complements to adjectives Adjectives take infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s p r e c e d e d either by à or de, n e v e r w i t h out a preposition. 12.7.1 Infinitives following adjectives in impersonal constructions Adjectives u s e d in i m p e r s o n a l constructions take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e ceded by de: Dans ce quartier il est dangereux de sortir le soir In this part of the town it is dangerous to go out in the evening Il ne sera pas évident de récupérer les papiers volés It won't be easy to get the stolen papers back Il serait étonnant de trouver Jules dans une boîte de nuit It would be surprising to come across Jules in a night club Il est nécessaire de demander des explications précises It is necessary to ask for precise explanations Il est rare de voir Jean-Marie jouer au rugby It is rare to see Jean-Marie play rugby II est regrettable de ne pas avoir de recours contre la pollution par le bruit It is unfortunate that there is no redress against noise pollution Other c o m m o n adjectives w h i c h can b e u s e d i m p e r s o n a l l y i n this w a y are: agréable de faire qc bon de faire qc commode de faire qc difficile de faire qc facile de faire qc important de faire qc (im)possible de faire qc intéressant de faire qc inutile de faire qc mauvais de faire qc merveilleux de faire qc pénible de faire qc simple de faire qc utile de faire qc pleasant to do sth good to do sth convenient to do sth difficult to do sth easy to do sth important to do sth (im)possible to do sth interesting to do sth useless to do sth bad to do sth amazing to do sth irksome to do sth simple to do sth useless to do sth 12.7.2 Infinitives following adjectives used personally W h e n t h e adjectives in 12.7.1 are u s e d p e r s o n a l l y (that is to describe a n o u n or p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n ) t h e y take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à. C o m p a r e the p e r s o n a l a n d i m p e r s o n a l constructions in the following: 290 The infinitive La pâte à pain est agréable à toucher Dough is nice to handle Il est agréable de toucher de la pâte à pain It's nice to handle dough Le foie de veau est bon à manger Calf's liver is good to eat Il est bon de manger du foie de veau It's good to eat calf's liver C'est difficile à faire That's difficult to do II est difficile de le faire It's difficult to do that Cette voiture va être difficile à vendre This car will be difficult to sell Il va être difficile de vendre cette voiture It will be difficult to sell this car Avec tout ce que tu as mis dedans, les poubelles sont difficiles à sortir With all that you've -put in them, the dustbins are difficult to put out II est difficile de sortir les poubelles, avec tout ce que tu as mis dedans It's difficult to put out the dustbins with all that you have put in them Ces problèmes sont faciles à résoudre These problems are easy to solve II est facile de résoudre ces problèmes It is easy to solve these problems Cette machine à laver est impossible à réparer This washing machine is impossible to repair II est impossible de réparer cette machine à laver It is impossible to repair this washing machine La défaite est difficile à accepter Defeat is hard to accept II est difficile d'accepter la défaite It is hard to accept defeat Since the p r o n o u n s il a n d ce can be u s e d b o t h i m p e r s o n a l l y a n d personally, this m e a n s t h a t alternations like the following can be found: II est difficile de comprendre Pierre It is difficult to understand Pierre II (i.e. Pierre) est difficile à comprendre He is difficult to understand C'est beau de voir tous ces enfants jouer ensemble It's wonderful to see all these children playing together C'est beau à voir It's wonderful to see Infinitives as complements to nouns 291 (See also C h a p t e r 3.1.22 for discussion of this construction.) 12.7.3 Infinitives following adjectives o f ' m a n n e r ' take à Adjectives w h i c h describe t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h an action is carried o u t typically take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à: Nous sommes prêts à accepter votre proposition We are ready to accept your proposal Vu ses qualifications il est propre à assumer ces fonctions With his qualifications he is suitable for the job Other c o m m o n adjectives w h i c h b e h a v e in this w a y are: être être être être disposé/enclin/porté à faire qc habile à faire qc prompt à faire qc seul à faire qc to be inclined to do sth to be skilful in doing sth to be prompt in doing sth to be alone in doing sth 12.7.4 Infinitives following adjectives which take de Most other adjectives w h i c h take an infinitive c o m p l e m e n t select the preposition de: Nous sommes très heureux d'apprendre votre mariage We are very happy to hear the news of your wedding Nous vous sommes tous reconnaissants d'avoir bien voulu participer à nos activités We are all grateful to you for having kindly agreed to take part in our activities Vous êtes libre d'essayer (but Libre à vous d'essayer You are free to try Up to you to try) Other c o m m o n adjectives w h i c h take de: certain/sûr de faire qc content de faire qc désireux de faire qc désolé de faire qc étonné de faire qc fier de faire qc impatient de faire qc (in)capable de faire qc susceptible de faire qc sure to do sth pleased to do sth keen to do sth sorry to do sth astonished to do sth proud to do sth impatient to do sth (in)capable of doing sth likely to do sth 12.8 Infinitives as complements to nouns N o u n s take infinitive c o m p l e m e n t s p r e c e d e d either by à or by de, n e v e r w i t h out a p r e p o s i t i o n . 12.8.1 Infinitives following nouns related to verbs and adjectives N o u n s related t o v e r b s a n d adjectives w h i c h take a n infinitive c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by à or de typically take the s a m e preposition: inviter qn à faire qc disposé à faire qc craindre de faire qc l'invitation à faire qc la disposition à faire qc la crainte de faire qc 292 The infinitive défendre à qn de fumer interdire à qn de faire qc menacer qn de faire qc ordonner à qn de faire qc permettre à qn de faire qc désireux de faire qc impatient de faire qc Défense de fumer Interdiction de pénétrer en ces lieux la menace de faire qc l'ordre de faire qc la permission de faire qc le désir de faire qc l'impatience de faire qc 12.8.2 Infinitives following nouns involved in the event described by an infinitive take à N o u n s w h i c h are u n d e r s t o o d a s b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n t h e e v e n t described b y the infinitive (as subject, direct object, indirect object, i n s t r u m e n t , or t i m e w h e n t h e e v e n t takes place) typically take an infinitive p r e c e d e d by à: une maison à rénover ('maison' is understood as the object of 'rénover') a house to renovate C'était un soir à se promener sur la plage ('soir' is understood as the time when walking takes place) It was an evening for walking on the beach Other c o m m o n examples: un appartement à louer du bois à brûler une chambre à coucher un exemple à ne pas suivre un fer à repasser un homme à craindre une idée à examiner une maison à vendre un pays à voir l'hiver une poêle à frire une pomme à cuire des repas à emporter un roman à lire une salle à manger an apartment to rent firewood a bedroom an example not to be followed an iron a man to be feared an idea to explore a house for sale a country to see in winter a frying pan a cooking apple take-away meals a novel to read a dining room 12.8.3 S o m e c o m m o n idioms in which the preposition is à avoir intérêt à faire qc avoir du mal à faire qc avoir plaisir à faire qc être d'âge à faire qc Nous sommes cinq à faire qc être le dernier à faire qc être d'humeur à faire qc être le premier à faire qc être le seul à faire qc prendre plaisir à faire qc to have a stake in doing sth to experience some difficulty in doing sth to take pleasure in doing sth to be old enough to do sth There are five of us doing sth to be the last to do sth to be in a mood for doing sth to be the first to do sth to be the only one to do sth to take pleasure in doing sth Infinitives in subordinate clauses 293 12.8.4 Most other nouns take the preposition de avoir l'air/l'apparence de faire qc avoir besoin de faire qc avoir de la chance de faire qc avoir le droit de faire qc avoir envie de faire qc avoir hâte de faire qc avoir honte de faire qc avoir raison de faire qc avoir tort de faire qc avoir le toupet/le culot de faire qc avoir la veine de faire qc la façon/la manière de faire qc le moment de faire qc les moyens de faire qc l'occasion de faire qc le temps de faire qc to appear to be doing sth to need to do sth to be lucky to do sth to have the right to do sth to want to do sth to be quick to do sth to be ashamed to do sth to be right to do sth to be wrong to do sth to have the cheek to do sth to be lucky to do sth the manner of doing sth the moment to do sth the means to do sth the opportunity to do sth the time to do sth 12.9 Infinitives in subordinate clauses Infinitives in s u b o r d i n a t e clauses m a y p l a y the role of subjects or objects. The examples w e h a v e q u o t e d extensively a b o v e w h e r e infinitives follow t h e v e r b a n d / o r are i n t r o d u c e d by à a n d de m a i n l y s h o w infinitive clauses p l a y i n g the role of objects in t h e sentence. T h e y can also be subjects. In some cases t h e y are linked to the m a i n clause by the use of c'est, in other cases t h e y directly p r e c e d e the m a i n v e r b . In m a n y cases b o t h c'est a n d est are possible w i t h m i n i m a l stylistic difference. Voici a n d voilà m a y also p l a y a linking role: Partir c'est mourir un peu To leave is to die a little Se cacher la vérité, c'est remettre le problème à plus tard Hiding the truth from oneself is putting the problem off until later Mettre les hommes politiques devant les réalités, voilà le problème Getting politicians to face up to reality, that's where the problem is S'accorder sur l'essentiel, voilà ce qu'on doit faire What we must do is agree on the basics Pleurer ne sert à rien Crying won't get us anywhere Se fâcher dans cette situation ne fera qu'aggraver les choses In this situation getting angry will make matters worse Manger trop de fraises peut rendre malade Eating too many strawberries could make you ill Courir chercher un médecin était la seule chose à faire To run to get a doctor was the only thing to do Habiter Paris est très agréable Living in Paris is very pleasant 294 The infinitive Jouer Molière était sa plus chère ambition Acting in a play by Molière was his most cherished hope Se détendre le weekend, c'est important pour la santé For health reasons it is important to relax at weekends 12.10 Infinitives as polite commands In certain cases, instructions are c o n v e y e d by m e a n s of infinitives rather t h a n the m o r e forceful i m p e r a t i v e s . This is particularly the case w h e r e the a u d i e n c e is non-specific, as in r o a d - u s e r s , c o n s u m e r s or s t u d e n t s taking exams: Ralentir: Enfants (or Attention: Ecole) Slow down. School Soulever, écarter doucement Lift and separate carefully (instructions for opening a packet of coffee) Ecrire les réponses au verso Write the answers on the back of this page Ne répondre qu'à l'une des questions de la section ci-dessous Answer only one question in this section Ouvrir doucement Ne pas renverser Ne pas retourner A manier avec précaution Remettre entre les mains de . . . Appuyer sur le bouton Agiter avant d'ouvrir Be careful when opening Don't spill Don't turn over Be careful when handling Only to be given to . . . personally Press the button Shake before opening 12.1 I Quick-reference index to verbs taking infinitive complements s'abaisser à faire qc (12.4.2) s'abêtir, s'abrutir à faire qc (12.4.3) s'abstenir de faire qc (12.5.7,12.5.17) accepter de faire qc (12.5.2) accoutumer qn à faire qc (12.4.10) accuser qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.5) s'acharner à faire qc (12.4.4) achever de faire qc (12.5.17) adorer faire qc (12.3.6) affecter d'avoir fait qc (12.5.14) affirmer avoir fait qc (12.3.4) s'affliger d'avoir fait qc (12.5.20) s'affoler à faire qc (12.4.3) aider qn à faire qc (12.4.10) aimer faire qc (12.3.6) aimer autant faire qc (12.3.6) aimer mieux faire qc (12.3.6) s'en aller faire qc (12.3.1) aller faire qc (12.3.1) ambitionner de faire qc (12.5.20) amener qn faire qc (12.3.2) to stoop to doing sth to become stupid from doing sth to refrain from doing sth to agree to do sth to get sb used to doing sth to accuse sb of having done sth to be bent on doing sth to finish doing sth to adore doing sth to pretend to have done sth to state that one has done sth to be sorry to have done sth to panic doing sth to help sb do sth to like doing sth to just as soon do sth to prefer doing sth to go and do sth to go and do sth to have ambitions to do sth to bring sb along to do sth Quick-reference index to verbs taking infinitive complements 295 amener qn à faire qc (12.4.11) s'amuser à faire qc (12.4.3) appeler qn à faire qc (12.4.9) s'applaudir d'avoir fait qc (12.5.6) s'appliquer à faire qc (12.4.2) appréhender de faire qc (12.5.10) apprendre à qn à faire qc (12.4.10) s'apprêter à faire qc (12.4.2) arrêter de faire qc (12.5.17) arriver faire qc (12.3.1) arriver à faire qc (12.4.6) aspirer à faire qc (12.4.6) assigner qn à faire qc (12.4.9) s'attacher à faire qc (12.4.5) s'attarder à faire qc (12.4.2) attraper qn à faire qc (12.4.13) s'attrister à faire qc (8.4.3) autoriser qn à faire qc (12.4.9) s'aventurer à faire qc (12.4.5) s'avérer être qc (12.3.7) avertir qn de faire qc (12.5.1) avoir droit de faire qc (12.5.20) en avoir marre de faire qc (12.5.20) avoir peur de faire qc (12.5.10) avoir regret d'avoir fait qc (12.5.13) blâmer qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.5) se borner à faire qc (12.4.2) brûler de faire qc (12.5.20) cesser de faire qc (12.5.17) charger qn de faire qc (12.5.5) chercher à faire qc (12.4.6) choisir de faire qc (12.5.2) chuchoter à qn de faire qc (12 5 16) commander à qn de faire qc (12 5 16) commencer à / d e faire qc (12.4.1) commencer par faire qc (12.4.1) comploter de faire qc (12.5.20) compter faire qc (12.3.6) concourir à faire qc (12.4.2) condamner qn à faire qc (12.4.8) condescendre à faire qc (12.4.2) conduire qn à faire qc (12.4.11) confirmer avoir fait qc (12.3.4) conjurer qn de faire qc (12.5 1) consacrer du temps à faire qc (12 4 12) conseiller à qn de faire qc (12 5 1) consoler qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.20) conspirer à faire qc (12.4.2) se contenter de faire qc (12.5.20) continuer à / d e faire qc (12.4.1) contraindre qn à faire qc (12.4.8) to bring sb to the point of doing sth to have fun doing sth to call on sb to do sth to congratulate oneself on having done sth to apply oneself to doing sth to be fearful of doing sth to teach sb to do sth to get ready to do sth to stop doing sth to come to do sth to succeed in doing sth to aspire to do sth to call on sb to do sth to cling to doing sth to linger doing sth to catch sb doing sth to be saddened doing sth to authorize sb to do sth to be so bold as to do sth to turn out to be sth to warn sb to do sth to have the right to do sth to be fed up doing sth to be afraid to do sth to regret having done sth to blame sbfor having done sth to limit oneself to doing sth to have a great desire to do sth to stop doing sth to make sb responsible for doing sth to seek to do sth to choose to do sth to whisper to sb to do sth to order sb to do sth to start to do sth to start by doing sth to plot to do sth to count on doing sth to combine to do sth to condemn sb to doing sth to condescend to do sth to bring sb to do sth to confirm having done sth to plead with sb to do sth to spend time doing sth to advise sb to do sth to console sbfor having done sth to conspire to do sth to be happy to do sth to continue to do sth to force sb to do sth 296 The infinitive convaincre qn de faire qc (12.5.1) convenir de faire qc (12.5.2) convier qn à faire qc (12.4.11) courir faire qc (12.3.1) craindre de faire qc (12.5.10) croire avoir fait qc (12.3.5) to convince sb to do sth to agree to do sth to invite sb to do sth to run to do sth to fear to do sth to believe to have done sth daigner faire qc (12.3.6) décider de faire qc (12.4.5,12.4.11 and 12.5.2) décider qn à faire qc (12.4.11) se décider à faire qc (12.4.5, 12.4.11) déclarer avoir fait qc (12.3.4) déconseiller à qn de faire qc (12.5.1) dédaigner de faire qc (12.5.20) défier qn de faire qc (12.5.20) défendre à qn de faire qc (12.5.9) dégoûter qn de faire qc (12.5.20) se délecter à faire qc (12.4.3) demander à qn de faire qc (12.5.4) démentir avoir fait qc (12.3.4) se dépêcher de faire qc (12.5.12) dépenser de l'argent à faire qc (12.4.12) désaccoutumer qn de faire qc (12.5.1) descendre faire qc (12.3.1) désespérer de faire qc (12.5.20) déshabituer qn de faire qc (12.5.1) désirer faire qc (12.3.6) déterminer qn à faire qc (12.4.11) devoir faire qc (12.3.3) dire avoir fait qc (12.3.4) dire à qn de faire qc (12.5.16) se disculper d'avoir fait qc (12.5.7) dispenser qn de faire qc (12.5.2) dissuader qn de faire qc (12.5.1) douter de pouvoir faire qc (12.5.20) dresser un animal à faire qc (12.4.10) to deign to do sth to decide to do sth to make sb decide to do sth to make up one's mind to do sth to declare that one has done sth to advise sb not to do sth not to lower oneself to do sth to challenge sb to do sth to forbid sb to do sth to put sb off doing sth to take delight in doing sth to ask sb to do sth to deny having done sth to hurry to do sth to spend money doing sth to wean sb off doing sth to go down and do sth to despair of doing sth to wean sb off doing sth to want to do sth to make sb decide to do sth to have to do sth to say that one has done sth to tell sb to do sth to exonerate oneself from having done sth to allow sb not to do sth to dissuade sb from doing sth to doubt that one is able to do sth to train an animal to do sth écouter qn faire qc (12.3.8) écrire à qn de faire qc (12.5.16) s'efforcer de faire qc (12.5.20) s'égosiller à dire qc (12.4.4) emmener qn faire qc (12.3.2) empêcher qn de faire qc (12.5.17) encourager qn à faire qc (12.4.11, 12.5.1) s'énerver à faire qc (12.4.3) engager qn à faire qc (12.4.11) enjoindre à qn de faire qc (12.5.1) s'ennuyer à faire qc (12.4.3) enrager d'avoir fait qc (12.5.3) enseigner à qn à faire qc (12.4.10) entendre faire qc (12.3.6) entendre qn faire qc (12.3.8) s'entêter à faire qc (12.4.2) to listen to sb doing sth to write to sb to do sth to force oneself to do sth to go hoarse saying sth to take sb to do sth to prevent sb from doing sth to encourage sb to do sth to get annoyed doing sth to bring sb to do sth to suggest to sb that they do sth to get bored doing sth to be angry about having done sth to teach sb to do sth to intend, mean to do sth to hear sb doing sth to be bent on doing sth Quick-reference index to verbs taking infinitive complements 297 entraîner qn à faire qc (12.4.11) entreprendre de faire qc (12.5.20) to cause sb to do sth to undertake to do sth envier qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.20) envisager de faire qc (12.5.15) envoyer qn faire qc (12.3.2) s'épuiser à faire qc (12.4.4) s'éreinter à faire qc (12.4.4) espérer faire qc (12.3.6) s'essayer à faire qc (12.4.5) essayer de faire qc (12.4.5, 12.5.4) s'essouffler à faire qc (12.4.4) estimer avoir fait qc (12.3.5) s'étonner de faire qc (12.4.3) être contraint de faire qc (12.4.8) être disposé à faire qc (12.4.6) être forcé de faire qc (12.4.8) être furieux d'avoir fait qc (12.5.3) être obligé de faire qc (12.4.8) être tenu de faire qc (12.5.20) s'évertuer à faire qc (12.4.4) éviter de faire qc (12.5.17) excuser qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.8) exhorter qn à faire qc (12.4.11) to envy sb for having done sth to imagine doing sth to send sb to do sth to exhaust oneself doing sth to tire oneself out doing sth to hope to do sth to try one's hand at doing sth to try to do sth to get out of breath doing sth to reckon to have done sth to be surprised at doing sth to be obliged to do sth to be inclined to do sth to have to do sth to be furious at having done sth to be forced to do sth to be obliged to do sth to do one's utmost to do sth to avoid doing sth to excuse sb for having done sth to exhort sb to do sth faire faire qc à qn (12.3.9) faire semblant de faire qc (12.5.14) se fatiguer à faire qc (12.4.4) feindre d'avoir fait qc (12.5.14) féliciter qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.6) finir de faire qc (12.4.1, 12.5.17) finir par faire qc (12.4.1) se flatter de faire qc (12.5.6) forcer qn à faire qc (12.4.8) frémir de faire qc (12.5.10) to make sb do sth to pretend to do sth to tire oneself out doing sth to pretend to have done sth to congratulate sb on having done sth to finish doing sth to finish by doing sth to imagine oneself doing sth to make sb do sth to shudder at doing sth se garder de faire qc (12.5.20) gémir de faire qc (12.5.20) se glorifier d'avoir fait qc (12.5.6) gronder qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.5) to make sure not to do sth to groan at doing sth to be proud of having done sth to scold sb for having done sth habituer qn à faire qc (12.4.10) se hasarder à faire qc (12.4.5) se hâter de faire qc (12.5.12) hésiter à faire qc (12.4.7) hurler à qn de faire qc (12.5.16) to get sb used to doing sth to venture to do sth to hasten to do sth to hesitate to do sth to shout to sb to do sth s'imaginer faire qc (12.3.5) implorer qn de faire qc (12.5.4) inciter qn à faire qc (12.4.11) incliner à faire qc (12.4.6) s'indigner d'avoir fait qc (12.5.3) s'inquiéter de faire qc 12.4.3, 12.5.10) interdire à qn de faire qc (12.5.9) to imagine doing sth to implore sb to do sth to incite sb to do sth to be inclined to do sth to be furious at having done sth to worry about doing sth to forbid sb to do sth 298 The infinitive inviter qn à faire qc (12.4.9, 12.4.10) s'irriter d e / à faire qc (12.4.3) jurer (à qn) de faire qc (12.5.2) laisser qn faire qc (12.3.9) se limiter à faire qc (12.4.2) louer qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.6) to invite sb to do sth to become irritated doing sth to swear (to sb) to do sth mener qn faire qc (12.3.2) mériter de faire qc (12.5.6) mettre x jours à faire qc (12.4.12) se mettre à faire qc (12.4.1) monter faire qc (12.3.1) to let sb do sth limit oneself to doing sth to praise sb for doing sth to think about doing sth to be mixed up in doing sth to threaten to do sth (sb with doing sth) to take sb to do sth to deserve to do sth to take x days to do sth to start doing sth to go up and do sth négliger de faire qc (12.5.11) nier avoir fait qc (12.3.4) to neglect to do sth to deny having done sth obliger qn à faire qc (12.4.8,12.4.10) s'obstiner à faire qc (12.4.2) obtenir de qn de faire qc (12.5.2) occuper son temps à faire qc (12.4.12) offrir à qn de faire qc (12.5.20) omettre de faire qc (12.5.11) ordonner à qn de faire qc (12.5.16) oser faire qc (12.3.3) oublier de faire qc (12.5.11) s'oublier à faire qc (12.4.2) to make sb do sth to be bent on doing sth to get permission from sb to do sth to spend one's time doing sth to offer sb (the chance of) doing sth to omit to do sth to order sb to do sth to dare to do sth to forget to do sth to become absorbed in doing sth pâlir de faire qc (12.5.10) paraître faire qc (12.3.7) pardonner à qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.8) parler de faire qc (12.5.4) partir faire qc (12.3.1) parvenir à faire qc (12.4.6) passer son temps à faire qc (12.4.12) penser faire qc (12.3.5) permettre à qn de faire qc (12.5.2) persister à faire qc (12.4.1) persuader qn de faire qc (12.5.1) plaindre qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.20) se plaire à faire qc (12.4.3) pousser qn à faire qc (12.4.11) pouvoir faire qc (12.3.3) préférer faire qc (12.3.6) préméditer de faire qc (12.5.15) prendre qn à faire qc (12.4.13) préparer qn à faire qc (12.4.10) prescrire à qn de faire qc (12.5.16) presser qn de faire qc (12.5.20) to blanch at doing sth to appear to do sth to pardon sb for having done sth to speak of doing sth to leave to do sth to succeed in doing sth to spend one's time doing sth to think one might do sth to allow sb to do sth to persist in doing sth to persuade sb to do sth to pity sb for having done sth to take pleasure in doing sth to push sb into doing sth to be able to do sth to prefer to do sth to think about doing sth beforehand to catch sb doing sth to prepare sb for doing sth to order sb to do sth to put pressure on sb to do sth méditer de faire qc (12.5.15) se mêler de faire qc (12.5.20) menacer (qn) de faire qc (12.5.3) Quick-reference index to verbs taking infinitive complements 299 prétendre avoir fait qc (12.3.4) prévoir de faire qc (12.5.20) prier qn de faire qc (12.5.4) projetter de faire qc (12.5.15) promettre à qn de faire qc (12.5.20) proposer (à qn) de faire qc (12.5.4, 12.5.15) to claim to have done sth to foresee doing sth to ask sb politely to do sth to think about doing sth to promise sb to do sth to propose doing sth (to sb) se rappeler avoir fait qc (12.3.5) rechigner à faire qc (12.4.7) réclamer de faire qc (12.5.20) recommander à qn de faire qc (12.5.1) reconnaître avoir fait qc (12.3.4) redouter de faire qc (12.5.10) refuser de faire qc (12.5.7) regarder qn faire qc (12.3.8) regretter d'avoir fait qc (12.5.13) se réjouir d e / à faire qc (12.4.3, 12.5.13) remercier qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.18) se remettre d'avoir fait qc (12.5.20) renoncer à faire qc (12.4.7) rentrer faire qc (12.3.1) se repentir d'avoir fait qc (12.5.13) répondre à qn de faire qc (12.5.16) reprocher à qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.5) répugner à faire qc (12.4.7) se réserver de faire qc (12.5.20) se résigner à faire qc (12.4.5) résoudre de faire qc (12.4.5, 12.5.2) se résoudre à faire qc (12.4.5) retourner faire qc (12.3.1) réussir à faire qc (12.4.6) se révéler avoir/être qc (12.3.7) revenir faire qc (12.3.1) rêver de faire qc (12.5.20) risquer de faire qc (12.4.5) se risquer à faire qc (12.4.5) rougir de faire qc (12.5.20) ruminer de faire qc (12.5.15) to remember having done sth to baulk at doing sth to demand to do sth to recommend sb to do sth to admit to having done sth to fear doing sth to reflise to do sth to watch sb doing sth to regret having done sth to take pleasure in doing sth to thank sb for having done sth to recover from having done sth to give up doing sth to go home and do sth to regret having done sth to tell sb in response to do sth to reproach sb for having done sth to be reluctant to do sth to reserve the right to do sth to resign oneself to doing sth to resolve to do sth to accept having to do sth to go back and do sth to succeed in doing sth to turn out to have/be sth to come back and do sth to dream of doing sth to risk doing sth to take risks in doing sth to blush at doing sth to think about doing sth savoir faire qc (12.3.3) savoir gré à qn de faire qc (12.5.18) sembler faire qc (12.3.7) sentir qn faire qc (12.3.8) sommer qn de faire qc (12.5.16) sortir faire qc (12.3.1) se soucier de faire qc (12.5.10) souhaiter faire qc (12.3.6) soupçonner qn d'avoir fait qc (12.5.5) sourire de faire qc (12.5.20) se souvenir d'avoir fait qc (12.3.5) suggérer à qn de faire qc (12.5.1) supplier qn de faire qc (12.5.4) surprendre qn à faire qc (8.4.13) to be able to do sth to be grateful to sb for doing sth to seem to do sth to feel sb do sth to instruct sb to do sth to go out and do sth to care about doing sth to wish to do sth to suspect sb of having done sth to smile at doing sth to remember having done sth to suggest doing sth to sb to beg sb to do sth to surprise sb doing sth 300 The infinitive tâcher de faire qc (12.5.4) téléphoner à qn de faire qc (12.5.16) tendre à faire qc (12.4.6) tenir à faire qc (12.4.6) s'en tenir à faire qc (12.4.2) tenter de faire qc (12.5.4) travailler à faire qc (12.4.2) trembler de faire qc (12.5.10) se tuer à faire qc (12.4.4) to try to do sth to phone sb to do sth to have a tendency to do sth to he bent on doing sth to stick to doing sth to try to do sth to work at doing sth to tremble to do sth to be sick and tired of doing sth s'user à faire qc (12.4.4) utiliser ses connaissances à faire qc (12.4.12) :.4.12) to wear oneself out doing sth to use one's knowledge in doing sth se vanter d'avoir fait qc (12.5.6) viser à faire qc (12.4.6) voir qn faire qc (12.3.8) vouloir faire qc (12.3.3) to boast of having done sth to aim to do sth to see sb doing sth to want to do sth 13 Prepositions 13.1 Introduction Prepositions are forms like de, à, dans, en, sur, par, pour, avec, au-dessus de, du haut de, à cause de, and so on. For many French prepositions one can normally find an English counterpart which is used in the same way in a majority of cases. For example. For example: de ~ 'of: une boîte d'allumettes = a box of matches trois kilos de sucre = three kilos of sugar à ~ 'at': à trois heures ~ at three o'clock être à l'école = to he at school dans ~ 'in': dans sa chambre ~ in her room dans les années trente = in the thirties However, there are many cases where there is no direct relation between the prepositions used in each language. For example: un pichet rempli de cidre a pitcher filled with (NOT *of) cider tenir un livre à la main to hold a hook in (NOT *at) one's hand It's kind of you C'est gentil à (NOT *de) vous She is good at languages Elle est bonne en (NOT *aux) langues This chapter lists the major French prepositions alphabetically, illustrates their main uses and gives their English equivalents in sections 13.2-13.58. English prepositions and their French counterparts are listed in section 13.59. 13.2 à 13.2.1 à = 'at' Referring to place Le camion ralentissait à chaque virage Elle est à l'école, au café, au cinéma à l'église, au restaurant, à la pharmacie The lorry slowed down at every bend She is at school, at the café, at the cinema at church, at the restaurant, at the chemist's 302 Prepositions Si on se réunissait au café? Il était assis au chevet de sa mère Mis en bouteille à la source au bord du lac Referring to time à trois heures, à minuit, à midi à la nuit tombée, au crépuscule Shall we meet at the café? He was sitting at his mother's bedside Bottled at the spring at the edge of the lake at three o'clock, at midnight, at midday at nightfall, at dusk BUT au petit matin is t r a n s l a t e d by: 'in the early m o r n i n g ' au petit déjeuner, au dîner à la fin, au début une chose à la fois à toute vitesse Il est mort à 26 ans 13.2.2 à = ' t o ' au nord, au sud, à l'est, à l'ouest NB: l'Afrique du Sud: at breakfast, at dinner at the end, at the beginning one thing at a time at full speed He died at 26 to the north, to the south, to the east, to the west South Africa; au s u d de l'Afrique: to the south of Africa. Elle va à l'école, au café, au cinéma, à l'église, au restaurant, à la pharmacie monter à sa chambre tourner à droite, à gauche She is going to school, to the café, to the cinema, to church, to the restaurant, to the chemist's to go up to one's room to turn to the right, to the left ' t o ' m o s t countries of m a s c u l i n e g e n d e r is à: au Japon au Danemark au Portugal au Canada aux Etats-Unis, aux USA to Japan to Denmark to Portugal to Canada to the United States, to the USA (For countries of feminine gender, a n d m o s t countries of m a s c u l i n e g e n d e r b e g i n n i n g w i t h a v o w e l , ' t o ' is en: en France, en Grèce, etc., see 13.26.1. See also C h a p t e r 2.2.2. For the g e n d e r of countries see C h a p t e r 1.2.6.) ' t o ' m o s t small islands, a n d larger islands w h i c h are s o m e distance away, is à: à Malte, à Jersey, à Guernsey, à Chypre, à la Martinique, à la Réunion, à Madagascar, à Tahiti, aux Philippines to Malta, to Jersey, to Guernsey, to Cyprus, to Martinique, to Reunion, to Madagascar, to Tahiti, to the Philippines NB: ' t o ' larger islands close to E u r o p e , a n d v e r y large islands generally is en: en Sicile, en Sardaigne, en Crète, en Nouvelle-Zélande, etc. ' t o ' t o w n s a n d cities is à: à Paris, à Londres, à Berlin to Paris, to London, to Berlin à 303 13.2.3 à = 'in' Referring to place vivre à Paris à cet endroit (BUT dans ce lieu) au village (BUT en ville) se reposer au jardin, au parc, au salon to live in Paris in this place in the village (in town) to rest in the garden, in the park, in the sitting-room à in these cases is a s i m p l e s t a t e m e n t of location; dans is u s e d w h e n the 'containing' p r o p e r t i e s of the location are given m o r e e m p h a s i s , for e x a m p l e : se promener au parc to walk in the park (simple statement of location) perdre ses clefs dans le parc to lose one's keys in the park (the park is the area within which the keys were lost) Compare: Ils sont partis se promener au parc They have gone for a walk in the park On se promenait dans le parc quand on a perdu nos clefs We were walking in the pare when we lost our keys vivre à Paris to live in Paris (simple statement of location) Il est difficile de se garer dans Paris It's difficult to park in Paris (i.e. within Paris, as opposed to anywhere else) au deuxième rang du parterre à l'arrière à l'intérieur tenir quelque chose à la main porter une fleur au chapeau au paradis (BUT en enfer) in the second row of the stalls in the back inside to hold something in one's hand to wear a flower in one's hat in heaven (in hell) 'in' m o s t countries of m a s c u l i n e g e n d e r is à: au Japon au Danemark au Portugal au Canada aux Etats-Unis, aux USA in Japan in Denmark in Portugal in Canada in the United States, in the USA (For countries of feminine gender, a n d m o s t countries of m a s c u l i n e g e n d e r b e g i n n i n g w i t h a v o w e l , ' i n ' is en: en France, en Iran, etc. See 13.26.1 a n d 1.2.6.) 'in' o r ' o n ' m o s t small islands, a n d larger i s l a n d s w h i c h are s o m e distance away, is à: à Malte, à Jersey, à Guernsey, à Chypre, à la Martinique, à la Réunion, à Madagascar, àTahiti, aux Philippines in Malta, in Jersey, in Guernsey, in Cyprus, in Martinique, in Reunion, in Madagascar, in Tahiti, in the Philippines 304 Prepositions NB: ' i n ' large islands close to E u r o p e , a n d v e r y large islands generally, is en: en Sicile, en Sardaigne, en Crète, en Nouvelle-Zélande, etc. ' i n ' t o w n s a n d cities is à: à Paris, à Londres, à Berlin, à Marseille Referring to time la veille au soir à l'entracte vivre au 20e siècle arriver à temps in Paris, in London, in Berlin, in Marseilles in in to to the evening of the day before the interval live in the 20th century arrive in time 13.2.4 à = W Je le ramasserai au retour Il est arrivé à pied Je l'ai appris au service militaire Elle a essayé de le contacter à plusieurs reprises à la page 2 à la télévision/à la radio se mettre à genoux avoir une cicatrice à la jambe frapper à la porte, à la vitre les pommes étaient à terre Modes à à à à of transport bicyclette pied cheval dos de chameau I'll pick it up on my way back He arrived on foot I learned it when I was on military service She tried to contact him on several occasions on page 2 on (the) television/on (the) radio to get down on one's knees to have a scar on one's leg to knock on the door, on the window the apples were on the ground on a bicycle on foot on horseback on a camel BUT also: en vélo, en taxi, en voiture, en ambulance, etc. (See 13.26.5.) 13.2.5 à ='by' s'avancer pas à pas partir un à un travailler à la lumière d'une bougie fabriqué à la main reconnaître quelqu'un à sa voix to move forward step by step to leave one by one to work by the light of a candle made by hand to recognize somebody by his/her voice 13.2.6 à used where English typically uses compound nouns une tasse à thé un livre à couverture de cuir un moulin à vent, à café un homme à cheveux gris, aux cheveux gris un homme à barbe une fille aux cheveux d'or un billet à 10 F une pompe à main un bateau à roue une chambre à air a tea cup a leather-bound book a windmill, coffee-mill a grey-haired man a bearded man a golden-haired girl a 10 franc ticket a hand pump a paddle steamer an inner tube après/d'après 305 une omelette aux champignons une sauce au vin de la soupe à l'oignon a mushroom omelette a wine sauce onion soup 13.2.7 à = no preposition in English La falaise était à pic Les volets étaient à demi fermés avoir mal à la tête Rennes est à 348 kilomètres de Paris un restaurant à deux pas d'ici Ils se sont arrêtés à mi-chemin The cliff was steep The shutters were half closed to have a headache Rennes is 348 kilometres from Paris a restaurant a stone's throw from here They stopped halfway La voiture roulait à cent trente kilomètres à l'heure The car was travelling at 130 kilometres an hour à l'envers rentrer à la maison back to front to go home In the case of sports: au, à la is u s e d : jouer au tennis, au football, au rugby, au billard, etc. to play tennis, football, rugby, billiards, etc. But in the case of m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s : du, de la is used: jouer du piano, du violon, de la flûte, etc. to play the piano, the violin, the flute, etc. 13.2.8 à = other uses monter/descendre à l'étage C'est à vous de décider C'est gentil à vous de m'aider C'est aimable à lui un oncle à lui (also un de ses oncles) un livre à moi (also un de mes livres) boire à la bouteille, à la source emprunter de l'argent à la banque un repas à la française des pâtes à l'italienne 13.3 to go upstairs/to go downstairs It's up to you to decide It's kind of you to help me That's nice of him an uncle of his a book of mine to drink from the bottle, from the spring to borrow money from the bank a meal in the French style Italian style pasta aprèsl'd'après après la fin du film après le repas après avoir acheté une glace après être arrivé Il n'arrête pas de crier après tout le monde demander après quelqu'un (both these uses of après are informai) after the end of the film after the meal after buying an ice-cream after arriving He shouts at everyone to ask after somebody d'après les journaux d'après ce qu'on m'a dit D'après leur tête, ils ont perdu le match according to the newspapers from what I've been told From the look on their faces, they lost the match 306 Prepositions D'après vous, lequel est le meilleur? un tableau d'après Van Gogh In your view, which is the better? a painting in the style of Van Gogh 13.4 auprès de Auprès de ces héros, nous sommes peu de chose (formai) Compared with these heroes, we are as nothing se plaindre auprès des autorités to complain to the authorities un ambassadeur auprès de la République française an ambassador to France 13.5 autour de autour de l'aéroport tourner autour de la question Nous arriverons autour de huit heures around the airport to go around the question We will arrive around eight 13.6 avant s'arrêter juste avant le tournant avant le mois de juin avant l'entracte avant l'aube avant le weekend arriver avant qn faire passer qn avant les autres to stop just before the bend before lune before the interval before dawn before the weekend to arrive ahead of sb to let someone go first NB: ' a h e a d of in the sense of ' o u t s t r i p p i n g ' one's rivals is en avant de: Il est en avant de ses contemporains ' H e is a h e a d of h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s ' . 13.7 avec Il devait venir avec moi au garage une voiture avec des banquettes de cuir elle est arrivée avec son père et sa mère s'entendre bien avec quelqu'un parler avec quelqu'un remplir un verre avec de l'eau mouiller un ragoût avec du vin blanc Ce Calvados est fait avec nos propres pommes He was to come with me to the garage a car with leather seats She arrived with her father and mother to get on well with somebody to speak with somebody to fill a glass with water to thin a stew with white wine This Calvados is made with our own apples N B : In s o m e of these e x a m p l e s it is also possible to u s e de: remplir un verre d'eau, mouiller un ragoût de vin blanc: se raser avec un rasoir électrique épousseter les meubles avec un plumeau On s'est moqué d'eux, avec Alain On a fini l'article, avec Pierre (informai) aller quelque part avec la voiture (For m o d e s of t r a n s p o r t also see 13.26.5.) to shave with an electric razor to dust with a feather duster Alain and I made fun of them Pierre and I have finished the article to go somewhere by car à côté de, du côté de 307 13.8 bout: au bout de au bout de mon jardin au bout de trois heures at the bottom of my garden after three hours 13.9 cause: à cause de, pour cause de, pour raison de A cause de sa maladie, il n'a pas pu venir Le restaurant est fermé pour cause de décès Il a démissionné pour raison de santé Because of his illness, he couldn't come The restaurant is closed due to a bereavement He resigned for health reasons 13.10 chez Je suis chez moi samedi Ils l'ont ramené chez eux Elle est venue chez nous en pleine nuit I am at home on Saturday They brought him back to their house She came to our house in the middle of the night Est-il vrai que chez les Anglais on boit du thé avec chaque repas? Is it true that, among the English, tea is drunk zvith every meal? Tu coucheras chez nous Chez Camus, le décor est très important You'll sleep at our house In Camus, the setting is very important 13.1 I contre Je n'ai rien contre lui protéger ses plantes contre le froid une table posée contre le mur agir contre qn changer des francs contre des dollars livraison contre remboursement 7 have nothing against him to protect one's plants against the cold a table placed against the wall to act against sb to change francs for dollars cash on delivery 13.12 côté: à côté de, du côté de La boucherie est à côté de la pharmacie Elle s'est assise à côté de moi The butcher's is next to the chemist's She sat down next to me A côté de ses œuvres précédentes, celle-ci est moins impressionnante Compared with his earlier works, this one is less impressive rouler du côté de Brive arriver du côté de Brive habiter du côté de Brive to travel in the direction of Brive to arrive from the direction of Brive; to be coming from Brive to live around Brive NB: Du Côté de chez Swann (the title of o n e of the v o l u m e s of P r o u s t ' s A La Recherche du temps perdu) literally m e a n s ' a r o u n d w h e r e S w a n n lives', a n d h a s b e e n t r a n s l a t e d by P r o u s t ' s English translator as Swann s Way. 308 Prepositions 13.13 cours: au cours de au cours de la semaine au cours de sa carrière during the week in the course of his career 13.14 dans 13.14.1 dans = «in' J'ai aperçu la ferme dans la vallée Elle était assise dans son fauteuil BUT s'asseoir sur une chaise, sur un banc, sur un siège I saw the farm in the valley She was sitting in her armchair to sit on a chair, on a bench, on a seat Il y avait de la pluie dans l'air There was rain in the air Nous l'avons croisé dans la rue, dans l'allée, dans l'avenue We passed him in the street, in the alley, in the avenue BUT sur la place, sur la route, sur le chemin, sur le boulevard, sur la chaussée, sur le trottoir in the square, on the road, on the track, on the boulevard, in the road (as opposed to pavement), on the pavement NB: W h e n streets are n a m e d , there is usually no preposition in French for 'in': Je l'ai rencontré rue de Rivoli 'I met him in the rue de Rivoli', NOMS l'avons croisé boulevard Montparnasse 'We p a s s e d h i m in the b o u l e v a r d M o n t p a r n a s s e ' , Il y avait un accident place du Châtelet "There w a s an accident in the place du Châtelet'. Il est dans sa chambre Elle habite dans une belle maison Je l'ai lu dans un journal, dans un livre dans tous les sens dans les années trente Il vit dans la misère Cela l'a laissé dans le doute He is in his room She lives in a fine house I read it in a paper, in a book in every direction in the thirties He lives in poverty That left him in doubt dans w i t h the m e a n i n g ' i n ' is u s e d w i t h French départements, English counties a n d A m e r i c a n states: dans dans dans dans dans dans le Calvados la Marne le Finistère la Haute-Garonne l'Aveyron l'Isère dans le Yorkshire dans l'Essex dans le Lancashire dans le Massachusetts dans le Nevada dans l'Arizona dans is also u s e d w i t h the m e a n i n g ' i n ' w i t h countries a n d t o w n s modified by adjectives, quantifiers or other expressions: dans dans dans dans dans toute la France la Pologne ravagée le sud de l'Espagne le Mexique d'aujourd'hui le vieux Paris in ail France in war-torn Poland in southern Spain in today's Mexico in old Paris BUT en France, en Italie, en Espagne, à Paris etc. (See 13.26.1.) dans 309 13.14.2 dans ='in(side)' Le manteau est dans l'armoire Mettez le couteau dans le tiroir un petit navire dans une bouteille The coat is in the wardrobe Put the knife in the drawer a ship in a bottle M o d e s of t r a n s p o r t Nous sommes venus dans (or par) le bus, dans (or par) le train, dans un taxi, dans une ambulance We came by bus, by train, by taxi, in an ambulance dans is u s e d w h e n the ' c o n t a i n i n g ' p r o p e r t i e s of the vehicle are given p r o m i nence e.g.: Elle a perdu son porte-monnaie dans le bus She lost her purse on the bus Il est décédé dans l'ambulance He died in the ambulance BUT also en auto, en voiture en vélo, à bicyclette à cheval en navire en avion en hélicoptère en ambulance en taxi by car by bike on horseback by ship by plane by helicopter by ambulance by taxi (See section 13.26.5.) 13.14.3 dans = ' ( i n ) t o ' Elle est allée dans la cour emmener quelqu'un dans un restaurant She went into the yard to take somebody to a restaurant 13.14.4 dans = 'in' ( a f t e r a c e r t a i n p e r i o d of t i m e has e l a p s e d ) Je reviendrai dans une heure I'll come back in an hour's time (i.e. after an hour has elapsed) Il peut le faire dans quinze jours Je l'attends dans deux jours He can do it in a fortnight's time I expect him in two days Nous le ferons dans un instant We'll do it in a moment (i.e. after a moment has elapsed) This use of dans contrasts w i t h en 'in' (within a certain period of time - see 13.26.3): Je l'aurai lu en une heure Il peut le faire en quinze jours Ça se fait en un instant 13.14.5 dans = 'during' Je le ferai dans la semaine Elle a écrit sa rédaction dans la journée Il était tombé malade dans la nuit Je l'avais vu dans la semaine I'll have read it (with)in an hour He can do it (with)in a fortnight That's done in an instant I'll do it during the week She finished her essay during the day He became ill during the night I had seen him during the week 310 Prepositions 13.14.6 dans = 'around','or so' Nous avons gagné dans les mille francs Ça pèse dans les 500 grammes Il avait dans les 26 ans (informal) We won around a thousand francs That weighs around 500 grams He was around 26 13.14.7 dans ='among' Il a disparu dans les sapins Y ai cherché dans mes papiers He disappeared among the firs I looked among my papers parmi is also possible w i t h n o n - h u m a n objects: Il a disparu parmi les sapins, J'ai cherché parmi mes papiers. BUT in talking of p e o p l e , ' a m o n g ' can only be parmi or entre: Il n'était pas parmi les spectateurs He wasn't among the spectators Elle se faufilait parmi les manifestants She threaded her way among the demonstrators Nous pourrons en discuter entre nous We will be able to discuss it among ourselves 13.14.8 dans ='on' Nous l'avons rencontré dans l'escalier Il bricolait dans des fermes We met him on the stairs He did odd jobs on farms 13.14.9 dans ='from' Elle a pris le portefeuille dans le tiroir She took the wallet from the drawer Il a pris son mouchoir dans sa poche He took his handkerchief from his pocket Nous avons découpé des photos dans un journal We cut photos from a newspaper Il boit son café dans un bol He drinks his coffee from a bowl ]'ai copié cela dans un livre I copied that from a book BUT sortir, retirer un portefeuille du tiroir. 13.15 de 13.15.1 d e = ' o f une tasse de thé une boîte d'allumettes un verre de vin un bol de café a cup of tea a box of matches a glass of wine a bowl of coffee NB: There is a contrast b e t w e e n une tasse de thé 'a c u p of tea' a n d une tasse à thé 'a t e a - c u p ' . The first describes a c u p w h i c h h a p p e n s to h a v e tea in it, the s e c o n d describes a c u p d e s i g n e d for d r i n k i n g tea from. Tea c u p s can h o l d s u b stances other t h a n tea, so o n e can say une tasse à thé de sucre 'a tea-cup of s u g a r ' ( N O T *une tasse de thé de sucre). Similarly une boîte de lettres 'a box of letters' de 311 contrasts w i t h une boîte aux lettres 'a letter box', a n d un verre de vin 'a glass of wine' contrasts w i t h un verre à vin 'a w i n e glass'. (See 13.2.6.) une route pleine de virages J'entendais le bruit des campeurs le Tour de France le bombardement de Marseille en 1944 la moitié des spectateurs la plupart de la population un tiers des concurrents trois de mes amis le plus grand joueur de tous le plus intelligent de nous tous a road full of bends I heard the noise of the campers the Tour de France the bombing of Marseilles in 1944 half of the spectators most of the population a third of the competitors three of my friends the greatest player of all the most intelligent of all of us 13.15.2 de ='with' une rue bordée de platanes un mur couvert d'affiches un vestibule encombré de chaussures un pichet rempli de cidre a a a a street lined with plane trees wall covered with posters hall cluttered with shoes pitcher filled with cider par is a less frequently u s e d e q u i v a l e n t of de in these cases, w i t h an indefinite article: une rue bordée par des platanes, un mur couvert par des affiches, etc. rougir de honte tomber de fatigue trembler de peur piétiner d'impatience crier de colère sauter de joie to go red with shame to drop with tiredness to tremble with fear to dance with impatience to shout with anger to jump with joy 13.15.3 de ='in' vêtu de noir habillé d'un complet bleu dressed in black dressed in a blue suit After a s u p e r l a t i v e ('best in . . . ' , 'biggest in . . . ' , etc.) or after seul, dernier, premier, jamais: d'une certaine manière, façon trois dimanches de suite boire un whisky d'un trait the tallest building in the world the fastest train in Europe the only time in my life Never in my life have I been so scared in a certain manner, fashion three Sundays in a row to drink a whisky in one go Il est paralysé des jambes, court de jambes large d'épaules He is paralysed in the legs, short in the leg, broad in the shoulders le bâtiment le plus haut du monde le train le plus rapide d'Europe la seule fois de ma vie Jamais de ma vie je n'ai eu aussi peur 13.15.4 de ='from' regarder quelqu'un d'en haut le train de Paris Elle venait de Marseille Il est sorti de derrière la maison regarder les choses d'un même œil to watch somebody from above the train from (also for) Paris She came from Marseilles He came out from behind the house to see things from the same perspective 312 Prepositions aller de Londres à Paris passer du rouge au vert citer quelque chose de mémoire faire quelque chose de colère to go from London to Paris to go from red to green to cite something from memory to do something from anger NB: le train de Paris is a m b i g u o u s b e t w e e n 'the train from Paris' a n d 'the train for Paris'; le train en provenance de Paris is u n a m b i g u o u s l y 'the train from Paris', a n d le train à destination de Paris is u n a m b i g u o u s l y 'the train for Paris'. 13.15.5 de = ' b y ' Je le connais de vue, de réputation un film de François Truffaut I know him by sight, by reputation a film by François Truffaut de often c o r r e s p o n d s to ' b y ' w h e n a state is b e i n g described: Il est connu de tous, détesté de certains, adoré de beaucoup He is known by everyone, detested by some, adored by many Il était accablé de fatigue, de sommeil, de douleur He was overcome by tiredness, by sleep, worn down by pain Le ciel est couvert de nuages The sky is covered by cloud W h e n ' b y ' i n t r o d u c e s an agent, a n d an event rather t h a n a state is involved, par is u s u a l l y u s e d (as for e x a m p l e in passives: see C h a p t e r 8.6): Il a été effrayé par l'orage Jean a été mordu par mon chien He was frightened by the storm ]ean was bitten by my dog But w h e n a p a s s i v e can be u n d e r s t o o d as a state, r a t h e r t h a n an event, de m a y be used: Quand il est arrivé au commissariat, il était accompagné de sa femme When he arrived at the police station, his wife was with him Les enfants ne sont autorisés que s'ils sont accompagnés d'un adulte Children are not allowed in unless accompanied by an adult 13.15.6 de = 's ( p o s s e s s i v e ) la sœur de sa mère le vélo de mon oncle la maison de mes parents le nom de son chien his mother's sister my uncle's bike my parents' house his dog's name 13.15.7 de = ' t h a n ' (plus d e , moins d e ) Elle gagne plus de 30 000 FF par mois She earns more than 30,000 francs a month Moins d'une dizaine de personnes Fewer than ten people were at the assistaient au cours lecture Cela est arrivé il y a plus de trente ans That happened more than thirty years ago Interdit aux moins de 15 ans No children under 15 NB: plus de, moins de contrast w i t h plus que, moins que. W h e r e a s plus de, moins de are typically followed by a n u m e r a l , plus que, moins que i n t r o d u c e an implied clause: de 313 Elle gagne plus de 30 000 FF BUT Il travaille moins de 2 heures par jour Il travaille moins que son frère (ne travaille) Elle gagne plus que sa sœur (ne gagne) She earns more than her sister {earns) He works less than 2 hours a day He works less than his brother (works) 13.15.8 de = no preposition in English Linking n o u n s to m a k e t h e m c o m p o u n d un vieux tronc d'acacia un homme d'affaires la boîte de vitesses un vélo de course nouns an old acacia trunk a businessman the gear-box a racing bike Introducing parts of countries, states, t o w n s , etc., in relation to the points of the compass L'Afrique du Sud South Africa le Sud de l'Afrique southern Africa L'Italie du Sud southern Italy La France du Nord northern France les pays de l'ouest western countries La Gare du Nord La Gare de l'Est With m a n y quantifiers la plupart des gens beaucoup de gens bien des gens la moitié des gens most people (also 'most of the people') many people many people half the people (also 'half of the people') For m o r e on these quantifiers see C h a p t e r 6.9. With the f o l l o w i n g adjectival construction u s e d frequently in informal French une journée de libre a free day encore un problème de réglé one more problem solved il y avait trois passants de blessés three passers-by were injured Linking indefinite or negative n o u n s and adjectives quelqu'un d'important someone important personne d'intéressant nobody interesting rien d'autre nothing else quelque chose de drôle something funny After ce que ... Ce qu'il y a de plus beau dans l'exposition, c'est le tableau de Constable What's most beautiful in the exhibition is the painting by Constable Ce qu'il y a de moins intéressant dans les livres que j'ai lus cet été, c'est ce roman d'aventures What's least interesting among the books I read this summer is this adventure novel Ce qu'ils produisent de bon, c'est le vin What they produce that is good is wine 3 14 Prepositions Measurements un mur épais d'un mètre une rivière longue de 200 kilomètres une clôture haute de cinq mètres Elle est âgée de 15 ans Le train est en retard de 20 minutes a wall one metre thick a 200-kilometre long river a five-metre high fence She is 15 The train is 20 minutes late (For m e a s u r e m e n t s see also C h a p t e r 6.5.1.) 13.15.9 de = other uses Je ne me nourris que de pommes de terre être de permanence 7 live on potatoes to be on duty, on call On n'a plus revu Bernard de l'après-midi We didn't see Bernard again for the rest of the afternoon traiter quelqu'un de voleur Quoi de neuf? Quoi de plus éprouvant? to call somebody a thief What's new? What can be more harrowing? 13.16 dehors: en dehors de une randonnée en dehors de la ville a hike outside the town En dehors de ses cousins, elle ne connaît personne Apart from her cousins, she knows no-one 13.17 delà: au-delà de au-delà de la frontière beyond the frontier 13.18 dépit: en dépit de En dépit de mes conseils, elle s'est mariée In spite of my advice, she got married 13.19 depuis depuis longtemps depuis toujours for a long time from time immemorial Elle joue du piano depuis un très jeune âge She has been playing the piano since she was very young Je suis là depuis trois jours Je ne l'ai pas vu depuis trois jours I have been here for three days I haven't seen him for three days (For tenses w i t h depuis see C h a p t e r 10.4.4.) depuis ... (jusqu'à) can be u s e d as an alternative to de . . . à w h e n distance is being emphasized: Il a marché depuis le port jusqu'au parc He walked right from the harbour to the park Elle a crié depuis le jardin She shouted from the garden devant 315 Le bruit nous arrivait depuis la terrasse depuis le haut jusqu'en bas The noise reached us from the tenace from the top to the very bottom Je vous parle depuis Poitiers I'm speaking to you from Poitiers (only on the radio and television) 13.20 derrière une rue derrière la grande place derrière chez lui a street behind the main square behind his house Allez vous mettre par-derrière la cloison Go and stand behind the partition (par-derrière implies movement) NB: ' b e h i n d ' in t h e sense of ' n o t k e e p i n g up w i t h ' is en retard: Il est en retard par rapport aux autres enfants de sa classe 'He is behind the other children in his class'. 13.21 dès dès la nuit tombée, dès l'aube dès son arrivée from nightfall, from dawn as soon as he arrived Dès que je suis entré, j'ai compris que quelque chose ne tournait pas rond As soon as I came in, I knew that something was wrong dès maintenant dès lors dès l'enfance from now on from then on from childhood 13.22 dessous: au-dessous delpar-dessous Au-dessous de la salle à manger il y a une piscine Below the dining room there is a swimming-pool La température est tombée au-dessous de zéro The temperature fell below zero Il a rampé par-dessous la barrière He crawled under the gate (par-dessous implies movement) 13.23 dessus: au-dessus delpar-dessus J'ai regardé le ciel au-dessus du village Au-dessus de la porte d'entrée il y avait un panneau porter un manteau par-dessus sa veste sauter par-dessus une barrière I looked at the sky above the village Above the entrance there was a sign to wear a coat over one's jacket to jump over a gate 13.24 devant devant l'église devant chez lui mettre un pied devant l'autre Je l'ai laissé devant un chemin obscur in front of the church in front of his house to put one foot in front of the other I left him at the beginning of a dark track 316 Prepositions marcher devant qn comparaître devant le tribunal to walk in front of sb to appear before the court 13.25 durant durant la nuit, durant l'été during the night, during the summer NB: durant is an e q u i v a l e n t of pendant, b u t typically restricted to w r i t t e n French. Unlike pendant, it can follow the n o u n it modifies: Elle s'est reposée la semaine durant 'She rested t h r o u g h o u t the w e e k ' . 13.26 en 13.26.1 en = 'in* en, r a t h e r t h a n dans, is u s e d w h e r e there is no definite or indefinite article: en plein air en bonne santé en terminale une région riche en forêts une thèse pauvre en idées en cas d'urgence avoir confiance en quelqu'un in the open air in good health in the upper sixth year a region rich in forests a thesis poor in ideas in an emergency to have confidence in somebody Il est sorti en tenue de soirée, en maillot de bain, en bras de chemise He went out in evening dress, in his swimming costume, in shirt sleeves Elle est en ville, en prison, en province She is in town, in prison, out of town (i.e. 'in the provinces') BUT w h e r e an article is u s e d , dans is usual: être transporté dans une prison lointaine to be taken to a distant prison Months en Janvier, en février, en mars, . . . en novembre, en décembre in January, in February, in March, . . . in November, in December Seasons en automne, en été, en hiver . . . BUT au printemps in autumn, in summer, in winter . . . in spring Years en 1992, en 1485, etc. en l'an 1992, en l'an 1485, etc. in the year 1992, in the year 1485. dans les années 90 au 20e siècle in the 90s in the 20th century BUT: Languages en allemand, en anglais, en français, en espagnol, en flamand, etc. in German, in English, in French, in Spanish, in Flemish, etc. en is u s e d for ' i n ' or ' t o ' countries a n d continents of feminine gender: en 317 en en en en en en France Espagne Italie Allemagne Grèce Turquie en en en en en en Afrique Amérique Europe Australie Asie Chine en is also u s e d for ' i n ' or ' t o ' countries of m a s c u l i n e g e n d e r w h i c h begin w i t h a vowel: en Afghanistan en Israël en Iran 'in' or ' t o ' m a s c u l i n e countries n o t b e g i n n i n g w i t h a v o w e l is u s u a l l y au or aux: au Japon au Portugal au Canada au Danemark NB: aux Etats-Unis, aux USA. See 13.2.3. en is u s e d for ' i n ' or ' t o ' French regions of feminine gender: en en en en Normandie Bretagne Provence Touraine BUT dans is n o r m a l l y u s e d w i t h French regions of m a s c u l i n e gender: dans le Berry dans le Périgord dans le Forez dans is n o r m a l for ' i n ' or ' t o ' w i t h French départements, British counties and A m e r i c a n states. (See 13.14.1.) en is u s e d for ' i n ' or ' t o ' large islands: en Sicile en Crète en Sardaigne en Nouvelle-Zélande See also 13.2.3. 13.26.2 en = 'in' used w i t h articles in fixed expressions regarder en l'air to took up des idées en l'air unrealistic ideas en la circonstance in the circumstances en l'occurrence as it turns out en l'espèce in this particular case en ce cas in this case en son for intérieur in his heart of hearts 13.26.3 en = 'in' (within a certain period of t i m e ) Il a fait des progrès en deux ans He has made progress in two years Je l'aurai lu en une heure I'll have read it in an hour 318 Prepositions Ça se fait en un instant le tour du monde en 80 jours It's done in a second around the world in 80 days This contrasts w i t h dans = ' i n ' (after a certain p e r i o d of time h a s elapsed): Il peut le faire dans quinze jours Je l'attends dans deux jours Je le ferai dans un instant 13.26.4 en = ' m a d e f r o m ' une statue en bronze une robe en velours rouge une montre en or une robe en soie un pont en ciment He can do it in two weeks' time I expect him in two days I'll do it in a minute a bronze statue a red velvet dress a gold watch a silk dress a concrete bridge 13.26.5 en = modes of transport The following are c o m m o n in informal French: voyager en taxi, en vélo en bicyclette, en moto en avion, en car en train, en voiture en ambulance en skis en bateau to travel by taxi, by bike by bicycle, on a motorbike by plane, on a coach by train, by car in an ambulance on skis by boat The expressions y o u are m o r e likely to e n c o u n t e r in formal French are: dans un taxi, à vélo, à bicyclette, dans l'avion, par avion, dans le car, dans le train, avec la voiture, dans une ambulance, par bateau. 13.26.6 en = 'on' en vacances, en congé en vente en route en voyage en moyenne en feu on holiday, on leave on sale on the way, on a trip on average on fire 13.26.7 en = 'with' une maison en briques alimenter un restaurant en vin ravitailler des terroristes en armes a house built with bricks to supply a restaurant with wine to supply terrorists with arms 13.26.8 en = ' a t ' en fin de semaine en haut de page en mer en plein sommet en même temps Les deux pays étaient en guerre Sa vie est en jeu être fort en langues, en maths en vitesse (informai) at the end of the week at the top of the page at sea right at the summit at the same time The two countries were at war Her life is at stake to be good at languages, maths at speed excepté 319 13.26.9 en = ' f r o m ' aujourd'hui en huit lundi en quinze a week from today two weeks from Monday 13.26.10 en ='as' parler en spécialiste s'habiller en marin recevoir qc en cadeau agir en lâche en signe de deuil to speak as an expert to dress as a sailor to receive something as a present to act as a coward as a sign of mourning 13.26.11 en = ' i n t o ' transformer la maison en hôtel changer une défaite en victoire traduire un texte en allemand to transform the house into a hotel to change a defeat into victory to translate a text into German 13.26.12 en = no preposition se mettre en colère une télévision en couleur un film en noir et blanc 13.27 to become angry a colour television a black and white film entrel'd'entre la distance entre deux points une dispute entre eux J'ai le rapport entre les mains la frontière entre deux pays the distance between two points a dispute between them I have the report in my hands the border between two countries la plupart d'entre eux beaucoup d'entre mes amis une dizaine d'entre les serveurs le moins beau d'entre nous Lequel d'entre vous le fera? most of them many of my friends ten or so of the waiters the least handsome among us Which of you will do it? chacun d'entre eux OR chacun d'eux personne d'entre les invités OR personne des invités aucun d'entre les spectateurs OR aucun des spectateurs each of them no-one among the guests none of the spectators 13.28 envers ressentir de la haine envers qn être bien disposé envers qn ma gratitude envers votre oncle 13.29 to feel hatred towards sb to be well disposed towards sb my gratitude to your uncle excepté Excepté les grand-parents, tous étaient partis Apart from the grandparents, everyone had left N B : hormis ' w i t h t h e exception of is also possible, b u t r a t h e r formal. 320 Prepositions 13.30 face: en face de Le parc est en face du bureau de poste The park is opposite the post office 13.31 faute de Faute d'argent, l'entreprise a fait faillite Through lack of money, the company went bankrupt l'accepterai le poste, faute de mieux TU accept the job, for want of anything better 13.32 force: à force de A force de travail, il a réussi Through working, he succeeded 13.33 grâce à Grâce à ton aide, je pourrai l'acheter C'est grâce à toi que j'ai pu le faire Thanks to your help, I will be able to buy it It's thanks to you that I could do it N B : grâce à is a l w a y s positive, so c a n n o t be u s e d to translate sentences like: ' T h a n k s to y o u we lost t h e contract'. H e r e à cause de is required: A cause de toi nous avons perdu le contrat. 13.34 haut: du haut de sauter du haut de la falaise to jump from the cliff N B : 'from' tall objects like cliffs, t o w e r s , b u i l d i n g s is u s u a l l y du haut de, rather t h a n de alone. 13.35 hors de hors de danger hors de saison hors de lui hors d'haleine sauter hors de son lit une randonnée hors de la ville out of danger out of season beside himself with anger out of breath to jump out of one's bed a hike outside the town 13.36 jusqu'à jusqu'à demain jusqu'au bout depuis Paris jusqu'à la Manche NB: ' n o t . . . u n t i l ' is pas until t o m o r r o w ' . until tomorrow right to the end from Paris to the Channel avant: Je ne viendrai pas avant demain 'I w o n ' t come (For t h e conjunction jusqu'à ce que see C h a p t e r 17.3.8.) 13.37 lieu: au lieu de au lieu de son frère instead of his brother par 321 13.38 long: le long de rouler le long du quai to travel along the river bank (as in Paris or London) Tout au long du boulevard il y avait des marchands forains All along the boulevard there were market traders 13.39 lors de lors de mon séjour en France at the time of my stay in France 13.40 malgré malgré son enthousiasme, ses défauts, le mauvais temps, sa promesse in spite of his enthusiasm, his faults, the bad weather, his promise 13.41 par 13.41.1 par = 'through' regarder par la fenêtre passer par la forêt aspirer l'air par la bouche Je l'ai eu par un boulanger de Tours to look through the window to go through the forest to breathe through the mouth I got it through a baker from Tours 13.41.2 par = 'by', 'per' Le village était coupé par la neige Par bonheur, il s'est évadé Il tenait son fils par la main prendre qn par surprise travailler par groupes de quatre heure par heure Ils sortaient un par un La chambre coûte 100 F par personne par nuit The village was cut off by the snow By good fortune, he escaped He held his son by the hand to catch sb by surprise to work in groups of four hour by hour They came out one by one The room is 100 francs per person per night L'Etranger, par Albert Camus, est l'un des romans français les plus étudiés "The Outsider', by Albert Camus, is one of the most widely studied French novels NB: par is u s e d after a p a u s e , de otherwise: un roman d'Albert Camus a novel by Albert Camus W h e n ' b y ' i n t r o d u c e s an agent, par is u s u a l l y used: Il a été effrayé par l'orage Jean a été mordu par mon chien He was frightened by the storm Jean was bitten by my dog But w h e n a p a s s i v e can be u n d e r s t o o d as a state, rather t h a n an event, de m a y also be u s e d : Quand il est arrivé au commissariat, il était accompagné de sa femme When he arrived at the police station, his wife was with him (See also 13.15.5.) 322 Prepositions 13.41.3 par ='on' se rouler par terre se jeter par terre par une belle journée de printemps to roll oneself on the ground to throw oneself on the ground on a fine day in spring 13.41.4 par = ' f r o m ' , 'out of faire qc par crainte par orgueil, par respect de qn par amitié, par honte par jalousie, par pudeur par ignorance to do sth out of fear from pride, from respect for sb out of/from friendship, from shame from jealousy, from modesty out of/from ignorance 13.41.5 par = 'in(to)' in wet weather to go out in fair weather in (their) thousands in alphabetical order in places in writing par temps de pluie sortir par beau temps par milliers par ordre alphabétiqlue par endroits par écrit 13.42 parmi among the spectators among the crowd parmi les spectateurs parmi la foule une rumeur courait parmi les gens de la ville a rumour was spreading among the townspeople parmi mes papiers among my papers (See also 13.14.7.) 13.43 p o r t : de la part de parler de la part des étudiants C'est de la part de qui? 13.44 partir: à partir to speak on behalf of the students Who's calling? Who's it from? de à partir de demain from tomorrow 13.45 passé Passé le pont, on s'est arrêté un instant Passé minuit il n'y a plus de taxis 13.46 Once passed the bridge, we stopped a minute After midnight there are no more taxis pendant pendant la guerre Nous avons dansé pendant une éternité Je t'écrirai pendant la semaine during the war We danced for ages I'll write to you during the week près de 323 13.47 pour Pour ma part, je suis heureux For my -part, I'm happy Elle le faisait exprès pour attirer l'attention She did it on purpose (in order) to attract attention donner un cadeau à qn pour son anniversaire to give a present to sb for his/her birthday elle se prend pour une star She considers herself to be a star s'en aller pour de bon to go away for good passer pour intelligent to be considered intelligent être bon pour qn, dur pour qn, gentil pour qn, (in)juste pour qn, sévère pour qn to be good to (or for) sb, hard on sb, kind to sb, (un)just to sb, severe on sb NB: T h e v e r b payer 'to p a y for' is n o t u s u a l l y followed by pour. payer la tournée On ne voulait pas que je paie ma place to pay for a round (of drinks) They didn't want me to pay for my seat Unless m o n e y is i n v o l v e d , or a p e r s o n is b e i n g p a i d for: payer 500 francs pour un micro-ondes Je ne paie pas pour toi! to pay 500 francs for a micro-wave oven I'm not paying for you! NB: Expressions like: 'for t w o d a y s ' , 'for three w e e k s ' , 'for several y e a r s ' are usually t r a n s l a t e d by t h e t i m e expression alone (i.e. w i t h o u t pour) w h e n t h e y refer to e v e n t s in the past: Elle est restée deux jours Il est resté trois semaines She stayed for two days He stayed for three weeks W h e n the t i m e expression refers to a p e r i o d in the future in relation to the time of s p e a k i n g , pour is u s e d : Elle partira pour deux jours Il voulait s'absenter pour trois semaines She'll be away for two days He wanted to be away for three weeks W h e n the e v e n t s that take place d u r i n g the time p e r i o d are stressed, pendant is the u s u a l form: Il a été malade pendant la nuit Elle va travailler pendant deux jours He was ill during the night She is going to work for two days I 3.48 près de Il s'est assis près de moi Je l'ai aperçu près du pont He sat down next to me I spied him near the bridge 324 Prepositions 13.49 quant à Quant à moi, je suis heureux For my part, I'm happy Quant à son roman, il est loin de l'avoir fini As for his novel, he is a long way from finishing it 13.50 sans sans sans sans sans moi sel rien dire me regarder without without without without me salt saying anything looking at me 13.51 sauf Sauf ma mère, toute la famille était là With the exception of my mother, all the family was there 13.52 selon selon l'opinion générale selon la loi according to the common view by law, under the law 13.53 sous sous la table s'abriter sous un arbre nager sous l'eau sous l'ancien régime sous clef sous les verrous sous le règne de Louis XIV under the table to shelter under a tree to swim under the water under the 'ancien régime' under lock and key under lock and key in the reign of Louis XIV sous la chaleur, sous la pluie, sous le soleil in the heat, in the rain, in the sun Sous prétexte de se renseigner pour les trains, elle a vite téléphoné à sa copine On the pretext of finding out about trains, she quickly got on the phone to her friend promettre sous serment interdire qc sous peine d'amende vendre qc sous conditions J'ai un annuaire sous la main passer l'affaire sous silence manifester sous les fenêtres de la mairie to promise on oath to prohibit sth on pain of a fine to sell sth on condition I have a phone directory to hand to keep quiet about the matter to demonstrate in front of the town hall 13.54 suite: par suite de par suite d'un accident following an accident I 3.55 suivant suivant son habitude as was his custom French translations for common English prepositions 325 13.56 sur J'ai mis ma main sur son épaule Il me regardait, appuyé sur les coudes Elle était assise sur un vieux tronc d'arbre sur le seuil Elle attendait sur les marches de la mairie lire qc sur une affiche Je l'ai vu sur la place sur la route, sur le chemin sur le boulevard, sur la chaussée sur le trottoir 7 put my hand on his shoulder He watched me, leaning on his elbows She was sitting on an old tree trunk on the threshold, on the doorstep She was waiting on the steps of the town hall to read sth on a poster I saw him in the square on the road, on the track on the boulevard, in the road on the pavement Il a laissé la clef sur la porte Les garçons étaient assis sur trois rangées de fauteuils marcher sur les pas de quelqu'un He left the key in the door The boys were sitting in three rows of aller sur le terrain de football sur la patinoire revenir sur ses pas to go onto the football pitch onto the ice-rink to retrace one's steps un salon qui donne sur la rivière Elle va sur ses vingt-six ans deux sur trois Sur dix, trois étaient partis Sur mon salaire, il ne restait que 5 francs Quatre chats sur cinq le préfèrent Sur la fin, j'étais fatigué a sitting-room which overlooks the river She is nearly 26 two out of three Of ten, three had left of my salary, only 5 francs remained Four out of five cats prefer it Towards the end, I was tired seats to follow in somebody's footsteps 13.57 travers: à travers! au travers del en travers de Il me parla à travers la porte fermée He talked to me through the closed door L'arbre était tombé en travers de la route The tree had fallen across the road Ils y sont finalement arrivés au travers d'un champ labouré They finally got there across a ploughed field 13.58 vers se diriger vers la maison vers le haut du col vers 10 heures vers la fin de mars Il avait vers 26 ans to head for the house towards the top of the pass around 10 o'clock towards the end of March He was around 26 years old 13.59 French translations for c o m m o n English prepositions Figures refer to the sections w h e r e t h e French p r e p o s i t i o n s are dealt with. Across: de l'autre côté de; en travers de; au-dessus de across the room de l'autre côté de la pièce 326 Prepositions The barricade had been erected across the street La barricade avait été érigée en travers de la rue (13.57) They will have to build a bridge across the motorway Ils devront construire un pont au-dessus de l'autoroute (13.23) After: après; derrière after the meal after arriving to ask after sb to come after sb (e.g. in a race) to clean up after sb A m o n g : dans; parmi; entre; d'entre; to disappear among the firs to search among one's papers among the spectators among the crowd among friends several among you among the English après le repas après être arrivé demander après qn (13.93) arriver derrière qn nettoyer derrière qn (13.20) chez disparaître dans les sapins chercher dans/parmi ses papiers parmi les spectateurs parmi la foule entre amis plusieurs d'entre vous chez les Anglais A r o u n d (approximately): dans; vers; environ, autour de He was around 26 years old il avait vers 26 ans, il avait 26 ans environ Also: Il avait dans les 26 ans (informai), il avait autour de 26 ans to win around 1,000 francs gagner dans les 1,000 francs (13.14.7) (13.42) (13.27) (13.10) (13.58) (13.14.6) As: en; en tant que; comme to speak as an expert to dress as a sailor to receive sih as a present to act as the representative of to act as an intermediary parler en spécialiste s'habiller en marin recevoir qc en cadeau agir en tant que représentant de servir comme intermédiaire At: à; en; par; chez to slow down at every bend to be at school at the cinema, at church at 3 o'clock at the beginning, at the end one thing at a time ralentir à chaque virage être à l'école au cinéma, à l'église à 3 heures au début, à la fin une chose à la fois (13.2.1) en même temps par instant(s) chez lui, chez moi en fin de semaine en haut de page en mer en plein sommet en guerre en jeu en vitesse être bon en langues (13.26.8) at the same time at odd moments at his house, at my house at the weekend at the top of the page at sea right at the summit at war at stake at speed to be good at languages (13.10) (13.26.8) French translations for common English prepositions 327 By: de; par; à; avant; selon to know sb by sight to be known by everyone a film by François Truffant to be accompanied by one's wife connaître qn de vue être connu de tous un film de François Truffaut être accompagné de sa femme (13.15.5) to be frightened by the storm to be bitten by a dog to recognize sb by his/her voice to move forward step by step to leave one by one to work by the light of a candle to hold sb by the hand to work in groups hour by hour by night cut off by the snow être effrayé par l'orage être mordu par un chien reconnaître qn à sa voix s'avancer pas à pas partir un à un {or un par un) travailler à la lumière d'une bougie tenir qn par la main travailler par groupes heure par heure par nuit coupé par la neige by the weekend avant le weekend (13.6) by the rules by law selon les règles selon la loi (13.52) (13.2.5) (13.41.2) by taxi, by bicycle, by train, by plane, by car, by ambulance, by boat, by bus: en en en en taxi (or dans un taxi), en vélo (or à vélo) train (or dans le train), en avion (or par avion) voiture (or avec la voiture), en ambulance (or dans une ambulance) bateau (or par bateau), en bus (or dans le bus) (13.26.5) During: dans, pendant, durant, au cours de Fil do it during the week Je le ferai dans (or pendant or au cours de) la semaine (13.14.5) From: de; depuis; du haut de; à; dans; en; d'après; sur to watch sb from above to cite sth from memory from afar from close by to go from London to Paris regarder qn d'en haut citer qc de mémoire de loin de près aller de Londres à Paris He complained all the way from London to Paris Il s'est plaint depuis Londres jusqu'à Paris to jump from the cliff sauter du haut de la falaise (13.34) to borrow sth from sb to drink from the bottle emprunter qc à qn boire à la bouteille (13.2.8) to take a wallet from the drawer to cut photos from the newspaper prendre un portefeuille dans le tiroir (13.14.9) découper des photos dans le journal a week from today a fortnight from Monday aujourd'hui en huit lundi en quinze (13.15.4) (13.26.9) 328 Prepositions to do sth from fear, from shame, from ignorance faire qc par {or de) crainte, par {or de) honte, par {or d')ignorance from what I'm told from the look on his face d'après ce qu'on me dit d'après son expression d'après la tête qu'il faisait They selected five from ten Ils en ont sélectionné cinq sur dix In: de; à; en; dans; par; sur; sous; no preposition used in French dressed in black vêtu, or habillé de noir to go out in evening dress sortir en tenue de soirée in a swimming costume en maillot de bain in shirt sleeves en bras de chemise the first, last, only time in my life la première, dernière, seule fois de ma vie the fastest train in Europe three Sundays in a row paralysed in the arms, legs broad in the shoulders, short in the legs le train le plus rapide d'Europe trois dimanches de suite paralysé des bras, des jambes large d'épaules, court de jambes to live in Paris in the shade in the back, in one's hand, in paradise in the garden, in the cinema in the restaurant, in school in the village, in the park vivre à Paris à l'ombre à l'arrière, à la main, au paradis (13.41.4) (13.3) (13.15.3) (13.26.1) (13.15.3) (13.2.3) au jardin, au cinéma au restaurant, à l'école au village, au parc en ville en enfer (13.26.1) in Japan, in Denmark, in the United States, in Malta, in Jersey au Japon, au Danemark, aux EtatsUnis, à Malte, à Jersey (13.2.3) in Prance, in Spain en France, en Espagne (13.26.1) in the evening, in the morning in the 20th century in the interval au soir, au matin au 20e siècle à l'entracte (13.2.3) to glimpse sth in the valley apercevoir qc dans la vallée (13.14.1) to meet sb in the rue de Rivoli, on the boulevard Montparnasse rencontrer qn rue de Rivoli, boulevard Montparnasse to meet sb in Yorkshire, to meet sb in Nevada, in the Calvados region rencontrer qn dans le Yorkshire rencontrer qn dans le Nevada, dans le Calvados I'll come back after an hour I'm expecting him in two days Je reviendrai dans une heure Je l'attends dans deux jours BUT in town in hell (13.14.4) French translations for common English prepositions 329 I'll have read it within an hour He can do it in (under) two weeks Je l'aurai lu en une heure Il peut le faire en quinze jours (13.26.3) in January, in February in the autumn, in the summer, in the winter en janvier, en février en automne, en été, en hiver (13.26.1) in the spring au printemps in 1992, in the year 1992 in the 50s en 1992, en l'an 1992 dans les années 50 in German, in Spanish en allemand, en espagnol in wet weather in their thousands in alphabetical order in places par par par par to see sb in the square voir qn sur la place être assis sur trois rangées de fauteuils to be sitting in three rows of seats in the reign of Louis XIV Into: dans; en; à to go into the yard temps de pluie milliers ordre alphabétique endroits sous le règne de Louis XIV (13.41.5) (13.53) aller dans la cour to turn the house into a hotel to burst into tears transformer la maison en hôtel éclater en larmes (13.26.11) to go into the office to get into bed aller au bureau se mettre au lit (13.2.2) une tasse de thé la moitié des spectateurs (13.15.1) It's kind of you, nice of you one of my uncles C'est gentil à vous, aimable à vous un oncle à moi (un de mes oncles) (13.2.8) Of ten, three had left Sur dix, trois étaient partis (13.56) most of them each of them la plupart d'entre eux chacun d'(entre) eux (13.27) Of: de; à; sur; d'entre a cup of tea half of the spectators On: de; à; dans; en; par; sur; sous; no preposition I live just on potatoes Je ne me nourris que de pommes de terre to be on duty or on call to look on the bright side être de permanence voir les choses du bon côté on several occasions on page 2 on the television/on the radio to knock on the door to be on the ground on one's return à plusieurs reprises à la page 2 à la télévision/à la radio frapper à la porte être à terre au retour (13.15.9) (13.2.4) 330 Prepositions on a bicycle, on foot, on horseback on military service à bicyclette, à pied, à cheval au service militaire to meet sb on the stairs to do odd jobs on farms rencontrer qn dans l'escalier bricoler dans des fermes (13.14.8) on fire on holiday on leave on sale on the way on a trip on average en en en en en en en (13.26.6) to throw things on the ground on a fine spring day jeter des choses par terre par une belle journée de printemps (13.41.3) to put one's hand on his shoulder leaning on one's elbows to sit on a chair, a bench, a seat (13.56) on the road, on the pavement mettre la main sur son épaule appuyé sur les coudes s'asseoir sur une chaise, un banc, un siège sur la route, sur le trottoir to promise on oath to sell sth on condition promettre sous serment vendre qc sous conditions (13.53) on Mondays They're on mel le lundi C'est ma tournée! feu vacances congé vente route voyage moyenne Out of: de; en dehors de; hors de; sur to pull a rabbit out of a hat sortir un lapin d'un chapeau Get out of here! Sortez d'ici! out of the town en dehors de la ville out of the question hors de question five out of ten cinq sur dix Than: de; que She earns more than 30,000 francs a month She earns more than me/than I do He works less than 2 hours a day (13.15.4) (13.16) (13.56) Elle gagne plus de 30 000 FF par mois Elle gagne plus que moi (13.15.7) II travaille moins de 2 heures par jour Through: par; à travers; au travers de; par moyen de to look through the window regarder par la fenêtre to go through the forest passer par la forêt to breathe through the mouth aspirer l'air par la bouche passer à travers champs to go through fields passer au travers des problèmes to go through difficulties par moyen d'une annonce through an advert To: à; en; dans; sous; jusqu'à; pour; avec au nord, au sud to the north, to the south to go to school, to the cinema, to aller à l'école, au cinéma, au café the café to go up to one's room monter à sa chambre to the right, to the left à droite, à gauche (13.41.1) (13.57) (13.2.2) French translations for common English prepositions 331 to Japan, to Denmark to Malta, to Jersey to Paris, to London au Japon, au Danemark à Malte, à Jersey à Paris, à Londres to Sicily, to New Zealand to France, to Spain to Europe, to Africa to Normandy, to Brittany en en en en to Essex, to Massachusetts dans l'Essex, dans le Massachusetts to have a phone directory to hand to go up to 2,000 francs a cheque to the value of ... to keep something to oneself to be kind to sb Sicile, en Nouvelle-Zélande France, en Espagne Europe, en Afrique Normandie, en Bretagne avoir un annuaire sous la main (13.53) aller jusqu'à 2,000 francs un chèque de la valeur de . . . garder quelque chose pour soi être gentil avec qn Under: sous; moins de; inférieur à; selon under the table, under the water sous la table, sous l'eau under twenty francs moins de vingt francs a price under a thousand francs un prix inférieur à mille francs under the law selon la loi With: de; à; avec a street lined with plane trees to fill with water to cover with posters to go red with shame to tremble with cold (13.26.1) (13.53) (13.15.7) (13.52) une rue bordée de platanes (13.15.2) remplir d'eau (or avec de l'eau) couvrir d'affiches (or avec des affiches) rougir de honte trembler de froid a man with a grey beard un homme à la barbe grise (13.2.6) to water the garden with a watering can to speak with sb to arrive with sb arroser le jardin avec un arrosoir (13.7) parler avec qn arriver avec qn 14 Question formation 14.1 Introduction There are two main types of question: yes / n o questions, to which it is possible to answer simply 'yes' or 'no': Aimez-vous la musique pop? Oui Est-ce que tu as fait tes devoirs? Non Do you like pop music? Yes Have you done your homework? No and information questions, to which it is impossible to answer simply 'yes' or 'no', but which require a piece of information in response: Quand partira Jean? Demain Qui a-t-il rencontré? Jeanette When will Jean leave? Tomorrow Who did he meet? Jeanette Information questions involve the use of a question word or phrase like qui, que, quand, comment, où, pourquoi, pour quelle raison, avec quel ami, de quoi, and so on. 14.2 Yes/no questions There are three ways in which yes/no questions can be asked in French. Each is characteristic of a particular style of French, ranging from the informal to the formal. 14.2.1 Yes/no questions f o r m e d w i t h rising i n t o n a t i o n The simplest way to form a yes/no question in French is to add rising intonation to the final syllables of a declarative sentence: Tu as quelque chose à dire? Elle va rester ici? Pierre est venu? Je peux mettre mes photos au mur? Do you have anything to say? Is she going to stay here? Has Pierre come? Can I put my photos on the wall? This kind of y e s / n o question is very common in informal spoken French, but less common in more formal spoken French and not normally used in written French (unless direct speech is being recorded, or an informal style is being imitated). 14.2.2 Yes/no questions f o r m e d w i t h est-ce que Yes/no questions may also be formed by placing the question formula est-ce que at the beginning of a declarative sentence: Yes/no questions 333 Est-ce que tu as quelque chose à dire? Est-ce qu'elle va rester ici? Est-ce que Pierre est venu? Est-ce que je peux mettre mes photos au mur? Yes/no questions formed with est-ce que can informal and formal, spoken and written. Do you have anything to say? Is she going to stay here? Has Pierre come? Can I put my photos on the wall? be used in all styles of French, 14.2.3 Yes/no questions f o r m e d by inverting t h e verb and subject Yes/no questions may be formed by inverting the subject and the verb which agrees with it. Such inversion takes two forms, depending on whether the subject is an unstressed pronoun or not. Subject is an unstressed pronoun If the subject is an unstressed pronoun, it changes places with the verb which agrees with it: Es-tu content? Est-ce le facteur? Avez-vous bien compris? Peut-on se changer dans les vestiaires? Avaient-ils reçu de ses nouvelles? Avait-il pu réunir les actionnaires? Are you happy? Is it the postman? Have you really understood? Can you change in the changing rooms? Had they had news of him? Had he been able to assemble the shareholders? Such subject-verb inversion is possible with all verbs in French, whereas in English it is only possible with 'auxiliary' verbs like 'have', 'be', 'can', 'will', 'do', etc.: Aime-t-il le Roquefort? Descend-elle en ville? Fumez-vous depuis longtemps? Prennent-ils le train? Does he like Roquefort? Is she going down into town? Have you smoked for long? Are they taking the train? Subject is not an unstressed pronoun If the subject is anything other than an unstressed pronoun, i.e. a proper noun, noun phrase or stressed pronoun, then the subject is placed first, followed by the verb and an unstressed subject pronoun agreeing with the subject is inserted to the right of the verb: Pierre est-il content? Is Pierre happy? Les joueurs peuvent-ils se changer dans les vestiaires? Can the players change in the changing rooms? Cela est-il vrai? Personne ne veut-il m'accompagner? 7s that true? Doesn't anyone want to come with me? Had the pupils received the results? Will Julie come tomorrow? Les élèves avaient-ils reçu les résultats? Julie viendra-t-elle demain? NB: It is impossible to invert a subject which is not an unstressed pronoun with an agreeing verb: 334 Question formation NOT NOT NOT NOT *Viendra Julie demain? *Est cela vrai? *Peuvent les joueurs se changer dans les vestiaires? *Est Pierre content? Yes/no questions formed with inversion are typically used in more formal spoken and in written French. 14.2.4 Insertion of -t- between inverted verb and subject When the inversion of subject and verb results in two vowels becoming adjacent, the consonant -t- is inserted between them: A-t-il 17 ans? Aura-t-elle faim? Is he 17? Will she be hungry? This rule also applies where the verb ends in -e, even though in the spoken language the -e is not pronounced: Epouse-t-il Marie? Dîne-t-elle au palais ce soir? Is he marrying Marie? 7s she dining at the palace this evening? Where a verb already ends in a -I or a -d in the written language, it is pronounced as 't' in questions: Est-elle contente? Boivent-ils du cidre? Vos amis sont-ils partis? David vend-il sa voiture? Le voyage te rend-il malade? Is she happy? Are they drinking cider? Have your friends left? Is David selling his car? Is the journey making you feel ill? 14.2.5 Inversion of the verb and je in yes/no questions Inversion of the verb with first person je to form a yes/no question is characteristic of only the most formal French. Many speakers and writers these days would avoid it and use est-ce que. Furthermore, there are idiosyncratic restrictions on its use. In the present tense, inversion between je and some very common verbs of one syllable is frequent: Ai-je le droit? (avoir) Dois-je vous téléphoner? (devoir) Puis-je vous déranger? (pouvoir) Suis-je heureux? (être) Vais-je me laisser tromper? (aller) Ne dis-je pas la vérité? (dire) Am I allowed to? Should I phone you? May I disturb you? Am I happy? Am I going to let myself be deceived? Am I not telling the truth? but with most other verbs such inversion is impossible: NOT *Mens-je? NOT *Prends-je le bus? Am I lying? Am I taking the bus? In future and conditional tenses, however, inversion with these same verbs is more acceptable (but again only in the most formal styles): Mentirais-je? Would I lie? Prendrai-je le bus? Shall I take the bus? Yes/no questions 335 Some grammars suggest that where a verb ends in -e and it is inverted with je, the -e becomes -é: Demandé-je? Am I asking? This, however, is extremely rare in modern French. 14.2.6 n'est-ce pas n'est-ce pas? is the invariable French equivalent of English 'tag' question forms like 'doesn't he?', 'haven't you?', 'mustn't I?', etc.: Il habite à Paris, n'est-ce pas? Vous avez vendu le terrain, n'est-ce pas? He lives in Paris, doesn't he? You've sold the land, haven't you? Je dois m'adresser au sous-directeur, n'est-ce pas? I must speak to the assistant director, mustn't I? 14.2.7 Use of jamais, rien, aucun, personne in yes/no questions In questions, jamais, rien, aucun and personne may mean 'ever', 'anything', 'any' and 'anyone': Est-ce que vous avez jamais visité le Louvre? Have you ever been to the Louvre? A-t-il rien fait de meilleur? Has he done anything better? A-t-elle eu aucune réponse? Has she received any reply? Est-ce que vous avez vu personne? Have you seen anyone? NB: qui que ce soit 'anyone' is more used than personne: Est-ce qu'il confie à qui que ce soit ce qu'il fait? Does he tell anyone what he is doing? 14.2.8 oui, si, non and merci as responses to yes/no questions non is the normal way of saying 'no' to y e s / n o questions, both affirmative and negative: Tu viens? Tu ne viens pas? - Non - Non oui is used to say 'yes' to affirmative y e s / n o questions, but si is used to say 'yes' to negative questions: Tu viens? Tu ne viens pas? - Oui - Si In each case the force of the response may be increased by adding mais, or bien sûr que: Tu viens? - Mais oui - Bien sûr que oui - Mais non - Bien sûr que non Tu ne viens pas? - Mais si - Bien sûr que si - Mais non - Bien sûr que non merci 'thank you' used alone as a response to a yes/no question is normally treated as a response of 'No, thank you': Voulez-vous du fromage? Would you like some cheese? - Merci - No, thank you 336 Question formation To reply 'Yes, please' one can say (Oui), je veux bien, S'il vous (te) plaît or Volontiers: Voulez-vous du fromage? Would you like some cheese? - Je veux bien - S'il vous plaît - Volontiers - Yes, -please 14.3 Information questions There are four ways of asking information questions in French. Each is appropriate to a particular level of formality of style. 14.3.1 Information questions formed with rising intonation The simplest way to form an information question is to replace an item in a declarative sentence by a question word or phrase, and add rising intonation to the final syllables of the sentence. (For question words and phrases see 14.6.) For example, taking a declarative sentence such as: L'étudiant téléphonera à son député demain The student will telephone his MP tomorrow Information questions can be formed related to demain, à son député or l'étudiant simply by replacing the relevant words with a question word: L'étudiant téléphonera à son député quand? When will the student telephone his MP? L'étudiant téléphonera à qui demain? Who will the student telephone tomorrow? Qui téléphonera à son député demain? Who will telephone his MP tomorrow? This kind of information question is very common in informal spoken French. The last example above involving qui? (where the subject is questioned) is also normal in formal styles (see 14.3.6). But the other types are less common in formal spoken and in written styles (unless direct speech is being reported, or an informal style is being imitated). The full range of question words and phrases (see 14.6) may be used in this way, except que? 'what'. Instead, the stressed form of que? - quoi? - is used: Vous avez vu quoi? Elle a dit quoi? Marcel a écrit à qui? Elle parle de quoi? Tu recommanderais quel film? Ils ont invité combien de gens? Vous l'avez vu où? Bernard reviendra quand? What did you see? What did she say? Who did Marcel write to? What is she talking about? Which film would you recommend? How many people did they invite? Where did you see it? When will Bernard come back? Information questions 337 14.3.2 Information questions f o r m e d by'fronting' a question word or phrase A n o t h e r c o m m o n w a y o f f o r m i n g information q u e s t i o n s i n v e r y informal s p o k e n styles of French involves replacing an item in a declarative sentence by a q u e s t i o n w o r d or p h r a s e , a n d t h e n m o v i n g the question w o r d or p h r a s e to the front of the sentence, w i t h o u t m a k i n g a n y other changes: Qui vous avez vu? Qui c'est, celui là? A qui Marcel a écrit? Quel film tu recommanderais? Combien de gens ils ont invités? De quoi tu voulais me parler? Où vous l'avez vu? Pourquoi la police l'a arrêté? Who did you see? Who's he? Who did Marcel write to? Which film would you recommend? How many people did they invite? What did you want to speak to me about? Where did you see it? Why did the police arrest him? N e a r l y all q u e s t i o n w o r d s can be u s e d in this w a y except direct object que?, quoi? ' w h a t ? ' I n s t e a d qu'est-ce que? is u s e d (see 14.3.3): Qu'est-ce qu'elle a dit? Qu'est-ce que tu faisais dans ma chambre? What did she say? What were you doing in my room? 14.3.3 Information questions f o r m e d with est-ce quel Information q u e s t i o n s m a y be f o r m e d by 'fronting' a q u e s t i o n w o r d or p h r a s e , as d e s c r i b e d in 14.3.2, a n d in a d d i t i o n inserting est-ce que? b e t w e e n the q u e s t i o n w o r d or p h r a s e a n d the rest of the sentence. Q u e s t i o n s of this t y p e m a y be u s e d in all styles of French, formal a n d informal. The full r a n g e of q u e s t i o n w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s (see 14.6) m a y be u s e d in this construction except quoi? ' w h a t ? ' - the u n s t r e s s e d v a r i a n t que? is required instead: Qui est-ce que vous avez vu? Qu'est-ce qu'elle a dit? Quel film est-ce que tu recommanderais? A qui est-ce que Marcel a écrit? Combien de gens est-ce qu'ils ont invités? Où est-ce que vous l'avez vu? Quand est-ce que Bernard reviendra? Pourquoi est-ce que la police l'a arrêté? Who did you see? What did she say? Which film would you recommend? To whom did Marcel write? How many people did they invite? Where did you see it? When will Bernard come back? Why did the police arrest him? 14.3.4 qui est-ce qui?, qui est-ce que?, qu'est-ce qu'il, and qu'est-ce quel qui est-ce qui? is u s e d to form q u e s t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h a n i m a t e subjects: Qui est-ce qui a pris mon crayon? Qui est-ce qui va avoir le prix? Who took my pencil? Who will get the prize? qu'est-ce qui? is u s e d to form q u e s t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h n o n - a n i m a t e subjects: Qu'est ce Qu'est-ce Qu'est-ce Qu'est-ce qui qui qui qui a abîmé mon pneu? s'est passé? a effrayé le facteur? lui est arrivé, à Paul? What punctured my tyre? What happened? What frightened the postman? What happened to Paul? 338 Question formation qui est-ce que? is u s e d to form questions dealing w i t h a n i m a t e direct objects: Qui est-ce que vous avez vu? Who did you see? Qui est-ce qu'ils ont invité à la fête? Who did they invite to the party? qu'est-ce que? is u s e d to form q u e s t i o n s dealing w i t h n o n - a n i m a t e direct objects: Qu'est-ce que vous avez dit? What did you say? Qu'est-ce que Marie va acheter? What is Marie going to buy? Qu'est-ce qu'elle a pris dans la grange? What did she take from the barn? Qu'est-ce que c'était, ce bruit, dehors? What was that noise, outside? C o m p a r e the following u s e s of qu'est-ce?, qu'est-ce que? a n d qu'est-ce que c'est?: Qu'est-ce? (very formal) Qu'est-ce que c'est? Qu'est-ce que c'est que ça? What is it? What is it? What on earth is that? Qu'est-ce qu'une 'jonque'? Qu'est-ce que c'est qu'une 'jonque'? Qu'est-ce que ça veut dire 'jonque'? What's a 'jonque'? What on earth is a 'jonque'? What does 'jonque' mean? 14.3.5 Information questions f o r m e d by the inversion of verb and subject Information q u e s t i o n s m a y be f o r m e d by 'fronting' a q u e s t i o n w o r d or p h r a s e (as d e s c r i b e d in 14.3.2), a n d in a d d i t i o n inverting the subject a n d the verb w h i c h agrees w i t h the subject. This k i n d of question is u s u a l l y f o u n d in form a l s p o k e n a n d i n w r i t t e n French. I t takes t w o forms d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r the subject is an u n s t r e s s e d p r o n o u n or not. Subject is an unstressed p r o n o u n If the subject is an u n s t r e s s e d p r o n o u n , it c h a n g e s places w i t h the v e r b w h i c h agrees w i t h it: Qui avez-vous vu? Qui est-ce? A qui a-t-elle écrit? Quel film recommanderais-tu? Combien de personnes ont-ils invitées? Où l'avez-vous vu? Quand reviendra-t-il? Pourquoi l'ont-ils arrêté? Who did you see? Who is it? To whom did she write? Which film would you recommend? How many people have they invited? Where did you see it? When will he come back? Why have they arrested him? (For i n v e r s i o n w i t h je see 14.2.5.) S u b j e c t i s not a n u n s t r e s s e d p r o n o u n If the subject is n o t an u n s t r e s s e d p r o n o u n , i.e. if it is a p r o p e r n o u n , n o u n p h r a s e or stressed p r o n o u n , t h e n the subject is p l a c e d first after the q u e s t i o n w o r d , followed b y the v e r b a n d a n u n s t r e s s e d subject p r o n o u n agreeing w i t h the subject is inserted to the right of the verb: Qui Robert a-t-il rencontré? A qui Jean donnera-t-il l'argent? Quelle robe Madame préfère-t-elle? Combien de romans Camus a-t-il écrits? Où Marie va-t-elle faire ses courses? Who did Robert meet? To whom will Jean give the money? Which dress does madam prefer? How many novels did Camus write? Where is Marie going to do her shopping Information questions 339 Quand le train arrivera-t-il à Limoges? When will the train arrive at Limoges? Pourquoi les examens ont-ils toujours lieu en juin? Why do the exams always take place in June? (For insertion of -r- see 14.2.4.) 14.3.6 Exceptional behaviour of subject qui1, and subject and object quel in information questions W h e n t h e subject is a n i m a t e a n d q u e s t i o n e d by qui? ' w h o ' , there is no inversion w i t h the verb: Qui parle? Qui a tourné ce film? Who is speaking? Who made this film? NOT *Qui parle-t-il? NOT *Qui a-t-il tourné ce film? que? ' w h a t ' c a n n e v e r b e u s e d directly a s n o n - a n i m a t e subject ' w h a t ' , a n d n o r can its stressed form quoi?. Instead, qu'est-ce qui? m u s t be used: Qu'est-ce qui Qu'est-ce qui le placard? Qu'est-ce qui Qu'est-ce qui brille dans le ciel? a grignoté les gâteaux dans plait à Pierre? a été donné à Marie? What's shining in the sky? What has eaten the cakes in the cupboard? What does Pierre like? What was given to Marie? and NOT NOT NOT NOT *Que brille dans le ciel? *Qu'a gringoté les gâteaux? *Quoi plait à Pierre? *Quoi a été donné à Marie? W h e n que? ' w h a t ' is a direct object, it m a y be u s e d w i t h v e r b a n d subject inversion, p r o v i d i n g that the subject is a p r o n o u n : Que dit-il? Que pense-t-elle? Qu'ont-ils décidé? What does he say? What does she think? What have they decided? But it m a y n o t be u s e d w i t h i n v e r s i o n w h e n the subject is a p r o p e r n o u n , n o u n p h r a s e o r stressed p r o n o u n : NOT *Que le docteur dit-il? What does the doctor say? NOT *Que Marie pense-t-elle? What does Marie think? NOT *Que le conseil municipal a-t-il décidé? What has the council decided? Instead, either qu'est-ce que? m u s t be used: Qu'est-ce que le docteur dit? What does the doctor say? Qu'est-ce que Marie pense? What does Marie think? Qu'est-ce que le conseil municipal a décidé? What has the council decided? Or a different k i n d of i n v e r s i o n m u s t be u s e d i n v o l v i n g the subject a n d the w h o l e v e r b g r o u p , b u t w i t h o u t the insertion o f a n u n s t r e s s e d p r o n o u n : 340 Question formation Que dit le docteur? Que pense Marie? Qu'a décidé le conseil municipal? Que va faire Marie? Qu'aurait dû déclarer le ministre? What does the doctor say? What does Marie think? What has the council decided? What is Marie going to do? What should the minister have declared? This k i n d of i n v e r s i o n is k n o w n by linguists as 'stylistic inversion'. 14.3.7 'Stylistic inversion* in information questions In formal s p o k e n a n d in w r i t t e n French, as an alternative to subject-verb inversion of the kind: Où Christine est-elle allée? ' W h e r e d i d Christine go?', it is also possible (with m a n y q u e s t i o n w o r d s a n d p h r a s e s ) t o invert the subject w i t h the w h o l e v e r b g r o u p , b u t w i t h o u t insertion o f a n u n s t r e s s e d p r o n o u n : Où est allée Christine? Notice t h a t Christine a n d est allée h a v e inverted, b u t w i t h o u t insertion of an a g r e e i n g u n s t r e s s e d p r o n o u n . Stylistic i n v e r s i o n of this k i n d is possible w i t h : Object que? Qu'avait dit le docteur? Qu'a décidé le conseil municipal? What had the doctor said? What has the council decided? Prepositional object qui (à qui?, de qui?, avec qui?, etc.) A qui s'est adressé Jacques? To whom did Jacques go and speak? De qui aura parlé le professeur? Who will the professor have spoken about? Prepositional object quoi (à quoi?, de quoi?, avec quoi?, etc.) A quoi aurait dû penser Marie? What ought Marie to have thought about? De quoi dépend la décision? What does the decision depend on? Object and prepositional object quel?, quand?, combien? quel Quel plat a commandé Pierre? A quelle heure partira Thomas? Par quelle porte est sortie la vedette? Which dish did Pierre order? At what time will Thomas leave? Which door did the star come out of? Quand est entré François? Depuis quand travaille Pierre? When did François come in? How long has Pierre been working? quand combien Combien de kilos a perdu Philippe? Combien de cidre produit ce verger? How many kilos has Philippe lost? How much cider does this orchard produce? Stylistic inversion is n o t possible w i t h pourquoi: NOT *Pourquoi travaille Pierre? NOT *Pourquoi est partie Marie? Why does Pierre work? Why did Marie leave? Stylistic i n v e r s i o n is also quite restricted by the t y p e of v e r b w i t h w h i c h it can be u s e d . It occurs fairly freely w i t h intransitive v e r b s w h i c h do n o t h a v e complements: Depuis quand travaille Pierre? How long has Pierre been working? Use of question words and phrases 341 A n d w h e n t h e q u e s t i o n e d p h r a s e is itself a direct object: Quel vin recommande le patron? Which wine does the patron recommend? But it is not acceptable w h e n an intransitive v e r b h a s an adverbial c o m p l e m e n t : NOT *Depuis quand travaille Pierre dans la cuisine? How long has Pierre been working in the kitchen? or w i t h transitive v e r b s w h e n the direct object is present: NOT *Depuis quand connaît Pierre Marie? NOT *Où va manger Pierre des escargots? NOT *A qui a donné Paul ce livre? How long has Pierre known Marie? Where is Pierre going to eat snails? To whom did Paul give this book? 14.4 O r d e r of object pronouns in questions involving inversion The o r d e r of u n s t r e s s e d object p r o n o u n s is unaffected by the inversion of the subject a n d v e r b i n questions: Elle en a parlé à Charley She spoke of it to Charley En a-t-elle parlé à Charley? Did she speak of it to Charley? Il le lui avait prêté He lent it to her Le lui avait-il prêté? Did he lend it to her? Jean te le dira ]ean will tell you so Jean te le dira-t-il? Will Jean tell you so? Ils me l'ont donné They gave it to me Pourquoi me l'ont-ils donné? Why did they give it to me? 14.5 O r d e r of negative particles in questions involving inversion The p o s i t i o n of n e g a t i v e particles is unaffected by t h e inversion of the subject a n d v e r b i n questions: Tu n'as jamais fait cela You have never done that N'as-tu jamais fait cela? Have you never done that? Vous n'avez pas vu cet homme You haven't seen this man Qui n'avez-vous pas vu? Who haven't you seen? Ils ne leur écrivent plus They don't write to them any more Pourquoi ne leur écrivent-ils plus? Why don't they write to them any more? 14.6 Use of question words and phrases: qui?, que?, quoi?, quel?, de qui?, avec combien de? etc. 14.6.1 quil qui? typically translates English ' w h o ? ' , ' w h o m ? ' w h e t h e r subject, direct object or object of a preposition: 342 Question formation Subject Qui a pris le tire-bouchon? Who took the corkscrew? Direct object Qui Robert invite-t-il à dîner? Who is Robert inviting to dinner? Object of a preposition A qui la journaliste a-t-elle posé la question? Who did the reporter put the question to? De qui parlez-vous? Who are you talking about? Contre qui avait-il joué? Who had he played against? Sur qui peut-on compter? Who can one count on? 14.6.2 que?, quoi? que?, quoi? typically translate English ' w h a t ? ' . Que? is u s e d to q u e s t i o n direct objects w h i c h are m o v e d to the front of the sentence: Que dit-il? Qu'est-il arrivé? Que sont-ils devenus? Que boiront les invités? What does he say? What's happened? What's become of them? What will the guests drink? que? c a n n o t be u s e d to q u e s t i o n subjects, rather qu'est-ce qui? is u s e d (see 14.3.6): Qu'est-ce qui lui est arrivé? What happened to him? NOT *Que lui est arrivé? Qu'est-ce qui a taché le mur? What made that mess on the wall? NOT *Qu'a fait cela? quoi? is u s e d to q u e s t i o n direct objects w h i c h are n o t m o v e d to the front of the sentence. It is also u s e d to form q u e s t i o n s related to the objects of p r e p o s i t i o n s ; in this u s e it can be m o v e d to the front of the sentence: Direct object Elles cherchent quoi? Ça ouvre quoi, ça? Tu seras quoi dans un an? What are they looking for? What does that thing open? What will you be a year from now? Object of a preposition A quoi pensent-elles? What are they thinking about? Avec quoi a-t-il coupé le pain? What did he cut the bread with? On peut miser sur quoi? What can one bank on? Contre quoi est-ce que les gens manifestent? What are people demonstrating against? De quoi elle a parlé si longtemps? What did she speak about for such a long time? que? a n d quoi? can b o t h be u s e d w i t h infinitives to form questions. Que? is u s e d at the front of m a i n clauses: Que faire? Que faire de ces valises? Que dire? What is to be done? What shall we do with these suitcases? What can I say? Use of question words and phrases 343 quoi? is u s e d in s u b o r d i n a t e clauses, a n d in m a i n clauses w h e r e the question w o r d is n o t fronted: Elle a demandé quoi faire de ses valises She asked what she should do with her suitcases je rentre tout de suite - Faire quoi? I'm going home immediately - To do what? NB: Quoi de neuf? ' W h a t ' s n e w ? ' 14.6.3 quel?, quelle?, quels?, quelles? quel?, quelle?, etc are u s e d to form q u e s t i o n s b a s e d on n o u n s a n d n o u n phrases: quel livre?, quelle page?, quels manuscrits?, quelles jolies fleurs? Notice that quel? agrees in g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r w i t h the n o u n . Q u e s t i o n p h r a s e s involving quel? can be subjects, direct objects or objects of prepositions: Subject Quelle écrivaine n'a pas rêvé d'être célèbre? What writer hasn't dreamt of being famous? Quel bruit a effrayé les oiseaux? What noise frightened the birds? NB: W h e n a quel p h r a s e is a subject it is n o t possible to invert subject a n d v e r b or u s e est-ce que?: NOT *Quelle écrivaine n'a-t-elle pas rêvé d'être célèbre? NOT *Quelle écrivaine est-ce qu'elle n'a pas rêvé d'être célèbre? Object Quel film tu recommanderais? Quel film est-ce que tu recommanderais? Quel film recommanderais-tu? Quelles fleurs fosette a-t-elle cueillies? Which film would Which film would Which film would Which flowers did Object of a preposition A quelle heure part Pierre? De quelle ville est-ce que vous parlez? Il était arrivé dans quel train? What time does Pierre leave? Which town are you talking about? Which train did he arrive on? you recommend? you recommend? you recommend? Josette pick? Sous quel arbre vous avez planté les jonquilles? Which tree did you plant the daffodils under? Par quelle route les cyclistes sont-ils partis? By which road did the cyclists leave? With t h e v e r b être, quel? is s e p a r a t e d from the n o u n p h r a s e w i t h w h i c h it agrees: Quels sont les atouts de votre équipe? Quels sont vos favoris? Quelle est la région que tu préfères? What are the strengths of your team? Which are your favourites? Which is the region you prefer? N B : Quel est cet homme? ' W h o is this m a n ? ' , Quelle est cette femme? ' W h o is this w o m a n ? ' are alternatives to Qui est cet homme?, Qui est cette femme? 344 Question formation 14.6.4 lequel?, laquelle?, lesquels?, lesquelles? lequel?, laquelle? ... etc. ask ' w h i c h ' n o u n or n o u n p h r a s e w h e n there is a choice o f m o r e t h a n one. The form u s e d agrees i n g e n d e r a n d n u m b e r w i t h the n o u n or n o u n p h r a s e it questions, w h e t h e r this is p r e s e n t in the s a m e sentence, or is u n d e r s t o o d from the context: Laquelle de ces couleurs préférez-vous? Laquelle préférez-vous? Which of these colours do you prefer? Which do you prefer? Lesquels des élèves avez-vous choisis pour l'équipe? Lesquels avez-vous choisis? Which of the pupils have you chosen for the team? Which have you chosen? Elle a enfin décidé quelle robe elle va acheter Laquelle? She has finally decided which dress she is going to buy Which one? W h e n the p h r a s e i n v o l v i n g lequel? is the direct object, a n d s o m e t i m e s w h e n it is the subject of an intransitive v e r b , it is possible to separate lequel? from the n o u n p h r a s e i t modifies: Laquelle préférez-vous de ces couleurs? Which of these colours do you prefer? Lequel chante le mieux de ces deux solistes? Which of these two soloists sings the best? N B : W h e n a lequel? p h r a s e is the subject of a sentence, it is n o t possible to u s e est-ce que? or to invert subject a n d verb: NOT *Lequel des deux solistes est-ce qu'il chante le mieux? NOT *Lequel des deux solistes chante-t-il le mieux? 14.6.5 combien? combien? ' h o w m u c h ? ' , ' h o w m a n y ? ' m a y b e u s e d o n its o w n : Combien est-ce que ça coûte? How much does that cost? Combien sont déjà arrivés? How many have already arrived? Or it m a y be u s e d w i t h a following prepositional p h r a s e : Combien de pain nous reste-t-il? How much bread do we have left? Combien de spectateurs assistaient au How many spectators were there at match? the match? combien (de)? can be u s e d to q u e s t i o n subjects, direct objects a n d objects of prepositions: Subject Combien d'invités sont déjà arrivés? How many guests have already arrived? Direct object Combien d'enfants ont-ils? How many children do they have? Object of a preposition Avec combien d'argent est-il parti à l'étranger? How much money did he go abroad with? Use of question words and phrases 345 W h e n combien? is u s e d alone a n d functions as a direct object, the p r o n o u n en is required: Combien en as-tu vu? Combien est-ce qu'ils en ont tués? How many did you see? How many did they kill? NB: W h e n combien? is the subject of the sentence, it is n o t possible to use estce que or invert the subject a n d the verb: NOT "Combien de joueurs est-ce qu'ils ont participé au concours? NOT "Combien de joueurs ont-ils participé au concours? A l t h o u g h combien? translates ' h o w m u c h ' , ' h o w m a n y ' , it c a n n o t be u s e d to translate English ' h o w + a d j e c t i v e / a d v e r b ' like ' h o w big?', ' h o w tall?', ' h o w often?', etc. (For these see 14.6.8.) 14.6.6 comment? comment? u s u a l l y translates English ' h o w ? ' w h e n it is n o t followed by an adjective or a d v e r b (i.e. n o t ' h o w big?', ' h o w often?', etc.): Comment Comment Comment Comment Comment allez-vous? va votre mère? est-ce qu'elle va? s'étaient-ils comportés? allez-vous réparer le moteur? Comment cela se prononce-t-il? How are you? How is your mother? How is she? How had they behaved? How are you going to repair the engine? How is this pronounced? comment? also translates ' w h a t ? ' w i t h the v e r b appeler: Comment tu t'appelles? Comment appelez-vous ce monument? or Comment ce monument s'appelle-t-il? What's your name? What is this monument called? 14.6.7 où?, quand?, pourquoi? où? a n d quand? translate English ' w h e r e ? ' a n d ' w h e n ? ' respectively, a n d are u s e d in t h e s a m e r a n g e of information q u e s t i o n constructions as the other q u e s tion w o r d s : Où Où Où Où vous habitez? habitez-vous? est-ce que vous habitez? Pierre habite-t-il? Quand Quand Quand Quand vous partez? partez-vous? est-ce que vous partez? Pierre partira-t-il? Where do you live? Where do you live? Where do you live? Where does Pierre live? When When When When are you leaving? are you leaving? are you leaving? will Pierre leave? W h e n the v e r b is être, 'stylistic i n v e r s i o n ' of the subject is n o r m a l w i t h où? a n d quand? (see 14.3.7): Où est le portefeuille? Quand est son anniversaire? Where's the wallet? When's his birthday? pourquoi? ' w h y ? ' is u s e d in the s a m e w a y as the other t w o q u e s t i o n w o r d s except that it c a n n o t be u s e d w i t h stylistic inversion: 346 Question formation Pourquoi Pourquoi Pourquoi Pourquoi il a déménagé? a-t-il déménagé? est-ce qu'il a déménagé? Pierre a-t-il déménagé? Why has Why has Why has Why has he moved? he moved? he moved? Pierre moved? b u t N O T *Pourquoi a déménagé Pierre? 14.6.8 Translating 'how big?', 'how fast?', 'how often?', etc. W h e r e a s English ' h o w ? ' can q u e s t i o n adjectives a n d a d v e r b s directly, in French there is no s i m p l e equivalent. For ' H o w b i g is the table?' y o u C A N N O T say things like: Commen • t grande est la table? *Combien grande est la table? Instead, alternative expressions h a v e t o b e found: De quelle taille est la table? Avec quelle fréquence y allez-vous? Est-ce souvent que vous y allez? Dans quelle mesure en êtes-vous certain? Dans quelle mesure accepteriez-vous de faire cela? How big is the table? How often do you go there? How often do you go there? How certain are you? How happy would you be to do that? 14.7 Indirect questions Indirect q u e s t i o n s are q u e s t i o n s w h i c h are r e p o r t e d as h a v i n g a l r e a d y b e e n a s k e d . T h e y are i n t r o d u c e d by v e r b s like comprendre, demander, se demander, dire, expliquer, savoir. Qui est venu? Elle a demandé qui était venu She asked who came (direct question) (indirect question) Quel piège est-ce qu'on lui tend? (direct question) Il n'arrive pas à comprendre quel piège on (indirect question) lui tend He hasn't grasped what kind of trap they are setting for him Quand arrivera-t-il? Dites-moi quand il arrivera Tell me when he will arrive (direct question) (indirect question) 14.7.1 W o r d order in indirect questions There is no subject-verb inversion in indirect questions: Où sont-ils? fe ne sais pas où ils sont I don't know where they are NOT *Je ne sais pas où sont-ils Pourquoi Marie est-elle revenue? Dites-moi pourquoi Marie est revenue Tell me why Marie came back NOT *Dites-moi pourquoi Marie est-elle revenue Indirect questions 347 14.7.2 si in indirect questions Direct y e s / n o questions are introduced by si 'if, whether' when they become indirect questions: Est-ce que Julie viendra demain? Je me demande si Julie viendra demain I wonder if Julie will corne tomorroiv A-t-il bien compris? On ne sait jamais s'il a bien compris One never knows whether he has understood properly NB: This use of si should not be confused with si used to introduce hypothetical clauses like: Si elle m'aimait, elle m'écrirait 'If she loved me, she would write to me'. In hypothetical si clauses the verb cannot appear in future or conditional tenses (see Chapter 10.8). In indirect questions introduced by si it may do so. 14.7.3 ce qui and ce que in indirect questions qu'est-ce qui? in a direct question becomes ce qui in an indirect question; que? or qu'est-ce que? becomes ce que in an indirect question: Qu'est-ce qui a ravagé les champs des Dupont? On ne sait pas ce qui a ravagé les champs des Dupont They don't know what ruined the Duponts' fields Qu'est-ce qui est arrivé? Elle se demande ce qui est arrivé She wonders what happened Que dit-il? Je ne comprends pas ce qu'il dit I don't understand what he's saying Qu'est-ce que Pierre fera? II a expliqué ce que Pierre ferait He explained what Pierre would do All other question words remain the same: Elle lui demande à qui il écrivait Je ne sais plus de quoi elle parlait Je ne sais pas laquelle lui plaît le plus She is asking him who he was writing to I no longer know what she was talking about I don't know which he likes more 14.7.4 Tense in indirect questions The tense of a verb in a direct question may change if it becomes an indirect question (see Chapter 10.7). This depends on the tense of the verb which introduces the indirect question (i.e. the tense of comprendre, demander, dire, etc.). If the introducing verb is in the present, future or conditional, the tense of the verb in the indirect question remains the same as in the direct question: Chante-t-il? Quand a-t-il chanté? Qui avait chanté? 7s he singing? When did he sing? Who had sung? 348 Question formation Elle ne sait pas s'il chante/quand il a chanté/qui avait chanté She doesn't know if he sings/when he sang/who sang W h e n t h e i n t r o d u c i n g v e r b is in the past, h o w e v e r , the v e r b in t h e indirect q u e s t i o n b e c o m e s imperfect or pluperfect if in t h e direct q u e s t i o n it is in the p r e s e n t or past: Elle ne savait pas s'il chantait/quand il avait chanté/qui avait chanté She didn't know if he sang, when he had sung, who had sung a n d it b e c o m e s conditional in t h e indirect q u e s t i o n if it is in the future or conditional in t h e direct question: Chantera-t-il? Qui chanterait? Will he sing? Who would sing? Elle ne savait pas s'il chanterait/ qui chanterait She didn't know if he would sing/ who would sing 15 Relative clauses 15.1 Introduction Clauses within a sentence which modify noun phrases or pronouns are known as 'relative clauses'. The noun phrases/pronouns in italics in the following examples are modified by relative clauses in bold: Il y avait deux hommes qui sortaient une armoire à glace du camion Two men were getting a wardrobe out of the lorry C'est lui qui me l'a donné He is the one who gave it to me La clef qu'il a utilisée pour ouvrir la porte est un vieux double The key he used to open the door is an old spare C'est là qu'on creusera le trou There's where we will dig the hole Elle a acheté une vieille boutique dont il ne restait plus que les quatre murs She bought an old shop of which only the four walls remained C'est le moment où la locomotive se remet en marche It's the moment when the train starts off again Il y a plusieurs arbres sur lesquels on a cloué des pancartes There are several trees on which notices have been nailed Relative clauses are introduced by relative pronouns like qui, que, dont, où, sur lesquels, . . . To choose the right relative pronoun you need to know the implied grammatical role played by the 'head' noun phrase/pronoun (those in italics above) in the relative clause. In La clef qu'il a utilisée pour ouvrir la porte est un vieux double the noun phrase la clef is understood as the object of utiliser in the relative clause: il a utilisé la clef pour ouvrir la porte. This determines the choice of que as the linking relative pronoun. In C'est lui qui me l'a donné the pronoun lui is understood as the subject of donner in the relative clause: il me l'a donné. This determines the choice of qui as the linking relative pronoun. Noun phrases/pronouns have a range of implied grammatical roles in the relative clause, each requiring a different form of relative pronoun: 350 Relative clauses Understood as subject On l'entend ouvrir la porte d'entrée qui se referme en claquant (la porte d'entrée se referme) He can be heard opening the front door which closes behind him with a bang Understood as direct object Elle découpe la tarte qu'elle a sortie du four (elle a sorti la tarte du four) She is cutting up the pie which she got out of the oven Understood as object of a preposition La vedette à qui j'ai écrit ne m'a jamais répondu (j'ai écrit à la vedette) The star to whom I wrote has never replied to me J'ai acheté le texte auquel il a fait référence (il a fait référence au texte) / bought the text he was referring to Ils habitaient un appartement derrière lequel il y avait un abattoir (il y avait un abattoir derrière l'appartement) They lived in a flat behind which there was an abattoir Voici l'hôtel dans lequel il a passé les dernières années de sa vie (il a passé les dernières années de sa vie dans l'hôtel) This is the hotel where he spent the last years of his life 15.2 Use of relative qui qui is the relative p r o n o u n u s e d w h e n the n o u n p h r a s e or p r o n o u n h e a d i n g a relative clause is the i m p l i e d subject of that relative clause, w h e t h e r animate or i n a n i m a t e : Il y avait deux hommes qui sortaient une armoire à glace du camion (deux hommes sortaient une armoire . . .) Two men were getting a wardrobe out of the lorry Quand on voit quelqu'un qui se noie il faut essayer de le sauver (quelqu'un se noie) When you see someone drowning you should try to save them Je l'ai croisé dans l'escalier qui mène à la cave (l'escalier mène à la cave) 7 passed him on the stairs which lead to the cellar C'est un ouvrage qui allie histoire, suspense et qualité (l'ouvrage allie histoire, suspense et qualité) It's a book which marries history, suspense and quality NB: voilà a n d voici m a y also h e a d subject relative clauses: Voilà/voici qui complique les choses That's something which complicates matters 15.2.1 Je l'ai vu qui . . . With p e r c e p t i o n verbs like voir, regarder, entendre, apercevoir, etc., a construction i n v o l v i n g relative qui can translate an English p r e s e n t participle construction: Use of relative que 351 Je l'ai vu qui sortait J saw him leaving Elle l'a entendu qui chantait dans son bain She heard him singing in his bath 15.2.2 Use of relative qui for celui qui, celle qui, ceux qui, celles qui Sometimes relative qui m a y be u s e d alone w i t h the s a m e m e a n i n g as celui qui/que, celle qui/que, ceux qui/que, celles qui/que. Such constructions are k n o w n as 'free' relative clauses (see also 15.9): Tout est possible à qui sait ménager son effort Everything is possible for he who knows how to harness his energies J'ai invité qui vous savez I invited you know who 15.3 Use of relative que que is t h e relative p r o n o u n u s e d w h e n the n o u n p h r a s e or p r o n o u n h e a d i n g the relative clause is t h e i m p l i e d direct object of t h e relative clause, w h e t h e r animate or i n a n i m a t e : L'homme qu'on vient d'appeler Rossi se lève (on appelle l'homme Rossi) The man who has just been called Rossi gets up Elle est née dans le village qu'on a détruit pour faire le barrage (on a détruit le village) She was born in the village which they destroyed to build the dam Elle découpe la tarte qu'elle a sortie du four (elle a sorti la tarte du four) She is cutting up the pie which she got out of the oven J'ai toujours souffert du nom que je porte (je porte ce nom) I have always suffered because of my name C'est un poste que j'aurais aimé avoir (j'aurais aimé avoir ce poste) It's a job that I would have liked to have had Unlike English, the relative p r o n o u n i n French m a y n e v e r b e omitted: NOT *C'est un poste j'aurais aimé NOT *Elle est née dans le village on a détruit pour faire le barrage etc. NB: The p a s t participle agrees w i t h feminine a n d p l u r a l n o u n p h r a s e s o r p r o n o u n s w h i c h h e a d object relative clauses, as in: . . . la tarte qu'elle a sortie du four This is b e c a u s e la tarte is an instance of a p r e c e d i n g direct object, a n d p a s t participles agree w i t h p r e c e d i n g direct objects (see C h a p t e r 9.3.4). 352 Relative clauses 15.4 Preposition plus qui W h e n the n o u n p h r a s e or p r o n o u n h e a d i n g a relative clause is the implied object of a p r e p o s i t i o n in that relative clause, a n d is furthermore animate, the n o r m a l relative p r o n o u n to u s e is qui (except w h e n the preposition is de - see 15.6 b e l o w ) : à Le touriste à qui j'ai parlé vient du Québec (j'ai parlé au touriste) The tourist I spoke to cornes from Quebec en C'est un commerçant en qui on peut avoir confiance (on peut avoir confiance en ce commerçant) He's a shopkeeper in whom one can have confidence sur L'intermédiaire sur qui on comptait s'est avéré malhonnête (on comptait sur l'intermédiaire) The go-between we were counting on turned out to be dishonest par Je recommanderais le garagiste par qui j'ai eu cette voiture (j'ai eu cette voiture par le garagiste) I would recommend the garage I got this car from avec II n'a jamais revu le camarade avec qui il jouait quand ils étaient petits (il jouait avec ce camarade) He has never again seen the friend he used to play with when they were little pour Elle a invité son professeur, pour qui elle a beaucoup de respect, à diner (elle a beaucoup de respect pour son professeur) She has invited her teacher, for whom she has a great deal of respect, to dinner près de Le jeune homme près de qui il est assis le reconnaît (il est assis près du jeune homme) The young man next to whom he's sitting recognizes him NB: W h e n objects of the p r e p o s i t i o n s parmi a n d entre are a n i m a t e , the n o r m a l relative p r o n o u n to u s e is lesquels or lesquelles (see 15.5), a n d n o t qui: Un groupe d'universitaires parmi lesquels on compte des Américains A group of academics amongst whom there are Americans Des collègues entre lesquelles il n'y avait aucune rivalité Colleagues between whom there was no rivalry 15.5 Use of lequel in relative clauses W h e n the n o u n p h r a s e or p r o n o u n h e a d i n g a relative clause is the implied object of a p r e p o s i t i o n , a n d is i n a n i m a t e , the n o r m a l relative p r o n o u n to u s e is one of the forms of lequel (except in the case of de: see 15.6). Lequel h a s the following forms: Use of lequel in relative clauses 353 Singular Plural Masculine lequel lesquels Feminine laquelle lesquelles Furthermore, the le-, la- etc. components combine with a preceding à or de to form: Singular Plural Singular Plural Masculine auquel auxquels duquel desquels Feminine à laquelle auxquelles de laquelle desquelles à Le texte auquel il a fait référence ... The text he referred to ... La conférence à laquelle je vais participer ... The conference in which I shall be taking part ... dans Cela illustre les contradictions dans lesquelles s'enferme la Grande-Bretagne That illustrates the contradictions within which Great Britain is locked autour Elle habite une maison autour de laquelle il y a une haie de lauriers She lives in a house around which there is a laurel hedge durant Des weekends interminables, durant lesquels je ne savais quoi faire Interminable weekends during which I didn't know what to do NB: English 'The r e a s o n w h y . . . ' is t r a n s l a t e d in French by La raison pour laquelle ... and N O T *La raison pourquoi The p r e p o s i t i o n s parmi a n d entre are followed by lesquels/lesquelles w h e t h e r the implied object is a n i m a t e or i n a n i m a t e : Un groupe d'universitaires parmi lesquels on compte des Américains A group of academics amongst whom there are Americans Des collègues entre lesquelles il n'y avait aucune rivalité Colleagues between whom there was no rivalry Des papiers parmi lesquels j'ai trouvé notre arbre généalogique Papers among which 1 found our family tree Des haies entre lesquelles il avait planté des rosiers Hedges between which he had planted rose bushes 15.5.1 Use of lequel as a subject and object relative pronoun The u s e of lequel as a relative p r o n o u n w h e r e the h e a d of the relative clause is an i m p l i e d subject or object is literary a n d extremely rare (it is also u s e d in F r e n c h legal texts). It is u s u a l l y said that lequel is u s e d in this w a y either to a v o i d ambiguity, or to a v o i d the repetition of qui: 354 Relative clauses Il allait se marier avec la sœur d'un collègue de travail, laquelle avait fait ses études en Autriche He was going to marry the sister of a colleague from work who had studied in Austria laquelle is u s e d h e r e to m a k e it clear that t h e p e r s o n w h o h a d s t u d i e d in A u s t r i a is t h e sœur, r a t h e r t h a n t h e collègue - laquelle can o n l y refer to sœur, w h e r e a s qui c o u l d refer to either sœur or collègue. 15.6 Use of dont, de qui, duquellde laquelle!desquels!desquelles 15.6.1 dont W h e n t h e n o u n p h r a s e or p r o n o u n h e a d i n g a relative clause is t h e i m p l i e d object of de in t h a t relative clause, dont is t h e n o r m a l relative p r o n o u n to use, w h e t h e r t h e object of t h e p r e p o s i t i o n is a n i m a t e or i n a n i m a t e : Cela représente un effort dont je suis parfaitement capable (je suis capable de l'effort) That is an effort 1 am capable of La maladie dont il est mort (il est mort de cette maladie) The illness from which he died The de p h r a s e w h i c h is t u r n e d into dont m a y itself be the c o m p l e m e n t of a n o t h e r noun phrase: Une collègue dont le frère est en Amérique du Sud (le frère de ma collègue est en Amérique du Sud) A colleague whose brother is in South America Une maison dont les volets étaient fermés (les volets de la maison étaient fermés) A house whose shutters were closed W h e n t h e de p h r a s e w h i c h t u r n s into dont is t h e c o m p l e m e n t of an object, dont is s e p a r a t e d from the object, u n l i k e in English: Une collègue dont j'ai rencontré le frère pendant mes vacances (j'ai rencontré le frère de cette collègue . . .) A colleague whose brother I met on holiday Une maison dont on avait fermé les volets (on avait fermé les volets de cette maison) A house whose shutters had been closed N B : dont c a n be u s e d to translate English ' i n c l u d i n g ' a n d 'of w h i c h ' in sentences like: Il y a 30 moulins dans la région, dont 28 désaffectés There are 30 mills in the region, including 28 out of commission Trois personnes sont arrivées, dont Pierre Three people arrived, including Pierre Ils en ont acheté presque une centaine, dont plusieurs valaient très cher They bought almost a hundred of them, some of which were worth a lot of money The use of où as a relative pronoun 355 J'en ai vu trois hier, dont une verte I saw three of them yesterday, one of which was green 15.6.2 Cases where dont may not be used Where a de phrase is itself the complement of a prepositional phrase - as in il s'intéresse à la vie de cet écrivain - dont may not be used. Nor may dont be used after a complex preposition which ends in de such as à l'intérieur de, au bout de, auprès de, autour de, à côté de, en face de, en dehors de, au delà de, en dépit de, près de. Instead either de qui (for animates) or duquel, etc. (for both animates and inanimates) must be used. Speakers have a strong preference for using duquel etc.: un écrivain à la vie duquel (or, possibly, de qui) il s'intéresse a writer in whose life he is interested une voiture sur le capot de laquelle était assis un mannequin a car on whose bonnet was sitting a model Elle portait un blazer dans la poche duquel il y avait une lettre She was wearing a blazer in whose pocket there was a letter Nous avons dû vendre la maison à l'intérieur de laquelle se trouvaient nos plus belles moquettes We had to sell the house in which were our most beautiful carpets Le cheval blanc se trouve dans le champ à côté duquel nous avons pique-niqué The white horse is in the field near which we had a picnic NB: duquel, etc. agrees with the head of the relative clause in gender and number: une voiture sur le capot de laquelle (de laquelle agrees with voiture and not capot), un blazer dans la poche duquel (duquel agrees with blazer and not poche). 15.7 The use of où as a relative pronoun 15.7.1 To refer to place où is used as a relative pronoun where the noun phrase or pronoun heading a relative clause is understood to be a place adverb in that relative clause: La station balnéaire où j'ai passé mes vacances (j'ai passé mes vacances dans cette station balnéaire) The seaside resort where I spent my holidays Un ponton où des bateaux sont amarrés (des bateaux sont amarrés au ponton) A pier to which boats are moored Là où j'ai rangé ma voiture (j'ai rangé ma voiture là) The place where I've parked my car Since many prepositional phrases describing a place also function as place adverbs (see Chapter 5.6.16) relative clauses involving où may be interchangeable with relative clauses involving a preposition plus a form of lequel: La station balnéaire dans laquelle j'ai passé mes vacances Un ponton auquel des bateaux sont amarrés 356 Relative clauses However, où is by far the more frequent in modern French. où may itself be preceded by prepositions like de, par: Le pays d'où il vient The country he comes from La porte par où elle est entrée The door she came through 15.7.2 To refer to t i m e où is also used where the noun phrase or pronoun heading a relative clause is an implied time adverbial in that relative clause, and is definite. This use is usually translated in English by 'when': C'est le moment où la locomotive se remet en marche It's the moment when the train restarts A l'époque où elle était encore étudiante At the time when she was still a student Similar expressions are: le jour où ... à l'heure où ... au temps où ... à la saison où ... the day when ... at the time (of day) when ... in the days when ... during the season when ... This use of où with definite noun phrases contrasts with the case where the head noun phrase or pronoun is indefinite. Here que is used: Un jour que je sortais One day when I was going out Une fois qu'elle rendait visite à sa tante Once when she ivas visiting her aunt In modern spoken French, que is often also used where the head is definite (rather than où): A l'heure qu'il est, on ne sait toujours pas s'il va se rétablir At the time of speaking, we still don't know if he is going to recover NB: Although English uses 'when' in constructions like these, quand cannot be used in French: NOT *C'est le moment quand la locomotive se remet en marche NOT *Un jour quand je sortais 15.8 Use of relative quoi quoi is found as a relative pronoun mainly in written French. Where the head of the relative clause is rien, quelque chose, ce or a clause, and is understood as the object of a preposition in the relative clause, quoi is used: Il n'y a rien sur quoi on puisse se baser (on ne peut se baser sur rien) There is nothing on which one can rely Free relative clauses 357 C'est quelque chose à quoi on peut s'intéresser (s'intéresser à quelque chose) It's something you can get interested in Ce à quoi tu fais référence (tu fais référence à quelque chose) The thing you are referring to Finissez votre travail, après quoi on peut dîner (on peut dîner après que vous avez fini votre travail) Finish your work, after which we can have dinner de quoi used as the subject of an infinitive means 'something': On a ramené de quoi boire We brought back something to drink I5.9 Free relative clauses and t h e use of ce qui, ce que, ce dont, ce à quoi, ce sur quoi, etc. Ordinary relative clauses are headed by noun phrases or pronouns present in the main clause: Elle a vu les congressistes (head) qui assistaient à la réunion (relative clause) She saw the delegates who were present at the meeting In 'free' relative clauses the head is non-specific: Elle a vu ceux qui assistaient à la réunion She saw who was present at the meeting Ils avaient remarqué celui que Jo préférait They had noticed who Jo preferred When the non-specific head is understood to be human, celui qui/que, celle qui/que, etc., are the appropriate relative pronouns, as in the above examples. When the non-specific head is understood to be non-human, ce qui and ce que are used: ce qui where the non-specific head is understood as the subject of the relative clause; ce que where the non-specific head is understood as the object: Subject On a réparé ce qui était cassé (quelque chose était cassé) They repaired what was broken Je ferai ce qui me plaira (quelque chose me plaira) VU do what I please Direct object Je crois ce qu'il dit (il dit quelque chose) I believe what he says On a vu ce que cela a produit (cela a produit quelque chose) We saw what that produced 358 Relative clauses Both ce qui a n d ce que m a y be p r e c e d e d by tout 'all': Il s'est mis à détruire tout ce qui était à sa portée He began to destroy everything that was within his reach On a vu tout ce que cela a produit We saw all that that produced N B : ce is obligatory in these cases: N O T *. . . tout qu était à sa portée; N O T *... tout que cela a produit. W h e r e the non-specific h e a d is n o n - h u m a n a n d is u n d e r s t o o d as the object of a p r e p o s i t i o n in the relative clause, ce + p r e p o s i t i o n + quoi is used: Dis-moi ce à quoi tu penses Tell me what you are thinking Ne jette pas ce sur quoi j'écrivais Don't throw out what I was writing on Je vais te dire ce en quoi j'ai confiance I'll tell you what I have confidence in W h e n ' w h a t ' or ' w h i c h ' are u n d e r s t o o d as t h e object of de, ce dont is u s e d : Elle a envoyé ce dont on avait besoin She sent what we needed 15.9.1 Use of ce qui, ce que, ce dont, ce à quoi, etc., to refer to events C o m p a r e the following: On a volé le magnétoscope qui était dans l'amphithéâtre Someone has stolen the video recorder which was in the lecture hall On a volé ce qui était dans l'amphithéâtre Someone has stolen what was in the lecture hall On a volé le magnétoscope, ce qui va interrompre les cours Someone has stolen the video recorder, which will disrupt classes In the first sentence the relative clause qui était dans l'amphithéâtre modifies the n o u n p h r a s e le magnétoscope. In the s e c o n d sentence there is a 'free relative' w h e r e the h e a d is non-specific. In the third sentence the relative clause m o d i fies the w h o l e p r e c e d i n g clause: on a volé le magnétoscope. ce qui, ce que, ce dont, ce à quoi, etc. are u s e d n o t only to i n t r o d u c e free relatives, b u t also to i n t r o d u c e relative clauses w h i c h modify p r e c e d i n g clauses: Il a manqué le train, ce qui l'a mis en colère He missed the train, which made him angry (the missing of the train made him angry, not the train itself) On craint un durcissement dans l'attitude officielle, ce qui pourrait accroître les difficultés A hardening of the official attitude is feared, which could increase the difficulties Elle a réussi à le persuader, ce que je n'aurais jamais cru possible She succeeded in persuading him, which I would never have thought possible Translating 'whoever', 'whatever', 'wherever', 'whenever', 'however' 359 NB: W h e r e a relative clause modifies an event, qui a n d que alone c a n n o t be used: NOT *I1 a manqué le train, qui l'a mis en colère NOT *Elle a réussi à le persuader, que je n'aurais jamais cru possible W h e r e t h e v e r b is indirectly transitive a n d e n d s in de, t w o constructions m a y be possible: o n e u s i n g ce dont a n d o n e u s i n g de ce que. ce dont is u s e d w h e n the head w o r d is p r e s e n t , de ce que is u s e d w h e n there is no h e a d w o r d , ce dont is normally r e n d e r e d into English in these constructions by ' w h i c h ' ; de ce que is normally r e n d e r e d by ' w h a t ' or 'that'. This concerns verbs such as: féliciter qn de qc, excuser qn de qc, s'inquiéter de qc, s'irriter de qc, profiter de qc, souffrir de qc, and adjectival constructions such as être reconnaissant de qc, être stupéfait de qc. Vous avez réalisé votre projet. Je vous félicite (de qc). You have succeeded in your project. I congratulate you (on something) Vous avez réalisé votre projet, ce dont je vous félicite You have succeeded in your project, on which I congratulate you Je vous félicite de ce que vous avez réalisé I congratulate you on what you have achieved Ils ont fait des bêtises. Ils devront s'excuser (de qc) They did some silly things. They will have to apologize (for sth) Ils ont fait des bêtises, ce dont ils devront s'excuser They did some silly things, for which they will have to apologize Ils devront s'excuser de ce qu'ils ont fait They will have to apologize for what they did Vous avez fait énormément de choses pour nous. Je suis très reconnaissant (de qc) You have done a great deal for us. I am very grateful (for sth) Vous avez fait énormément de choses pour nous, ce dont je suis très reconnaissant You have done a great deal for us, for which I am very grateful Je suis très reconnaissant de ce que vous avez fait pour nous / am very grateful for what you have done for us Vous êtes venu. Je suis stupéfait (de qc) You came. I am astonished (about sth) Vous êtes venu, ce dont je suis stupéfait You came, which astonishes me Je suis stupéfait de ce que vous soyez venu I am astonished that you should have come 15.10 Translating 'whoever', 'whatever', 'wherever', 'whenever', 'however' 'whoever' ' w h o e v e r ' , u n d e r s t o o d as the subject of a relative clause, is quiconque, a n d the verb in the relative clause is in the indicative: 360 Relative clauses Ils accueillent quiconque arrive They welcome whoever cornes ' w h o e v e r ' , u n d e r s t o o d as the direct object of a relative clause, is qui que, and the v e r b in the relative clause is in the subjunctive: Qui que vous nommiez, je lui mènerai la vie dure Whoever you appoint, I'll make his life a misery N B : quel'que m a y also m e a n ' w h o e v e r ' w h e n u s e d w i t h être: Quel qu'il soit, je l'accueillerai Whovever he is, I'll let him in 'whatever' ' w h a t e v e r ' , u n d e r s t o o d as the subject of a relative clause, is quoi qui. W h e n it is u n d e r s t o o d as the object it is quoi que. In b o t h cases the v e r b in the relative clause is in the subjunctive: Quoi qui puisse arriver Whatever may happen Quoi qu'il fasse Whatever he does NB: quoi que, m e a n i n g ' w h a t e v e r ' , s h o u l d be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the conjunction quoique ' a l t h o u g h ' , w h i c h is w r i t t e n as a single w o r d . ' w h a t e v e r X' u n d e r s t o o d as the subject of a relative clause is translated as in the following e x a m p l e s : Quel que soit le prix, je l'achèterai Quelles que soient ses intentions, méfie-toi Whatever the price may be, I'll buy it Whatever his intentions are, don't trust him N o t e t h a t quel a n d que are s e p a r a t e w o r d s , a n d t h a t quel agrees w i t h the n o u n w h i c h is the subject of the relative clause. ' w h a t e v e r X', ' w h i c h e v e r X' u n d e r s t o o d as the object of a relative clause is quelque(s), a n d the v e r b in the relative clause is in the subjunctive: Quelque livre que vous choisissiez, vous bénéficierez d'un rabais (vous allez choisir un livre) Whatever/whichever book you choose, we'll give you a discount Quelques efforts que vous fassiez, on ne vous en accordera aucun crédit (vous allez faire des efforts) Whatever efforts you make won't be recognized O n e w a y of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n the 'quelque + n o u n ' construction a n d the 'quel que + être + n o u n ' construction is to see if the v e r b in the relative clause can be o m i t t e d in English. If it can, u s e quel que, if it c a n n o t u s e quelque(s): Quel que soit le prix, je l'achèterai Whatever the price (may be), I'll buy it Indicative and subjunctive in relative clauses 361 Quelque livre que vous choisissiez, vous bénéficierez d'un rabais Whatever book you *(choose), we will give you a discount N B : être c a n n e v e r be o m i t t e d from t h e quel que constructions in French, e v e n t h o u g h ' b e ' can b e o m i t t e d i n English. 'wherever' ' w h e r e v e r ' is où que, w i t h the v e r b in the relative clause in the subjunctive: Où qu'il aille, nous le suivrons Wherever he goes, we'll follow him 'whenever' ' w h e n e v e r ' is toutes les fois que, à chaque fois que, or s i m p l y quand, w i t h the v e r b in the indicative: Toutes les fois qu'elle a un moment de libre, elle révise son vocabulaire Whenever she has a free moment she looks over her vocabulary 'however' ' h o w e v e r ' + an adjective h e a d i n g a relative clause can be translated in five ways: quelque si aussi + adjective + verb in the subjunctive + adjective + verb in the indicative pour tout However demanding they may be, we still have to respect our customers' needs Quelque {invariable) exigeants qu'ils soient, nous devons pourtant satisfaire nos clients Si exigeants qu'ils soient, nous devons pourtant satisfaire nos clients Aussi exigeants qu'ils soient, nous devons pourtant satisfaire nos clients Pour exigeants qu'ils soient, nous devons pourtant satisfaire nos clients Tout {invariable) exigeants qu'ils sont, nous devons pourtant satisfaire nos clients NB: the v e r b a n d subject m a y be i n v e r t e d after si a n d aussi as an alternative to the que construction, p r o v i d i n g that the subject is a p r o n o u n : Si exigeants soient-ils, ... Aussi exigeants soient-ils, ... 15.11 Indicative and subjunctive in relative clauses The v e r b in relative clauses u s u a l l y takes the indicative form, b u t there are s o m e k i n d s of relative clause w h e r e the v e r b is in t h e subjunctive. 362 Relative clauses 15.1 l.l qui que, quoi que, quel que, etc. qui que, quoi qui, quoi que, quel que, quelque, où que a n d si/aussi/pour are followed by a v e r b in the subjunctive (see 15.10 a n d also C h a p t e r 11.1.12): Qui que vous nommiez Quoi qui puisse arriver Quoi qu'il fasse Quelque livre que vous choisissiez Quelle que soit la réponse Quelque Si Aussi Pour grand qu'il soit Whoever you appoint Whatever may happen Whatever he does Whichever book you choose Whatever the response However big he is N B : quiconque ' w h o e v e r ' is followed by v e r b s in the indicative: Quiconque connaît une langue étrangère aura le poste Whoever can speak a foreign language will get the job 15.1 1.2 Relative clauses expressing hypothetical states of affairs Relative clauses w h i c h modify indefinite n o u n p h r a s e s a n d express a h y p o thetical, r a t h e r t h a n real, state of affairs, u s u a l l y h a v e a v e r b in t h e subjunctive (see C h a p t e r 11.1.12): Elle veut acheter une maison qui ait une piscine She wants to buy a house which has a swimming pool The subjunctive h e r e s u g g e s t s t h a t she h a s no particular h o u s e in m i n d - her h y p o t h e t i c a l l y ideal h o u s e w o u l d be o n e w i t h a s w i m m i n g pool. By contrast, a sentence like: Elle veut acheter une maison qui a une piscine She wants to buy a house which has a swimming pool s u g g e s t s that she k n o w s of a particular h o u s e w i t h a s w i m m i n g pool w h i c h she w o u l d like to buy. 15.1 1.3 Relative clauses modifying le premier, le dernier, le seul and superlatives W h e r e a relative clause modifies n o u n p h r a s e s involving le premier, le dernier, le seul or a s u p e r l a t i v e , w h i c h can be interpreted as 'the first e v e r ' , 'the last one e v e r ' , ' t h e only o n e e v e r ' , etc., t h e n the v e r b in the relative clause is in the s u b junctive (see C h a p t e r 11.1.8): C'était le premier film qui ait traité de ce sujet It was the first (ever) film that dealt with the topic Le dernier roman qu'il ait écrit avant de mourir The last (ever) novel he wrote before he died Le seul portrait que j'aie vu d'elle The only (ever) portrait I saw of her La femme la plus riche que nous ayons photographiée The richest (ever) woman whom we have photographed Indicative and subjunctive in relative clauses 363 Where the verb in the relative clause is in the indicative, however, the modified noun phrase is interpreted as just one of a set ('the first (of a set)', 'the last (of a set)', 'the biggest (of a set)', etc.): C'est le premier film que j'ai vu, et le plus beau de toute ma vie It's the first film (of the set of those I've seen) that I saw, and the finest one I've seen C'est le plus grand qui a gagné le prix It's the tallest of (the set of) them who won the prize 15.1 1.4 Relative clauses in si clauses, questions, after negation and in other subjunctive clauses When relative clauses modify indefinite noun phrases or pronouns in si clauses or in questions, or modify noun phrases in negative clauses or clauses which themselves have subjunctive verbs, the verb in the relative clause is usually in the subjunctive: S'il connaissait un endroit qui convienne il le dirait If he knew of a place which would be suitable he would say so Connaissez-vous un endroit qui convienne? Do you know of a place ivhich would be suitable? Je ne connais personne qui puisse m'aider I know no-one who can help me Quelles que soient les circonstances qui puissent expliquer son erreur, je ne peux pas la lui pardonner Whatever the circumstances ivhich might explain his mistake, I can't forgive him 364 Relative clauses TABLE 15.A Summary of major relative clause types Head of of clause Function in clause Pronoun Example See section l'homme subject (± animate) qui l'homme qui conduit 15.2 l'autobus direct object (± animate) que l'autobus que je conduis 15.3 une maladie object of de (± animate) dont une maladie dont il est mort 15.6.1 une maison same dont une maison dont la porte est fermée 15.6.1 une maison same dont une maison dont on ferme la porte 15.6.1 le touriste object (+ animate) of a preposition à qui le touriste à qui j'ai parlé 15.4 le texte object (-animate) of a preposition auquel le texte auquel il fait référence 15.5 un écrivain object (+ animate) of a preposition in a prepositional phrase à la vie duquel un écrivain à la vie duquel il s'intéresse 15.6.2 un blazer object (- animate) of a preposition in a prepositional phrase dans la poche duquel un blazer dans la poche duquel il y a une lettre 15.6.2 la ville place adverb où la ville où je vis 15.7.1 le jour time adverb (definite) où le jour où elle est partie 15.7.2 un jour time adverb (indefinite) que un jour que je sortais 15.7.2 rien, ce, quelque chose, clause object of a preposition sur quoi rien, ce, quelque chose sur quoi on peut compter 15.8 non-specific head subject or object (+ animate) celui qui/que j'ai vu celui qui est sorti 15.9 non-specific head subject (- animate) ce qui je ferai ce qui me plaît 15.9 non-specific head object (- animate) ce que je crois ce qu'elle dit 15.9 non-specific head object of a preposition ce preposition il se moque de ce en quoi quoi j'ai confiance 15.9 16 Negation 16.1 Introduction French sentences can be negated by using one of the following expressions: ne ne ne ne ne ne ne ne ne ne ... aucun ... guère ... jamais ... ni ... ni ... nul ... pas ... personne ... plus ... que ... rien not any, none hardly not ever, never neither ... nor not any, none not not anyone, no-one, nobody not any more, no longer only not anything, nothing Although ne ... guère and ne ... que are not strictly negators - they are adverbs - they have similar distributional properties to the other negators, and so we include them in this chapter. NB: the expression ne ... point 'not' is no longer used productively in modern French. It is used only in written French by writers who want to create an archaic or regional tone. Individual words and phrases can be negated by placing the particles pas, aucun, jamais, rien, personne (without ne) in front of them. For example: un aprèsmidi pas comme les autres 'an afternoon unlike others'; jamais de ma vie 'never in my life'; rien d'intéressant 'nothing interesting'; and so on. 16.2 Location of sentence negators 16.2.1 W i t h verbs m a r k e d for tense In all cases where sentences are negated, the element ne (if it is present: see 16.4) comes before the verb which is marked for tense in that sentence, and before any unstressed object pronouns which are in front of the verb: Je ne dors pas chez moi ce soir Je n'ai pas dormi chez moi hier soir Je ne l'entendais pas Il ne le lui a jamais envoyé Elle n'a rien voulu me raconter I'm not sleeping at my place tonight I didn't sleep at my place last night 1 didn't hear him He didn't ever send it to her She didn't want to tell me anything 366 Negation T h e location of the s e c o n d e l e m e n t - pas, jamais, rien, personne, etc. - varies, h o w e v e r . W h i l e all t h e s e n e g a t i v e particles i m m e d i a t e l y follow a m a i n v e r b w h e n n o auxiliary i s present: Il ne me regardait pas La boîte ne contenait que des bonbons Ça ne donne aucun plaisir Il ne mangeait jamais le soir He wasn't watching me There were only sweets in the box That's not at all enjoyable He never used to eat in the evenings in c o m p o u n d tenses (i.e. w h e n the auxiliary avoir or être is present), guère, jamais, pas, plus, rien i m m e d i a t e l y follow t h e auxiliary verb: Il n'en a pas voulu Je n'ai jamais vu la mer Elle n'a plus voulu continuer Je ne l'ai guère connue On ne m'a rien pris He didn't want any of it I have never seen the sea She didn't want to continue I hardly knew her They didn't take anything from me By contrast, personne b e h a v e s just like an object, an indirect object or the object of a p r e p o s i t i o n : Je n'ai vu personne Il n'a parlé à personne Elle n'est sortie avec personne I didn't see anyone He didn't speak to anyone She didn't go out with anyone a n d aucun p r e c e d e s an object, an indirect object or the object of a preposition: Ils n'ont vendu aucun tableau Je ne le vendrais à aucun prix Il n'a confiance en aucun autre que luimême They didn't sell a single picture I wouldn't sell it at any price He doesn't trust anyone else but himself NB: nul is only u s e d in formal French. (See 16.8.) The location of que a n d ni varies d e p e n d i n g on the i n t e n d e d m e a n i n g : Il ne se permet un whisky qu'après avoir fini son travail He only allows himself a whisky after he has finished his work Il ne se permet qu'un whisky après avoir fini son travail He only allows himself one whisky after he has finished his work Elle ne m'a ni vu ni entendu She neither saw me nor heard me Elle n'a vu ni lui ni sa femme She saw neither him nor his wife Je n'ai écrit de lettre ni à sa mère ni à son notaire 1 wrote a letter neither to her mother nor to her solicitor N B : Je ne fais que, tu ne fais que, il ne fait que, etc. mean T do nothing but, y o u do nothing but, he does nothing but' etc.: Il ne fait que mentir/travaillerIse plaindre, etc. ' H e d o e s n o t h i n g b u t l i e / w o r k / c o m p l a i n ' , etc. 16.2.2 W i t h infinitives W h e r e the v e r b in a n e g a t e d sentence is an infinitive, ne a n d guère, jamais, pas, plus, rien n o r m a l l y b o t h p r e c e d e the infinitive: Location of sentence negators 367 J'ai dormi au bureau, de manière à ne pas perdre de temps I slept at the office so as not to waste any time J'étais le seul à ne jamais boire d'alcool I was the only one never to drink II pense ne plus croire en Dieu He thinks he doesn't believe in God any more Elle donnait l'impression de ne guère s'intéresser à mes activités She gave the impression of hardly being interested in my activities Il a envie de ne rien faire de la journée He feels like doing nothing all day Both e l e m e n t s of t h e n e g a t i o n also u s u a l l y p r e c e d e an infinitive auxiliary v e r b {avoir or être): J'étais certain de ne pas avoir laissé de linge à sécher sur le radiateur I was certain I hadn't left any underwear drying on the radiator J'espère ne rien avoir oublié I hope I haven't forgotten anything For s o m e s p e a k e r s , h o w e v e r , the s e c o n d e l e m e n t of the n e g a t i o n in these cases can optionally follow the auxiliary, w i t h o u t a n y c h a n g e in the m e a n i n g : J'étais certain de n'avoir pas laissé de linge ... J'espère n'avoir rien oublié In t h e case of ne ... aucun, ne ... nul, ne ... personne, the s e c o n d c o m p o n e n t foll o w s the verbal elements : Je voudrais ne voir personne I would like to see no-one Elle me reprochait de n'avoir écrit à personne She blamed me for not having written to anyone Ils ont déclaré n'avoir eu aucune intention de le faire They declared that they had no intention of doing it II s'étonnait de n'avoir ressenti nul désir de le faire He was surprised not to have felt any desire to do it que a n d ni . . . ni also follow the v e r b in infinitives, b u t their location varies d e p e n d i n g o n the i n t e n d e d m e a n i n g : Je voudrais ne voir que Jean deux ou trois fois par semaine 7 would like to see only }ean two or three times a week Je voudrais ne voir Jean que deux ou trois fois par semaine I would like to see Jean only two or three times a week Elle espère ne rencontrer ni lui ni sa sœur She hopes to meet neither him nor his sister Elle espère ne rencontrer son voisin ni au marché ni au café She hopes to meet her neighbour neither at the market nor in the café NB: Verbs in clauses d e p e n d e n t on n e g a t e d clauses take the subjunctive: 368 Negation Ce n'est pas que je sois particulièrement timide It's not that I'm particularly shy Je ne connais personne qui mette autant d'acharnement à réussir I don't know anyone (else) who puts so much energy into succeeding (See C h a p t e r 11.1.8.) 16.3 Order of negators in multiple negation Two or m o r e of jamais, pas, personne, plus, rien, a n d so on, m a y be c o m b i n e d quite acceptably in French to p r o d u c e a m u l t i p l e negation. The n o r m a l ordering of these e l e m e n t s is as indicated in the following tables: ne ... pas Il n'y a pas que des héros dans l'armée Il n'a pas écrit que des contes de fées ne ... On On On On jamais guère plus rien There aren't only heroes in the army He didn't only write fairy stories past participle or infinitive ne le verra jamais plus n'en verra jamais rien n'en verra plus rien n'en verra jamais plus rien Elle Elle Elle Elle n'a n'a n'a n'a que past participle or infinitive jamais plus écrit jamais rien écrit plus rien écrit jamais plus rien écrit personne que We'll never see him again We'll never see anything of it We won't see anything more of it We won't see anything more of it ever again She She She She never wrote again never wrote anything wrote nothing again never wrote anything again Elle n'a jamais plus rien écrit qu'une brochure de publicité She never wrote anything again except an advertizing brochure Ça n'impressionnera jamais personne Ça n'impressionnera plus personne Ça n'impressionnera jamais plus personne That will never impress anyone That won't impress anyone any more That will never impress anyone again Il n'a jamais critiqué personne Il n'a plus critiqué personne Il n'a jamais plus critiqué personne He never criticized anyone He didn't criticize anyone again He didn't ever criticize anyone again Elle n'a guère plus écrit après son deuil She hardly ever wrote again after her bereavement NB: P l u s jamais! Never again! 16.4 Omission of ne in sentence negation It is v e r y c o m m o n in m o d e r n s p o k e n French for s p e a k e r s to omit the ne of ne ... pas, a n d to a lesser extent the ne of o t h e r n e g a t i v e expressions, except in the ne . . . p a s 369 m o s t formal of styles: C'est pas vrai J'ai pas eu le temps de le faire Je sais pas Elle l'avait pas lu It's not true I didn't have time to do it I don't know She hadn't read it 16.5 Order of negative elements in questions and imperatives The location a n d o r d e r i n g of n e g a t i v e e l e m e n t s in questions a n d i m p e r a t i v e s are t h e s a m e as in declaratives: Tu ne dors pas chez toi ce soir Ne dors-tu pas chez toi ce soir? Aren't you sleeping at your house tonight? Il n'a jamais vu la mer N'a-t-il jamais vu la mer? Hasn't he ever seen the sea? On ne lui avait rien appris Ne lui avait-on rien appris? Had they taught him nothing? Elle n'avait vu personne N'avait-elle vu personne? Had she seen no-one? Taquine-le! Ne le taquine pas! Don't tease him! Fais ça! Ne fais jamais ça! Never do that! Touchez quelque chose! Ne touchez rien! Don't touch anything! Présentez-lui quelqu'un! Ne lui présentez personne! Don't introduce anyone to him! (For the o r d e r i n g of p r o n o u n s in affirmative a n d n e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e s see C h a p t e r 3.2.31.) 16.6 ne . . . pas 16.6.1 Negating sentences ne ... pas translates English ' n o t ' (for the omission of ne see 16.4): Ce n'est pas vrai Je ne me rappelle pas les circonstances Je n'ai pas eu le temps de comprendre Ça fait/Voilà longtemps qu'on ne s'est pas vu It's not true I don't remember the circumstances I didn't have time to understand It's been a long time since we saw each other NB: ne .., point ' n o t ' is an archaic form w h i c h is still found in s o m e regional varieties of F r e n c h as an e q u i v a l e n t of ne ... pas. S o m e w r i t e r s u s e it to give a regional or archaic flavour to their writing. 370 Negation After ne ... pas, a n y indefinite article (i.e. one of un(e), du, de la, des) preceding a direct object b e c o m e s de: Elle a écrit une lettre She wrote a letter Elle n'a pas écrit de lettre She didn't write a letter On lui a fait du mal They did him harm On ne lui a pas fait de mal They didn't do him any harm Il cultive les fraises He grows strawberries II ne cultive pas de fraises He doesn't grow strawberries W h e r e un(e) a p p e a r s before a direct object after ne ... pas it m e a n s ' n o t one', (rather t h a n ' n o t a'): On n'entendait pas un bruit dehors We couldn't hear a single noise outside (See C h a p t e r 2.5.) pas un(e) followed by a n o u n can function as the subject of a n e g a t i v e sentence. N o t e the p r e s e n c e of ne: Pas un brin d'herbe ne bougeait dans la prairie Not a blade of grass stirred on the plain W h e r e du, de la, des a p p e a r before a direct object after ne ... pas, they are instances of de + definite article (and n o t indefinite articles): Elle n'a pas parlé du mal qu'on lui a fait She didn't speak of the harm they did him (versus: On ne lui a pas fait de mal 'They didn't do him any harm) Il ne s'occupe pas des fraises à présent He isn't busy with the strawberries at the moment (versus II ne cultive pas de fraises cette année 'He's not growing strawberries this year') (See C h a p t e r 2.5.) W h e n a d v e r b s are located sentence-internally in sentences n e g a t e d by ne ... pas, t h e y u s u a l l y a p p e a r i m m e d i a t e l y before pas: Il ne savait visiblement pas que faire de son grand corps You could see that he didn't know what to do with his big frame Je ne l'entendais même pas' I didn't even hear him Je ne l'ai toujours pas compris I still don't understand him N B : davantage ' m o r e ' u s e d in conjunction w i t h ne ... pas h a s a similar m e a n i n g to ne ... plus: J'ai fait un effort pour ne pas dépenser davantage I made an effort not to spend any more ne .. .pas 371 16.6.2 Omission of pas In w r i t t e n F r e n c h t h e pas of ne ... pas m a y be o m i t t e d w i t h a small n u m b e r of verbs. With cesser de + infinitive Elle ne cessait de répéter que c'était de sa faute She went on repeating that it was her fault With savoir f o l l o w e d by a question w o r d like quoi, comment Je ne sais comment ils se débrouillent . 1 don't know how they manage Il y avait un je ne sais quoi de douceur dans l'air There was a hint of mildness in the air N B : ne + savoir in the conditional m e a n s ' w o u l d n ' t k n o w h o w to', ' c o u l d n ' t ' : On ne saurait trop vous remercier 'We w o u l d n ' t k n o w h o w to t h a n k y o u ' , Il ne saurait vous expliquer pourquoi ' H e c o u l d n ' t explain w h y to y o u ' . With oser + i n f i n i t i v e Il n'osa refuser de le faire He didn't dare refuse to do it Elle n'osa demander un second cognac She dared not ask for a second brandy With pouvoir + infinitive Elle ne pouvait se l'expliquer She couldn't explain it to herself Je ne puis accepter cette décision I can't accept this decision pas is s o m e t i m e s also o m i t t e d after interrogative qui, que, quel, after h y p o t h e t ical si, after s o m e sentence initial a d v e r b s , a n d in the expressions n'importe qui, n'importe quoi: Qui ne serait ému dans ces circonstances? Who wouldn't be moved in these circumstances? Que ne donnerait-il pour une bière? Quel homme n'en serait fier? C'est Pierre, si je ne me trompe What wouldn't he give for a beer? What man wouldn't be proud of it? It's Pierre, unless I'm mistaken N'importe qui pourrait le faire Anyone could do it J'inventerai n'importe quoi pour faire plus vrai I'll make up anything to make it sound more realistic 16.6.3 Negating words and phrases pas a l o n e i s u s e d t o n e g a t e w o r d s o r p h r a s e s w h i c h d o n o t contain verbs. Nouns Je ne garde rien d'elle. Même pas une mèche de cheveux I keep nothing of hers. Not even a lock of hair II lui posa une question. Pas de réponse He asked her a question. No reply 372 Negation Je le ferai. Pas de problème I'll do it. No problem Adjectives Les autres la considéraient comme une fille pas bavarde The others considered her to be a quiet girl II avait une intonation chantante pas déplaisante He spoke in a singsong voice, not unpleasant Adverbs J'habite pas loin de la mer I live not far from the sea C'était un bel après-midi. Un après-midi pas tout à fait comme les autres It was a fine afternoon. An afternoon not entirely like the others Conjunctions II me regardait; pas comme un frère, plutôt comme un juge He watched me; not as a brother, more as a judge 16.6.4 Use of non and non pas to negate words and phrases non c a n be an e q u i v a l e n t for pas for n e g a t i n g adjectives, a d v e r b s a n d conjunctions in formal French ( a l t h o u g h pas is m o r e often u s e d e v e n in formal styles): un supplément non compris habiter non loin de la mer non comme un frère something extra which is not included to live not far from the sea not as a brother N B : non or pas are equally likely in formal French in expressions like: Prêt ou non, je pars/Prêt ou pas, je pars, ' R e a d y or not, I ' m leaving'. But if the n e g a t e d i t e m is r e p e a t e d , pas is m o r e u s u a l : Prêt ou pas prêt, je pars. non is often u s e d w h e n it is c o m b i n e d w i t h mais in the expression non X ... mais (aussi): Je l'ai fait non (pas) pour arranger quelqu'un d'autre mais pour ma propre convenance I did it not to suit someone else, but to suit myself Elle aimerait visiter non seulement le château mais aussi le parc She would like to visit not only the chateau but also the park On entendait non plus la mer, mais le chuchotement du vent dans les arbres One no longer heard the sea, but the rustling in the trees non or non pas m a y n e g a t e an infinitive w h i c h is contrasted w i t h an affirmative infinitive: II faut travailler pour vivre, et non (pas) vivre pour travailler One has to work to live and not live to work non (pas) que is a conjunction w h i c h i n t r o d u c e s s u b o r d i n a t e clauses in w h i c h the v e r b is in the subjunctive: Il a parlé de Besançon; non (pas) qu'il veuille y aller He spoke about Besançon; not that he wants to go there ne . . . aucun(e), ne . . . nul(le) 373 (See also C h a p t e r 17.3.8.) non, pas a n d non pas are interchangeable in formal French w h e n a contrast is d r a w n b e t w e e n a positive a n d n e g a t i v e statement: Il est Gallois et non pas non pas [ Anglais 16.7 ne . . . que ne ... que translates English ' o n l y ' (for the omission of ne see 16.4): Ce n'est qu'après qu'il l'a remarqué He only noticed it aftenvards Je ne le vois qu'une fois par semaine I only see him once a week II n'y avait qu'une explication There was only one explanation Les autres n'étaient là que pour lui fournir ce dont il avait besoin The others were only there to provide him with what he needed In c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o t h e r n e g a t o r s like pas, jamais, plus, personne, ne ... que can take o n v a r i o u s m e a n i n g s : Il n'y a pas que des héros dans l'armée There aren't just heroes in the army Elle n'avait jamais parlé à un agent de police que pour demander un renseignement She had never spoken to a policeman except to ask for directions Il ne me reste plus que trois traites à payer I've only got three more instalments to pay 16.8 ne ... aucun(e), ne ... nul(le) ne ... aucun(e), ne ... nul(le) translate English ' n o ' , ' n o n e ' (for the omission of ne see 16.4): Il n'a eu aucune (nulle) hésitation à proposer son aide He had no hesitation in offering to help Except for the expression ne ... nulle part ' n o w h e r e ' , ne ... nulle is v e r y formal. ne ... aucun(e) is f o u n d in b o t h w r i t t e n a n d s p o k e n French, b u t t e n d s to be replaced by pas in informal s p o k e n French: Il n'a pas eu d'hésitation à proposer son aide O n l y aucun(e) a n d n o t nul(le) m a y be followed by a prepositional c o m p l e m e n t : Je ne connais aucune de ses amies I know none of her friends Je n'en connais aucune I don't know any of them (NOT *Je ne connais nulle de ses amies/Je n'en connais nulle) Both aucun(e) a n d null(e) are rare in t h e p l u r a l . I n s t e a d o n e w o u l d u s e pas de or sans: 374 Negation Il n'a pas d'amis/Il est sans amis He has no friends aucun(e) can n e g a t e direct objects, indirect objects, objects of prepositions a n d subjects: Ça n'avait aucun sens Il n'a parlé à aucun des trois That made no sense He didn't speak to any of the three Aucune voiture américaine n'était signalée en cavale Aucun de nous n'est entré là-bas Aucun n'est entré No American car had been reported None of us entered there None went in aucun(e) m a y be u s e d alone as a r e s p o n s e to a question: Combien reste-t-il d'oranges sanguines? Aucune How many Mood oranges are left? None T h e a d v e r b s aucunement, nullement are formal e q u i v a l e n t s of t h e expression c o m m o n in s p o k e n French: pas du tout ' n o t at all': Elle n'en est aucunement/nullement/pas du tout fière She is not at all proud of it N B : nul(le) is also an adjective w i t h the m e a n i n g ' z e r o ' , 'nil'. In this u s e it is f o u n d in all styles of French: Les risques sont nuls Nuls points Elle est nulle en orthographe Match nul The risks are nil No points She is useless at spelling A draw Nul is also u s e d in formal, legal texts, etc.: Nul n'est censé ignorer la loi Ignorance of the law is no excuse 16.9 ne ... jamais ne ... jamais translates English ' n o t e v e r ' , ' n e v e r ' (for the omission of ne see 16.4): Il ne mangeait jamais le soir Je n'ai jamais vu la mer He never ate in the evenings I have never seen the sea Like English ' n e v e r ' , jamais m a y s o m e t i m e s be located at the b e g i n n i n g of the sentence, b u t w i t h o u t the subject-verb inversion of English: Jamais je n'ai vu autant d'algues Never have 1 seen so much seaweed Jamais plus elle ne serait tout à fait elle-même Never again would she be quite herself After ne ... jamais a n y indefinite article (i.e. o n e of un(e), du, de la, des) preceding a direct object b e c o m e s de: Y ai I have change de la monnaie Je n'ai jamais de monnaie I never have change ne ... plus 375 Elle porte un casque She wears a helmet Elle ne porte jamais de casque She never wears a helmet (See C h a p t e r 2.5.) jamais can be u s e d w i t h o u t ne w i t h the m e a n i n g ' n e v e r ' : C'est maintenant ou jamais Es-tu allé à Rennes? Jamais It's now or never Have you been to Rennes? Never In formal French it can also be i n t e r p r e t e d as ' e v e r ' in questions, hypothetical sentences or c o m p a r i s o n s : As-tu jamais envisagé le suicide? Have you ever thought of suicide? Si une malle s'était jamais trouvée dans le grenier, elle n'y était plus If there had ever been a trunk in the attic, it was no longer there Elle chante mieux que jamais She is singing better than ever W h e n a d v e r b s are located sentence-internally in sentences n e g a t e d by ne ... jamais, t h e y u s u a l l y a p p e a r i m m e d i a t e l y before jamais: Je n'ai d'ailleurs jamais parlé à personne What's more, I've never spoken to anyone Je ne la vois pratiquement jamais 1 hardly ever see her 16.10 ne ... plus ne ... plus translates English ' n o l o n g e r ' , ' n o t a n y m o r e ' (for the omission of ne see 16.4): Elle ne savait plus pourquoi elle était sur cette route She no longer knew why she was on this road Soudain, je n'en peux plus Suddenly I can't take any more Elle n'a plus travaillé après la naissance de sa fille She didn't work again after the birth of her daughter NB: ne . .. pas plus is N O T t h e French for ' n o t a n y m o r e ' , ne ... pas plus m e a n s 'not more than'. Compare: Elle ne semblait pas avoir plus de vingt ans She didn't appear to be more than 20 Elle ne semblait plus avoir vingt ans She didn't seem to be 20 any more After ne ... plus, a n y indefinite article (i.e. o n e of un(e), du, de la, des) precedi n g a direct object b e c o m e s de: J'ai un crayon 1 have a pencil Je n'ai plus de crayon I don't have a pencil any more 376 Negation Elle vend du lait She sells milk Elle ne vend plus de lait She doesn't sell milk any more W h e n a d v e r b s are located sentence-internally in sentences n e g a t e d by ne ... plus, t h e y u s u a l l y a p p e a r i m m e d i a t e l y before plus: Je ne me rappelle même plus ce qu'il racontait I don't even remember what he was saying plus de + n o u n can m e a n ' n o m o r e ' : plus de pain, merci plus de place! Je me suis retournée: plus de valise no more bread, thanks no (more) room I turned round: my suitcase had disappeared non plus is typically u s e d in conjunction w i t h one of the other n e g a t o r s to translate English ' e i t h e r ' , ' n e i t h e r ' or ' n o r ' : II ne mangeait jamais le soir, ni sa femme non plus He never ate in the evenings, and neither did his wife Ce n'est pas non plus que je sois particulièrement timide It's not that I'm particularly shy either Il ne pouvait pas non plus reporter son rendez-vous avec ce client-là Nor could he postpone his meeting with that particular customer Il n'avait jamais non plus levé la main sur qui que ce soit Neither had he ever raised his hand to anyone Elle fouilla dans la boîte à gants. Rien non plus She rummaged in the glove compartment. Nothing there either Pour son fils non plus, ça n'allait pas fort Things weren't going well for his son either 16.1 I ne ... guère ne ... guère translates English ' h a r d l y ' , a n d is an equivalent of the a d v e r b à peine, w h i c h is u s e d w i t h o u t a p r e c e d i n g ne: On ne parlait guère On parlait à peine We hardly spoke Cette histoire n'avait guère semblé croyable Cette histoire avait à peine semblé croyable This story had hardly seemed credible After ne ... guère a n y indefinite article (i.e. one of un(e), du, de la, des) preceding a direct object b e c o m e s de: Il y a des visiteurs There are visitors II n'y a guère de visiteurs There are hardly any visitors N B : à peine c a n n o t be followed by a p l u r a l n o u n p h r a s e : N O T *il y a à peine des visiteurs. ne ... rien 377 guère m a y s t a n d alone as a r e s p o n s e to a question: Combien en avez-vous acheté? How many did you buy? Guère (à peine quelques-uns) Hardly any 16.12 ne ... rien ne ... rien translates English ' n o t h i n g ' , ' n o t a n y t h i n g ' (for the omission of ne see 16.4). rien itself m a y be a direct object, the object of a preposition, or the subject of the sentence. W h e n it is a direct object it is located i m m e d i a t e l y after the v e r b m a r k e d for tense: On ne m'a rien pris Je ne sais rien prévoir Nothing was taken from me / am incapable of planning anything W h e n it is the object of a p r e p o s i t i o n it is located in the n o r m a l position for prepositional p h r a s e s : Cela n'a abouti à rien That led to nothing Je n'avais besoin de rien I needed nothing Je ne serais retourné chez moi pour rien au monde I wouldn't have gone back for anything W h e n it is a subject it a p p e a r s in subject position: Rien ne lui faisait mal Nothing did him any harm Rien ne différenciait ce jour des autres Nothing distinguished that day from the others Rien ne m'avait échappé Nothing had escaped me NB: Je n'en sais rien m e a n s 'I h a v e n ' t a clue'. Expressions like ' n o t h i n g interesting', ' n o t h i n g else' are r e n d e r e d in French by rien + de + adjective: II n'y a là rien d'important It's nothing important W h e n rien + de + adjective functions as a direct object w i t h a v e r b in a comp o u n d tense, rien follows the v e r b m a r k e d for tense: Il ne dit rien d'intéressant Je n'ai rien trouvé d'intéressant Il ne m'a rien dit de surprenant He doesn't say anything interesting I found nothing interesting He said nothing surprising to me H o w e v e r , w h e n the rien + de + adjective functions as a n y t h i n g other t h a n a direct object, it is n o t split in this w a y : Je n'ai pensé à rien d'intéressant à faire Rien d'autre n'est arrivé I didn't think of anything interesting to do Nothing else happened N B : t h e adjective r e m a i n s i n v a r i a b l y m a s c u l i n e in these constructions. 378 Negation W h e n a d v e r b s are located sentence-internally in sentences n e g a t e d by ne ... rien, a n d w h e r e rien is the direct object, they u s u a l l y a p p e a r i m m e d i a t e l y in front of rien: Il n'y aura probablement rien pour moi à la maison There would probably be nothing for me at home rien can s t a n d alone ( w i t h o u t ne) w i t h the m e a n i n g ' n o t h i n g ' : Qu'est-ce que vous voyez? Rien What do you see? Nothing C'est mieux que rien It's better than nothing C'est un rien It's nothing In formal French it can also be i n t e r p r e t e d as ' a n y t h i n g ' in q u e s t i o n s or h y p o thetical sentences: Avez-vous rien d'intéressant à lire? Elle est partie avant que j'aie rien dit Have you anything interesting to read? She left before I said anything 16.13 ne ... personne ne ... personne translates English ' n o - o n e ' , ' n o t a n y b o d y ' (for omission of ne see 16.4). Like rien, personne can function as a direct object, the object of a p r e p o sition or the subject of the sentence. Unlike rien, w h e n it is a direct object it a p p e a r s in the n o r m a l position for direct objects: Elle ne rencontre personne en dehors du bureau She doesn't meet anyone outside the office Je n'ai vu personne I saw no-one Ça, vous ne pourrez le faire croire à personne As far as that goes, you won't be able to make anyone believe it Ils ne l'ont fait avec personne They didn't do it with anyone Personne n'était en vacances, sauf moi Nobody was on holiday except me personne m a y take an adjective c o m p l e m e n t p r e c e d e d by de: Je n'ai vu personne de louche I saw nobody suspicious Personne d'étranger ne s'était présenté au bureau Nobody foreign had come to the office N B : the adjective is invariably m a s c u l i n e in these constructions. personne can s t a n d alone ( w i t h o u t ne) w i t h the m e a n i n g ' n o - o n e ' , ' n o b o d y ' : Qui a frappé? Who knocked? Personne Nobody In formal French it can also be i n t e r p r e t e d as ' a n y o n e ' in questions, h y p o t h e t ical sentences or c o m p a r i s o n s : n e . . . n i . . . ni 379 As-tu rencontré personne? Did you meet anyone? Je le sais mieux que personne I know it better than anyone 16.14 ne . . . ni ... ni ne ... ni ... ni translates English 'neither . . . n o r ' . T h e ni . . . ni e l e m e n t s can r a n g e over subjects: Ni le cafetier ni sa femme n'étaient au courant Neither the café owner nor his wife knew about it over direct objects: Elle n'a apporté ni bloc-notes ni stylo She brought neither note pad nor pen over p r e p o s i t i o n a l p h r a s e s : II n'avait posé de question ni à son père ni à sa mère He had asked neither his mother nor his father a question Elle n'a répondu ni d'un mot ni d'un signe She replied neither verbally nor with a gesture over participles a n d adjectives: Je n'ai ni vu ni entendu la querelle I neither saw nor heard the argument Elle n'est ni heureuse ni malheureuse She is neither happy nor unhappy W h e r e t w o v e r b s m a r k e d for tense are involved, the p h r a s e ne ... ni ne ... is used: Je ne comprends ni n'accepte un tel comportement I neither understand nor accept such behaviour W h e r e , in English, a n e g a t i o n is followed by ' o r ' , or ' n o r ' , or ' a n d ' , ni is u s e d in French: Ils ne voulaient accepter ni chèque, ni carte, ni liquide They wouldn't take a cheque, a credit card or cash II ne mangeait jamais le soir, ni sa femme He never ate in the evenings, nor did his wife Rien ni personne n'était encore trahi Nothing and no-one had yet been betrayed ni is similarly u s e d w i t h the m e a n i n g ' o r ' or ' n o r ' after sans: Le voyage aurait été impossible sans carte ni boussole The journey would have been impossible without a map or a compass Je fais ce qu'elle faisait mais sans son talent, ni sa chance I do what she did but without her talent or her good luck 380 Negation 16.15 sans used with other negators N e g a t o r s like aucun(e), jamais, plus, rien, personne take on the m e a n i n g s ' a n y ' , ' e v e r ' , ' a g a i n ' , ' a n y t h i n g ' , ' a n y o n e ' w h e n u s e d in conjunction w i t h sans: sans aucune hésitation sans jamais reculer sans plus se mettre en colère sans rien dire sans déranger personne without without without without without any hesitation ever retreating getting angry again saying anything disturbing anyone 16.16 ne used alone There are a n u m b e r of contexts in w h i c h ne c a n be u s e d alone. All of t h e m are f o u n d in only the m o s t formal of w r i t t e n styles. In less formal styles the ne is s i m p l y absent: In fixed expressions (found o n l y in formal styles) à Dieu ne plaise! God forbid! Il n'a eu garde de se montrer He carefully refrained from showing his face In clauses d e p e n d e n t on comparatives Il se porte moins bien que je (ne) pensais His health is less good than I thought II est tout autre qu'on (ne) croit He is quite different from what one imagines La vie est plus chère qu'elle (n')était il y a un an The cost of living is higher than it was a year ago In clauses d e p e n d e n t on verbs w h i c h express fear, like craindre, avoir peur que, redouter que, appréhender que }e crains qu'il (ne) vienne I'm afraid that he will come N B : w h e n the v e r b of fearing is itself n e g a t e d , ne is possible in the d e p e n d e n t clause only if the m a i n clause is a question: Je ne crains pas qu'il vienne ' I ' m n o t afraid t h a t he'll c o m e ' ; Ne craignez-vous pas qu'il (ne) vienne? ' A r e n ' t y o u afraid that h e will c o m e ? ' In clauses d e p e n d e n t on verbs w h i c h express s o m e k i n d of prevention, like empêcher que, éviter que, prendre garde que Mets-lui un bonnet pour éviter qu'il (ne) prenne froid Put his bonnet on to stop him catching cold After the conjunctions à moins que, avant que, sans que Sans qu'ils (ne) sachent Without them knowing In clauses d e p e n d e n t on s o m e verbs expressing doubt or denial w h i c h are t h e m s e l v e s negated or q u e s t i o n e d , like douter que, ignorer que, nier que ]e ne doute pas qu'il (ne) soit intelligent I don't doubt that he's intelligent ne used alone 381 Personne n'ignore qu'elle (n')ait été la cause de ses malheurs Nobody is unaware that she has been the cause of her own misfortunes Niera-t-on qu'il (n')ait commis une faute? Will it be denied that he has made a mistake? In clauses d e p e n d e n t on the expressions il s'en faut que, peu s'en faut que Il s'en faut de beaucoup qu'il (n')ait réussi He is far from having succeeded 17 Conjunctions and other linking constructions 17.1 Introduction All languages have devices for linking words, phrases and clauses into more complex structures. This chapter deals with the linking function of conjunctions, past participles, present participles and gerunds. 17.2 Coordinating conjunctions TABLE I7.A Conjunction Translation et and et . . . et both . . . and mais but ou or ou . . . ou soit . . . soit either . . . or Where coordinating conjunctions link two clauses, the verb in the second clause is always in the indicative, e.g. il y avait des bals, mais on ne pouvait pas danser 'There were dances, but we weren't able to dance'. puis then means '(first) X then Y' car for (because) mainly used in written French or now a logical connector (mainly used in written and formal spoken French) - see 17.2.1 Comments Coordinating conjunctions link words, phrases or clauses into more complex structures: Le concours est ouvert aux garçons et aux filles The competition is open to boys and girls l'inviterai et lui et sa sœur I'll invite both him and his sister Coordinating conjunctions 383 Il y avait des bals, mais on ne pouvait pas danser There were dances, but we weren't able to dance Laisse-moi tranquille ou je te reprends ton argent de poche Give me some peace or I'll take your pocket money back Il arrivera soit demain soit après-demain He will arrive either tomorrow, or the day after J'ai allumé une cigarette, puis je suis descendu à l'étage du dessous I lit a cigarette, then went down to the floor below Je ne comprenais pas sa question, car cela ne correspondait guère à sa personnalité I did not understand his question, for it was hardly in keeping with his character Or, il se trouve que le connaissais déjà Now, it so happened that I already knew him C o o r d i n a t i n g conjunctions differ from s u b o r d i n a t i n g conjunctions (see 17.3) in that they, a n d the w o r d , p h r a s e or clause they i n t r o d u c e , cannot be placed at the front of t h e sentence, w h e r e a s s u b o r d i n a t i n g conjunctions u s u a l l y can. C o m p a r e car 'for' (a c o o r d i n a t i n g conjunction) w i t h parce que ' b e c a u s e ' (a s u b o r d i n a t i n g conjunction close in m e a n i n g ) : II est heureux, car il est riche He is happy, for he is rich NOT *Car il est riche, il est heureux For he is rich, he is happy Il est heureux, parce qu'il est riche He is happy because he is rich Parce qu'il est riche, il est heureux Because he is rich, he is happy C o o r d i n a t i n g conjunctions n e v e r i n t r o d u c e clauses in w h i c h the v e r b is in the subjunctive, w h e r e a s a n u m b e r of s u b o r d i n a t i n g conjunctions do (see 17.3.8). 17.2.1 or or ' n o w ' is a conjunction w h i c h m a r k s the next step in a narrative or a logical argument: Or, Jean était déjà marié lorsqu'il a rencontré Suzanne Now, Jean was already married when he met Suzanne Tous les hommes sont mortels; or, le Roi est un homme; donc le Roi est mortel All men are mortal; (now,) the King is a man; therefore the King is mortal ' n o w ' in English can function as a c o o r d i n a t i n g conjunction (as above), a s u b o r d i n a t i n g conjunction of time, a n d a time a d v e r b . The s u b o r d i n a t i n g conj u n c t i o n of t i m e function is fulfilled in French by maintenant que (see 17.3.1). T h e t i m e a d v e r b function is t r a n s l a t e d in French by maintenant (or alors if ' n o w ' refers t o a n e v e n t i n t h e p a s t ) : Jean est maintenant marié Jean is now married Jean était alors marié Jean was now (= then) married 384 Conjunctions and other linking constructions 17.3 Subordinating conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions introduce an item (usually a clause) which is dependent on another clause (for the use of subordinating conjunctions with infinitives see 17.6): Il est heureux, parce qu'il est riche He is happy because he is rich fe continue à dire 'chez nous', bien que la maison ne nous appartienne plus I continue to say 'at our house', although the house no longer belongs to us Comme il n'arrête pas de se plaindre, je l'évite le plus possible As he does nothing but complain, I avoid him as much as possible Some introduce clauses in which the verb is in the indicative (as parce que and comme above). Others introduce verbs in the subjunctive (like bien que). 17.3.1 Subordinating conjunctions of t i m e followed by t h e indicative TABLE I7.B Conjunction Translation Comments après que after après que may sometimes be heard followed by a verb in the subjunctive, by analogy with avant que (see 17.3.8) aussitôt que dès que sitôt que dès lors que as soon as aussi longtemps que as long as chaque fois que toutes les fois que every time depuis que since maintenant que now pendant que while, as quand lorsque when tant que while, as une fois que once Substitute another adverb for longtemps to create similar conjunctions: aussi vite que, aussi peu que Understood as 'from the time when' Understood as 'during the time when' Understood as 'the whole time while' Subordinating conjunctions 385 Après que sa femme est morte, il a déménagé After his wife died, he moved house Sitôt que je serai rentré, je te téléphonerai As soon as I get home, I will phone you On jouera aussi longtemps que tu veux Well play as long as you wish Toutes les fois que nous lui téléphonons, elle est sortie Every time we phone her, she's out Depuis qu'il est chez nous, il est de plus en plus épanoui Since he has been at our house, he seems more and more fulfilled Maintenant que je suis installé, je peux me mettre au travail Now I have settled in, I can start work On a eu le temps de prendre un café pendant que les autres se préparaient We had time for a coffee while the others were getting ready Elle était déjà malade quand je l'ai connue She was already ill when I first knew her Tant qu'on n'aurait pas touché les dividendes de la paix, rien ne sera acquis For as long as we haven't tasted the fruits of peace, nothing will have been achieved (For the use of aurait touché in this context, see 17.3.2.) Une fois qu'il a eu fait ses valises, il est descendu au bar boire une bière Once he had packed his bags, he went down to the bar for a beer 17.3.2 Future and conditional tenses in clauses introduced by quand, lorsque, aussitôt que, dès que, sitôt que, dès lors que, tant que, après que W h e n s u b o r d i n a t e clauses i n t r o d u c e d by quand, lorsque, aussitôt que, dès que, sitôt que, dès lors que, tant que or après que are linked to main clauses in which the v e r b is in a future or conditional tense, the v e r b in the quand, lorsque, etc. clause is also in t h e future or conditional. This is different from English w h e r e the v e r b in a ' w h e n ' , 'as s o o n as', etc. clause is u s u a l l y in the p r e s e n t or past: Est-ce que tu me téléphoneras quand il arrivera? Will you telephone me when he arrives? Dès qu'elle reviendra, j'allumerai le feu As soon as she comes back, I will light the fire Si on partait à midi, il ferait encore jour quand on arriverait If we left at midday, it would still be daylight when we arrived W h e r e the e v e n t in the quand, lorsque, etc. clause w o u l d be translated by the perfect or pluperfect tense in English, French h a s the c o m p o u n d future or comp o u n d conditional: Il arrivera quand je serai parti He will arrive when I have left S'il ne prenait pas l'avion avant mardi, il arriverait après que je serais parti If he didn't catch the plane until Tuesday, he would arrive after I had left 386 Conjunctions and other linking constructions Je remplirai le formulaire, aussitôt que je l'aurai reçu I will fill in the form as soon as I have received it J'aurais rempli le formulaire aussitôt que je l'aurais reçu I would have filled in the form as soon as I had received it More generally, when an event described in a quand, lorsque, etc. clause has not yet taken place, the verb is in a future or conditional tense: Dès qu'il aura dit 'oui', faites-le signer As soon as he says 'yes', get him to sign 17.3.3 Double compound past and compound pluperfect tenses in clauses introduced by quand, lorsque, aussitôt que, dès que, sitôt que, dès lors que, tant que, après que When clauses introduced by quand, lorsque, etc. describe an event which takes place prior to an event described by a past-tense verb in the main clause, French can use the double compound past or the compound pluperfect in the quand, lorsque, etc. clause (although it is not obligatory to do so - see Chapter 10.5.3): avoir eu + past participle avoir été + past participle Aussitôt que j'ai eu fini le livre, j'ai commencé à rédiger le rapport As soon as I finished the book I began to draft the report (My reading of the book took place prior to my writing the report) Quand elle a été revenue, il lui a présenté ses excuses When she came back, he offered her his apologies When the verb in the main clause is in the compound past tense, the verb in the quand, lorsque, etc. clause is in the double compound past tense (as in the above examples); when the verb in the main clause is in the pluperfect, the verb in the quand, lorsque, etc. clause is in the compound pluperfect: Aussitôt que j'avais eu fini le livre, j'avais commencé à rédiger le rapport As soon as I had finished the book I began to draft the report Alternatively, one can simply use the ordinary compound past and pluperfect tenses in the quand, lorsque, etc. clause: Aussitôt que j'avais fini le livre, j'ai commencé ... , Quand elle est revenue, il lui a présenté ... NB: The double compound past can also be used in main clauses when adverbs expressing urgency or speed accompany a past event: J'ai eu vite fini le livre I quickly finished the book II a eu bientôt fait de lui dire ce qu'il pensait d'elle He had soon told her what he thought of her The use of the double compound tense emphasizes the idea that the event is over and done with. In formal styles of written French where the dominant tense is the simple past (see Chapter 10.5.2), a form of the verb called the 'past anterior' is used in the Subordinating conjunctions 387 contexts d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . The p a s t anterior consists of the simple p a s t forms of avoir or être a n d the p a s t participle: Aussitôt que j'eus fini le livre, je commençai à rédiger le rapport As soon as I had finished the book I began to draft the report Après qu'elle fut sortie, il emballa son cadeau d'anniversaire After she went out he wrapped her birthday present l'eus vite fini le livre I had quickly finished the book 17.3.4 Tenses with depuis que, voilà/voici . . . que, il y a . . . que W h e n depuis que 'since', 'for' i n t r o d u c e s a clause describing an e v e n t w h o s e c o n s e q u e n c e s are o n g o i n g at t h e t i m e it is b e i n g r e p o r t e d , the tense of t h e v e r b in t h a t clause differs systematically from English as follows: English perfect: French present English pluperfect: French imperfect Depuis que nous vivons ensemble, je la vois travailler tard le soir Ever since we have been living together, I have seen her working late into the evening (We are still living together at the time I am reporting that she works late into the evening) Depuis que nous vivions ensemble, je la voyais travailler tard le soir Ever since we had been living together, I saw her working late into the evening (We were still living together at the time I was reporting that she worked late into the evening) But w h e n depuis que i n t r o d u c e s a clause describing an e v e n t w h i c h h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d by the t i m e it is r e p o r t e d , w i t h o u t o n g o i n g consequences, the tenses are t h e s a m e as in English: Depuis qu'il a fini ses études, je le vois beaucoup plus Since he has finished his studies, I see a lot more of him (His studies are over at the time I am reporting seeing a lot more of him) Depuis qu'il avait fini ses études, je le voyais beaucoup plus Since he had finished his studies, I saw a lot more of him (His studies were over at the time I was reporting that I was seeing a lot more of him) voilà/voici . . . que a n d il y a . . . que w h i c h also m e a n 'since', 'for' w h e n u s e d w i t h t i m e expressions - voilà plusieurs années que . . . 'it's b e e n several years since . . .', il y a/avait un mois que . . . 'it h a s / h a d b e e n a m o n t h since ...' — b e h a v e just like depuis que. W h e n the clause i n t r o d u c e d by these expressions describes an e v e n t w h o s e c o n s e q u e n c e s are o n g o i n g at the time it is b e i n g r e p o r t e d , either t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e or the imperfect t e n s e is u s e d in French w h e r e English u s e s , respectively, t h e perfect a n d t h e pluperfect: Voilà/voici plusieurs années qu'elle travaille tard le soir For several years now she has been working late into the evening II y avait un mois que je la connaissais I had known her for a month/It was a month since I had knoivn her 388 Conjunctions and other linking constructions But w h e n the clause describes a n event w h i c h h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d a t the time it is r e p o r t e d , the c o m p o u n d p a s t tense or the pluperfect is used: Voilà/voici deux ans qu'elle a arrêté de fumer It's been two years since she stopped smoking Il y avait un mois qu'il avait disparu It was a month since he had disappeared For tenses w i t h depuis as a p r e p o s i t i o n see C h a p t e r 10.4.4. 17.3.5 N o n - t i m e subordinating conjunctions normally followed by the indicative TABLE I7.C Conjunction Translation ainsi de même que just as (au fur et) à mesure que à proportion que as With the meaning: 'all the while' attendu que vu que étant donné que dès lors que seeing that, given that, since dès lors que also has a time meaning: Dès lors quelle a su la vérité, elle a cessé de lui faire confiance 'As soon as she knew the truth, she lost confidence in him' (pour) autant que as far as Is sometimes followed by the subjunctive to express uncertainty plutôt que rather than, more than ne can be optionally inserted in front of the subordinate verb Comments Je regardais la lune de même qu'elle devait la regarder I looked at the moon just as she must have been looking at it A mesure qu'il parlait, il s'animait As he spoke he became more animated Vu qu'il est déjà midi, je propose qu'on reprenne après le déjeuner Seeing that it is already midday, I propose that we restart after lunch Je délègue autant que je peux I delegate as much as I can Pour autant que je sache, ils sont partis lundi As far as ï know, they left on Monday (My knowledge is uncertain, and so a subjunctive is used) II sommeille plutôt qu'il ne dort He is dozing rather than sleeping Subordinating conjunctions 389 TABLE I7.C (continued) Conjunction Translation Comments comme as, like Also has a time meaning: Il arrivait comme midi sonnait 'He arrived as midday was chiming comme si as if puisque since excepté que sinon que outre que sauf que parce que Not to be confused with depuis que - see 17.4.1 except that because Comme il n'arrête pas de se plaindre, je l'évite le plus possible As he does nothing but complain, I avoid him as much as possible On a eu un été comme on n'en a jamais vu We had a summer like we have never seen before Elle a baissé la tête comme si elle avait honte She lowered her head as if she had was ashamed of something Elle parle français puisque sa mère est Française She speaks French since her mother is a Frenchwoman Elle n'avait rien à dire, sinon qu'elle avait faim She had nothing to say except that she was hungry Il est resté ici parce qu'il n'avait pas l'argent du billet He stayed here because he didn't have the money for a ticket TABLE I7.C (continued) Conjunction Translation selon que suivant que depending on whether si même si quand même if, even if For tenses with si see 17.3.6 tandis que alors que while, whereas alors que also has a time meaning: Alors qu'il se promenait dans le parc, il a rencontré un vieil ami 'While he was walking in the park, he met an old friend' Comments 390 Conjunctions and other linking constructions Je prends le bus ou j'y vais en vélo, selon qu'il pleut ou qu'il fait beau I take the bus or go on my bike, depending on whether it is raining or is fine Si on le branche là-dessus, on peut tenir jusqu'à demain matin If you get him going on that subject, we'll be here until tomorrow morning Même s'il était arrivé, je n'aurais pas pu lui parler Even if he had arrived, I couldn't have spoken to him Quand même il m'aurait dit le contraire, ça n'aurait rien changé Even if he had said the exact opposite, it wouldn't have changed anything II est blond, alors que nous deux, nous sommes bruns He is blond, while the two of us are dark-haired 17.3.6 si and the tense to use in si clauses There are two sz's in French which function like conjunctions. One introduces indirect questions, and can always be translated by 'whether' : Etait-elle venue? Je ne savais pas si elle était venue Had she come? I didn't know if/whether she had come (Indirect questions are introduced by verbs like comprendre, demander, se demander, dire, expliquer, savoir - see Chapter 14.7). In this usage the verb in the si clause can appear in all the tenses, including future and conditional tenses: Je ne sais pas si elle viendra I don't know if/whether she will come On se demande si elle l'achèterait We wonder if/whether she would buy it The other sz introduces hypothetical clauses: Je n'aurais pas écrit si j'avais pu la joindre par téléphone I wouldn't have written if I had been able to reach her by phone Here sz cannot be translated by 'whether', and describes what might have happened but didn't. The verb in hypothetical sz clauses can never appear in future or conditional tenses. Typical sequences of tenses are illustrated in Table 17.D: Subordinating conjunctions 391 TABLE 17.D Sequence of tenses in si clauses si clause Main clause Present, future, conditional Present, imperfect Je le fais I do it si je peux if 1 can Je le ferai I'll do it si je peux if 1 am able Je le ferais I would do it si je pouvais if I was able Imperfect, compound conditional Imperfect pluperfect Je le faisais I used to do it si je pouvais if I was able Je l'aurais fait I would have done it si je pouvais if I was able si j'avais pu if I had been able 17.3.7 Alternatives to (même) si in w r i t t e n French for constructing hypothetical clauses One alternative to hypothetical si clauses in very formal written French is a verb in the conditional tense or in the past subjunctive tense inverted with the subject: Devrait-il en mourir, il n'y consentirait jamais Dût-il en mourir, il n'y consentirait jamais Both mean: 'Even if he were to die as a result, he would never consent to doing it'. Another is to use quand (même) followed by a verb in the conditional: Quand (même) il me le jurerait sur l'honneur, je ne le croirais pas (Even) if he were to swear to me on his honour that it was so, I wouldn't believe him or a conditional clause followed by que: Il me le jurerait sur l'honneur que je ne le croirais pas (Same meaning as the sentence above) 17.3.8 Subordinating conjunctions normally followed by the subjunctive TABLE I7.E Time conjunctions Conjunction Translation Comments avant que before ne can be optionally inserted in front of the subordinate verb en attendant que waiting for jusqu'à ce que until 392 Conjunctions and other linking constructions Avant que personne (n')ait pu lui demander d'explication, il a dit 'C'est moi le coupable' Before anyone could ask him to explain himself, he said 7 am the guilty one' En attendant que le beau temps revienne, on passait les soirées à lire au coin du feu Waiting for the fine weather to return, we spent the evenings reading by the fireside Attendez pour prendre la photo jusqu'à ce que le soleil soit plus bas dans le ciel Wait to take the photo until the sun is lower in the sky NB: ' n o t u n t i l ' , w h e r e it m e a n s ' n o t before', is translated by pas avant que: Je ne partirai pas avant que vous (ne) me payiez I won't leave until you pay me TABLE 17.F Non-time conjunctions Conjunction Translation Comments bien que quoique encore que malgré que although encore que is found only in formal written French malgré que is found in informal spoken French afin que pour que in order that, so that Je continue à dire 'chez moi', bien que la maison ne nous appartienne plus I continue to say 'at our house' although the house no longer belongs to us' II promenait la poussette le long du lac, pour que le bébé prenne l'air He was pushing the push-chair along beside the lake for the baby to get some fresh air Qu'est-ce qu'elle t'a dit pour que tu sois si malheureux? What did she say to you to make you so unhappy? TABLE 17.F (continued) Conjunction Translation Comments de façon que de manière que de sorte que si bien que so that Followed by the indicative these describe something which has happened Followed by the subjunctive they express a wish that something might happen tel que such as tel in tel que agrees with the noun it refers to Elle riait de telle façon qu'on remarquait ses jolies dents blanches She laughed so that her beautiful white teeth could be seen (Her teeth were seen, so the verb introduced by de telle façon que is in the indicative) Subordinating conjunctions 393 Elle parlait de façon que tout le monde la comprenne She spoke so that everyone might understand her (Her wish was that everyone might understand her) Telle que vous l'avez décrite, la statue sera trop grande pour la galerie du rezde-chaussée Such as you have described it, the statue will be too big for the ground floor gallery Et s'il avait créé un scandale tel que vous ayez été obligé de céder, vous auriez perdu beaucoup d'argent And if he had created such a scandal that you had been obliged to give in, you would have lost a lot of money TABLE I7.F (continued) Conjunction Translation (soit/ou) que . . . (soit/ou) que whether . . . or à moins que unless pour peu que si peu que however little pourvu que à condition que providing that Comments ne can be optionally inserted in front of the subordinate verb it is most likely in formal French Conditional and future are possible in informal spoken French Qu'elle ait perdu l'argent ou qu'elle l'ait dépensé, la caisse est vide Whether she lost the money or whether she spent it, the coffers are empty A moins qu'elle ne vende la maison de son vivant, en principe c'est nous qui héritons Unless she sells the house in her lifetime, in principle we will inherit Pour peu qu'on habite dans une zone où la réception est bonne, on peut capter une cinquantaine de chaînes You just have to live in an area where the reception is good and you can pick up fifty TV stations Pourvu que tout le monde soit d'accord, je commence tout de suite Providing that everyone agrees, I'll start straight away A supposer que la réponse soit favorable, qu'est-ce que vous allez faire? Supposing that the reply is positive, what will you do? Je lui ai demandé de modifier le manuscrit; non que je sois déçu, mais je voudrais qu'il y ait plus de dialogue I asked her to change the manuscript; it's not that I am disappointed, but I would like there to be more dialogue Elle aurait bien pu quitter le village sans que je m'en aperçoive She could easily have left the village without me noticing Elle s'enfermait ainsi de crainte qu'on (ne) vienne la surprendre She shut herself away like that for fear that someone would come and surprise her 394 Conjunctions and other linking constructions TABLE I7.F (continued) Conjunction Translation à supposer que supposé que en supposant que en admettant que supposing that non que ce n'est pas que not that sans que without ne can be optionally inserted in front of the subordinate verb in formal French de peur que de crainte que for fear that ne can be optionally inserted in front of the subordinate verb in formal French Comments 17.4 Conjunctions s o m e t i m e s confused by English speakers S o m e conjunctions h a v e several functions w h i c h only partially o v e r l a p b e t w e e n English a n d French. 17.4.1 'since' (a) m e a n i n g 'from the t i m e w h e n ' = depuis que Depuis qu'elle habite la même rue que moi, on ne se voit presque plus Since she has lived in the same street as me, we hardly see each other any more (b) meaning 'given that' = puisque, comme, vu que, étant donné que Puisqu'elle a de l'expérience dans la matière, je pense qu'il serait bon de la consulter Since she has experience in this area, I think it would be a good idea to consult her Comme mes frères l'énervent, elle les évite le plus possible Since my brothers annoy her, she avoids them as much as possible 17.4.2 'while' (a) m e a n i n g ' d u r i n g t h e t i m e t h a t ' = pendant que J'ai téléphoné à ma mère pendant qu'il préparait du thé I telephoned my mother while he made some tea (b) m e a n i n g 'for as l o n g a s ' = tant que Tant qu'elle faisait tout ce qu'il voulait, son frère était satisfait "While she did everything he wanted, her brother was satisfied (c) m e a n i n g ' w h e r e a s ' = alors que, tandis que II est blond alors que nous deux, nous sommes bruns He is blond while the two of us are brown-haired Elle s'occupe du bébé tandis que, moi, je fais tout le travail She looks after the baby while I do all the work Repeated subordinating conjunctions 395 NB: alors que can sometimes mean 'while' in the sense of 'during the time that': Alors qu'il se promenait dans le parc, il a rencontré un vieil ami 'While he was walking in the park, he met an old friend'. 17.4.3 ' a s ' (a) meaning 'all the while' = à mesure que A mesure qu'il parlait, une idée se formait dans mon esprit As he spoke, an idea formed in my mind (b) meaning 'at the same time as' = comme Il arrivait comme midi sonnait He arrived as midday was striking (c) meaning 'in the manner of = comme Les footballeurs s'embrassaient comme ils l'avaient vu faire à la télévision The footballers kissed each other as they had seen it done on the television 17.4.4 'when* (a) meaning 'at the time when' = quand, lorsque Quand sa femme est morte, il a déménagé When his wife died, he moved house (b) meaning 'whereas' = alors que, tandis que Je me demandais pourquoi il venait chez nous, alors qu'il habitait de l'autre côté de la frontière I wondered why he was coming our way when he lived on the other side of the border 17.5 Repeated subordinating conjunctions When clauses introduced by subordinating conjunctions are themselves linked together, que replaces the first conjunction (and is obligatory in French, while the repeated conjunction in English is often omitted): Quand je suis pressé et que je sors la voiture du garage, elle cale When I'm in a hurry and (when) I get the car out of the garage, it stalls The form of the verb in the clause introduced by que is in most cases the same as that of the verb in the first clause (indicative or subjunctive): Même quand j'étais gosse, et que je vivais à la campagne, je ne jouais pas dehors Even when I was a child, and (when) I lived in the country, I didn't play outside Bien qu'il plaisante et qu'il feigne l'indifférence, en réalité il est très touché Although he is joking and pretending it doesn't matter, in fact he is really moved However, when si is repeated by que, the verb in the clause introduced by que is in the subjunctive: S'il fait beau demain, et que nous ayons lé temps, nous pourrions aller à la plage If it is fine tomorrow, and (if) we have time, we could go to the beach (See also Chapter 11.1.10.) 396 Conjunctions and other linking constructions 17.6 Subordinating conjunctions used with infinitive clauses A number of the conjunctions which introduce clauses with finite verbs can also be used without que to link infinitive clauses to a main clause as shown in Table 17.G. TABLE 17.G Subordinating conjunctions without que Followed by de afin de (finir le premier) in order to (finish first) avant de (monter à l'étage) before (going upstairs) de crainte d e / d e peur de (déranger les voisins) for fear of (disturbing the neighbours) à condition de (faire des bénéfices) subject to (making a profit) à moins d'(avoir une augmentation) unless (I/you/we etc. get a pay rise) Followed by à (aller) jusqu'à (déclarer le contraire) de manière à / d e façon à / d e sorte à (assurer la victoire) (to go) as far as (stating the opposite) so as to (be certain of victory) Not followed by another preposition pour (finir le premier) sans (faire du bruit) in order to (finish first) without (making a noise) Je m'étais arrêté afin de/pour vérifier le niveau de l'huile I had stopped to check the oil level Avant de payer j'ai passé l'addition au peigne fin Before paying I scrutinized the bill II ne peut pas rencontrer quelqu'un sans lui parler de ses problèmes sentimentaux He can't say hallo to someone without talking about his emotional problems NB: plutôt que 'rather than', 'more than' exceptionally keeps the que, but also adds de when it introduces an infinitive: Plutôt que de chercher partout, on devrait commencer par les tiroirs du bureau 'Rather than searching everywhere, we should start with the desk drawers'. Where the subject of a main clause is the same as the subject of a subordinate clause linked to it, it is more natural in French to use an infinitive than a finite clause: Il a sorti le paquet de café avant d'allumer le chauffe-eau He took out his packet of coffee before he switched on the water-heater (il is the subject both of a sorti and allumer) rather than: Il a sorti le paquet de café avant qu'il (n')ait allumé le chauffe-eau. Je n'irai pas à moins d'être certain d'avoir une place 1 won't go unless I'm certain of getting a seat (je is the subject both of irai and être certain) rather than: Je n'irai pas à moins que je (ne) sois certain d'avoir une place. Past participle phrases used as linkers 397 A number of other conjunctions which are not capable of introducing finite clauses in modern French can introduce infinitive clauses: faute d'(avoir assez d'argent) through lack of (having enough money) à force de (s'entraîner) by dint of (training) au lieu de (dormir) instead of (sleeping) loin de (chercher à vous tromper) far from (seeking to cheat you) près de (renoncer) close to (giving up) quant à (proposer de vous accompagner) as for (proposing to go with you) 17.7 après avoir/être + past participle linking an infinitive clause to a main clause A frequently used construction translating English 'having V-ed', 'after V-ing' is après + the infinitive form of avoir or être and a past participle: Après avoir mangé sa glace à la fraise, elle s'est essuyé la bouche sur sa manche Having bought/after buying her strawberry ice-cream, she wiped her mouth on her sleeve Après avoir expliqué à ses hôtes comment arriver au centre ville, elle s'est retirée dans sa chambre After having explained to her guests how to get into the centre of town, she retired to her bedroom Après être allé consulter son médecin, elle a constaté qu'elle avait moins mal Having gone/after going to see her doctor, she found that it didn't hurt so much 17.8 Past participle phrases used as linkers The past participles of verbs which are conjugated with être in compound tenses (see Chapter 8.2.2) can be used without après to link subordinate clauses to main clauses, where English usually uses 'having V-ed': Arrivé à la gare, il a acheté un journal Having arrived at the station he bought a paper Couché de bonne heure, j'ai lu Having gone to bed early I read Partie pour de bon, elle n'a plus l'intention de revenir Having left for good, she no longer intends to return The past participles of verbs referring to bodily posture are used where English uses 'V-ing': assis 'sitting', appuyé 'leaning', agenouillé 'kneeling', couché Tying', etc.: 398 Conjunctions and other linking constructions Je suis resté debout toute la séance, appuyé contre le mur I remained standing throughout the showing, leaning against the wall Assis sur un banc, on a parlé longtemps Sitting there on a bench, we talked for a long time 17.9 Present participles and gerunds This section concerns French verb forms ending in -ant. They are formed from the stem of the first person plural (nous) of the present tense by deleting -ons and replacing it with -ant: donnons/donnant, finissons/finissant, dormons /dormant. They can also have a compound form composed of the -ant form of the auxiliary and the past participle of the verb: ayant donné, ayant fini, ayant dormi, étant devenu. -ant forms have three main roles: they can function as adjectives, in which case they agree with the noun to which they refer, they can function as present participles, in which case they do not agree with any noun, and they can function as gerunds with the added form en (en donnant, en finissant, en dormant). 17.9.1 -ant forms as adjectives Like all adjectives, -ant forms can occur close to a noun or be linked to it by a verb like être, devenir, paraître (see Chapter 4.1.1). In both cases they agree with the noun. une histoire passionnante Cette histoire est passionnante une eau de toilette séduisante Cette eau de toilette est séduisante une femme plaisante Cette femme est plaisante une chaise roulante une ferme avoisinante une injustice criante a fascinating story this story is fascinating a seductive perfume this perfume is seductive an agreeable woman this woman is agreeable a wheelchair a neighbouring farm a flagrant injustice 17.9.2 -ant forms as present participles -ant forms can be used to form subordinate clauses. When they do so, they are called present participles. Used in this way, they are invariable (i.e. they do not agree with any noun): Les circonstances aidant, ils ont terminé le projet à la date prévue Given the favourable conditions, they finished the project on the agreed date Voyant arriver sa sœur, elle s'est éloignée Seeing her sister arrive, she left Sachant qu'ils allaient perdre, ils ont néanmoins fait de leur mieux Knowing they were going to lose, they nonetheless did their best II était heureux d'y aller, reconnaissant ce qu'il devait à son ancien collège He was pleased to go there recognizing what he owed to his old school Attirant un public international, l'exposition a atteint un million de visiteurs Attracting an international audience, the exhibition reached a million visitors Cette grange, avoisinant les bâtiments principaux, pourrait être transformée en maison d'habitation Present participles and gerunds 399 This barn, adjoining the main buildings, could be converted into living accommodation Les contes de Roald Dahl, passionnant les enfants de toutes les nations, ont été traduites en plusieurs langues The stories of Roald Dahl, fascinating the children of every nation, have been translated into several languages Roulant à soixante-dix à l'heure, le conducteur n'a pas pu éviter un piéton Driving at seventy kilometres an hour, the driver was unable to avoid a pedestrian In s o m e cases, w h e r e the p r e s e n t participle follows a n o u n , it m a y be difficult to d e c i d e w h e t h e r it is an adjective or a p r e s e n t participle. In the following e x a m p l e s , the -ant forms are all p r e s e n t participles, a n d h e n c e invariable: un editorial ridiculisant le gouvernement an editorial poking fun at the government une voiture roulant lentement est moins dangereuse a car driving slowly is less dangerous des manifestants hurlant des slogans passaient sous ses fenêtres demonstrators shouting slogans passed below his windows la belle au bois dormant Sleeping Beauty ]e les ai surpris dans la clairière, dormant profondément I came across them in the clearing, fast asleep You c a n u s u a l l y tell if an -ant form is an adjective (and h e n c e m u s t agree w i t h a n o u n ) if y o u can replace it by an o r d i n a r y adjective a n d still h a v e a g r a m matical p h r a s e . C o m p a r e : un editorial passionnant un editorial ennuyeux une chaise roulante une chaise haute a fascinating editorial a boring editorial (OK - adjective) a wheelchair a highchair (OK - adjective) un editorial ridiculisant le gouvernement *un editorial ennuyeux le gouvernement (not OK - present participle) une voiture roulant lentement des manifestants hurlant des slogans *une voiture haute lentement (not OK - present participle) *des manifestants délicats des slogans (not OK - present participle) The decision d e p e n d s on w h e t h e r the action described by the -ant form is seen m a i n l y as a state (=adjective) or as an action (=verb). N B : As w i t h a n u m b e r of other tenses, French m a r k s tense sequences m o r e p r e cisely t h a n English (see C h a p t e r 10). W h e r e English h a s a s i m p l e -ing form, French m a y require a c o m p o u n d p r e s e n t participle: Etant partis à l'aube, nous sommes arrivés avant la nuit Having left at dawn, we arrived before nightfall Ayant ramassé ses vêtements en hâte, il sauta par la fenêtre Having picked up his clothes in a hurry, he jumped out of the window 400 Conjunctions and other linking constructions Ayant repéré un gendarme plus loin dans la rue, elle a pris la fuite Spotting a policeman further up the street, she ran away 17.9.3 Set expressions with invariable present participles argent comptant Ils veulent être payés en argent comptant in cash They want to be paid in cash ne pas avoir un sou vaillant J'admets que je n'ai pas un sou vaillant not to have a red cent I admit I am totally broke ce disant Ce disant il a fait un geste maladroit et a renversé un verre in so saying In so saying he made a clumsy gesture and knocked over a glass chemin faisant Chemin faisant on a chanté des chansons on the way We sang songs on the way donnant donnant Nous sommes d'accord si c'est donnant donnant a fair exchange, swop We agree as long as it's a fair exchange strictement parlant Strictement parlant je ne devrais pas vous le répéter strictly speaking Strictly speaking I should not say this to you tambour battant La droite a mené la campagne tambour battant d'un bout à l'autre in an energetic manner The right led a thoroughly energetic campaign from the beginning to the end 17.9.4 -ant forms used as gerunds with en W h e r e p r e s e n t participles are p r e c e d e d by en t h e y are k n o w n as ' g e r u n d s ' . By u s i n g en, a s p e a k e r or a w r i t e r m a y be e m p h a s i z i n g the fact that the event described in the m a i n clause a n d the event described in the g e r u n d i v e clause take place simultaneously. This is often translated into English by ' w h i l e ' or 'as': En attendant Philippe, je me suis installé au café d'en face While waiting for Philippe, I took up position in the café opposite Je l'avais vue dans la semaine, en rentrant de l'école 7 had seen her during the week, as I came back from school Il est passé en faisant un appel de phares He passed by, as he did so flashing his lights Comment est-ce que tu arrives à tant bavarder en conduisant? How do you manage to talk so much when you are driving? Alternatively, the u s e of en w i t h a g e r u n d m a y e m p h a s i z e a link of cause a n d effect b e t w e e n the g e r u n d i v e clause a n d the m a i n clause; this is translated by ' i n ' or ' b y ' in English: En déclarant que vous étiez sur place vous vous êtes incriminé In admitting that you were there you have incriminated yourself Present participles and gerunds 401 En gérant une boutique comme si c'était un supermarché, on s'expose à l'échec In managing a small shop as if it were a supermarket, you are running the risk of failure Marianne a indiqué qu'elle ne voulait plus sortir avec lui en refusant son invitation Marianne showed that she no longer wanted to go out with him by refusing his invitation En augmentant le prix de vente vous risquez de voir chuter le nombre d'acheteurs By increasing the retail price you run the risk of reducing the number of buyers On a décoré la pièce en mettant des fleurs partout We fixed up the room by putting flowers everywhere W h e n a g e r u n d is p r e c e d e d by tout en, it suggests that the event described in the g e r u n d i v e clause is g o i n g on all the w h i l e the event described in the m a i n clause t a k e s place: Tout en me parlant, elle nettoyait les vitres All the while she was speaking, she wiped the windows Tout en discutant de la pluie et du beau temps, il regardait discrètement dans le rétroviseur Whilst chatting about this and that, he was keeping a discreet eye on the rear-view mirror Les deux sœurs se sont quittées tout en sachant qu'elles avaient peu de chances de se revoir The two sisters took leave of one another knowing that there was little possibility of them seeing each other again W h e n p r e s e n t participles are u s e d w i t h o u t en, they can refer to a n y of the participants in the m a i n clause: subject, direct object, object of a preposition: Je l'avais vue dans la semaine, rentrant de l'école 1 had seen her during the week as I (or she) came back from school W h e n en is p r e s e n t , h o w e v e r , the g e r u n d can only refer to the subject of the m a i n clause: Je l'avais vue dans la semaine, en rentrant de l'école 1 had seen her during the week as I (NOT *she) came back from school N B : G e r u n d s m a y also b e f o r m e d from c o m p o u n d p r e s e n t participles. These are frequently t r a n s l a t e d into English by a simple -ing form: En ayant refusé de poursuivre des études supérieures, elle s'est privée de bien des possibilités By refusing to undertake higher education, she cut herself off from a number of possibilities En ayant contesté nos méthodes, il s'est exclu de notre groupe By questioning our methods, he has excluded himself from our group Appendix Capital letters, lower-case letters and representing speech in w r i t t e n French We note here briefly some of the differences between written English and written French in the conventions relating to the use of capital and lower-case letters, and in representing direct speech. Small letters for days of the week, months, seasons English uses capital letters, French uses lower-case letters: Il arrive lundi (mardi, mercredi, ... ) He arrives on Monday (Tuesday, Wednesday, ... ) Nous partirons en janvier (en février, en mars, ... ) We shall leave in January (February, March, ... ) English can optionally use capital or lower-case letters with seasons, French always uses lower-case letters: Elle travaille dix-huit heures par jour en été (au printemps, ...) She works eighteen hours a day in Summer (in Spring, ... ) Small letters for streets, roads, avenues, etc. English uses capitals, French uses lower-case letters: 11, place de la République 11 Russell Square Je l'ai vue rue de Rivoli I saw her in Regent Street Small letters for titles English uses capitals, French uses lower-case letters: Le professeur Bouvier Professor Bouvier Le docteur Picot Doctor Picot Small letters for adjectives indicating origin, but capital letters for nouns English always uses capital letters to introduce adjectives and nouns Appendix 403 describing the origin or religious affiliation of a person or entity. French uses lower-case letters to introduce adjectives describing origin, lower-case letters to introduce adjectives and nouns describing religious affiliation, but capital letters to introduce nouns describing origin: un touriste français (adj) un Français de ma connaissance (noun) a French tourist a Frenchman I know un livre américain (adj) un Américain célèbre (noun) an American book a famous American un prêtre catholique (adj) un catholique célèbre (noun) a Catholic priest a famous Catholic Small letters for languages English always uses capital letters to introduce adjectives and nouns describing languages, French always uses lower-case letters: la langue française (adj) the French language Elle parle bien le français (noun) She speaks French well Capitals and lower-case letters in citing book titles Although there are different conventions for the use of capitals and lower-case letters in citing book titles, one common convention in French is to capitalize every word up to and including the first noun: L'Etranger L'Art de vivre Le Grand Meaulnes Les Petits Enfants du siècle In English common conventions are to capitalize the first letter of every word, or to capitalize the first word and the 'content' words (and not the function words), or to treat the title like an ordinary sentence: The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire The decline and fall of the Roman empire Representing direct speech Direct speech can be opened and closed by guillemets. Unlike English, where speech marks enclose only the speech itself, in French guillemets enclose dialogues, and are only closed when the whole dialogue is at an end: «Et voilà, dit le père, filant sur la route. En voilà encore une de tirée. - Eh, oui», répliqua la mère. (From Christiane Rochefort, Les Petits Enfants du siècle) 'Well,' said our father, belting along the road. 'That's another one [holiday] over with.' 'Yes,' our mother replied. 404 Appendix Alternatively, speech can be introduced by dashes ('tirets') in both languages: - Etes-vous prêt? - Pas encore. - Are you ready? - Not yet. Verbs reporting who said what are always inverted with the subject in French: «C'est plus fort en goût», précise Vincent «C'est plus fort en goût», précise-t-il 'It has a stronger taste,' Vincent adds/he adds «Le moulin, clef de l'économie», annonce un panneau 'Mills are the key to economic success,' a sign announces «Ce n'est pas vrai», répondirent les autres tranquillement 'It's not true,' the others replied calmly Bibliography Cited works and main works consulted in the preparation of the text. Astington, E. 1980: French structures: a manual for advanced students. London: Collins. Batchelor, R. and Offord, M. 1982: A guide to contemporary French usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bonnard, H. 1983: Code du français courant. Paris: Magnard. Byrne, L. and Churchill, E., revised by G. Price, 1991, 3rd edition: A comprehensive French grammar. Oxford: Blackwell. Désirât, C. and Horde, T. 1976: La Langue française au 20e siècle. Paris: Bordas. Engel, D. 1990: Tense and text: a study of French past tenses. London: Routledge. Grevisse, M. 1957, 26th edition: Précis de grammaire française. Gembloux: Duculot. Grevisse, M. 1993, 13th edition revised by A. Goose: Le Bon Usage. Paris: Duculot. Japrisot, S. 1966: La Dame dans l'auto avec des lunettes et un fusil. Paris: Editions Denoël. Japrisot, S. 1977: L'Eté meurtrier. Paris: Editions Denoël. Jones, M. 1996: Foundations of French syntax. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Judge, A. and Healey, F. 1983: A reference grammar of modern French. London: Edward Arnold. Kayne, R. 1975: French syntax: the transformational cycle. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. Mailhac, J.-P. 1992: Traduction anglais-français et information numérique. University of Salford: Working Papers in Language and Learning. Mauger, G. 1968: Grammaire pratique du français d'aujourd'hui. Paris: Hachette. Ollivier, J. 1993, 2nd edition: Grammaire française. Laval: Editions Etudes Vivantes. Réquédat, F. 1980: Constructions verbales avec l'infinitif. Paris: Hachette. Secrétan, D. 1970: La Pratique du français: cours supérieur 1. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Wagner, R. and Pinchon, J. 1962: Grammaire de français classique et moderne. Paris: Hachette. Waugh, L. 1977: Semantic analysis of word order. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Index References are made to sections. a, an (indefinite article), 2.3 after negation, 16.6.1 four francs a kilo, 2.2.7 à, 13.2 with countries, islands, regions, 2.2.2, 13.2.2 verbs followed by à, 8.4, 8.4.1, 8.5 à introducing infinitives, 12.4, 12.8.2, 12.8.3 a, b, c (in addresses), 6.4.6 able (to be able), 11.2.2, 12.3.3 about (about fifty), 6.5.3 above (au-dessus), 13.23 in a text, 5.6.16 Abstract noun (bonheur, patience, etc.), 1.1.1 with partitive article (de la patience), 2.4 according to, 13.3, 13.52 accourir (with avoir or être), 8.2.2 acheter (in its form achète), 7 A acheter qc à qn, 8.5 s'acheter, 3.2.14 across, 13.57, 13.59 actuellement 5.6.8, 5.6.15 AD (up. J-C), 6.6.3 Addresses, 6.4.6 Adjective, Chp 4 normally following nouns, 4.1.1 normally preceding nouns, 4.1.2 preceding and following nouns, 4.1.3-4.1.4 agreement with nouns, 4.9 of colour, 4.1.1 comparative forms of (plus grand), 4.12.1 with a complement, 4.3 with infinitive complements, 12.7 compound adjectives, 4.11 describing religious affiliation, 4.1.1 following verbs, 4.2 followed by de + infinitive, 12.7A gender of adjectives with gens, 1.2.4 invariable, 4.10 manner adjectives + infinitive, 12.7.3 masculine and feminine forms, 4.7 modified by adverb/prepositional phrase, 4.1.6 multiple adjectives, 4.1.5 of nationality, 4.1.1, 4.5 order with cardinal numbers, 6.4.4 of origin, 4.1.1 past participles used as adjectives, 9.2.3 plural forms, 4.8 preceded by de, 2.3.5, 4.1.7 of shape, form, 4.1.1 superlative forms of (le plus grand), 4.12.2 used as adverbs, 4.6, 5.3 used as nouns, 4.5 Adverb, Chp 5 adjectives used as adverbs, 4.6, 5.3 comparative forms of (plus lentement), 5.6.3-5.6.6 degree adverbs, 5.6.2 demain, le lendemain, 5.6.15 French/English differences, 5.5 formed with -ment, 5.2 formed from adjectives ending in -ant/-ent, 5.2.3 formed from adjectives ending in -e, 5.2.5 formed from extinct adjectives, 5.2.6 formed from feminine adjectives, 5.2.1 formed from masculine adjectives, 5.2.2 formed from nouns, 5.2.7 formed from past participles, 5.2.4 function of adverbs, 5.1 hier, la veille, 5.6.15 inversion of subject and verb after, 5.7.4 location of, 5.7 location with negation, 16.6.1 manner adverbs, 5.6.1 adjectives modified by adverbs, 4.1.6 phrases used as adverbs, 5.4 place adverbs, 5.6.16 sentence-modifying adverbs, 5.6.17 superlative forms of (le plus lentement), 5.6.3-5.6.6 time adverbs, 5.6.8 time adverbs and moment of speaking, 5.6.15 afin de, 17.6 afin que, 11.1.6, 17.3.8 afraid (avoir peur que/de), 11.1.3, 11.1.6, 12.5.10 after (après, derrière), 13.3, 13.20, 13.59 after doing sth, 11.1.7, 17.3.1 after I have left, 10.4.3, 10.5.2 after three hours, 13.8 408 Index afternoon (this afternoon), 5.6.15 afterwards (ensuite vs puis), 5.6.11 again (encore vs toujours), 5.6.10, 5.7.4 against, 13.11 agit: il s'agit de, 8.8.4 agréable défaire qc, 12.7.1-12.7.2 Agreement, Chp 9 adjectives with nouns, 4.9 nouns linked by être, 9.1.6 past participle with subject, 9.2 past participle with preceding direct object, 9.3 past participle of pronominal verbs, 9.4 past participle in questions, 9.3.7 past participle in relative clauses, 9.3.4 subject-verb agreement, 9.1 verb with collective noun subjects, 9.1.3 verb with fractions, 6.3.3, 9.1.4 verb with numeral nouns, 9.1.5 verb with subject quantifiers, 6.9.6, 9.1.5 verb with subjects linked by et, 9.1.1 verb with ni ...ni, soit ... soit, ou, 9.1.2 ahead of (avant), 13.6 aider qn à faire qc, 3.2.1, 12.4.10 aie, ayons, ayez (imperative), 11.5.1 aîné (de six ans), 6.5.2 ainsi, 5.6.17, 5.7.4 ainsi que, 17.3.5 ail, 5.6.7, 6.9.5 all three, 6.4.9 all that was within his reach, 15.9 aller, 12.3.1 aller faire qc used as a future tense, 10.4.1 s'en aller, 12.3.1 allow sb to do sth, 3.2.24 almost (presque), 5.6.2 alone (in doing), 12.7.3 they alone, 3.3.4 along (le long de), 13.38 alors, 5.6.9 alors que, 17.3.5 although, 11.1.6, 17.3.8 always, 5.6.10, 5.7.2 ambigu ~ ambiguë, 4.7.1 among, 13.59 = chez, 13.10 = dans, 13.14.7 = entre/d'entre, 13.27 = parmi, 13.14.7, 13.42, 15.5 amour, 1.2.4 an/année, 1.1.5, 6.5.2, 6.6.3, 13.26.1 ancien, 4.1.3 and, 3.2.34, 3.3.5, 17.2 you and I, 9.1.1 angrily, 5.5 -ant forms of verbs, 17.9 used as adjectives, 17.9.1 used with en, 17.9.4 used as present participles, 17.9.2 any (tout), 5.6.7 anyone, 14.2.7 anything, 14.2.7 apparaître (with avoir or être), 8.2.2 apparemment que, 11.1.9 appeler (in its form appelle), 7 A apprendre à qn à faire, 3.2.1, 12.4.10 apprendre le français à qn, 8.5, 8.6.3 Approximations, 6.5.3 après/d'après, 13.3 après avoir/être + past participle, 17.7 après que (with indicative), 11.1.7, 17.3.1 with future tense, 10.4.3 with past anterior, 10.5.2 with double compound tenses, 10.5.3 ap. J-C (AD), 6.6.3 Arithmetic, 6.1.9 arm (parts of the body), 2.2.8, 2.2.9, 3.2.20 around (autour de), 13.5 = approximately, 13.14.6, 13.59 with numbers, 6.5.3 arrêter, 12.5.17 arriver, 12.3.1, 12.4.6 il arrive (impersonal), 8.8.5 Article, Chp 2 definite (le, la, les), 2.2 definite (fused forms: du, aux, etc.), 2.2.1 definite (with days of the week), 6.6.2 indefinite (un, une, des), 2.3 followed by vowel or h, 2.1.1 after ne ... pas, ne ... jamais, etc., 2.5 omission of, 2.6 partitive (du, de la, des), 2.4 repetition of articles, 2.2.11 use with abstract nouns, 1.1.1, 2.3 with geographical terms, 2.2.2 with habitual actions, 2.2.10 with languages, 2.2.2 with mass nouns, 1.1.2 with parts of the body, 2.2.8 with proper nouns, 1.1.4 with quantities, 2.2.7 with seasons, 2.2.4 with superlatives, 2.2.6 with titles, 1.1.4, 2.2.5 as (preposition), 13.59 conjunction, 17.4.3 as big, 4.12.1, 5.6.2 as for (quant a), 13.49 as long as, 17.3.1 as much/many, 5.6.2, 6.9, 6.9.1, 17.3.5 as soon as (dès), 13.21 as soon as (dès que), 10.4.3, 10.5.2, 17.3.1-17.3.3 as was his custom, 13.55 Index 409 as, pronunciation of, 1.3.2 ask, 8.3.5, 8.6.3, 11.1.3 ask politely = prier, 12.5.4 s'asseoir 13.5.1 faire asseoir, 12.3.9 at, 13.59 = à, 13.2.1 = chez, 13.10 = en, 13.26.8 attempt too much (voir trop grand), 4.6 attendre, 8.3.5, 11.1.3 s'attendre à ce que, 11.1.3 Attitude (expression of), Chp 11 autumn (en automne), 2.2A, 13.26.1 au(x), 1.2.6 with parts of the body, 2.2.8 with masculine countries, 13.2.2-13.2.3, 13.26.1 au vs dans, 13.2.3 aucun (ne ... aucun), 16.8 auprès de, 13.4 aussi = so, thus, 5.6.17, 5.7.4 aussi (grand), 4.12.1, 5.6.2 aussi (longtemps) que, 17.3.1 aussitôt que, 17.3.1-17.3.3 with future tense, 10.4.3 with past anterior, 10.5.2 with double compound tenses, 10.5.3 autant que, 17.3.5 autour de, 13.5 autres (d'autres vs des autres), 2.3.4 Auxiliary verbs (avoir vs être), 8.2.1, 8.2.2, 8.3. 8.3.4 avant, 13.6 av. J-C (BC), 6.6.3 avant que, 16.16, 17.3.8 with subjunctive, 11.1.7 avant de, 17.6 avec, 13.7 followed by zero article, 2.6.4 avec des, 2.3.2 avec colère, avec charme, etc., 5.5 avec qn nous avons fait X, 3.3.5 avenue, 6.4.6 avion, 1.2.7 avoid (éviter que ... ne), 16.16 avoir (forms of), 7.6.1 auxiliary verb, 8.2.1, 8.3.2, 8.3.4 imperative of avoir, 7.3.7 avoir été eu, 8.6.2 avoir l'air (adjective agreement), 4.2 Bachelor of Arts, 2.2.1 BC (av. J-C), 6.6.3 bad (mauvais), 4.1.2, 5.3 too bad, 5.6.4 badly (mal), 5.6.1, 5.6.4, 5.7.2 be (forms of être), 7.6.2 auxiliary verb, 8.2.2, 8.3.4 used in the passive, 8.6.1 used in imperatives, 11.5.1 be an engineer, 2.6.7 be able, 11.2.2 be about to, 11.2.1 My problem was my children, 9.1.6 To leave is to die a little, 12.9 beau, bel, belle, 4.1.2, 4.7.4, 4.8.2 beaucoup, 5.6.2, 5.6.5 beaucoup de, 2.3.2, 2.3.3, 2.4, 9.1.5 beaucoup de vs beaucoup des, 6.9.3 with en, 3.2.25 because, 17.3.5 because of, 13.9 before (before dawn), 13.6 before going, 11.1.7, 16.16, 17.3.8, 17.6 begin, 8.2.1, 12.4.1 behalf (on behalf of), 13.43 behind, 5.6.16, 5.7.2, 13.20 believe, 3.2.11, 4.2, 8.4 followed by indicative or subjunctive, 11.1, 11.1.4 followed by an infinitive, 12.3.5 in reported descriptions, 10.7 belong to, 3.2.19 below (in a text), 5.6.16 Benefactive me, te, se, nous, vous, 3.2.14 bent on, 12.4.6 besoin (avoir besoin de), 3.2.28 best, 4.12.2, 5.6.4, 5.6.6 followed by the subjunctive, 11.1.8 better, 4.12.1, 5.6.1, 5.6.4, 5.6.6 between, 13.27, 15.5 beyond, 13.17 bicycle, 13.2.4 bien, 5.6.1, 5.6.2, 5.6.4, 5.6.6 vs mieux, bon 5.6.6 bien des, 2.3.2, 6.9.3 bien que, 11.1.6, 17.3.8 bientôt (with past anterior), 10.5.2, 17.3.3 big vs fat, 4.1.3 billions, 6.4.7, 6.4.8 bis (in addresses) 6.4.6 bleu, rouge, vert, etc., 4.1.1, 4.11.3 bloody (bloody difficult), 5.2.7 Body (parts of), 3.2.20, 9.4 determiner with, 2.2.8 with pronominal verbs, 8.7.2 boire qc frais, 8.9 se boire (le Gamay se boit frais), 3.2.15 bon, 4.1.2, 4.6, 5.3, 5.6.6 vs meilleur, bien, 5.6.6 bon défaire qc, 12.7.1-12.7.2 bone, 1.3.2 borrow sth from sb, 8.5 410 Index boulevard, 6.4.6 bout (au bout de), 13.8 bras, 2.2.8, 2.2.9, 3.2.20 bread, 1.3.10 British, 4.1.1 brosser (se brosser les dents), 8.7.2 bus (dans le bus), 13.14.2 but, 17.2 buy (oneself sth), 3.2.14 buy sth from sb, 8.5 by, 13.59 = à, 13.2.5 = avant, 13.6 = dans, 13.14.2 = de, 13.15.5 = en, 13.26.5 = par, 13.41.2 = selon, 13.52 four by three, 6.5.2 in passives, 8.6.1 ça (use of), 3.1.15, 3.1.19-3.1.21 ça me fait peur de + infinitive, 3.1.20 call sb sth, 4.2 camion, 1.2.7 camion-citerne, 1.2.11 can (pouvoir vs savoir), 11.2.2, 11.2.3 Capital letters (use of), Appendix car, 1.2.7 car (conjunction), 17.2 Cardinal numbers (un, deux, etc.), 6.1 conventions for writing, 6.1.5 French/English differences, 6.4 order with adjectives, 6.4.4 plural of, 6.1.3 use of hyphens with, 6.1.2 use of figures and words, 6.1.4 with et, 6.1.1 carefully, 5.7.2 Catholic, 4.1.1 cause (à cause de), 13.9 ce, cela, ça (use of), 3.1.15 vs il/elle, 3.1.16 impersonal use, 3.1.17, 3.1.19 ce (with être), 3.1.23 c'est vs il est, 3.1.22 c'est vs ce sont, 9.1.6 c'est vs est with infinitives, 12.9 c'est moi/vous qui, 9.1.6 ce, cet, cette, ces, 2.7 with ... -ci, -là, 2.7.1 ce dont, 15.9 celle/celui (-ci/-là), 2.8.1 ce que (in indirect questions), 14.7.3 exclamative, 11.4.1 relative pronoun, 15.9 ce qu'il y a de beau, 13.15.8 ce qui (in indirect questions), 14.7.3 relative pronoun, 15.9 centaine, 6A.7, 6.5.3 -cer verbs (changes in stem forms), 7.5 certains, 6.1.7, 6.9.2 certain de faire qc, 12.7A certainement que, 11.1.9 cesser de (omission of pas with), 16.6.2 ce sont 3.1.23 changer, 8.2.1 chacun, 6.9.3, 6.9.4 chaque, 6.9.5 cher, 4.1.3, 4.6, 5.3 chercher, 12.4.6 cheveux, 2.2.8 chez, 13.10 chic, 4.10 chiffre, 6.1.6 choisir, 12.5.2, 12.5.5 chose (gender of), 1.2.4 -ci, -là, 2.7.1, 3.4.1 ci-après, ci-contre, etc., 5.6.16 claim that, 10.7 clair, 5.3 (bleu) clair, 4.11.3 climb, 8.4.1 Clock time, 3.1.18, 6.7 Collective noun, 1.1.3 colorier en bleu, 5.5 Colour adjectives, 4.1.1, 4.10, 4.11.3 combien?, 14.6.5 exclamative, 11.4.1 comité (agreement with), 1.1.3, 3.1.6, 9.1.3 comme, 17.3.5 exclamative, 11.4.1 commencer, 8.2.1, 12.4.1 -c or f-? 7.5 comment?, 14.6.6 Comparative of adjectives (plus grand), 4.12.1 of adverbs (mieux), 5.6.3, 5.6.4 with ne in dependent clauses, 16.16 compared with, 13.4, 13.12 completely, 5.6.7 Compound noun (gender of), 1.2.11 plural of, 1.3.9 formed with à, 13.2.6 Compound tenses with quand, lorsque, 17.3.3 Concrete noun, 1.1.1 Conditional tense (formation of), 7.3.4 uses of, 10.4.2 used to express an alleged fact, 10.4.2 as an alternative to a si-clause, 10.4.2 with quand, lorsque, 17.3.2 French/English differences, 10.4.3 Conditional (compound conditional), 10.5.5 used to express an alleged fact, 10.5.5 Conjugations, 7.2 Index 411 Conjunction, Chp 17 coordinating, 17.2 subordinating, 17.3 subordinating + indicative, 17.3.5 subordinating + subjunctive, 17.3.8 connaître (se connaître), 3.2.13, 8.7.5 conseiller à qn de faire, 3.2.1, 12.5.1 considered to be, 4.2 content de faire qc, 12.7A contre, 13.11 contre des, 2.3.2 Conventions (brackets, asterisk), Guide Coordinating conjunctions, 17.2 cost, 6.1.8, 9.3.5, 9.3.8 côté (à/du côté de), 13.12 could, 11.2.2, 11.3.3 Count noun, 1.1.2 Countries, towns, etc., and use of à, 13.2.2, 13.2.3 use of dans with, 13.14.1 use of de with, 13.15.8 use of en with, 13.26.1 gender of, 1.2.6 cours (au cours de), 13.13 course (of course), 11.1.9, 5.6.17 coûter, 6.1.8, 9.3.5, 9.3.8 couvert de, 2.6.3, 13.6.2, 13.6.5 crainte (de crainte que), 17.3.8 de crainte de, 17.6 créer, 7.4.1 croire, 3.2.11, 4.2, 8.4, 10.7, 11.1, 11.1.4 crowd, committee, etc., and agreement, 1.1.3, 3.1.6, 9.1.3 currently, 5.6.8, 5.6.15 dans, 13.14 vs en in time expressions, 13.14.4, 13.26.3 meaning 'from', 13.14.9 dare to do sth, 12.3.3 dark (dark blue), 4.11.3 Dates, 6.4.1, 6.6.1 day, 1.1.5 days of the week, 2.2.10, 6.4.1, 6.6.2, 13.26.9 the next day, the day after/before, 5.6.15 the day when vs one day when, 15.7.2 davantage, 5.6.2, 16.6.1 de, 13.15 following a superlative, 13.15.3 followed by zero article, 2.3.2 after ne ... pas, 16.6.1 introducing infinitives, 12.5, 12.8.4 de le, 2.2.1 in adjective/infinitive constructions, 12.7.1, 12.7.4 verbs followed by, 8.4, 8.4.1, 8.5 with geographical terms, 2.2.2 de jolies roses, 2.3.5 une heure de libre, 4.1.7 de vs par, 8.6.1, 13.15.5, 13.41.2, 13.41.4 dear, 4.1.3, 4.6, 4.7.1, 5.3 décider, 12.4.5, 12.4.11, 12.5.2 dedans, 5.6.16 deep, 6.5.1 défendre à qn de faire qc, 3.2.24 Definite article, 2.2 fused forms, 2.2.1 repetition of, 2.2.11 with days of the week, 6.6.2 with geographical terms, 2.2.2 with habitual actions, 2.2.10 with languages, 2.2.3 with parts of the body, 2.2.8 with quantities, 2.2.7 with seasons, 2.2.4 with superlative, 2.2.6 with titles, 2.2.5 Degree adverb, 5.6.2 dehors, 5.6.16, 5.7.2 en dehors de, 13.16 delà (au-delà de), 13.17 demain, 5.6.15 demander, 8.3.5, 8.6.3, 11.1.3, 12.5.4 demi, 6.3.2 demi-, nu-, mi-, 4.11.4 used in clock time,6.7 Demonstrative determiner, 2.7 demonstrative pronoun, 3.4 deny (nier que ... ne), 16.16 département, 1.2.6, 13.14.1, 13.26.1 dépit (en dépit de), 13.18 depuis, 13.19 tenses with, 10.4.4 depuis que (tenses with), 17.3.1, 17.3.4 dernier, 4.1.3 (les quatre) derniers, 4.1.5 dernier, seul, etc + subjunctive, 11.1.8, 15.11.3 derrière, 5.6.16, 5.7.2, 13.20 des (indefinite article), 2.3.1 indefinite vs definite des, 2.3.3 omission of des after de, 2.3.2 dès 13.21 dès que, 17.3.1-17.3.3 with future tense, 10.4.3 with past anterior, 10.5.2 with compound tenses, 10.5.3 descendre, 8.2.2, 8.3.4, 8.3.5, 12.3.1 Descriptive vs prescriptive, Guide dessous, 5.6.16 au-/par-dessous de, 13.22 dessus, 5.6.16 au-lpar-dessus de, 13.23 Determiner, Chp 2 demonstrative (ce, cette, ces, etc.), 2.7 possessive (mon, son, votre, etc.), 2.8 412 Index Determiner, Chp 2 (contd.) possessive with body parts, 2.2.8 deuxième, 6.2 devant, 13.24 devoir, 11.2.1, 11.3.2, 11.3.6, 11.3.7, 12.3.3 position of object pronouns with, 3.2.33 didn't, 16.6.1 difficile défaire qc, 12.7.1, 12.7.2 dire, 8.5, 10.7, 12.3.4, 12.5.16 Direct speech, Appendix direction (in the direction of), 13.12 dirty, 4.1.3 disparaître, 8.2.1 Ditransitive verb, 8.5 dizaine, 6.5.3, 9.1.5 do (do you?), 14.2.2 doctor (author, teacher): gender of, 1.2.9 dommage {il est dommage que), 11.1.3 donc, 5.6.17, 5.7.3 donner sur, 13.56 donnez-le-moi, 3.2.32 dont, 15.6.1, 15.6.2 don't, 16.6.1 dormir, 9.3.5, 9.3.8 forms of, 7.6.5 doubtlessly, 5.6.17, 5.7.4 douter, 11.1.3, 12.5.20 ne in dependent clauses, 16.16 douzaine, 6.5.3 used with en, 3.2.25 dress in a youthful manner, 4.6 drink sth chilled, 3.2.15 drôle (une drôle d'idée), 4.9.3 du, de la, des, 2.1 partitive, 2.4, 2.6.2 dûment, 5.2.2 during, 13.59 = au cours de, 13.13 = dans, 13.14.5 = pendant, 10.4.4, 13.46 each, 6.9.3-6.9.5 each other, 3.2.13, 3.2.18, 8.7.5, 9.1.2 each other vs themselves, 3.2.13, 8.7.5 early-warning, 4.11.2 eastern, 13.15.8 easy (easy to do sth), 12.7.1, 12.7.2 échapper, s'échapper, 8.4.1 écouter, 8.3.5 either ... or, 9.1.2, 17.2 -eler verbs (changes in stem forms), 7.4 elle/elles, 3.1.4-3.1.7 empêcher, 16.16 emprunter qc à qn, 8.5 en (preposition), 13.26 vs dans in time expressions, 13.14.4, 13.26.3 with geographical terms, 2.2.2, 13.2.2, 13.2.3, 13.26.1 en été, en hiver, etc., 2.2.4 followed by zero article, 2.6.4 vs dans le, la, 2.6A, 13.26.1 = ~as', 13.26.10 en (pronoun), 3.2.24 integral part of the verb, 3.2.26 position with negative infinitives, 3.2.27 use of en where English has direct objects, 3.2.28 with numbers/quantifiers, 3.2.25, 4.5, 6.1.7, 6.9.2 used with combien, 14.6.5 encore vs toujours, 5.6.10, 5.7.4 encourager, 12.4.11, 12.5.1, 12.6 English, 4.1.1 enseigner qc à qn, 8.6.3 enseigner à qn à faire qc, 12.4.10, 12.6 ensuite vs puis, 5.6.11 entendre (qn) faire qc, 3.2.4, 3.2.32, 12.3.6, 12.3.8 past participle agreement with, 9.3.3, 9.3.6, 9.3.9 entre, 13.27 d'entre, 6.9.4, 13.27 in relative clauses, 15.5 entrer, 8.4.1 envers, 13.28 environ, 6.5.3 envoyer faire, 3.2.32 past participle agreement with, 9.3.3, 9.3.6, 9.3.9 équipe (agreement with), 3.1.6, 9.1.3 es, 2.2.1 espérer, 12.3.6 (in its form espère), 7A essayer, 12.4.5, 12.5.4 est-ce que?, 14.2.2, 14.3.3 et, 17.2 coordinating subject pronouns, 3.1.9 coordinating object pronouns, 3.2.34 coordinating stressed pronouns, 3.3.5 in cardinal numbers, 6.1.1 subject-verb agreement with, 9.1.1 -eter verbs (changes in stem forms), 7.4 s'étonner, 12.4.3 être (forms of), 7.6.2 auxiliary verb, 8.2.2, 8.3.4 imperative, 7.3.7 past participle agreement with, 9.2.1 être linking nouns, 9.1.6 être ingénieur, 2.6.7 être à qn, 3.2.19 meaning 'go', 12.3.1 s'évanouir, 3.2.16, 8.7 even, 5.6.2 even if, 17.3.5 evening, 1.1.5 Index 413 in evening dress, 13.26.1 ever, 5.6.12, 14.2.7, 16.9 every, 5.6.7, 6.9.5 everybody/everyone, 5.6.7, 9.1.3 everything, 5.6.7 everywhere, 5.7.3 éviter que (... ne), 16.16 except, 13.51 except for, 13.29 except that, 17.3.5 excepté, 13.29 Exclamatives, 11.4 expect, 11.1.3 expliquer, 10.7 eyes, 2.2.8, 2.2.9, 3.2.20 face (en face de), 13.30 facile défaire qc, 12.7.1, 12.7.2 façon (de façon que), 11.1.6, 17.3.8 de façon à, 17.6 fact (the fact that), 11.1.11 faint, 3.2.16, 8.7 faire (followed by infinitive), 12.3.9 and agreement, 9.3.3, 9.3.6, 9.3.9 faire (de la politique),2.4.1 se faire, 8.7.4 no past participle agreement with, 9.4 faire, laisser: object pronouns with, 3.2.4 order of pronouns with, 3.2.32 il fait beau, 8.8.1 fait (le fait que), 11.1.11 falloir/il faut, 8.8.2, 11.1.5, 11.2.4, 11.3.2, 11.3.7 fat vs big, 4.1.3 faute de, 13.31 fear (for fear that/of), 17.3.8, 17.6 femme, 1.2.9 fetch, 3.2.32 feu 'late', 4.1.3 fier de lui, 3.3.4 figures, numbers, 6.1.6 find it difficult to do sth, 3.2.10 finir, 12.4.1, 12.5.17 forms of, 7.6.4 first, 2.2.5, 6.2, 6.4.2, 6.4.3 the first two, 4.1.5, 6.4.4 followed by the subjunctive, 11.1.8, 15.11.3 fois (une, deux fois), 6.4.9 following (following an accident), 13.54 foncé {bleu foncé), 4.11.3 for (pour), 13.47 for a long time, 13.19 = because, 17.2 = since, 10.4.4 forbid sb to do sth, 3.2.24 force (à force de), 13.32 forcer, 12.4.8, 12.6 forcément, 5.2.4 former (ancien), 4.1.3 former vs latter, 2.8.1 formerly, 5.6.8, 5.6.15 fortnight, 6.5.3 foule (agreement with), 9.1.3 Fraction, 6.2 agreement of verb with, 6.3.3 franc, 2.2.7, 6.8 français, 2.2.3, 4.1.1, 13.26.1 vs Français, 4.5 France, 1.1.4, 2.2.2 free (a free hour vs an hour free), 4.1.7 from, 13.59 = à, 13.2.8 = dans, 13.14.9 = d'après, 13.3 = de, 13.15.4 = du haut de, 13.34 = par, 13.41.4 a week from today, 13.26.9 from the garden, 13.19 from now on, 13.21, 13.44 from which (relative pronoun), 15.6.1 front (in front of), 13.24 fruit, 1.3.10 Future tense (forms of), 7.3.4 uses of, 10.4.1, 10.6.3 with quand, lorsque, 17.3.2 Future compound tense, 10.5.4 Future double compound tense, 10.5.6 French/English differences, 10.4.3 geler (in its form gèle), 7A Gender, 1.2 change of meaning with, 1.2.4, 1.2.5 common errors, 1.2.10 of compound nouns, 1.2.11 grammatical and real, 3.1.5 nouns referring to males/females, 1.2.2, 1.2.3 nouns referring to men/women, 1.2.9 of ships, restaurants, 1.2.8 of vehicles, machines, 1.2.7 of geographical terms, 1.2.6 général, -aux, 4.8.3 genoux (à genoux), 13.2.4 gens, 1.1.2 gender of adjectives with, 1.2.4 -ger verbs (changes in stem forms), 7.5 Gerund (en rentrant, etc.), 17.9.4 get, 8.7.4 go, 12.3.1 go back (home, out, etc.), 8.2.2, 8.3.4 go on doing sth, 16.6.2 good, 4.1.2, 4.6, 5.3, 5.6.6 good to do sth, 12.7.1, 12.7.2 gouvernement (agreement with), 3.1.6, 9.1.3 grâce à, 13.33 414 Index grand, 4.1.3, 4.6 grapes, 1.3.10 great vs tall, 4.1.3 Greek, 4.7.1 grièvement, 5.2.6 grimper, 8.4.1 gros, 4.1.3, 5.3 grudge (hold a grudge), 3.2.26, 7.3.7, 8.4 guère (ne ... guère), 16.11 guillemets (use of), Appendix h (aspirate vs silent), 2.1.1 habiter, 2.1, 8.3.5, 12.9 hair (my hair, your hair, etc.), 2.2.8, 2.2.9 half (half-hour, half-American), 4.11.4, 6.3.2 half of all drivers, 6.3.2, 6.3.3, 9.1.4 half past eleven, 6.7 happiness, 1.1.1 happy to do sth, 12.7.4 hard (work hard), 4.6, 5.3 hardly (à peine), 5.6.2, 5.7.4 ne ... guère, 16.11 haut, 4.1.2, 5.3, 6.5.1 du haut de, 13.34 have (forms of avoir), 7.6.1 auxiliary verb, 8.2.1, 8.3.2, 8.3.4 imperative, 7.3.7, 11.5.1 having done sth, 17.7 he, she, 3.1.4-3.1.6, 3.1.25 he and I, 3.3.5 hear sb do sth, 3.2.4, 3.2.32, 12.3.8 heavily, 5.3 help sb do sth, 3.2.1, 12.4.10 héro, héroïne, 2.1.1 hers, his, mine, etc., 2.9.1 hésiter, 12.4.7 heure, 6.7 heureux de faire qc, 12.7A heureusement que, 11.1.9 hier, 5.6.15, 5.7.2 high, 4.1.2, 6.5.1 hire, 8.5 his, hers, mine, etc., 2.9.1 home, 13.10 hope, 12.3.6 hormis, 13.29 hors de, 13.35 hour, 6.7 how?, 14.6.6 how big? fast? often?, 14.6.8 how much/many?, 14.6.5 how!, 11.4 however (however demanding), 15.10 huitaine, 6.5.3 hundreds, 6.4.7 a hundred or so, 6.5.3 I, you, she, etc., 3.1 idée (l'idée que), 11.1.11 if (hypothetical), 10.8, 17.3.5-17.3.7 in coordination, 11.1.10 in indirect questions, 14.7.2 ignorer que (... ne), 16.16 il (impersonal use of), 3.1.17-3.1.21 il/ils (personal pronouns), 3.1.4-3.1.8, 3.1.16 Us with arbitrary reference, 3.1.8 il/elle vs ce, cela, ça, 3.1.16 il est vs c'est, 3.1.22 il s'agit de, 3.1.18, 8.8.4 il faut, 3.1.18 il pleut, 3.1.19 il semble que, 3.1.21 il y a, 8.8.3 tenses with, 10.4.4 il y a ... que: tenses with, 17.3.4 Imperative, 11.5 formation of, 7.3.7, 11.5.1 alternatives to, 11.5.5 compound, 11.5.4 infinitive used as, 11.5.6 location of pronouns with, 3.2.5, 11.5.3 order of pronouns with, 3.2.31 pronominal verbs in, 11.5.2 third person, 11.5.7 Imperfect subjunctive (formation of), 7.3.6 use of, 11.1.2 Imperfect tense (formation of), 7.3.2 uses of, 10.3.1, 10.3.4 Impersonal constructions, 3.1.17-3.1.21 Impersonal verbs, 8.8 lack of agreement with, 9.3.4, 9.3.7 important (possible, etc.) to do sth, 12.7.1 in, 13.59 in Paris, in Canada, etc., 2.2.2, 13.2.3 in all France, 13.14.1 fastest train in Europe, 13.15.3 in an hour, 13.14.4, 13.26.3 one person in seven, 6.5.2 inclined to, 12.7.3 including (dont), 15.6.1 Indefinite article, 2.3 after ne ... pas, ne ... plus, etc., 2.5 des (indefinite vs definite), 2.3.3 omission after de, 2.3.2 Indirect questions, 14.7 Infinitive, Chp 12 use of, 12.1 complement to adjectives, 12.7 complement to nouns, 12.8 object pronouns with, 3.2.3 omission of objects before, 12.6 as polite command, 12.10 in subordinate clauses, 12.9 preferred to tensed clause, 11.1.3, 17.6 Index 415 used as imperative, 11.5.6 following faire, laisser, 12.3.9 -ing (French equivalent for), 4.1.1, 10.2.1, 17.' inside, 5.6.16, 13.14.2 instead of, 13.37 interdire à an de faire qc, 3.2.24 Intransitive verbs, 8.2 with auxiliary avoir, 8.2.1 with auxiliary être, 8.2.2 into, 13.59 = dans, 13.14.3 = en, 13.7.11 introduce sb to sb, 3.2.30 Inversion of subject and verb after adverb, 5.7.4 inviter, 12.4.9, 12.4.10 -ir verbs (forms of), 7.6.4 Irregular verbs (forms of) 7.6.8 it, 3.1.15-3.1.23 it is (il est vs c'est), 3.1.22 it's good to do sth, 12.7.1, 12.7.2 it's me, you, them, etc., 9.1.6 jadis, 5.6.15 jamais (ever), 5.6.12 jamais [ne ... jamais), 16.9 jamais, rien, personne in yes/no questions, 14.2.7 jambe, 2.2.8, 13.2.4 Janvier, février, etc., 6.4.1, 13.26.1 jeter (in its form jette), 7 A jeune, 4.1.2, 4.1.3, 4.6 Jewish, 4.1.1 joindre (se joindre à), 3.2.30 joli, 4.1.2 jouer (au football, du piano), 8.4.1, 3.2.7 jour/journée, 1.1.5 le jour où vs un jour que, 15.7.2 jours de la semaine, 2.2.10 jusqu'à, 13.36 jusqu'à ce que + subjunctive, 11.1.7, 17.3.8 just (to have just done sth), 10.6.1, 10.6.2 just as, 17.3.5 just now, 5.6.14, 5.6.15 kilo, 2.2.7, 2.3.2, 2.3.3 kind (gentil), 4.7.1, 13.2.8 Kings, queens and popes, 6.4.2 knees (on one's knees), 13.2.4 know (savoir vs pouvoir), 11.2.3, 12.3.3 -là, -ci, 2.7.1, 3.4.1 lack (through lack of), 13.31 laisser + infinitive, 12.3.9 order of pronouns with, 3.2.32 past participle agreement, 9.3.3, 9.3.6, 9.3.' se laisser, 8.7.4, 9.4 large, 6.5.1 last (dernier), 4.1.3 subjunctive in dependent clause, 11.1.8, 15.11.3 the last two, 4.1.5, 6.4.4 late (tard vs en retard), 5.6.13 = deceased, 4.1.3 latter, former, 3.4.1 laugh at, 8.4 laver (se laver), 8.7, 8.7.7 le, la, les (articles), 2.1, 2.2 with abstract nouns, 2.3 with parts of the body, 2.2.8 in superlatives, 4.12.2, 5.6.3 le, la, les (object pronouns), 3.2 least (superlative), 4.12.2 at least, 5.6.2, 5.6.17, 5.7.4 leg (my, his, your leg, etc.), 2.2.8, 2.2.9, 3.2.20 lendemain (le lendemain), 5.6.15 lequel? laquelle?, 14.6.4 relative pronoun, 15.5 less, 5.6.2, 6.5.2 let sb do sth, 3.2.4, 3.2.32, 9.3.3, 12.3.9 let oneself be persuaded, 8.7.4 let!, 11.4.4, 11.5.7 leur, leurs (determiners), 2.2.9, 2.8 leur (object pronoun), 3.2 leur (le leur, possessive pronoun), 3.5 lieu (au lieu de), 13.37 light (light blue), 4.11.3 listen to, 8.3.5 little (she eats little), 5.6.5 live, 8.3.5 Londres, 13.2.2-13.2.3 lonely, 4.1.3 long, 6.5.1, 13.6.8 a long time, 5.6.8 Long live Brittany!, 11.4.4 long (le long de), 13.38 longtemps, 5.6.8 look onto, 13.56 lorry (gender of), 1.2.7 lors de, 13.39 louer, 8.5 à louer, 12.8.2 love, 1.2.4 luckily, 11.1.9 lui (object pronoun), 3.2 with parts of the body, 2.2.8, 3.2.20 l'un l'autre, 3.2.18, 8.7.5 lundi (le lundi, le mardi, etc.), 2.2.10, 6.4.1, 13.26.9 mais, 17.2 make (faire), 3.2.4, 3.2.32, 12.3.9 = rendre, 8.9 416 Index make light of, 9.4 mal, 5.6.1, 5.6.4, 5.7.2 malgré, 13.40 manière (de manière que), 11.1.6, 17.3.8 de manière à, 17.6 Manner adverbs, 5.6.1 adjectives of manner, 12.7.3 manquer, 3.2.1, 8.8.5 many, much, 2.3.2, 2.3.3, 5.6.2, 5.6.5, 9.1.5 Mass noun, 1.1.2, 1.3.10 matin/matinée, 1.1.5 mauvais, 4.1.2, 5.3 may, 11.2.2, 11.3.4, 11.4.4 me, te, la, lui, etc (object pronouns), 3.2 order of, 3.2.29-3.2.33 me, te, se, etc (with pronominal verbs), 3.2.16, 8.7 reflexive, 3.2.12 benefactive, 3.2.14 agreement of past participle with, 9.5.1 where they cannot be used, 3.2.19 Measurements, 6.5 meilleur, 4.12.1 le meilleur, 5.6.6, 4.12.2 + subjunctive, 11.1.8 même (adjective), 4.1.3 adverb, 5.6.2 de même que, 17.3.5 -même: moi-même, toi-même, etc., 3.2.17 -même, aussi: with stressed pronouns, 3.3.4 menacer, 12.5.3 mener (in its form mène), 7 A merci (response to yes/no question), 14.2.8 mesure (à mesure que), 17.3.5 mesurer, 6.1.8, 6.5.1 mettre, 12.4.1, 12.4.12 mi-, 4.11.4, 6.3.2 midi, 6.7, 13.2.1 mien (le mien), 3.5 mieux, 5.6.1, 5.6.4, 5.6.6 le mieux, 5.6.6 might, 11.3.5 mille (milliard, millier, million), 6A.7, 6.4.8 miss (manquer), 3.2.1, 8.8.5 Modal verbs, 11.2 moi, toi, lui, etc (stressed pronouns), 3.3 moi-même, toi-même, etc., 3.3.4 moindre, 4.12.2 moins, 5.6.2, 5.6.3, 5.6.5 moins ... moins, 5.6.5 comparative, superlative, 4.12, 5.6.3 moins cher que vous ne le pensez, 3.2.11 le moins followed by subjunctive, 4.13 moins de: agreement with, 9.1.5 moins de vs moins que, 6.5.2, 13.15.7 au moins, 5.6.2 du moins, 5.6.17, 5.7.4 à moins que, 11.1.6, 16.16, 17.3.8 à moins de, 17.6 la moitié, 6.3.2, 6.3.3, 9.1.4 mon, ma, mes (possessive determiners), 2.8 Money, 6.8 monsieur, madame, 2.2.5 monter, 8.2.2, 8.3.4, 8.3.5 months, 6.4.1, 6.6.1, 13.26.1 more, 5.6.5, 5.6.10 more easily, 5.6.3 more naive than he thought, 3.2.11, 4.12.1 plus de vs plus que, 6.5.2, 13.15.7 more than one, 9.1.5 = davantage, 5.6.2, 16.6.1 morning, 1.1.5 early morning, 4.8.3 most, 2.2.6 most of the electorate, 6.9.1-6.9.3, 9.1.5 most easily, 5.6.3 moulin à vent, 13.2.6 much, many, 2.3.2, 2.3.3, 5.6.2, 5.6.5, 9.1.5 Muslim, 4.1.1 must, 8.8.2, 11.1.5, 11.2.1, 11.2.4, 11.3.7 naguère, 5.6.8 nasty (méchant), 4.1.3 Nationality (adjectives of), 4.1.1, 4.5 ne ... aucun, 16.8 ne ... guère, 16.11 ne ... jamais, 16.9 ne ... ni ... ni, 16.14 ne ... nul, 16.8 ne ... pas, 16.6 ne ... pas, jamais etc followed by de, 2.5 n'est-ce pas?, 14.2.6 ne pas en parler, 3.2.27 ne ... personne, 16.13 ne ... plus, 16.10 ne plus y penser, 3.2.27 ne ... que, 3.3.6, 16.7 ne ... rien, 16.12 ne (omission of in sentence negation), 16.4 used alone, 16.16 near (près de), 13.48 nécessaire (il est nécessaire que), 11.1.5 need, 3.2.28, 8.8.2 Negation, Chp 16 in imperatives, 16.5 with infinitives, 16.2.2 in questions, 14.5, 16.5 in tensed clauses, 16.2.1 omission of ne, 16.4 omission of pas, 16.6.2 order in multiple negation, 16.3 neither ... nor, 2.6.4, 9.1.2, 16.14 neuf vs nouveau, 4.1.3 never, 16.9 Index 417 next to, 13.12, 13.48 ni, 3.1.9, 3.3.6 ne ... ni ... ni, 16.14 subject-verb agreement with, 9.1.2 ni l'un ni l'autre, 9.1.2 nice (bravé), 4.1.3 nice to do sth, 12.7.2 nier que (... ne), 16.16 nil, 16.8 ninety, 6.1 no (answer to questions), 14.2.8 no, none (ne ... aucun), 16.8 no longer, not any more, 16.10 no hesitation, no friends, 16.8 nobody, no-one, 16.13 nombre, 6.1.6 non, non pas (use of), 16.6.4 nonante, 6.1 nord, sud, est, ouest, 13.2.2, 13.15.8 Normandie, 1.1.4, 1.2.8 not, n't, 16.6 not any, not one, 2.5 not until, 17.3.8 not to do sth, 3.2.27 nothing, 16.12 nothing easier, 4.4, 13.15.8 notre, nos, 2.8 nôtre, (le nôtre), 3.5 Noun, Chp 1 abstract vs concrete,l.l.l abstract with partitive, 2.4 adjectives used as, 4.5 agreement of adjectives with, 4.9 collective, 1.1.3 common gender errors, 1.2.10 compound, 1.2.11 compound with à, 13.2.6 different forms for males/females, 1.2.3 gender change = meaning change, 1.2.4 having a plural form only, 1.3.7 in apposition (omission of article), 2.6.6 mass, 1.3.10 mass vs count, 1.1.2 number of, 1.3 numeral, 6.5.3 proper, 1.1.4 referring to males /females, 1.2.2, 1.2.9 with infinitive complements, 12.8 nouveau, nouvel, nouvelle, 4.1.2, 4.7.4 vs neuf, 4.1.3 now (logical connective), 17.2.1 nul (ne ... nul), 16.8 Number, 1.3 French/English differences, 1.3.10 grammatical and real, 3.1.6 Numbers, Chp 6 in comparisons, 6.5.2 lack of agreement with, 9.3.5 non-agreement of past participles with, 6.1.8 numeral nouns, 6.5.3 of page, bus etc., 6.4.5 with en, 6.1.7 with length, height, depth, 6.5.1 with stressed pronouns, 3.3.4 Numbers: cardinal, 6.1 conventions for writing, 6.1.5 French /English differences, 6.4 order with adjectives, 6.4.4 plural of, 6.1.3 use of hyphens, 6.1.2 use of figures and words, 6.1.4 with et, 6.1.1 Numbers (ordinal), 6.2 abbreviations, 6.4.3 as fractions, 6.3.1 French/English differences, 6.4 numéro, 6.1.6 obéir, 8.4.1 Object (identifying direct/indirect objects), 3.2 French/English differences, 3.2.1 impossible object constructions, 8.5.1, 8.6.3 omission before an infinitive, 12.6 Object pronouns, 3.2 coordinated, 3.2.34 order of, 3.2.29, 3.2.31, 3.2.32 position of, 3.2.2-3.2.6 position with devoir, pouvoir, 3.2.33 restrictions on combinations, 3.2.30 with parts of the body, 3.2.20 use of neutral le, 3.2.9-3.2.11 verbs without indirect objects, 3.2.19 obliger, 8.5, 12.4.8, 12.4.10 o'clock, 3.1.18, 6.7 of, 13.59 = a, 13.2.8 = de, 13.15.1 = d'entre, 13.27 = sur, 13.56 of course, 11.1.9 offrir, 8.6.3 s'offrir, 3.2.14, 9.4 often, 3.1.1, 3.3.1, 5.6.8, 5.7.2 -oir verbs (forms of), 7.6.7 old, 4.1.2, 4.1.3, 4.6, 4.7.4 older by six years, 6.5.2 Omission of articles, 2.6 on, 3.1.10 alternative to English passive, 3.1.11 equivalent of English 'you', 3.1.12 equivalent of nous, 3.1.13 agreement of past participle with, 3.1.13 use of Von, 3.1.14 418 Index on (preposition), 13.59 = à, 13.2.4 = dans, 13.14.8 = de, 13.15.9 = en, 13.26.6 = par, 13.41.3 = pour, 13.47 = sous, 13.53 = sur, 13.56 on Mondays, Tuesdays, etc., 2.2.10 once (twice, etc.), 6.4.9 une fois que, 10.4.3 one (good one, big one), 4.5 oneself, 3.3.7 only {seul), 4.1.3 followed by the subjunctive, 11.1.8, 15.11.3 ne ... que, 3.3.6, 16.7 open, 12.10 opposite, 13.30 on a page, 5.6.16 or, 17.2.1 order (in order that), 11.1.6, 17.3.8 in order to, 17.6 Ordinal numbers, 6.2 abbreviations, 6.4.3 as fractions, 6.3.1 French/English differences, 6.4 Origin (adjectives of), 4.1.1 os, 1.3.2 oser faire, 12.3.3 omission of pas with, 16.6.2 other(s), 2.3.4, 4.1.2 the other four, 6.4.4 ou, 9.1.2, 17.2 où?, 14.6.7 relative pronoun, 15.7 referring to time, 15.7.2 où que, 11.1.12, 15.10 ought, 11.3.6 oui, si, non, merci, 14.2.8 our, your, my, etc., 2.8 ours, yours, mine, etc., 3.5 out of, 13.59 = en dehors de, hors de, 13.16, 13.35 = sur, 13.56 outside, 5.6.16, 5.7.2, 13.16 ouvrir, 12.10 over, 5.6.16, 13.23 pain, 1.3.10 paint it red, 5.5 par, 13.41 followed by zero article, 2.6.4 vs de, 13.15.5 parce que, 17.3.5 Parenthetical, 3.1.1 Paris, 13.2.2, 13.2.3 parler (forms of), 7.6.2 parler (le) français, 2.2.3 parler de, 2.3.2, 12.5.4 parmi, 13.14.7, 13.42 in relative clauses, 15.5 part (de la part de), 13.43 partager (in its form partageons), 7.5 Participle (past, used as adjective), 4.1.1 used as linker, 17.8 Participle (present),' 17.9 used as adjective, 4.1.1 spelling of, 4.1.1 partir (à partir de), 13.44 Partitive article, 2.4 after ne ... pas, jamais, etc., 2.5 with faire, 2.4.1 pas (ne ... pas), 2.5, 16.6 pas de, 2.5 omission of pas, 16.6.2 passe (il se passe),-8.8.5 passé, 13.45 Passive, 8.6 formation of, 8.6.1 on (as an alternative to the passive) 3.1.11 past participle agreement in, 9.2.2 restrictions on passive, 8.6.2, 8.6.3 se (used as a passive), 3.2.15 Past (simple past tense), 10.3.2, 10.3.4 compound past tense, 10.3.3, 10.3.4 double compound past tense, 10.5.3 time relative to the past, 10.6.2 French/English differences, 10.3.5 Past anterior tense, 10.5.2 Past participle agreement in questions, 9.3.7 agreement with pronominal verbs, 9.4 agreement with direct object pronouns, 9.3.1, 9.3.3 agreement in relative clauses, 9.3.4 agreement with subjects, 9.2 agreement with infinitives, 9.3.3, 9.3.6, 9.3.9 used as adjective, 4.1.1, 9.2.3 used as linker, 17.8 patience, 1.1.1, 2.4 pauvre, 4.1.3 payer, 13.47 à peine, 5.6.2, 5.7.4 pendant, 13.46 vs pour, 13.47 tenses with, 10.4.4 penser, 3.2.11, 8.4, 10.7, 11.1, 11.1.4, 12.3.5 penser à lui, à elle, etc., 3.2.19, 3.2.23 people, 1.1.2, 1.2.4, 3.1.10 perhaps (peut-être), 5.6.17, 5.7.4 peut-être que, 11.1.9, 11.3.4, 11.3.5 permettre à qn de faire qc, 3.2.24 personne (ne ... personne), 16.13 with subjunctive, 11.1.8 Index 419 personne (gender of noun), 1.2.9 personnes, 1.1.2 peser, 6.1.8, 9.3.5, 9.3.8 petit, 4.1.2 peu, 5.6.5 à peu près, 6.5.3 peur (avoir peur), 12.5.10 de peur que, 17.3.8 de peur de, 17.6 peut-être, 5.6.17, 5.7.4 peut-être que, 11.1.9, 11.3.4, 11.3.5 pire, 4.12.1-4.12.2 pis, 5.6.4 pity, 11.1.3, 12.5.20 Place adverb, 5.6.16 plaindre, 12.5.20 plaire, 8.4.1 plane, 1.2.7 play, 2.4.1, 8.4.1, 13.2.7 pleasant (to do sth), 12.7.1 please, 11.5.5 yes, please, 14.2.8 pleut (il pleut), 8.8.1 plupart (la plupart), 9.1.5, 6.9.2, 6.9.3 Pluperfect tense, 10.5.1 Plural and singular of nouns, 1.3 regular plural, 1.3.1 irregular plural,1.3.8 of adjectives, 4.8 of cardinal numbers, 6.1.3 plus (ne ... plus), 16.10 plus 'more', 5.6.5 comparative, superlative, 4.12, 5.6.3 plus naïf qu'il ne le croyait, 3.2.11, 4.12.1 plus de vs plus que, 6.5.2, 13.6.7 plus d'un (agreement with), 9.1.5 le plus with subjunctive, 4.13, 11.1.8 les plus dangereux, 2.2.6 des plus simple(s), 4.14 plusieurs, 6.1.7 plutôt que, 17.3.5 Possessive determiner (mon, ton, leur, etc.), 2.8 with body parts, 2.2.8 Possessive pronoun, 3.5 pound (weight), 2.2.7 pour, 13.47 pour que, 11.1.6, 17.3.8 pourquoi?, 14.6.7 pourtant, 5.6.17, 5.7.3 pouvoir, 11.2.2, 11.3.3-11.3.5, 12.3.3 omission of pas with, 16.6.2 position of object pronouns with, 3.2.33 premier, 2.2.5, 6.2, 6.4.2, 6.4.3 followed by subjunctive, 11.1.8, 15.11.3 les deux premiers, 4.1.5 prendre^ 12.4.13 prendre qc dans un tiroir, 13.14.9 Prepositions, Chp 13 près de, 13.48 Prescriptive vs descriptive, Guide Present participle, 17.9 used as adjective, 4.1.1 spelling of, 4.1.1 Present subjunctive (forms of), 7.3.5 Use of, 11.1.2 Present tense (forms of), 7.3.1 uses of, 10.2 French/English differences, 10.2.1 time relative to the present, 10.6.1 présenter an à qn, 3.2.30 presently, 5.6.14, 5.6.15 presque, 5.6.2 prêt a faire qc, 12.7.3 prétendre, 10.7 pretty, 4.1.2 prevent (ne in dependent clauses), 16.16 prier qn de faire qc, 12.5.4 principal, -aux, 4.8.3 printemps, été, etc., 13.26.1 probable (indicative vs subjunctive), 11.1.5 process (in the process of), 10.2.1 profond, 6.5.1 Pronominal verbs, 8.7 use of me, te, se, etc., with, 3.2.16 used reflexively, 8.7.1 used reciprocally, 8.7.5 used as a passive, 8.7.6 with parts of the body, 8.7.2 without reflexive interpretation, 8.7.3 agreement of past participle, 8.7.7 Pronoun, Chp 3 demonstrative, 3.4 grammatical and real number with, 3.1.6 grammatical and real gender with, 3.1.5 impersonal, 3.1.17-3.1.22 location of with imperatives, 11.5.3 object pronouns, 3.2 past participle agreement with, 9.3.1, 9.3.3 order of in questions, 14.4 possessive pronouns, 3.5 recognising direct object pronouns, 9.3.2 referring to groups of mixed gender, 3.1.7 stressed pronouns, 3.3 subject, 3.1 Proper noun, 1.1.4 proud (proud of oneself), 3.3.4 puis, 17.2 puis vs ensuite, 5.6.11 puisque, 17.3.5 quand?, 14.6.7 with compound tenses, 10.5.3, 10.5.6, 17.3.3 with future and conditional, 10.4.3, 17.3.2 with past anterior, 10.5.2 420 Index quand?, 14.6.7 (contd.) quand = 'whenever', 15.10 quand même, 17.3.5 quant à, 13.49 Quantifier, 6.9 subject-verb agreement with, 6.9.6 with de vs du, 6.9.3 with pronouns, 6.9.4 use of en with, 3.2.25 Quantities (definite article with), 2.2.7 quart, 6.7 quarter, 6.3.2, 6.7 que (ne ... que), 16.7 que?, 14.3.6, 14.6.2 relative pronoun, 15.3 exclamative, 11.4.1, 11.4.3 Quelle cherche ailleurs!, 11.4.4, 11.5.7 Quelle vienne ou non, 11.1.10 queens, 6.4.2 qu'est-ce que?, 14.3.4 exclamative, 11.4.1 qu'est-ce qui?, 14.3.4 quel? quelle?, 14.6.3 exclamative, 11.4.2 quel que, 11.1.12, 15.10, 15.11.1 quelque (in relative clauses), 15.10 quelque (rare) que: with subjunctive, 11.1.12 quelque (bêtises) que: with subjunctive, 11.1. quelque chose de bon, 4.4, 13.15.8 quelqu'un d'intéressant, 4.4, 13.15.8 quelques-un(e)s, 3.2.25, 6.1.7, 6.9.2 question (it's a question of), 3.1.18 Questions, Chp 14 types of, 14.1 indirect, 14.7 information questions, 14.3 yes/no questions, 14.2 order of pronouns in, 14.4 location of negation in, 14.5 recognising direct objects in, 9.3.8 with stylistic inversion, 14.3.7 qui?, 14.3.6, 14.6.1 relative pronoun, 15.2 used with prepositions, 15.4 qui que, 11.1.12, 15.10, 15.11.1 qui est-ce que?, 14.3.4 qui est-ce qui?, 14.3.4 quickly (vite + past anterior), 10.5.2, 17.3.3 quiconque, 15.10, 15.11.1 quiet (keep quiet), 8.7.3, 12.3.9 quietly, 4.6, 5.3 quinzaine, 6.5.3 quite (quite ready), 5.6.7 quoi?, 14.3.6, 14.6.2 relative pronoun, 15.8 quoi que/qui, 11.1.12, 15.10, 15.11.1 quoi de neuf?, 4.4, 13.6.9 quoique, 11.1.6, 17.3.8 raconter, 8.6.3 raisin, 1.3.10 ralentir, 12.10 rappeler (se rappeler), 12.3.5 rather than, 17.3.5 -re verbs (forms of), 7.6.6 ready to do sth, 12.7.3 really, 5.6.2 recevoir (forms of), 7.6.7 Reciprocal se, 3.2.13, 8.7.5 use of l'un l'autre, 3.2.18 recommander qn à qn, 3.2.30 Reflexive (me, te, se, nous, vous), 3.2.12, 8.7.1 use of même, 3.2.17 regarder qn faire qc, 3.2.4, 3.2.32 Register, Guide Regular verbs conjugations, 7.6.3-7.6.7 Relative clauses, Chp 15 recognising direct objects in, 9.3.5 use of subjunctive in, 15.11 Relative pronoun, 15.2-15.9 ce qui, ce que, ce dont, etc., 15.9 dont, 15.6.1-15.6.2 lequel, 15.5 où, 15.7 que, 15.3 qui, 15.2 qui used with prepositions, 15.4 quoi, 15.8 remember, 12.3.5 Renault, Boeing, etc (gender of), 1.2.7 rendre (heureux), 8.9 rent, 8.5 rentrer, 8.2.2, 8.3.4 Reported descriptions (tense in), 10.7 résoudre, 12.4.5, 12.5.2 rester deux jours, 13.49 en retard, 5.6.13, 13.24 retourner, 8.2.2, 8.3.4 rien (ne ... rien), 16.12 rien + subjunctive, 11.1.8 rien d'intéressant, 4.4, 16.12 rire, 8.4, 7.4.1 se rire, 9.4 rue, avenue, boulevard, 6.4.6, 13.14.1 sache, sachez, sachons, 11.5.1 sadly, 5.5 sale, 4.1.3 same, 2.4, 4.1.3 sans, 13.50 followed by zero article, 2.6.4 used with other negators, 16.15 sans doute, 5.6.17, 5.7.4 sans que, 11.1.6, 16.16, 17.3.8 Index 421 sauf, 13.51 sauf que, 17.3.5 savoir, 11.2.3, 12.3.3 imperative, 7.3.7 omission of pas with, 16.6.2 say that + tense (in reported descriptions), 10.7 se, 3.2.12-3.2.18 pronominal verbs, 8.7 with parts of the body, 2.2.8 Seasons, 2.2.4, 6.6.2 second, 6.2 see, 4.2, 5.3, 9.3.3, 9.3.6, 9.3.9, 9.4 see sb do sth, 3.2.4, 3.2.32 see to sth, 8.4 seek, 12.4.6 -self, 3.2.12, 3.2.17, 3.3.4 use of soi, 3.3.7 sell (be selling well), 3.2.15, 8.7.6 selon, 13.52 sembler (il semble que vs il me semble que), 11.1.5 send, 3.2.32 Sentence-modifying adverbs, 5.6.17 sentir qn faire qc, 3.2.4, 3.2.32 septante, 6.1 seriously, 5.2.6 servir (se servir de qc), 3.2.28, 9.4 seul, 4.1.3 followed by subjunctive, 11.1.8, 15.11.3 several, 6.1.7 Shape (adjectives of), 4.1.1 she, he, 3.1.4-3.1.6, 3.1.22 she and I, 3.3.5 Ships, restaurants (gender of), 1.2.8 should, 11.3.2 si (grand), 4.12.1, 5.6.2 si (hypothetical), 10.8, 11.1.10, 11.3.2, 17.3.5, 17.3.6 alternatives to, 17.3.7 tenses with, 10.8, 17.3.6 si (as response to yes/no questions), 14.2.8 in indirect questions, 14.7.2 si bien que (subjunctive vs indicative), 11.1.6 le sien, 3.5 Simple past tense, 7.3.3, 10.3.2 since, 10.4.4, 13.19, 17.3.1, 17.3.4, 17.4.1 = as, 17.3.5 Singular and plural of nouns, 1.3 Singular with personal items, 2.2.9 sit down, 8.7.3 sleep for two hours, 9.3.5, 9.3.8 slow down, 12.10 small, 4.1.2 smart, 4.10 so (therefore), 5.6.17, 5.7.4 = well, 5.6.9 so clear, 5.6.2 so much, many, 5.6.2, 6.9 so that 11.1.6, 17.3.8 soi, 3.3.7 soir/soirée, 1.1.5 sois, soyez, soyons, 11.5.1 soit ... soit, 9.1.2 some, 2.4 I still have some, 6.1.7, 6.9.2, 6.9.4 someone, something, 4.4, 13.15.8 sometimes, 5.7.2 son, sa, ses, 2.8 soon (bientôt), 10.5.2, 17.3.3 sorte (de sorte que), 11.1.6, 17.3.8 de sorte à, 17.6 sortir, 8.3.3, 8.3.4, 8.2.2 sourd-muet, 4.11.1 sous, 13.53 followed by zero article, 2.6.4 southern, 13.15.8 souvenir (se souvenir), 12.3.5 souvent, 3.1.1, 3.3.1, 5.6.8, 5.7.2 speak (French), 2.2.3 speak about things, 2.3.2, 12.5.4 Speech marks, Appendix spite (in spite of), 13.18 spring, 2.2.4, 13.26.1 start, 8.2.1, 12.4.1 still, 5.6.10 stop, 12.5.17 strange, 4.9.3 street, 6.4.6, 13.14.1 Stressed pronoun, 3.3 style (in the style of), 13.3 Stylistic inversion in questions, 14.3.7 Subject pronoun, 3.1 Subject-verb agreement with quantifiers, 6.9.6 Subject-verb inversion in reporting speech, Appendix Subjunctive, Chp 11.1 forms of, 11.1.1 use of tenses, 11.1.2 after conjunctions, 11.1.6 after dernier, premier, seul, 15.11.3 after impersonal verbs, 11.1.5 after subordinating conjunctions, 17.3.8 after time conjunctions, 11.1.7 after unique entities, 11.1.8 after verbs/adjectives/nouns, 11.1.3 after verbs of saying, 11.1.4 following indefinite expressions, 11.1.12 in coordinated hypothetical clauses, 11.1.10 in relative clauses, 15.11 in subject clauses, 11.1.11 with superlative, 4.13 Subordinating conjunctions, 17.3 followed by indicative, 17.3.5 followed by subjunctive, 17.3.8 followed by infinitive clauses, 17.6 422 Index Subordinating conjunctions, 17.3 (conta.) confused by English speakers, 17.4 repeated, 17.5 of time + indicative, 17.3.1 succeed, 9.3.2 suit, 9.3.2 suite (par suite de), 13.54 suivant, 13.55 summer, 2.2.4, 13.26.1 Superlative (of adjectives, adverbs), 4.12.2, 5.6.3 absolute use of, 4.14 article with, 2.2.6 subjunctive after, 4.13, 15.11.3 sur (preposition), 13.56 followed by zero article, 2.6.4 un sur sept, 6.5.2 sûr de lui, elle, etc., 3.3.4 il est sûr que, 11.1.5 sûr de faire qc, 12.7A le surlendemain, 5.6.15 surprised (be surprised), 12.4.3 sweet and sour, 4.11.1 taire (se taire), 8.7.3 omission of se, 12.3.9 take (sth from a drawer), 13.14.9 take place, 8.8.5 take two hours, 12.4.12 tall vs great, 4.1.3 tandis que, 17.3.5 tanker (gender of), 1.2.11 plural of, 1.3.9 tant, 5.6.2 tant pis, 5.6.4 tantôt, 5.6.15 tard vs en retard, 5.6.13 teach sb sth, 3.2.1, 8.5, 8.6.3 teach sb to do sth, 12.4.10, 12.6 team (verb agreement with), 3.1.6, 9.1.3 telephone, 9.3.2 tell, 12.5.16 tell lies, 8.5 tell sb sth, 8.6.3 temps (il est temps que), 11.1.5 ten or so, 6.5.3, 9.1.5 tenir, 12.4.6 Tense, Chp 10 compound past (perfect), 10.3.3-10.3.4 compound conditional, 10.5.5 compound future, 10.5.4 conditional, 7.3.4, 10.4.2 conditional with quand, lorsque, 17.3.2 double compound future, 10.5.6 double compound past, 10.5.3 future, 7.3.4, 10.4.1 future: French/English differences, 10.4.3 future with quand, lorsque, 17.3.2 imperfect, 7.3.2, 10.4.1, 10.4.4 past anterior, 10.5.2 pluperfect, 10.5.1 present, 7.3.1, 10.2 present: French/English differences, 10.2.1 simple past, 7.3.3, 10.3.2, 10.3.4 past: French/English differences, 10.3.5 tenses with depuis, 10.4.4 tenses with il y a, 10.4.4 tenses with pendant, 10.4.4 tenses with si, 10.8 tense in indirect questions, 14.7.4 tense in direct/reported descriptions, 10.7 tenue de soirée, 13.26.1 ter (in addresses), 6.4.6 than (more, less than), 13.15.7, 13.59 thanks to, 13.33 that, this, 2.7 that one, this one, 3.4.1 that's the problem, 12.9 the, 2.2 in titles, 2.2.5 the most exciting, 2.2.6 their (coats, names), 2.2.9 then (alors), 5.6.9 ensuite vs puis, 5.6.11, 17.2 there, 3.2.21, 3.2.22 there is, there are, 8.8.3 therefore, 5.6.17, 5.7.3 they, 3.1.4-3.1.8, 3.1.10 thick (one metre thick), 13.15.8 thing, 1.2.4 the important thing, 4.5 think (indicative vs subjunctive), 11.1, 11.1.4 + infinitive, 12.3.5 in reported descriptions, 10.7 I think so, 3.2.11 think of sb, 3.2.19, 3.2.23 think about, 8.4 third, 6.3.2, 6.3.3, 9.1.4 this, that, 2.7 this one, that one, 3.4.1 thousands, 6.4.7, 6.4.8 threaten, 12.5.3 three times, 6.4.9 through, 13.59 = à force de, 13.32 = à travers, 13.57 = par, 13.41.1 tien (le tien), 3.5 un tiers, 6.3.3, 9.1.4 time (clock time), 3.1.18 at the time of, 13.39 it's time that, 11.1.5 Time adverb, 5.6.8 related to moment of speaking, 5.6.15 Index 423 Time (relative to the present), 10.6.1 relative to the past, 10.6.2 relative to the future, 10.6.3 to, 13.59 countries, islands, 2.2.2, 13.2.2 in double object constructions, 8.5 and the passive, 8.6.3 = à, 13.2.2 = en, 13.26.1 = pour, 13.47 = sous, 13.53 together, 3.3.5 tomorrow, 5.6.15 ton, ta, tes, 2.8 too, 3.3.4 too much, many, 5.6.2, 6.9 top (on the top), 5.6.16 toujours vs encore, 5.6.10, 5.7.2 tout, 5.6.7, 6.9.5 tous (les) deux, 6.4.9 Tout exigeants qu'ils sont ..., 15.10 tout à l'heure, 5.6.14 tout le monde (verb agreement with), 9.1.3 toutes les fois que, 15.10 towards, 13.28, 13.58 train, 13.14.2, 13.15.4 train (en train de faire), 10.2.1, 10.3.5 traiter, 4.2 Transitive verb, 8.3, 8.4 with auxiliary avoir, 8.3.2 French/English differences, 8.3.5, 8.4.1 without an object, 8.3.1 Transport (modes of with à), 13.2.4 with dans, 13.14.2 with en, 13.26.5 travers (à, au, en travers de), 13.57 treat oneself, 3.2.14, 9.4 très, 5.6.2 trousers, physics, hair, etc (number of), 1.3.10 trouver, 4.2, 8.9 trouver difficile de + infinitive, 3.2.10 try, 12.4.5, 12.5.4 tu, 3.1.2 marked use of, 3.1.3 twenty or so, 6.5.3, 9.1.5 twice, 6.4.9 un, une, 2.1, 2.3 as a number, 6.1, 6.4.5 l'un(e) l'autre, 8.7.5 unaware that (ne in dependent clause), 16.16 under, 13.59 = moins de, 13.15.7 = par-dessous, 13.22 = selon, 13.52 = sous, 13.53 underneath, 5.6.16 unfortunately, 5.7.3 unless, 11.1.6, 16.16, 17.3.8, 17.6 unlikely that, 11.1.5 until, 13.36 followed by subjunctive, 11.1.6, 11.1.7, 17.3.8 use sth, 3.2.28, 9.4 used to, 10.3.1 vachement, 5.2.7 Vehicles, machines (gender of), 1.2.7 la veille, 5.6.15, 5.7.2 veiller, 8.4 vélo, 13.2.4 vendre (forms of), 7.6.6 à vendre, 12.8.2 se vendre, 8.7.6 venir de, 10.6.1, 10.6.2 Verbs, Chps 7-12 constructions, Chp 8 conjugations, 7.2 ditransitive, 8.5 forms, Chp 7 impersonal verbs, 8.8 indirectly transitive, 8.4 intransitive, 8.2 intransitive with avoir vs être, 8.2.1, 8.2.2 irregular, 7.6.8 modal, 11.2 paradigms, 7.6 pronominal, 8.7 regular conjugations, 7.6.3-7.6.7 transitive, 8.3 verbs used personally and impersonally, 8.8.5 verbs used transitively and intransitively, 8.3.3 weather verbs, 8.8.1 with predicative complements, 8.9 with infinitive complements linked b y / , à de, 12.3-12.5 vers (towards), 13.58 = about, 6.5.3 very (très), 5.6.2 = même, 4.1.3, 5.6.2 = tout, 5.6.7 veuille, veuillez, 11.5.1 vieillir, 8.21 vieux, vieil, vieille, 1.2.4, 4.1.2, 4.1.3, 4.6, 4.7.4 vite (with past anterior), 10.5.2, 17.3.3 Vive!, 11.4.4 voici, voilà, 12.9 object pronouns with, 3.2.6 tenses with voilà/voici ... que, 17.3.4 voir, 4.2, 5.3 voir qn faire qc, 3.2.4, 3.2.32 past participle agreement, 9.3.3, 9.3.6, 9.4, 9.3.9 voiture, 1.2.7