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A story of levels
2020
Despite being one of the fundamental concepts of multi-level modeling-to the extent of occurring in the name of the discipline-the concept of "level" has no universally agreed upon meaning among multi-level modeling researchers. There is no consensus on what the nature of a level is nor on how levels should be used to organize modeling elements. In this paper, I aim to initiate a discussion on what the options for defining levels in multi-level modeling are and how they could be systematically characterized.
Levels and Variations of
2016
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On levels: Reality or explanation
Van Hezewijk, R., & Bem, S. (1996). On levels: Reality or explanation. In C. Tolman, F. Cherry, R. Van Hezewijk, & I. Lubek (Eds.), Trends and issues in theoretical psychology (pp. 173-178). York: Captus Press. How can current psychology deal with the present multitude of theories and the levels that these theories imply? We offer some strategies and suggest that both materialism and social constructivism are unfruitful forms of reductionism. It is not necessary to decide the existing levels in advance; our version of " levelism" allows that there is more than one level, that it is not necessary to commit oneself to one, that supervenience of levels does not imply there will be no (local) reductions. We suggest that the debate about theories and levels there really are, will, and should, never end. We conclude it is possible to be, on the one hand, liberal concerning new suggestions (pluralism) , and critical concerning acceptance (realism) on the other.
LEVELS ISSUES IN THEORY DEVELOPMENT, DATA COLLECTION, AND ANALYSIS
1994
De<plt» past entreaties to organizational theorists and reseontchars to address levels issues more carefully, levels issues continue to arouse confusion and controversy within &e organizational literature. We highlight three alternative assumptions that underlie the specification of levels of theory throuj^out mganizational behavior: (a) homogeneity within higher level units, (b) independence from higher Uvel tinits. and (c) heterogeneity within higher level ludts. These assumptions influence the nature of theoretical constructs and propositions and should, ideally, also influence data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Greater attention to levels issues will strengthen organizational theory development and research.
Levels and Explanations
It is a mainstay of the philosophy of science that reduction is a relationship between theories pitched at different levels of nature. But the relevant sense of “level” is notoriously difficult to pin down. A promising recent analysis links the notion of level to the compositional relations associated with mechanistic explanation. Such relations do not order objects by scale or physical type; one and the same kind of entity can occur at several levels in a single mechanism. I will sketch this approach to levels and consider some of its implications for our understanding of the relationship between cognitive psychology and neuroscience.
A Computational Modeling Strategy for Levels
2008
Rather than taking the ontological fundamentality of an ideal microphysics as a starting point, this article sketches an approach to the problem of levels that swaps assumptions about ontology for assumptions about inquiry. These assumptions can be implemented formally via computational modeling techniques that will be described below. It is argued that these models offer a way to save some of our prominent commonsense intuitions concerning levels. This strategy offers a way of exploring the individuation of higher level properties in a systematic and formally constrained manner.
Level Theory, parts 1-3
Bulletin of Symbolic Logic
This document comprises Level Theory, parts 1-3. PART 1. The following bare-bones story introduces the idea of a cumulative hierarchy of pure sets: 'Sets are arranged in stages. Every set is found at some stage. At any stage S: for any sets found before S, we find a set whose members are exactly those sets. We find nothing else at S.' Surprisingly, this story already guarantees that the sets are arranged in well-ordered levels, and suffices for quasi-categoricity. I show this by presenting Level Theory, a simplifiation of set theories due to Scott, Montague, Derrick, and Potter. PART 2. Potentialists think that the concept of set is importantly modal. Using tensed language as an heuristic, the following bare-bones story introduces the idea of a potential hierarchy of sets: 'Always: for any sets that existed, there is a set whose members are exactly those sets; there are no other sets.' Surprisingly, this story already guarantees well-foundedness and persistence. Moreover, if we assume that time is linear, the ensuing modal set theory is almost definitionally equivalent with non-modal set theories; specifically, with Level Theory, as developed in Part 1. PART 3. On a very natural conception of sets, every set has an absolute complement. The ordinary cumulative hierarchy dismisses this idea outright. But we can rectify this, whilst retaining classical logic. Indeed, we can develop a boolean algebra of sets arranged in well-ordered levels. I show this by presenting Boolean Level Theory, which fuses ordinary Level Theory (from Part 1) with ideas due to Thomas Forster, Alonzo Church, and Urs Oswald. BLT neatly implement Conway's games and surreal numbers; and a natural extension of BLT is definitionally equivalent with ZF.
Levels of Analysis Problem
Encyclopedia of Peace Psychology, 2011
Peace and war (and intermediate conditions) are states or events that can involve the lives or deaths of hundreds of millions of people and most of the world. The debate about how to explain, predict, and influence their occurrence has engaged political leaders as well as scholars for centuries. Substantial progress in this enterprise could enable us to forecast when the peace is imperiled or when the end of war approaches, understand the gradations and differences between different kinds of peace and of war, and perhaps to develop strategies for averting, limiting, ameliorating, or ending armed conflict.
Levels, Objectives and Variables in Scientific Research
International Journal of Religion, 2024
It is common to use Bloom's taxonomy to write research objectives; however, it is often forgotten that this Bloomian classification corresponds to the teaching-learning process. Likewise, is not usual to include the levels or scope of research since so many classifications have been proposed, suggesting that science can be fragmented and that qualitative studies have nothing to do with quantitative studies and vice versa. Regardless of the coincidences and discrepancies that may exist, researchers require a guideline that is based on the principles of science to be able to organize and structure their studies and that allows for growth and development, removing biases and partialities from analysis. It is necessary to remember that a taxonomy is valid if it adheres to the criteria that scientific knowledge itself indicates. This research is an exploratory and observational study whose purpose is to identify its objectives according to its levels with their respective study variables.
Level Systems: Questions of Legality and Efficacy
Level systems are a common tool used to manage students with emotional and behavioral disorders. To date, we have little research to support the efficacy of using level systems, and further, certain components of level systems may be in
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almi
gr
at
i
on.Ot
he
r
ss
t
udybr
ai
nr
e
gi
ons
,c
har
ac
t
e
r
i
z
i
ng
2 Onec
ons
e
que
nc
eoft
hef
ol
l
o
wi
ngdi
s
c
us
s
i
oni
st
hatnote
v
e
r
yac
c
ount
ofl
e
ve
l
smus
tof
f
e
ra uni
que ans
we
rt
ot
he pl
ac
e
me
ntque
s
t
i
on.
Le
v
e
l
sofme
c
hani
s
msar
ede
f
i
ne
dbyt
he
i
rdi
s
t
i
nc
t
i
ver
e
l
at
aandr
e
l
at
i
ons
;t
he
s
ec
ons
t
r
ai
nt
s
,byt
he
ms
e
l
ve
s
,of
f
e
rnouni
queans
we
rt
ot
he
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ac
e
me
ntque
s
t
i
on.Thi
si
swhyl
e
ve
l
sofme
c
hani
s
msar
e
,asIwi
l
l
ar
gue
,l
oc
alr
at
he
rt
hanmonol
i
t
hi
c
.
3 Fort
her
e
l
e
v
ants
e
ns
eofa s
c
i
e
nt
i
f
i
c“
f
i
e
l
d”
,s
e
e Dar
de
n & Maul
(
1977)andDar
de
n(
1992)
.
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
3|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
t
he
i
r ana
t
omi
c
al f
e
a
t
ur
e
s or
,s
t
udyi
ng t
he
pr
opaga
t
i
ono
fne
ur
als
i
gnal
swi
t
hi
nt
he
m.St
i
l
l
ot
he
r
swor
katt
hel
e
ve
lofs
ys
t
e
ms
,us
i
ngf
unc
t
i
onal magne
t
i
cr
e
s
onanc
ei
magi
ng (
f
MRI
)
,
t
r
ans
c
r
ani
almagne
t
i
cs
t
i
mul
at
i
on (
TMS)
,a
nd
c
ogni
t
i
vet
as
kst
of
i
ndl
ar
ge
s
c
al
ec
ogni
t
i
ves
ys
t
e
msi
nt
hemi
ndbr
ai
n.Onec
oul
dpe
r
ha
psi
ns
i
nuat
e ot
he
rl
e
ve
l
s be
t
we
e
nt
he
s
e
,and one
c
oul
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e
r
t
ai
nl
ye
xt
e
nd t
he hi
e
r
ar
c
hy f
ur
t
he
r
do
wnorhi
ghe
rup.Butt
hec
e
nt
r
ali
de
ai
st
hat
t
hes
c
i
e
nt
i
f
i
cf
i
e
l
dsc
anbeor
de
r
e
dashi
ghe
ror
l
o
we
rt
hanoneano
t
he
r
.
Sc
i
e
nt
i
f
i
cf
i
e
l
dsar
ei
ndi
vi
duat
e
di
npar
tby
t
he
i
rt
he
or
i
e
s(
Dar
de
n1992)
.Thege
s
t
ur
als
e
ns
e
ofl
e
ve
l
s
,t
he
n,c
an s
e
e
mt
oc
ar
r
yt
hei
mpl
i
c
at
i
ont
hats
c
i
e
nt
i
f
i
ct
he
or
i
e
sar
eorwi
l
ls
ome
da
y
beor
de
r
e
dmor
eorl
e
s
sc
l
e
ar
l
yi
nt
ol
e
ve
l
s
.Oppe
nhe
i
m & Put
nam’
s(
1958)i
nf
l
ue
nt
i
alvi
e
w of
t
heuni
t
yofs
c
i
e
nc
ei
sbas
e
donar
oug
hc
or
r
e
s
ponde
nc
ebe
t
we
e
nl
e
ve
l
so
fs
c
i
e
nc
e
,l
e
ve
l
soft
he
or
y
,and l
e
ve
l
sofpar
t
sand whol
e
s(
s
e
eTabl
e
1)
.The
y di
vi
det
hewor
l
di
nt
os
i
x ont
ol
ogi
c
al
s
t
r
at
a(
s
oc
i
e
t
i
e
s
, or
gani
s
ms
,c
e
l
l
s
, mol
e
c
ul
e
s
,
at
oms
,a
nd e
l
e
me
nt
ar
y par
t
i
c
l
e
s
)
.The
s
es
t
r
at
a
ar
ede
f
i
ne
dbyme
r
e
ol
ogi
c
alr
e
l
at
i
ons
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psamong
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ype
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e
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nt
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i
c
l
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et
he par
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oms
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et
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ul
e
s
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e
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ul
e
sar
epar
t
sofc
e
l
l
s
,a
nd s
o on.Eac
h of
t
he
s
es
t
r
at
ai
sas
s
i
gne
d adi
s
t
i
nc
ts
c
i
e
nc
e
:e
c
onomi
c
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he s
oc
i
al s
c
i
e
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e
s at t
he t
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t
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s aut
onomo
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om t
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s
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ot
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ye
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r
om t
op t
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om.The
uni
t
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i
e
nc
e
,f
orOppe
nhe
i
m andPut
nam,i
s
t
obeac
hi
e
ve
dbye
xpl
ai
ni
ngphe
nome
nai
nt
he
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r
l
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ve
ls
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i
e
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s
c
r
i
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n
t
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or
yoft
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c
i
e
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e
,i
nt
e
r
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e
ms
i
nt
hedomai
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hemor
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nt
als
c
i
e
nc
e
,
as de
s
c
r
i
be
di
nt
he t
he
or
i
e
so
ft
hat s
c
i
e
nc
e
.
(
Le
ve
l
sofme
c
ha
ni
s
ms
,asde
f
i
ne
dbe
l
o
w,i
nvol
ve
a ki
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t
whol
er
e
l
at
i
on as we
l
l but
wi
t
ho
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t
me
ntt
ot
hei
de
at
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ts
uc
h
t
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l
e
ve
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t
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er
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
ps c
or
r
e
s
pond
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ne
ve
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oughwa
yt
ot
hes
t
r
uc
t
ur
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hes
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i
e
nc
e
sort
ot
hes
t
r
uc
t
ur
e
soft
he
i
rt
he
or
i
e
s
.
)
Wi
ms
at
t
’
sde
t
ai
l
e
dandi
nf
l
ue
nt
i
ale
xpl
or
at
i
on o
ft
he l
e
ve
l
sme
t
aphorc
onf
r
o
nt
sOppe
n-
he
i
m and Put
nam wi
t
ht
hec
ompl
e
xi
t
yo
ft
he
l
e
ve
l
sf
oundi
nma
nyar
e
asofc
ont
e
mpor
ar
ys
c
i
e
nc
e(
Wi
ms
at
t1976)
.Agai
ns
tOppe
nhe
i
m and
Put
nam’
ss
i
xl
a
ye
rmode
l
,Wi
ms
at
t
’
s“
Re
duc
t
i
oni
s
tI
l
l
us
t
r
at
i
ve
”(
Fi
gur
e1)r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
smul
t
i
pl
e br
anc
he
sofl
e
ve
l
sf
a
nni
ng outf
r
om t
he
l
o
we
s
tl
e
ve
li
ns
uba
t
omi
cpar
t
i
c
l
e
st
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os
mol
ogi
c
alobj
e
c
t
s
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hes
oc
i
oc
ul
t
ur
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l
d(
e
.
g.
,e
c
onomi
ca
nd pol
i
t
i
c
alphe
nome
na)
,and t
he s
oc
i
oe
c
ol
ogi
c
alwor
l
d(
e
.
g.
,e
vol
ut
i
on)
.
Wi
ms
at
t
’
st
r
e
edi
agr
am,ho
we
ve
r
,r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
sonl
yoneas
pe
c
tofhi
spr
ot
ot
y
p
eac
c
ountof
l
e
ve
l
st
hat e
nc
ompas
s
e
s ma
ny mor
ef
e
a
t
ur
e
s
t
hanOppe
nhe
i
m andPut
nam’
sl
a
ye
r
c
akema
ppi
ngi
nTabl
e1.Thec
or
ef
e
at
ur
e
si
nWi
ms
at
t
’
s
pr
o
t
ot
ypear
e
:
• Si
ze. Hi
ghe
r
l
e
ve
li
t
e
ms ar
el
ar
ge
rt
han
l
o
we
r
l
e
ve
li
t
e
ms
.
• Compos
i
t
i
on.Hi
ghe
r
l
e
ve
li
t
e
msar
ema
de
upofl
o
we
r
l
e
ve
lobj
e
c
t
sa
ndpr
oc
e
s
s
e
s
.
• Laws
.La
wsofnat
ur
ehol
d onl
y ormos
t
l
y
be
t
we
e
ni
t
e
msatt
hes
amel
e
ve
l
.
• For
ces
.Di
s
t
i
nc
tf
or
c
e
sope
r
at
eatdi
f
f
e
r
e
nt
l
e
ve
l
s
.
• Pr
edi
ct
abi
l
i
t
y.Le
ve
l
sar
el
oc
almaxi
ma of
r
e
gul
ar
i
t
ya
nd pr
e
di
c
t
abi
l
i
t
yt
hata
ppe
ara
t
di
f
f
e
r
e
nts
i
z
es
c
al
e
s
.
• Det
ect
i
on.I
t
e
msa
tagi
ve
nl
e
ve
lt
e
ndt
obe
de
t
e
c
t
e
d or de
t
e
c
t
abl
e pr
i
mar
i
l
y by ot
he
r
i
t
e
msa
tt
hatl
e
ve
l
.
• Caus
es
.Caus
alr
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
pshol
d onl
y or
mos
t
l
ybe
t
we
e
ni
t
e
msa
tt
hes
amel
e
ve
l
.
• Theor
i
es
.Sc
i
e
nt
i
f
i
ct
he
or
i
e
s de
s
c
r
i
be phe
nome
na e
xc
l
us
i
ve
l
y or mos
t
l
y at a s
i
ngl
e
l
e
ve
l
.
• Tec
hni
ques
. Di
f
f
e
r
e
nt t
e
c
hni
que
s and i
ns
t
r
ume
nt
sde
t
e
c
ti
t
e
msatdi
f
f
e
r
e
ntl
e
ve
l
s
.
• Di
s
ci
pl
i
nes
.Di
f
f
e
r
e
ntdi
s
c
i
pl
i
ne
sofs
c
i
e
nc
e
di
r
e
c
tt
he
i
ra
t
t
e
nt
i
onatdi
f
f
e
r
e
ntl
e
ve
l
s
.
Wi
ms
at
t
’
svi
e
wi
sapr
o
t
ot
ypevi
e
wi
nt
hes
e
ns
e
t
hati
tc
har
ac
t
e
r
i
z
e
st
hel
e
ve
lme
t
aphori
nt
e
r
ms
ofac
or
es
e
toff
e
at
ur
e
s
,notal
lofwhi
c
hmus
t
bepr
e
s
e
nti
nor
de
rf
ort
heme
t
aphort
oappl
y
.
I
ns
of
ar as Wi
ms
at
te
mbr
ac
e
s a pr
ot
o
t
ype
mode
l
,hec
anbes
e
e
nase
mbr
ac
i
ngde
s
c
r
i
pt
i
ve
pl
ur
al
i
s
m whi
l
e
,att
hes
amet
i
me
,hol
di
ngt
hat
t
he
r
ei
sas
uf
f
i
c
i
e
nt
l
ys
t
r
o
ngf
ami
l
yr
e
s
e
mbl
anc
e
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
4|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
Fi
gur
e1:Wi
ms
at
t
’
st
r
e
eofl
e
ve
l
sbr
anc
he
st
opr
e
s
e
r
vec
ompos
i
t
i
ona
lr
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
psamongl
e
ve
l
s(
1976)
.
amongt
hepl
ur
al
i
t
yofa
ppl
i
c
at
i
onsoft
hel
e
ve
l
s
me
t
aphort
owar
r
a
ntt
he
i
ri
nc
l
us
i
oni
nas
i
ngl
e
pr
ot
o
t
ype
.
I
st
hel
e
ve
l
sme
t
aphors
uf
f
i
c
i
e
nt
l
y uni
f
i
e
d
ac
r
os
st
he
s
edi
f
f
e
r
e
ntappl
i
c
at
i
onst
owar
r
a
nta
s
i
ngl
epr
ot
ot
ype
?Myr
e
mar
ksont
her
e
l
at
a,r
e
l
at
i
on,a
nd pl
ac
e
me
ntque
s
t
i
onss
ho
ul
d al
r
e
ady
i
ndi
c
at
et
hati
ti
snot
—t
hatdi
f
f
e
r
e
ntf
e
at
ur
e
si
n
Wi
ms
at
t
’
sl
i
s
tar
eatbe
s
ti
ndi
r
e
c
t
l
yr
e
l
at
e
da
nd
s
of
ai
lt
oma
pt
oonea
not
he
ri
nanyt
i
dywa
y
.
Whi
l
et
he pr
ot
o
t
ype appr
oac
h us
e
f
ul
l
y hi
ghl
i
ght
st
hec
ompl
e
xi
t
yoft
hel
e
ve
lme
t
aphor
,i
t
al
s
oobs
c
ur
e
st
hee
xt
e
ntt
owhi
c
ht
hedi
f
f
e
r
e
nt
f
e
a
t
ur
e
si
nt
hepr
o
t
ot
ypear
ef
e
a
t
ur
e
sofdi
f
f
e
r
4
e
ntappl
i
c
at
i
onso
ft
ha
tme
t
aphor
.
4 Wi
ms
at
t
’
sdi
agr
am i
n Fi
gur
e1 r
e
f
l
e
c
t
st
hi
s
.The br
anc
hi
ng t
r
e
e
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
ei
sor
de
r
e
d by c
o
mpos
i
t
i
onalr
e
l
at
i
ons
.Wi
ms
at
t
’
svi
e
w of
l
e
ve
l
sa
sdi
s
s
i
pat
i
ngwa
ve
s(
s
e
eFi
gur
e3be
l
o
w)f
l
out
st
hatr
e
l
at
i
on.
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
5|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
Tabl
e1:Oppe
nhe
i
m andPut
nam’
sl
a
ye
r
c
akes
ke
t
c
hoft
hel
e
v
e
l
sofme
r
e
ol
ogy(
l
e
f
t
)
,s
c
i
e
nc
e
s(
mi
ddl
e
)
,andt
he
or
i
e
s
(
r
i
g
ht
)
.
4 Lev
el
sofs
c
i
enc
esandt
heor
i
es
Wi
ms
at
t
,Oppe
nhe
i
m,a
nd Put
nam al
li
nc
l
ude
wi
t
hi
nt
he
i
ranal
ys
i
so
fl
e
ve
l
st
hege
s
t
ur
ali
de
a
t
ha
tdi
f
f
e
r
e
ntf
i
e
l
dsordi
s
c
i
pl
i
ne
sofs
c
i
e
nc
ear
e
ar
r
ange
dbyt
hes
i
z
e
soft
heobj
e
c
t
st
he
ys
t
udy
.
Wi
ms
at
t
’
sbr
anc
hi
nghi
e
r
ar
c
hi
e
sde
pi
c
tamor
e
or
nat
es
t
r
uc
t
ur
e
. Wi
t
hi
n t
hat s
t
r
uc
t
ur
e
,i
t
s
e
e
msi
nappr
opr
i
at
et
os
a
yt
hatas
t
r
ophys
i
c
si
s
at a hi
ghe
rl
e
ve
lt
ha
n bi
ol
ogy or e
c
onomi
c
s
,
t
ho
ughas
t
r
ophys
i
c
i
s
t
st
ypi
c
al
l
yde
alwi
t
ht
hi
ngs
t
ha
tar
e or
de
r
sofmag
ni
t
udel
ar
ge
rt
han t
he
t
hi
ngsbi
ol
ogi
s
t
sande
c
onomi
s
t
ss
t
udy
.Thege
s
t
ur
als
e
ns
eofl
e
ve
l
sdoe
s
n’
ts
e
e
mt
obr
anc
ht
hat
wa
y
.
Whe
n we appl
yt
he l
e
ve
lme
t
aphor t
o
s
c
i
e
nc
e
s
,t
her
e
l
at
a ar
euni
t
sofs
c
i
e
nt
i
f
i
cor
gani
z
at
i
on (
s
uc
h asf
i
e
l
ds
,r
e
s
e
ar
c
h pr
ogr
ams
,
or di
s
c
i
pl
i
ne
s
)
.Ans
we
r
st
ot
he r
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
p
and pl
ac
e
me
ntque
s
t
i
onsar
emor
edi
f
f
i
c
ul
tt
o
di
s
c
e
r
n and ar
el
i
ke
l
yi
mpos
s
i
bl
et
oe
xpr
e
s
s
bot
hac
c
ur
at
e
l
yandc
onc
i
s
e
l
yf
ort
hi
sappl
i
c
at
i
on.Si
z
es
e
e
mst
o ber
e
l
e
v
ant
,butweha
ve
j
us
ts
e
e
nt
hati
tc
annotbet
hewhol
es
t
or
y
.
Thebr
anc
he
si
nWi
ms
at
t
’
sdi
agr
am f
ol
l
o
w,i
n
addi
t
i
on t
os
i
z
er
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
ps
,r
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
psof
c
ompos
i
t
i
on.The t
hi
ngss
t
udi
e
d by e
c
onomi
s
t
s(
gr
oups
)ar
ec
ompos
e
d oft
hi
ngss
t
udi
e
d
by ps
yc
hol
ogi
s
t
s(
or
gani
s
ms
)
,whi
c
h ar
ec
ompos
e
d of t
hi
ngs s
t
udi
e
d by phys
i
ol
ogi
s
t
s
(
phys
i
ol
ogi
c
als
ys
t
e
ms
)
,ands
oon.Thet
hi
ngs
s
t
udi
e
dbyDar
wi
nar
ec
ompos
e
doft
het
hi
ngs
s
t
udi
e
d by z
ool
ogi
s
t
s
,whi
c
h ar
ec
ompos
e
d of
t
het
hi
ngss
t
udi
e
dbyc
yt
ol
ogi
s
t
s
.Thepoi
ntof
t
he
s
ee
xampl
e
si
snott
oge
tt
hebr
anc
he
si
n
Wi
ms
at
t
’
s hi
e
r
ar
c
hy e
xac
t
l
yr
i
ght
;any pr
opos
e
d hi
e
r
ar
c
hyoft
hes
c
i
e
nc
e
sand t
hei
t
e
ms
i
nt
he
i
rdomai
nsi
sbound t
o behi
s
t
or
i
c
al
l
y
c
ont
i
nge
ntandpr
o
vi
s
i
onalatbe
s
t
.
I
nf
ac
t
,manys
c
i
e
nc
e
sa
ppe
art
or
e
s
i
s
tt
i
dy
c
ompar
t
me
nt
al
i
z
at
i
on wi
t
hi
n l
e
ve
l
s
. Ne
ur
os
c
i
e
nc
e
,e
s
pe
c
i
al
l
yc
ogni
t
i
ve ne
ur
os
c
i
e
nc
e
,i
sa
par
a
di
gm ofmul
t
i
l
e
ve
ls
c
i
e
nc
e
,e
nc
ompas
s
i
ng
t
hes
t
udy ofi
ons
,i
on c
hanne
l
s
,c
e
l
l
s
,popul
at
i
onsofc
e
l
l
s
,br
ai
nr
e
gi
ons
,and be
ha
vi
or
sof
whol
e or
gani
s
ms
.No c
ompe
t
e
nt e
vol
ut
i
onar
y
bi
ol
ogi
s
tc
an a
voi
d kno
wi
ng s
ome
t
hi
ng about
ge
ne
s
,phys
i
ol
ogi
c
als
ys
t
e
ms
,or
gani
s
ms
,popul
at
i
ons
,a
nd e
nvi
r
onme
nt
s
. Many s
c
i
e
nc
e
s
,i
n
s
hor
t
,c
ont
ai
ni
t
e
mswi
t
hi
nt
he
i
rdomai
nt
hat
s
t
a
ndi
nc
ompos
i
t
i
onalr
e
l
at
i
onst
oo
nea
not
he
r
.
Suc
hs
c
i
e
nc
e
so
f
t
e
nc
ons
t
r
uc
tmul
t
i
l
e
ve
lt
he
or
i
e
s
t
hati
nt
e
gr
at
ef
i
ndi
ngsac
r
os
smul
t
i
pl
el
e
ve
l
so
f
or
gani
z
at
i
on.Thi
si
soner
e
as
on why t
her
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
p be
t
we
e
nl
e
ve
l
s ofs
c
i
e
nc
e and par
t
whol
el
e
ve
l
si
si
ndi
r
e
c
t
.
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
6|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
Ano
t
he
rr
e
as
on i
st
hat
,i
n ma
ny c
as
e
s
,
mor
et
hano
nes
c
i
e
nc
ei
sde
di
c
at
e
dt
os
t
udyi
ng
i
t
e
msatt
he s
ame me
r
e
ol
ogi
c
alors
i
z
el
e
ve
l
.
Cyt
ol
ogi
s
t
s
,a
nat
omi
s
t
s
,ande
l
e
c
t
r
ophys
i
ol
ogi
s
t
s
al
ls
t
udy as
pe
c
t
sofc
e
l
l
swi
t
h di
f
f
e
r
e
ntt
ool
s
.
Thee
t
hol
ogi
s
tand t
hee
xpe
r
i
me
nt
alps
yc
hol
ogi
s
ts
t
udyani
malbe
ha
vi
or
,butt
he
ya
ppr
oac
h
t
ha
tbe
ha
vi
orwi
t
hdi
f
f
e
r
e
ntas
s
umpt
i
ons
,me
t
hods
,and t
he
or
i
e
s
.Ec
onomi
s
t
s
,e
c
ol
ogi
s
t
s
,e
pi
de
mi
ol
ogi
s
t
s
,and or
gani
z
at
i
onalps
yc
hol
ogi
s
t
s
s
t
udy popul
at
i
onsofor
ga
ni
s
ms
.Ther
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
p be
t
we
e
nl
e
ve
l
so
fs
c
i
e
nc
ea
nd t
heo
nt
ol
ogi
c
all
e
ve
l
st
hatOppe
nhe
i
m and Put
nam pr
e
s
umei
smanyt
oma
ny
.
Fort
hi
sr
e
as
on,i
ti
sunl
i
ke
l
yt
ha
tanypr
e
c
i
s
eans
we
rt
ot
hepl
ac
e
me
ntque
s
t
i
onwi
l
lc
or
r
e
c
t
l
ye
xpr
e
s
st
heappl
i
c
at
i
onoft
hel
e
ve
l
sme
t
aphort
os
c
i
e
nc
e
s
.Onemi
g
hts
a
yt
ha
tt
wos
c
i
e
nc
e
sar
eont
hes
amel
e
ve
lwhe
nt
he
ype
r
t
ai
n
t
oi
t
e
msatt
hes
amec
ompos
i
t
i
onall
e
ve
l
.Pe
r
hapsi
tmake
ss
e
ns
et
os
a
yt
ha
tCami
l
l
oGol
gi
was i
nve
s
t
i
gat
i
ng t
he s
ame l
e
ve
l whe
n he
s
t
ai
ne
d Pur
ki
nj
ec
e
l
l
swi
t
hs
i
l
ve
rni
t
r
at
et
hat
Al
an Hodgki
n wasi
nve
s
t
i
gat
i
ngwhe
n heus
e
d
hi
svol
t
agec
l
ampt
os
t
udyt
heac
t
i
onpot
e
nt
i
al
oft
hes
qui
dgi
a
ntaxon.The
ywe
r
ebot
hs
t
udyi
ngc
e
l
l
s
,butt
he
ys
t
udi
e
ddi
f
f
e
r
e
ntphe
nome
na
and us
e
d di
f
f
e
r
e
ntt
e
c
hni
que
s
.I
fwef
oc
usno
w
ont
hepar
t
soft
he
s
ewhol
e
s
,wes
e
et
ha
tt
he
s
e
di
f
f
e
r
e
nts
c
i
e
nt
i
s
t
sar
e no
te
ve
no
nt
he s
ame
br
anc
he
sofaWi
ms
at
tdi
agr
am,andt
hel
e
ve
l
s
me
t
aphor be
gi
ns t
o br
e
ak do
wn.As
k Gol
gi
aboutt
her
e
l
e
v
antpar
t
so
ft
hec
e
l
l
,andhewi
l
l
t
e
l
lyou abo
uti
t
sgr
os
smor
phol
ogi
c
alf
e
a
t
ur
e
s
andi
t
sor
gans
.As
kHodgki
nandHuxl
e
yabout
t
her
e
l
e
v
antpar
t
so
ft
hes
qui
dgi
antaxon,and
t
he
y wi
l
lt
e
l
lyou aboutme
mbr
ane
s
,axon hi
l
l
oc
ks
,i
oni
cc
onduc
t
anc
e
s
,a
ndvol
t
agegr
adi
e
nt
s
.
An e
pi
de
mi
ol
ogi
s
tmi
ghtt
al
kaboutnode
sand
ne
t
wor
ks a
nd hubs i
n a mode
lofc
o
nt
agi
on.
Ec
onomi
s
t
swi
l
lt
al
kabo
utpr
oduc
e
r
sandc
ons
ume
r
s
.Di
f
f
e
r
e
nc
e
si
ns
c
i
e
nt
i
f
i
ci
nt
e
r
e
s
t
sof
t
e
n
e
nt
ai
ldi
f
f
e
r
e
nc
e
si
nt
he r
e
l
e
v
a
nto
nt
ol
ogy f
or
t
hes
c
i
e
nc
e
;a
nd t
hes
amet
hi
ngc
anbec
ar
v
e
d
i
nt
opar
t
si
nmanywa
ysde
pe
ndi
ngo
nwhato
ne
Kauf
f
i
si
nt
e
r
e
s
t
e
di
nde
s
c
r
i
bi
ngore
xpl
ai
ni
ng(
man1971;Wi
ms
at
t1972)
.
Thet
ake
homel
e
s
s
on:t
heappl
i
c
at
i
on of
t
hel
e
ve
l
sme
t
aphort
of
i
e
l
dso
fs
c
i
e
nc
eyi
e
l
dsa
no
t
i
onofl
e
ve
l
sonl
yi
ndi
r
e
c
t
l
yr
e
l
at
e
dt
oont
ol
ogi
c
all
e
ve
l
s(
asunde
r
s
t
oodi
nar
oug
hl
yc
ompos
i
t
i
onal
,par
t
whol
es
e
ns
e
)
.The i
de
al
i
z
e
d,Oppe
nhe
i
mPut
nam c
or
r
e
s
ponde
nc
ebe
t
we
e
nl
e
ve
l
s
ofs
c
i
e
nc
e
,l
e
ve
l
soft
he
or
y
,and l
e
ve
l
sofme
r
e
ol
ogy br
e
aksdo
wn i
nt
he f
ac
e oft
hi
sma
nyma
ny mappi
ng.And t
hec
ompos
i
t
i
onalas
pe
c
t
i
n Wi
ms
at
t
’
s pr
ot
ot
ype appe
ar
st
o be onl
y
l
oos
e
l
yr
e
l
at
e
dt
ot
heappl
i
c
at
i
on oft
hel
e
ve
l
s
me
t
a
phor t
of
i
e
l
ds o
fs
c
i
e
nc
e
.The
s
e ar
e
,i
n
s
hor
t
,di
s
t
i
nc
tappl
i
c
at
i
onsoft
heme
t
a
phor
,of
f
e
r
i
ngdi
f
f
e
r
e
ntans
we
r
st
ot
her
e
l
at
a,r
e
l
at
i
ons
,
andpl
ac
e
me
ntque
s
t
i
ons
.Asar
e
s
ul
t
,anunde
r
s
t
a
ndi
ng of ho
w s
c
i
e
nc
e
sc
an be or
gani
z
e
d
l
oos
e
l
yi
nt
ol
e
ve
l
spr
o
vi
de
snodi
r
e
c
ti
ns
i
ghti
nt
o
o
nt
ol
ogi
c
all
e
ve
l
s
.Thi
swi
l
lc
omeasnos
ur
pr
i
s
e
t
ot
hos
ewho s
t
udy i
nt
e
l
l
e
c
t
ualhi
s
t
or
y
,ort
o
t
hos
ewho ha
vewi
t
ne
s
s
e
df
ort
he
ms
e
l
ve
sho
w
f
i
e
l
dsofs
c
i
e
nc
ec
hange t
he
i
rboundar
i
e
so
ve
r
t
i
me
.Ourage
,pe
r
ha
psmor
et
han a
ny o
t
he
r
,
has wi
t
ne
s
s
e
d an e
xpl
os
i
on o
f hybr
i
df
i
e
l
ds
(
ne
ur
oe
c
onomi
c
s
,be
ha
vi
or
alge
ne
t
i
c
s
,c
ogni
t
i
ve
e
t
hol
ogy)t
ha
tc
r
os
sl
e
ve
l
s
,c
ombi
neappr
oac
he
s
,
anda
t
t
e
mptt
of
e
e
dof
fi
ns
i
ght
ss
har
e
dbe
t
we
e
n
di
s
t
a
nts
c
i
e
nt
i
f
i
c ne
i
g
hbor
s
.The hi
s
t
or
i
c
alr
e
l
at
i
vi
t
y ofdi
s
c
i
pl
i
nar
y bo
undar
i
e
smake
st
he
m
unr
e
l
i
abl
eg
ui
de
st
oo
nt
ol
ogy
.
The s
ame c
ons
i
de
r
at
i
ons s
ugge
s
tt
hat
l
e
ve
l
s of s
c
i
e
nt
i
f
i
ct
he
or
y wi
l
l al
s
o ha
ve a
manymany r
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
p wi
t
h ont
ol
ogi
c
al
l
e
ve
l
s
.I
nt
hi
sappl
i
c
at
i
onoft
heme
t
aphor
,t
he
r
e
l
at
a ar
et
he
or
i
e
sormode
l
s
.And t
he r
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
pi
st
ypi
c
al
l
yc
ons
t
r
ue
d as a ki
nd of
s
ubs
umpt
i
on, e
.
g.
, de
duc
t
i
ve s
ubs
umpt
i
on
He
mpe
l1965;Sc
haf
f
ne
r1993;Ki
t
c
he
r1989)
,
(
ors
omeki
ndofs
i
mi
l
ar
i
t
yori
nc
l
us
i
on(
Bi
c
kl
e
1998)
. The di
s
c
i
pl
i
nar
y hodge
podge of t
he
s
pe
c
i
als
c
i
e
nc
e
sf
ai
l
st
omat
c
ht
hi
sphi
l
os
ophi
c
alr
e
c
ons
t
r
uc
t
i
on.Si
ngl
et
he
or
i
e
s
,s
uc
h as
t
het
he
or
ye
xpl
ai
ni
ngs
pat
i
alme
mor
yi
nt
e
r
ms
of me
mor
ys
ys
t
e
ms
, gr
i
dc
e
l
l or
gani
z
at
i
on,
s
ynapt
i
cpl
as
t
i
c
i
t
y
,and c
hange
si
ni
oni
cc
onduc
t
anc
e
st
hr
ough a me
mbr
ane (
s
e
e Mos
e
r
2008)
,of
t
e
nr
e
ac
hac
r
os
smanydi
f
f
e
r
e
ntpar
t
whol
el
e
ve
l
s(
Dar
de
n & Maul1977;Be
c
ht
e
l
1988;Cr
a
ve
r2002,2008)
.Oneand t
hes
ame
me
r
e
ol
ogi
c
aluni
t(
e
.
g.
,c
e
l
l
s
)c
an appe
ar i
n
many di
s
t
i
nc
tt
he
or
i
e
s(
e
.
g.
, ne
ur
ons pl
a
y
s
omer
ol
ei
nmos
tt
he
or
i
e
si
nne
ur
os
c
i
e
nc
e
)
.
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
7|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
Fi
gur
e2:Chur
c
hl
and& Se
j
no
ws
ki
’
s(
1992)di
agr
am o
fl
e
ve
l
sofor
gani
z
at
i
oni
nt
hec
e
nt
r
alne
r
vouss
ys
t
e
m.
Themul
t
i
l
e
ve
ls
t
r
uc
t
ur
eofc
o
nt
e
mpor
ar
y
s
c
i
e
nc
ee
mphas
i
z
e
di
nne
ar
l
ye
ve
r
yc
or
ne
roft
he
s
pe
c
i
als
c
i
e
nc
e
si
snotbe
s
tunde
r
s
t
oodasahi
e
r
ar
c
hyoft
he
or
i
e
s
.Nori
si
tahi
e
r
ar
c
hyoff
i
e
l
ds
.
I
ns
t
e
ad,t
he
r
ei
sano
nt
ol
ogi
c
alhi
e
r
ar
c
hywor
ki
ngbe
hi
ndt
hes
c
e
ne
s
.Thi
sba
c
kgr
oundo
nt
ol
ogi
c
alas
s
umpt
i
ongui
de
st
hede
ve
l
opme
ntoft
he
or
i
e
s
,i
nf
or
mst
hec
r
i
t
e
r
i
af
ore
v
al
uat
i
nge
xpl
anat
i
ons
,a
nd unde
r
l
i
e
st
he r
oughl
y he
wn i
de
a
t
ha
ts
c
i
e
nc
e
s and t
he
or
i
e
s ar
e or
ga
ni
z
e
di
nt
o
l
e
ve
l
s
.I
ti
st
hee
xpr
e
s
s
i
onofani
de
alo
fe
xpl
anat
i
on t
ounde
r
s
t
and ho
wt
hi
ngswor
ki
nt
e
r
ms
oft
he
i
rc
ompone
nt par
t
s and t
o unde
r
s
t
a
nd
ho
wt
hos
epar
t
swor
ki
nt
e
r
msofs
t
i
l
ll
o
we
r
l
e
ve
lc
ompone
nt
s
.I
ti
s pr
e
c
i
s
e
l
y be
c
aus
et
he
wor
l
di
spr
e
s
ume
dt
oha
vet
hi
ski
nd ofmul
t
i
l
e
ve
ls
t
r
uc
t
ur
e
,ofme
c
ha
ni
s
mswi
t
hi
n me
c
ha
ni
s
ms
,t
hatt
hes
c
i
e
nc
e
si
nve
s
t
i
gat
i
ngt
ha
twor
l
d
and t
het
he
or
i
e
sde
s
c
r
i
bi
ngi
tar
es
or
e
t
i
c
ul
at
e
t
ha
tt
he
yc
an l
ook l
i
ket
he“
bi
ops
yc
hol
ogi
c
al
t
hi
c
ke
t
”o
nt
her
i
ghts
i
deofWi
ms
at
t
’
st
r
e
e
.I
n
t
he t
hi
c
ke
t
,t
he or
de
r
l
yr
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
p amo
ng
l
e
ve
l
sbr
e
aksdo
wna
ndi
sr
e
pl
ac
e
dbyaj
umbl
e
.
Thei
magemake
si
thar
dt
os
e
ea
nyme
ani
ngf
ul
s
e
ns
ei
n whi
c
h di
s
t
i
nc
ti
t
e
msar
ea
tdi
f
f
e
r
e
nt
l
e
ve
l
s
.Pe
r
hapst
hi
st
houg
htf
ue
l
se
l
i
mi
nat
i
vi
s
m
aboutl
e
ve
l
s
.
The bi
ol
ogi
c
al s
c
i
e
nc
e
s ar
e unde
ni
abl
y
t
hi
c
ke
t
l
i
ke
.Butt
hi
ss
oc
i
ol
ogi
c
alf
ac
ti
so
nl
yi
ndi
r
e
c
t
l
yr
e
l
at
e
dt
ot
heont
i
cs
t
r
uc
t
ur
e
spr
e
s
ume
d
t
ol
i
ebe
hi
nd and s
c
af
f
ol
dt
hede
ve
l
opme
nto
f
t
he
s
et
he
or
i
e
s
.Fr
om no
w on,t
he
n,If
oc
uso
n
appl
i
c
at
i
onsoft
hel
e
ve
lme
t
a
phort
ot
hewor
l
d,
no
tt
os
c
i
e
nc
e
sort
he
or
i
e
s
.
5 Si
z
el
ev
el
s
Oneont
ol
ogi
c
alappl
i
c
at
i
on o
ft
hel
e
ve
lme
t
aphore
mphas
i
z
e
st
her
e
l
at
i
ves
i
z
e
sofobj
e
c
t
sat
di
f
f
e
r
e
ntl
e
ve
l
s
.Ther
e
l
at
ai
ns
i
z
el
e
ve
l
sar
eobj
e
c
t
sorki
ndsofobj
e
c
t
s
,a
ndt
hei
nt
e
r
l
e
ve
lr
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
pi
sr
e
l
at
i
ves
i
z
e(
l
ar
ge
r
,s
mal
l
e
r
)
.Thi
ngs
i
nt
hes
ames
i
z
er
angear
eatt
hes
amel
e
ve
l
.
Chur
c
hl
and a
nd Se
j
no
ws
ki
’
sc
l
as
s
i
cdi
agr
am of
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
8|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
Fi
gur
e3:Le
ve
l
sasl
oc
almaxi
maofr
e
gul
ar
i
t
ya
ndpr
e
di
c
t
abi
l
i
t
yatdi
f
f
e
r
e
nts
i
z
es
c
al
e
s(
Wi
ms
at
t1976)
.
l
e
ve
l
si
nt
hene
ur
os
c
i
e
nc
e
s(
Fi
gur
e2)i
sac
c
ompani
e
d by s
i
z
es
c
al
e
sf
or e
ac
hl
e
ve
l
,r
angi
ng
5
f
r
om Angs
t
r
om uni
t
st
ome
t
e
r
s
.
Asnot
e
d abo
ve
,Wi
ms
at
t
’
st
r
e
edi
agr
am
br
anc
he
spr
e
c
i
s
e
l
ybe
c
aus
ei
ti
st
r
ac
ki
ngs
ome
t
hi
ngs
t
r
o
nge
rt
hans
i
z
e
:s
omeki
ndofc
ompos
i
t
i
onalr
e
l
at
i
on.I
nas
e
c
onddi
agr
am (
Fi
gur
e3)
,
Wi
ms
at
te
mphas
i
z
e
ss
i
z
ea
nd abandons t
he
c
ompos
i
t
i
onalr
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
pi
mpl
i
c
i
ti
nFi
gur
e1.
Theabs
c
i
s
s
ai
n Fi
gur
e3 r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
sa r
oughl
y
l
ogar
i
t
hmi
cs
i
z
es
c
al
e
,andye
tt
hef
i
g
ur
ei
snot
c
ompos
i
t
i
onal
.Lar
ge me
t
az
oan or
gani
s
ms ar
e
notge
ne
r
al
l
yc
ompos
e
dofs
mal
l
e
rme
t
az
oanor
gani
s
ms
,and i
twoul
ds
ur
e
l
y bea s
t
r
e
t
c
ht
o
c
l
ai
mt
hatt
he
s
et
woar
ege
ne
r
al
l
yc
ompos
e
do
f
uni
c
e
l
l
ul
aror
gani
s
ms(
t
hough t
he
r
e mi
ghtbe
s
omet
r
ut
hi
nt
hatc
l
ai
m)
.Theor
di
nat
ei
nt
hi
s
di
agr
am i
same
as
ur
eofr
e
gul
ar
i
t
ya
ndpr
e
di
c
t
abi
l
i
t
y
.Thef
i
gur
ei
sr
e
pe
at
e
dt
hr
e
et
i
me
s
,e
ac
h
5 Onemi
ght
,anal
ogous
l
y
,ar
r
angeahi
e
r
ar
c
hyofa
c
t
i
vi
t
i
e
s
,wi
t
hdi
f
f
e
r
e
nta
c
t
i
vi
t
i
e
soc
c
ur
r
i
ng on di
f
f
e
r
e
ntt
e
mpor
als
c
al
e
s
.The i
de
a of
l
e
v
e
l
sofme
c
hani
s
msc
o
mbi
ne
st
he
s
et
woi
de
as
;i
ti
sahi
e
r
ar
c
hyof
doi
ngsf
r
ame
d by a r
e
l
e
v
anc
er
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
p be
t
we
e
nt
hos
eatl
o
we
r
l
e
v
e
l
sandt
hos
eathi
ghe
rl
e
v
e
l
s
.
i
l
l
us
t
r
at
i
ngadi
f
f
e
r
e
ntwa
yt
hewor
l
dmi
ghtbe
or
gani
z
e
dwi
t
hr
e
s
pe
c
tt
os
i
z
e
.Att
het
o
pi
san
or
de
r
l
ywor
l
d(
de
s
pi
t
ei
mpe
ndi
ngdoom on t
he
r
i
ght
)
.Obj
e
c
t
sbe
c
omemor
er
e
gul
arand pr
e
di
c
t
abl
ei
nt
he
i
rbe
ha
vi
or
,andt
ot
hes
amede
gr
e
e
,atc
e
r
t
ai
ns
i
z
es
c
al
e
s
.Be
ne
at
ht
hi
si
sa
wor
l
d wi
t
h no s
har
p pe
akso
fr
e
gul
ar
i
t
ya
nd
pr
e
di
c
t
abi
l
i
t
y
.AsWi
ms
at
tno
t
e
s
,s
c
i
e
nt
i
s
t
sc
onf
r
o
nt
e
dbys
uc
hawo
r
l
dmi
ghtque
s
t
i
onwhe
t
he
r
t
he
y ha
vec
hos
e
nt
her
i
ghtv
ar
i
abl
e
sf
ort
he
i
r
mode
l
s
.Ont
hebot
t
om i
sWi
ms
at
t
’
sc
onj
e
c
t
ur
e
f
orourwor
l
d,whe
r
er
e
gul
ar
i
t
yi
sve
r
yhi
ghf
or
s
i
ngl
eat
omsbutf
al
l
sof
fpr
e
c
i
pi
t
ous
l
yatl
ar
ge
r
or s
mal
l
e
rs
c
al
e
s
.Thi
s wa
ve di
s
s
i
pat
e
so
ve
r
t
i
me
,pe
aki
ngl
o
we
rands
pr
e
adi
ngouto
ve
rl
ar
ge
rand l
ar
ge
rs
i
z
er
ange
sass
c
al
ei
nc
r
e
as
e
s
.
Wi
ms
at
t
’
sdi
agr
am t
husr
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
sane
mpi
r
i
c
al
hy
p
ot
he
s
i
saboutho
wl
e
ve
l
s
,aspe
aksofr
e
gul
ar
i
t
y and pr
e
di
c
t
abi
l
i
t
y
,ar
ei
nf
ac
t di
s
t
r
i
but
e
d
ac
r
os
sdi
f
f
e
r
e
nts
i
z
es
c
al
e
si
no
urwor
l
d.I
fhi
s
e
mpi
r
i
c
alhypot
he
s
i
si
sc
or
r
e
c
t
,i
tc
al
l
soutf
or
e
xpl
anat
i
ont
hatourwor
l
di
smor
el
i
ket
hef
i
r
s
t
andt
hi
r
dgr
aphst
hani
ti
sl
i
ket
hes
e
c
ond.
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
9|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
Why doe
sWi
ms
at
tr
e
pr
e
s
e
nts
i
z
east
he
de
t
e
r
mi
ni
ngf
ac
t
ori
nr
e
gul
ar
i
t
yandpr
e
di
c
t
abi
l
i
t
y?Thea
ns
we
rt
ur
nso
n ot
he
rf
e
at
ur
e
si
n hi
s
pr
ot
o
t
ypeac
c
ount
.Fore
xampl
e
,t
hi
ngso
fdi
f
f
e
r
e
nts
i
z
e
se
f
f
e
c
tand ar
ea
f
f
e
c
t
e
d bydi
f
f
e
r
e
nt
f
or
c
e
s
,andobj
e
c
t
sofdi
f
f
e
r
e
nts
i
z
e
sac
tandi
nt
e
r
ac
twi
t
ho
neano
t
he
rmor
et
hant
he
yi
nt
e
r
ac
t
wi
t
h obj
e
c
t
satot
he
rl
e
ve
l
s
.Mar
k
e
tf
or
c
e
sr
un
e
c
onomi
e
s
,c
os
mi
cobj
e
c
t
smo
veunde
rgr
a
vi
t
at
i
onalf
or
c
e
s
,and hydr
oge
n bonds hol
d mol
e
c
ul
e
st
oge
t
he
r
.Re
gul
ar
i
t
y and pr
e
di
c
t
abi
l
i
t
y
pe
akatdi
f
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15502/
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10|26
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e
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i
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at
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ons be
l
ow,butt
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sr
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mai
ns an ope
n que
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t
i
on (
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e
e Sanf
or
d
1993)
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eornos
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ac
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ms
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ode
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om t
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gur
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pl
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oge
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umpt
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z
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at
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aus
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t
s
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anbenol
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yc
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.
Butt
hes
i
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edi
f
f
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r
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nc
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sbe
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nl
e
ve
l
sofpar
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andwhol
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sar
eanac
c
i
de
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alc
ons
e
que
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eoft
he
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t
whol
er
e
l
at
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ons
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pi
t
s
e
l
f
,notpar
tofde
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i
ni
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ti
sf
ort
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ntpar
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ubs
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ar
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c
l
as
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orourpr
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e
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pos
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r
ai
nt
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her
e
l
e
v
antnot
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ono
fl
e
ve
l
st
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,asIa
ndot
he
r
sha
vear
gue
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i
sc
e
nt
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alt
ot
hee
xpl
anat
or
ys
t
r
uc
t
ur
eo
fne
ur
os
c
i
e
nc
e and t
he s
pe
c
i
al s
c
i
e
nc
e
s ge
ne
r
al
l
y:
l
e
v
e
l
sofme
c
hani
s
ms(
Be
c
ht
e
l1988;Be
c
ht
e
l&
Ri
c
har
ds
on1993;Cr
a
ve
r2001;Mac
hame
re
tal
.
2000)
.
6.
1 Typesandt
okensofpar
t
sandwhol
es
TheGi
bs
onSG hast
wohumbuc
ke
rpi
c
kups
.My
Gi
bs
onSG hast
wohumbuc
ke
rpi
c
kups
.No
tal
l
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
12|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
Gi
bs
onSG’
sha
vet
wohumbuc
ke
rpi
c
kups
.But
t
ha
t
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st
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ac
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ale
xe
mpl
ar
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o
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ar
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at
i
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v
al
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d asmor
eorl
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s“
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al
.
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ke
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s
e
,whe
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kaboutt
hehumanbr
ai
nort
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r
ogki
dne
y
,we ar
et
al
ki
ng about t
ype
s
:t
he human
t
ypeofbr
ai
n,t
hef
r
ogt
ypeo
fki
dne
y
.Andwe
t
al
kal
s
oaboutt
hepar
t
st
he
s
et
ype
soft
hi
ngs
t
ypi
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al
l
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ve
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i
t
hi
c
,l
a
ye
r
c
ake i
mage i
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he
Oppe
nhe
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mPut
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e
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same
r
e
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ype
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:s
oc
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i
e
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or
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l
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ul
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ms
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t
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or
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e
s
e
nt
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e
l
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ons
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psbe
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e
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t
ype
s
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ys
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al
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fc
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ys
t
al
l
i
nes
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i
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c
h ar
emadeofi
nor
gani
cmol
e
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ul
e
s
,whi
c
h
ar
emadeo
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t
oms
.I
ti
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ue
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e
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tal
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e
l
l
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ul
e
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ndt
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lor
gans
ar
emadeo
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e
l
l
s
.Buti
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uet
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e
l
l
s
ar
ea
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ghe
rl
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ve
lt
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e
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ul
e
sge
ne
r
al
l
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ts
e
e
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ur
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e
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ugh t
o
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e
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ype
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al
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t
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arwhol
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s
.Whe
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Thehuman br
ai
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mi
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phe
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or
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al
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um,
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e
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ngt
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ns
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uc
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e
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arhuman
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ai
nt
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e
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.Thati
s
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e
l
at
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on among par
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e
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i
ve
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om a mor
e pr
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oke
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e
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ons
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p
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s
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l
e
ve
l
c
l
ai
ms about par
t
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er
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l
at
i
ons as
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e
r
tt
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t
s
uc
h par
t
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er
e
l
at
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e
gul
ar
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ypi
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al
l
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hol
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nt
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dual
si
nt
her
e
l
e
v
antr
e
f
e
r
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c
l
as
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uli
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ont
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t
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ype
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ype
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ofpar
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nt
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ve
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.Bot
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n br
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n and t
he
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r
ogki
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y ar
eor
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ns
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e
l
l
s
,butt
he c
e
l
l
si
ne
ac
h ar
e di
f
f
e
r
e
nt
,and
t
he
s
ec
e
l
l
sar
eor
ga
ni
z
e
ddi
f
f
e
r
e
nt
l
yi
nt
ohi
ghe
r
l
e
ve
lc
ompone
nt
s
.I
fwel
ookwi
t
hi
nt
hehuman
br
ai
n,wef
i
nd t
ha
tdi
f
f
e
r
e
ntbr
ai
nr
e
gi
onsar
e
c
ompos
e
d of al
t
oge
t
he
r di
f
f
e
r
e
nt c
ompone
nt
s
and e
xhi
bi
tmor
eorl
e
s
spr
opr
i
e
t
ar
y or
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z
at
i
on.Br
oadma
nmappe
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ai
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t
udyi
ng
t
he
s
e di
f
f
e
r
e
nc
e
si
nc
yt
oar
c
hi
t
e
c
t
ur
ef
r
om one
br
ai
nr
e
gi
ont
ot
hene
xt
.Ther
e
c
e
pt
i
vef
i
e
l
dor
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z
at
i
onoft
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s
ualc
or
t
e
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,t
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e
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oni
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z
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he
a
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l
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ar
ybodi
e
s
.Di
f
f
e
r
e
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ype
sofbr
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e
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ons
/s
ys
t
e
msar
emadeup
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f
f
e
r
e
ntt
ype
sofc
ompone
nt
s
:t
he
yha
vedi
f
12
f
e
r
e
ntpar
t
whol
el
e
ve
l
s
.
Whe
nwes
a
yt
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tobj
e
c
t
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s
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e
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t
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oc
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e
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no
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he
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ype
,wear
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e
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ngt
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e
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e
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ar
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oke
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t
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ompos
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oke
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ype
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mpt
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i
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nt
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r
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r
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at
i
ons
hi
ps among t
oke
ni
ndi
vi
dual
s(
Var
z
i
1
3
2014)
.
6.
2 Mer
eol
ogy
Al
t
ho
ughOppe
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nam de
s
c
r
i
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akes
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ype
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als
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ur
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oke
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ogypr
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ountoft
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ti
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e
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hes
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al
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ve
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ar
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c
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ys
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ompos
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i
mes
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i
c
e
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fwef
oc
usona
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ve
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ns
t
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nt
i
me
,t
he
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e
ar
ni
ngc
anoc
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ur
;l
e
ar
ni
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saki
nd
ofc
hange
.Forno
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i
mpl
ynot
e(
al
ongwi
t
h Be
c
ht
e
l& Mundal
e
1999)t
hatt
heappr
opr
i
at
emappi
ngbe
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we
e
ns
uc
hpar
t
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ort
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ount
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mi
ne
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ri
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ont
r
i
but
e
st
ot
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e
,ho
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v
e
rs
pe
c
i
f
i
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si
sr
e
l
at
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dt
oMar
c
us
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hatany t
oke
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nt
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t
y be
t
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e
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e
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e
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uppos
e
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or
t
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i
xe
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hei
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vi
duat
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onc
ondi
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i
onsoft
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e
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at
ai
nt
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a
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y
.
Car
lGi
l
l
e
t
t(
2013)hasc
al
l
e
dat
t
e
nt
i
ont
ot
hene
e
df
ordi
f
f
e
r
e
ntac
c
ount
sofc
ompos
i
t
i
onalr
e
l
at
i
onsf
orpr
ope
r
t
i
e
s
,pr
oc
e
s
s
e
s
,and obj
e
c
t
s
.He
r
e
,Iam gl
os
s
i
ngo
v
e
rt
he
s
edi
f
f
e
r
e
nc
e
st
ok
e
e
pt
hedi
s
c
us
s
i
ons
i
mpl
e
.
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
13|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
pr
e
s
st
hes
e
ns
ei
nwhi
c
ht
hewor
dappl
ehast
he
l
e
t
t
e
r“
a
”asapar
t
,i
nwhi
c
hc
our
agehasj
udgme
ntasapar
t
,a
ndi
nwhi
c
ha
ppl
epi
ehasc
i
nnamon asa par
t
.Common axi
omsas
s
oc
i
at
e
d
wi
t
hc
l
as
s
i
c
alme
r
e
ol
ogy
,i
nc
l
udi
ng t
he me
r
e
ol
ogy adopt
e
d by Oppe
nhe
i
m and Put
nam
(
Re
s
c
he
r& Oppe
nhe
i
m 1955)
,i
nc
l
ude
:
1)Ref
l
exi
vi
t
y:Eve
r
yobj
e
c
ti
sapar
to
f
i
t
s
e
l
f
.
2)Tr
ans
i
t
i
vi
t
y:Eve
r
ypar
tofapar
to
f
anobj
e
c
ti
spar
to
ft
heobj
e
c
t
.
3)Ext
ens
i
onal
i
t
y:An “
obj
e
c
t
”i
sc
ompl
e
t
e
l
yde
t
e
r
mi
ne
dbyt
hes
e
tofi
t
spar
t
s
;
i
.
e
.
,f
or“
obj
e
c
t
s
”t
obei
de
nt
i
c
al
,i
ts
uf
f
i
c
e
s
t
hat t
he
y ha
ve al
land o
nl
yt
he s
ame
par
t
s
.
4) Summat
i
on:Any pai
rofobj
e
c
t
s(
x,
y)
,i
si
t
s
e
l
fan obj
e
c
t
,z
,whi
c
hi
st
he
i
r
s
um.
Il
i
s
tt
he
s
ec
ons
t
r
ai
nt
sonl
yt
oi
l
l
us
t
r
at
et
hat
c
l
as
s
i
c
alme
r
e
ol
ogywi
l
lt
akeusonl
ys
of
ari
n
t
hee
f
f
or
tt
oc
har
ac
t
e
r
i
z
epar
t
whol
el
e
ve
l
s
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t
i
sa f
or
malt
he
or
y
,abs
t
r
ac
t
e
de
nt
i
r
e
l
yf
r
om
t
he c
onc
e
r
ns of pr
ac
t
i
c
i
ng s
c
i
e
nt
i
s
t
s
. Thi
s
me
anst
hatt
he
r
e ar
ec
ons
t
r
ai
nt
si
nt
he s
c
i
e
nt
i
f
i
cc
onc
e
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i
on ofpar
t
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e
st
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l
as
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i
c
alme
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e
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ogyne
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r
s
t
,t
he
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e
ve
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st
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c
hl
and and Wi
ms
at
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s
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r
i
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es
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e
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t
r
uc
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ur
e
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i
me
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ng i
n
wa
ys t
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l
as
s
i
c
alme
r
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ol
ogy ne
e
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.
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e
tofi
nt
e
ge
r
si
spar
toft
hes
e
tofr
e
al
numbe
r
s
,and “
Cons
i
de
rt
heLobs
t
e
r
”i
spar
t
ofWal
l
ac
e
’
sc
or
pus
,butnoti
nt
hes
amewa
y
t
hat t
he gl
ut
amat
er
e
c
e
pt
or i
s par
t oft
he
c
he
mi
c
al s
ynaps
e
. The gl
ut
amat
er
e
c
e
pt
or
t
ake
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pac
e oc
c
upi
e
d by t
he
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ynaps
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e
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t
sope
ni
ngi
spar
toft
he
e
xt
e
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oc
e
s
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c
hne
ur
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e
.Noneoft
hi
si
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e
s
s
e
d ori
nt
e
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dt
o
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e
s
s
e
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nt
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er
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l
at
i
on
14
ofc
l
as
s
i
c
alme
r
e
ol
ogy
.
1
4Ma
r
r
’
sl
e
ve
l
sa
r
eno
ts
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e
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nv
ol
vi
ngi
nt
hi
swa
y
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l
g
or
i
t
hm i
snotl
oca
t
e
dwi
t
hi
nt
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omput
at
i
on,i
ti
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ubs
t
ag
eo
ft
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o
mput
at
i
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ndi
t
i
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tor
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ni
z
e
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o
ge
t
he
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t
hot
he
rpa
r
t
si
nt
hes
e
r
vi
c
eo
ft
hec
omput
at
i
o
n.
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c
ond,al
t
ho
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e
f
l
e
xi
vi
t
yi
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ve
di
n
c
e
r
t
ai
nt
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e
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i
c
ala
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i
c
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onsofme
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e
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t
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i
c
at
i
on i
nt
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ve
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s
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tdoe
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us
t
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c
et
ot
he
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ol
ogi
c
alc
onc
e
ptt
o as
s
e
r
tt
ha
te
ve
r
y hi
ppoc
ampusi
sapar
tofi
t
s
e
l
f
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fl
e
ve
l
sar
ede
f
i
ne
da
s
ar
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
pbe
t
we
e
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e
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nd
e
ve
r
yt
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t
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e
l
f
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he
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ve
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yt
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ngi
s
a
tbot
hhi
ghe
ra
ndl
o
we
rl
e
ve
l
st
hani
t
s
e
l
f
.The
15
par
t
ss
ur
e
l
ymus
tbepr
ope
rpar
t
s
.
Thi
r
d,i
thasbe
e
nnot
e
dt
ha
tt
het
r
ans
i
t
i
vi
t
y axi
om of
t
e
nf
ai
l
st
o appl
yt
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t
i
onal
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t
soft
hes
or
tt
hatpopul
at
ephys
i
ol
ogi
c
aland
bi
ol
ogi
c
alt
he
or
i
e
s(
Var
z
i2014)
.Er
i
ci
spar
tof
t
hec
hampi
ons
hi
p poolt
e
am,and Er
i
c
’
sl
oc
ks
ar
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i
c
,buthi
sl
oc
ksar
eno
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to
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t
het
e
am.Ho
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ve
r
,i
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ner
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e
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nt
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t
y
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ope
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t
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,orac
t
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vi
t
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ti
tmus
tber
e
l
e
v
antt
ot
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ope
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t
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vi
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hewhol
e
,
t
he
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e
t
ai
nt
het
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a
ns
i
t
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t
yoft
hi
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e
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at
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e
as
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e
xt
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c
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hemot
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yno
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e
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ant whi
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et
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l
e
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i
di
ng hi
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m
s
t
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adi
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er
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e
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ant
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oo ar
e
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n
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ome s
e
ns
e
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e
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ul
e
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mi
t
t
e
d ac
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os
s
t
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ur
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mus
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ul
ar j
unc
t
i
on dur
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ng hi
s bac
ks
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ok
e
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ount
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i
l
t
e
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e
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ne
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e
l
e
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anc
er
e
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at
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y ar
e notme
r
es
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t
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ki
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t
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t
st
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ei
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ve
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o
nt
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e
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e
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t
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t
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he
nt
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r
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
pi
s
,i
nf
ac
t
,t
r
ans
i
t
i
ve
.Theappe
ar
anc
eofaf
ai
l
ur
eoft
r
a
ns
i
t
i
vi
t
yi
nf
unc
t
i
onals
ys
t
e
mst
r
a
de
s
,i
ts
e
e
ms
,o
nf
ai
l
i
ngt
or
e
l
at
i
vi
z
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de
c
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i
oni
nt
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t
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s
t
l
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ve
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t
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e
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ve
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yt
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o a hi
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t
i
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t
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ar
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at
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ki
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nt
he me
c
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s
m.I
fwe t
hi
nk not
ab
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e
am,Er
i
c
,andhi
sl
o
c
k
s
,b
utr
at
he
r
15Thi
si
snota bi
g de
par
t
ur
ef
r
om c
l
as
s
i
c
alme
r
e
ol
ogy;one c
oul
d
s
i
mpl
yr
e
s
t
r
i
c
tone
’
sat
t
e
nt
i
ont
opr
ope
rpar
t
s
.Butt
hepoi
ntunde
r
s
c
or
e
st
hef
ac
tt
hatc
l
a
s
s
i
c
alme
r
e
ol
ogywasnotde
v
e
l
ope
dwi
t
h an
e
y
et
o
war
d unde
r
s
t
andi
ng t
he s
e
ns
ei
n whi
c
h pyr
ami
dalc
e
l
l
sar
e
par
t
soft
hehi
ppoc
ampus
.
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
14|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
ab
outt
he v
i
c
t
or
y
,t
he s
hot
,and t
he mus
c
ul
ar
16
c
ont
r
ac
t
i
on,ma
t
t
e
r
ss
e
e
m di
f
f
e
r
e
nt
.
Thec
ont
r
ac
t
i
onc
ont
r
i
but
e
st
ot
hes
ho
t
,whi
c
hc
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r
i
but
e
st
ot
hevi
c
t
or
y
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oc
kswi
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ari
n
1
7
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hi
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e
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hy
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.
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tno
t
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s
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t obj
e
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e al
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r
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t
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.A hi
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Dal
aiLamaf
or
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e
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oc
l
as
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i
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e
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hes
ameobj
e
c
t
.Buti
nbi
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als
ys
t
e
ms
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gani
z
at
i
on o
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t
e
n
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hapsal
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e
l
e
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ntt
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ope
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i
e
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i
e
soft
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e
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aras
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t
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l
at
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o a de
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ame
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15502/
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av
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2015)
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s
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nT.Me
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r&J
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Eds
)
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nMI
ND:8(
T)
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ank
f
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tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
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up.do
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:10.
15502/
9783958570498
16|26
www.
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tt
ha
tbi
nds
t
he
s
er
e
c
e
pt
or
s pr
e
f
e
r
e
nt
i
al
l
y)
,c
ont
r
i
but
et
o
LTP.Thi
ss
t
or
yc
oul
dc
ont
i
nuedo
wnwar
d,l
ooki
ng i
nt
o as
pe
c
t
so
fpr
o
t
e
i
nc
he
mi
s
t
r
y and t
he
s
t
r
uc
t
ur
alc
ha
nge
st
houg
htt
ounde
r
l
i
ec
hanne
l
f
unc
t
i
oni
ng.
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
17|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
6.
3.
1Lev
el
sofmec
hani
s
msar
el
oc
al
i
s
ms
.Rat
he
r
,l
e
ve
l
so
fme
c
hani
s
msar
ede
f
i
ne
d
r
e
l
at
i
vet
o oneanot
he
rwi
t
hi
n a hi
e
r
ar
c
hi
c
al
l
y
or
gani
z
e
dme
c
hani
s
m.
Thei
de
at
ha
tl
e
ve
l
sofme
c
hani
s
msr
e
t
ai
n
s
omehi
ntoft
hel
a
ye
r
c
akemode
lc
ans
ne
aki
t
s
wa
ybac
ki
nt
oone
’
sappl
i
c
at
i
onoft
heme
t
aphor
i
fones
l
i
de
sunkno
wi
ngl
y be
t
we
e
nt
oke
nsand
t
ype
so
fpar
t
sandwhol
e
s
.Compar
et
hef
ol
l
o
wi
ngt
hr
e
es
e
nt
e
nc
e
s
:
Le
ve
l
sofme
c
hani
s
msar
eofe
nt
i
r
e
l
yl
oc
als
i
gni
f
i
c
anc
e
.Thel
e
ve
l
si
n oure
xampl
ear
ede
f
i
ne
d
by r
e
f
e
r
e
nc
et
oat
oppi
ngo
f
f poi
nt
,s
pat
i
al
me
mor
y
,c
o
nt
r
i
but
i
on t
o whi
c
h de
t
e
r
mi
ne
s
whe
t
he
rornotas
pat
i
ot
e
mpor
alpar
toft
hes
ys
t
e
mi
si
nf
ac
tr
e
l
e
v
ant
—whe
t
he
ri
ti
sac
ompone
nti
nt
heme
c
hani
s
mf
orS’
sψi
ng
.Thehi
e
r
ar
c
hy i
n Fi
gur
e 5 and t
he l
e
ve
l
s ofs
pat
i
al
me
mor
yasIha
vede
s
c
r
i
be
dt
he
mf
ol
l
o
w onl
ya a
)Thi
s pyr
ami
dalc
e
l
li
s at a l
o
we
rl
e
ve
lo
f
s
i
ngl
e(
l
oc
al
)s
t
r
a
ndofe
mbe
ddi
ng:f
r
om t
hebe
me
c
hani
s
mst
hant
hi
shi
ppoc
ampus
.
ha
vi
oroft
heme
c
hani
s
m asawhol
e
,t
ot
hebe
- b)Pyr
ami
dalc
e
l
l
sar
eatal
o
we
rl
e
ve
lofme
c
hha
vi
or
so
fi
t
sc
ompone
nt
s
,o
nt
ot
hebe
ha
vi
or
s
ani
s
mst
hanhi
ppoc
ampi
.
ofoneoft
he
s
ec
ompone
nt
s
,ands
oon.
c
)Ce
l
l
sar
eatal
o
we
rl
e
ve
lofme
c
hani
s
mst
han
or
gans
.
Fi
gur
e 5: Why bot
t
omup c
aus
at
i
on i
sc
onc
e
pt
ual
l
y
pr
obl
e
mat
i
c
.
Le
ve
l
s of me
c
ha
ni
s
ms
,l
i
ke par
t
whol
e
l
e
ve
l
sge
ne
r
al
l
y
,ar
eno
tmonol
i
t
hi
cdi
vi
s
i
onsi
n
t
hef
ur
ni
t
ur
eoft
hewor
l
d.Le
ve
l
sofme
c
ha
ni
s
ms
ar
ede
f
i
ne
donl
ywi
t
hi
nagi
ve
npar
t
whol
ehi
e
r
ar
c
hy
.The
r
ear
edi
f
f
e
r
e
ntl
e
ve
l
so
fme
c
ha
ni
s
ms
i
nt
hes
pat
i
alme
mor
ys
ys
t
e
m,i
nt
hec
i
r
c
ul
at
or
y
s
ys
t
e
m,i
nt
heos
mor
e
gul
at
or
ys
ys
t
e
m,and i
n
t
hevi
s
uals
ys
t
e
m;t
hel
e
ve
l
si
ne
ac
h ne
e
d not
map ont
ooneanot
he
r
.Ho
w manyl
e
ve
l
st
he
r
e
ar
e
,andwhi
c
hl
e
ve
l
sar
ei
nc
l
ude
d,mus
tbede
t
e
r
mi
ne
donac
as
e
byc
as
ebas
i
sbydi
s
c
o
ve
r
i
ng
whi
c
hs
or
t
sofc
ompone
nt
sar
ee
xpl
anat
or
i
l
yr
e
l
e
v
antf
oragi
ve
nphe
nome
non.Le
ve
l
sofme
c
hani
s
msc
annotber
e
ad o
f
fame
nu ofl
e
ve
l
si
n
adv
anc
e
.
I
fweappl
yt
hel
e
ve
lme
t
aphoronl
yl
oc
al
l
y
,t
he
ni
tmake
snos
e
ns
et
oas
kwhe
t
he
rt
he
hi
ppoc
ampusi
satahi
ghe
rorl
o
we
rl
e
ve
lt
han
t
hene
phr
ai
nt
heki
dne
y
.Thene
phr
aar
enot
par
to
ft
hehi
ppoc
ampus
,a
ndt
he
yar
enotr
e
l
e
v
antt
ot
hef
unc
t
i
oni
ng oft
hehi
ppoc
ampus
.
Ne
i
t
he
rs
i
mi
l
ar
i
t
i
e
so
fs
i
z
e nor s
i
mi
l
ar
i
t
i
e
si
n
ki
ndsofpar
t
sar
ede
f
i
ni
t
i
veofl
e
ve
l
sofme
c
ha
n-
St
at
e
me
nt(
a)e
xpr
e
s
s
e
same
c
hani
s
t
i
cnot
i
on
ofl
e
ve
l
s
:apar
t
i
c
ul
arpyr
ami
dalc
e
l
li
sac
ompone
ntofa par
t
i
c
ul
arhi
ppoc
ampalme
c
hani
s
m.Thi
ss
t
at
e
me
nti
st
r
ue i
ft
he c
e
l
li
sa
c
ompone
nti
n ame
c
hani
s
mf
oragi
ve
n ac
t
i
vi
t
yi
n whi
c
ht
hehi
ppoc
ampusi
se
ngage
d.I
t
mi
ghtbe
,f
ore
xampl
e
,t
hatagi
ve
npyr
ami
dal
c
e
l
li
sa c
ompone
nt i
ns
ome hi
ppoc
ampal
me
c
hani
s
msbutnotot
he
r
s
;i
fs
o,i
ti
sata
l
o
we
rl
e
ve
lt
os
omehi
ppoc
ampalac
t
i
vi
t
i
e
sand
notot
he
r
s
.
Wi
ms
at
tde
s
c
r
i
be
st
hec
ompos
i
t
i
onalr
el
at
i
ons
hi
p be
t
we
e
nl
e
ve
l
s as a r
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
p
be
t
we
e
nt
ype
s
. He wr
i
t
e
s
:“
I
nt
ui
t
i
ve
l
y
, one
t
hi
ngi
satahi
ghe
rl
e
ve
lt
hans
ome
t
hi
nge
l
s
e
i
ft
hi
ngs oft
he f
i
r
s
tt
ype ar
ec
ompos
e
d of
Wi
ms
at
t1976,p.
t
hi
ngsoft
hes
e
c
ondt
ype
”(
215)
.Thi
si
s a de
par
t
ur
ef
r
om t
he i
de
a of
l
e
ve
l
sofme
c
hani
s
msand onet
hatt
hr
e
at
e
ns
t
or
e
i
ns
t
at
es
ome
t
hi
ng l
i
ke t
he Oppe
nhe
i
m
and Put
nam hi
e
r
ar
c
hy
.Pyr
ami
dalc
e
l
l
s ar
e
f
ound out
s
i
de t
he hi
ppoc
ampus
, and t
hos
e
pyr
ami
dalc
e
l
l
sar
enotpar
t
si
n hi
ppoc
ampal
me
c
hani
s
ms
;t
he
y ar
enotatal
o
we
rl
e
ve
lof
me
c
hans
i
t
i
c or
gani
z
at
i
on.Li
ke
wi
s
e
,bot
ht
he
hi
ppoc
ampusandt
heki
dne
yar
ec
ompos
e
dof
c
e
l
l
s
;or
ganst
e
ndt
obec
ompos
e
dofc
e
l
l
s
.But
t
he c
e
l
l
si
nt
he hi
ppoc
ampus ar
e not at a
l
o
we
rme
c
hani
s
t
i
cl
e
ve
lt
han ki
dne
ysbe
c
aus
e
t
he
y do not c
ont
r
i
but
et
o ki
dne
yf
unc
t
i
on.
Thes
l
i
def
r
om s
e
nt
e
nc
e
ss
uc
h as(
a)t
os
e
nt
e
nc
e
ss
uc
h as(
b)and (
c
)i
sas
l
i
debac
kt
o-
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
18|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
war
dt
hel
a
ye
r
c
akemode
l
.Ofc
our
s
e
,s
c
i
e
nt
i
s
t
st
ypi
c
al
l
yde
alwi
t
ht
ype
s
.ButasIs
ugge
s
t
abo
ve
,t
hi
si
sage
ne
r
al
i
z
at
i
ono
ve
rar
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
p be
t
we
e
nt
oke
ns
.The c
or
r
e
c
tge
ne
r
al
i
z
at
i
oni
st
hatt
hec
e
l
l
st
hatc
ompos
ehi
ppoc
ampus
e
sar
eatal
o
we
rl
e
ve
lt
hant
he
yhi
ppoc
ampus
e
st
he
yc
ompos
e
.
Thi
si
ss
i
gni
f
i
c
antf
ort
wor
e
as
ons
.Fi
r
s
t
,
i
t he
l
ps t
os
ho
w t
hat many obj
e
c
t
i
ons t
o
t
hi
nki
ngaboutne
ur
os
c
i
e
nc
eandot
he
rs
pe
c
i
al
s
c
i
e
nc
e
si
nt
e
r
msofl
e
ve
l
ss
i
mpl
ydonotappl
y
t
ot
hi
sr
e
s
t
r
i
c
t
e
dappl
i
c
at
i
onoft
heme
t
aphor
.
I
fonet
hi
nks
,wi
t
h Wi
ms
at
t
,me
,and pr
obabl
y Oppe
nhe
i
m and Put
nam,t
hatt
he Oppe
nhe
i
m and Put
nam l
a
ye
rc
akei
san o
ve
r
l
y
s
i
mpl
i
s
t
i
cr
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
at
i
onoft
hedi
ve
r
s
eont
ol
ogi
c
als
t
r
uc
t
ur
e
sone f
i
ndsi
nt
he s
pe
c
i
als
c
i
e
nc
e
s
—t
hat t
hi
ngs l
i
ke oc
c
ul
ar domi
nanc
e
c
ol
umnsand s
ynaps
e
sdon’
tr
e
adi
l
yf
i
tt
hat
pi
c
t
ur
e
—one c
an none
t
he
l
e
s
sr
e
t
ai
nt
he i
de
a
t
hatme
c
hani
s
msar
es
us
c
e
pt
i
bl
et
o mul
t
i
pl
e
ne
s
t
e
dde
c
ompos
i
t
i
ons
.The
s
ear
edi
f
f
e
r
e
ntappl
i
c
at
i
onsoft
hel
e
ve
lme
t
aphor
.Se
c
ondl
y
,and
pe
r
hapsmor
ei
mpor
t
ant
l
y
,t
hei
de
at
hatl
e
ve
l
s
ar
el
oc
als
i
gni
f
i
c
ant
l
ys
hi
f
t
st
he r
e
duc
t
i
oni
s
t
wor
l
dvi
e
wf
orwhi
c
hOppe
nhe
i
m andPut
nam
de
ve
l
ope
dt
he
i
ront
ol
ogyofl
e
ve
s
.I
fonet
hi
nks
ofl
e
ve
l
sasl
e
ve
l
sofor
gani
z
at
i
on(
asl
e
ve
l
sof
me
c
hani
s
m andl
e
ve
l
sofaggr
e
gat
i
on)
,t
he
ni
t
i
si
nac
c
ur
at
et
ot
hi
nkofr
e
duc
t
i
onasi
nvol
vi
ng
r
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
psamongt
he
or
i
e
sde
ve
l
ope
dt
odes
c
r
i
be t
he i
t
e
ms at a par
t
i
c
ul
ar monol
i
t
hi
c
l
e
ve
l
.I
fr
e
duc
t
i
on i
ss
i
mpl
y a mat
t
e
rofe
xpl
ai
ni
ng a hi
ghe
r
l
e
ve
lphe
nome
non i
nt
e
r
ms
oft
heor
gani
z
e
dac
t
i
vi
t
i
e
sofc
ompone
nt
s
,t
he
n
r
e
duc
t
i
oni
ss
t
i
l
lpos
s
i
bl
ewi
t
hi
name
c
hani
s
t
i
c
wor
l
dpi
c
t
ur
e
, but i
t wi
l
l be ac
hi
e
ve
d not
t
hr
ough gr
and r
e
duc
t
i
onsofo
ve
r
ar
c
hi
ng t
heor
i
e
s
,butr
at
he
rt
hr
ough pi
e
c
e
me
ale
xpl
anat
or
yac
hi
e
ve
me
nt
sf
ors
pe
c
i
f
i
cphe
nome
na.Vi
s
i
onsoft
heuni
t
yofs
c
i
e
nc
et
hr
oughi
nt
e
r
l
e
ve
l
r
e
duc
t
i
on ha
vet
ober
e
vi
s
i
one
d notasgr
and
uni
f
i
c
at
i
ons ac
r
os
st
he whol
e ofs
c
i
e
nc
e but
r
at
he
r as l
oc
ale
xpl
anat
or
ys
uc
c
e
s
s
e
s
.Suc
h
l
oc
ale
xpl
anat
i
onswi
l
l
,i
nf
ac
t
,i
nt
e
gr
at
ef
i
ndi
ngsf
r
om di
f
f
e
r
e
nts
c
i
e
nc
e
sandbr
i
ngdi
f
f
e
r
e
nt
t
he
or
e
t
i
c
alvoc
abul
ar
i
e
si
nt
oc
onve
r
s
at
i
onwi
t
h
a
ve
r 2005; Cr
a
ve
r&
one anot
he
r(
s
e
e Cr
Dar
de
n 2001)
, but i
t onl
y de
c
e
pt
i
ve
l
yr
e
-
s
e
mbl
e
st
he l
a
ye
rc
ake t
hatOppe
nhe
i
m and
22
Put
nam s
ke
t
c
he
dasawor
ki
nghypot
he
s
i
s
.
6.
3.
2Pl
ac
ementi
sweakandder
i
v
at
i
v
ei
n
l
ev
el
sofmec
hani
s
ms
Onec
ons
e
que
nc
eoft
heme
c
ha
ni
s
t
i
ca
ppl
i
c
at
i
on
oft
hel
e
ve
l
sme
t
aphori
st
ha
tt
he
r
ei
snouni
que
ans
we
rt
ot
heque
s
t
i
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hani
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and S’
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ame
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i
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ound a
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ur
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pt
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24Anot
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et
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sofme
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hani
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ec
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nt
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hani
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ac
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Cr
av
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r
,C.F.(
2015)
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v
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l
s
.
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nT.Me
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z
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nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
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ur
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ND Gr
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:10.
15502/
9783958570498
19|26
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ore
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y al
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kt
oge
t
he
rwoul
dr
e
qui
r
eave
r
yc
ompl
i
c
at
e
dc
omput
at
i
onalmode
lofs
omes
or
tt
ha
thasye
tt
obe
de
ve
l
ope
d.Asme
c
hani
s
msge
tt
hi
sc
ompl
i
c
at
e
d,
wer
e
ac
ht
hel
i
mi
t
sofo
urabi
l
i
t
yt
opr
e
di
c
tho
w
t
hebe
ha
vi
oroft
hewhol
ewi
l
lc
ha
ngeast
he
par
t
sc
hange
.Anyc
hangei
nt
r
oduc
e
dt
oapar
t
hass
omanyr
ami
f
i
c
at
i
onst
hati
ti
sdi
f
f
i
c
ul
tor
i
mpos
s
i
bl
ef
orc
r
e
at
ur
e
sl
i
keust
oke
e
pt
r
a
c
kof
t
he
m al
l
.Thi
si
san i
nt
e
r
e
s
t
i
ng f
ac
taboutus
and t
hel
i
mi
t
sofo
urc
ogni
t
i
ve and mode
l
i
ng
pr
o
we
s
s
.But
,ont
ol
ogi
c
al
l
y
,i
ti
st
hes
ameol
d
ba
nalf
ac
taboutt
hei
mpor
t
anc
eofor
ga
ni
z
at
i
on
i
n me
c
hani
s
ms
.We ha
ve adde
d onl
yt
hatwe
ha
vedi
f
f
i
c
ul
t
yke
e
pi
ngt
r
ac
ko
fi
tal
l
.
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
20|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
Li
ke
wi
s
e
,a c
ommon s
c
i
e
nt
i
f
i
cc
ompl
ai
nt
agai
ns
tr
e
duc
t
i
oni
s
t
i
cr
e
s
e
ar
c
h pr
ogr
ams i
n
bi
ol
ogyandne
ur
os
c
i
e
nc
ei
st
hatonec
anmake
onl
yl
i
mi
t
e
dpr
ogr
e
s
sbys
t
udyi
ngt
hepar
t
sof
25
me
c
hani
s
ms i
ni
s
ol
at
i
on f
r
om one anot
he
r
.
Wec
ans
t
udyLTP i
nc
e
l
l
sgr
o
wni
nac
ul
t
ur
e
,
and wec
an s
t
udy hi
ppoc
ampalc
omput
at
i
ons
i
nar
az
or
t
hi
nhi
ppoc
ampals
l
i
c
e
,andwec
an
s
t
udy s
pat
i
all
e
ar
ni
ngi
n hi
ghl
yc
ont
r
i
ve
de
nvi
r
onme
nt
als
e
t
t
i
ngss
uc
hasal
ar
gepoolf
i
l
l
e
d
wi
t
h mi
l
ky wat
e
r(
t
he Mor
r
i
s wat
e
r maz
e
)
.
Suc
hr
e
duc
t
i
oni
s
tpr
ac
t
i
c
e
sar
eabs
ol
ut
e
l
ye
s
s
e
nt
i
alt
o pr
ogr
e
s
si
nt
he s
c
i
e
nc
e
s
.None
t
hel
e
s
s
,onee
ngage
di
ns
uc
hpr
ac
t
i
c
e
smus
t(
and
t
ypi
c
al
l
ydoe
s
)be
ari
nmi
ndt
hatt
hebe
ha
vi
or
oft
he par
t whe
ni
ti
si
s
ol
at
e
df
or e
xpe
r
i
me
nt
alpur
pos
e
smi
ghtbeve
r
ydi
f
f
e
r
e
ntf
r
om
t
he be
ha
vi
or t
he par
te
xhi
bi
t
s whe
ni
ti
s
wor
ki
ng i
n t
he c
ont
e
xt of a me
c
hani
s
m.
Caus
ali
nt
e
r
ac
t
i
ons wi
t
h ot
he
r par
t
s oft
he
me
c
hani
s
m andbac
kgr
oundc
ondi
t
i
ons“
i
nt
he
wi
l
d” mi
ght l
e
ad t
o be
ha
vi
or
st
hat woul
d
ne
ve
rbedi
s
c
o
ve
r
e
di
ns
uc
hs
i
mpl
i
f
i
e
dpr
e
par
at
i
ons
.Thi
si
san e
xt
r
e
me
l
yi
mpor
t
antpoi
nt
aboutr
e
duc
t
i
oni
s
tr
e
s
e
ar
c
hpr
ogr
ams(
Be
c
ht
e
l
& Ri
c
har
ds
on1993)
,andonemi
ghtc
hoos
et
o
de
s
c
r
i
be t
hi
s we
l
l
kno
wn di
f
f
i
c
ul
t
y wi
t
ht
he
l
anguageofe
me
r
ge
nc
e
.Butt
hi
si
sj
us
tt
os
a
y
t
hatonec
annott
r
ul
yunde
r
s
t
andho
w ame
c
hani
s
m wor
ksunt
i
loneunde
r
s
t
andsho
w al
li
t
s
par
t
sar
e or
gani
z
e
dt
oge
t
he
rand wor
ki
ng i
n
t
he r
e
l
e
v
ant c
ondi
t
i
ons
, and t
hi
s we ha
ve
al
r
e
adys
ai
dr
e
pe
at
e
dl
y
.
Ie
mphas
i
z
et
hebanal
i
t
yoft
he
s
eobs
e
r
v
at
i
ons t
os
t
r
e
s
st
ha
t ma
ny oft
he t
hi
ngs o
ne
wa
nt
st
os
a
y aboutor
gani
z
at
i
on i
n bi
ol
ogi
c
al
s
ys
t
e
msc
anbes
ai
dwi
t
hi
nt
heme
c
hani
s
t
i
ca
ppl
i
c
at
i
onoft
hel
e
ve
lme
t
aphorwi
t
ho
uti
nt
r
oduc
i
ng anyt
hi
ng t
hati
sme
t
aphys
i
c
al
l
y no
ve
lor
s
us
pe
c
t
.Ast
hec
ompl
e
xi
t
yofame
c
ha
ni
s
mi
nc
r
e
as
e
s
,t
hee
pi
s
t
e
mi
cc
hal
l
e
nge
swef
ac
ei
ndi
s
c
o
ve
r
i
ngand mode
l
i
ngi
ti
nc
r
e
as
easwe
l
l
,but
t
hi
si
sofnos
i
gni
f
i
c
anc
ef
ort
heo
nt
i
cs
t
r
uc
t
ur
e
s
—t
hee
nt
i
t
i
e
s
,ac
t
i
vi
t
i
e
s
,andor
ga
ni
z
at
i
onalf
e
at
ur
e
st
ha
te
xi
s
ti
nt
hewor
l
d.
25Thi
si
dea ofr
educt
i
on i
snott
hes
t
andar
d not
i
on oft
heor
y
r
educt
i
on buts
omet
hi
ng c
l
os
ert
o whatEr
i
k Kandelme
ans
by t
he t
er
m:c
hoos
i
ng t
os
t
udy compl
ex phenomena i
n ext
r
e
mel
ys
i
mpl
es
ys
t
ems
.Wemi
ghtc
al
lt
hi
se
xper
i
ment
alr
educt
i
oni
s
m.
Not s
of
or s
p
o
ok
ye
me
r
g
e
nc
e
. Spooky
e
me
r
ge
nc
ei
ss
pookypr
e
c
i
s
e
l
ybe
c
aus
ei
ti
sc
ommi
t
e
dt
ot
hee
xi
s
t
e
nc
eofhi
ghe
r
l
e
ve
lpr
ope
r
t
i
e
s
t
hatha
venoe
xpl
anat
i
oni
nt
e
r
mso
ft
hepar
t
s
,
ac
t
i
vi
t
i
e
s
,a
ndor
gani
z
at
i
onalf
e
at
ur
e
soft
hes
ys
t
e
mi
nt
her
e
l
e
v
antc
ondi
t
i
ons
.Le
ve
l
sofme
c
hani
s
msar
el
e
ve
l
sofo
nt
i
cme
c
hani
s
t
i
ce
xpl
anaCr
a
ve
r2014)
:t
he
yar
ede
f
i
ne
di
nt
e
r
msof
t
i
on(
c
ompone
nc
yandc
ons
t
i
t
ut
i
vee
xpl
ana
t
or
yr
e
l
e
v
anc
e
.I
ft
hate
xpl
anat
or
yr
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
pi
ss
e
ve
r
e
d,
t
he
nt
hes
e
ns
ei
nwhi
c
he
me
r
ge
ntpr
ope
r
t
i
e
sar
e
a
ta“
hi
ghe
rl
e
ve
l
”mus
tbeal
t
oge
t
he
rdi
f
f
e
r
e
nt
t
hant
hec
ompos
i
t
i
onalnot
i
onofl
e
ve
l
si
nl
e
ve
l
s
ofme
c
hani
s
ms
.I
fonei
magi
ne
st
ha
tat
omsc
ompos
emol
e
c
ul
e
s
,whi
c
h ar
eor
gani
z
e
di
nt
oc
e
l
l
s
,
whi
c
har
el
i
nke
di
nt
one
t
wor
ksf
r
om whi
c
hme
nt
alpr
ope
r
t
i
e
ss
pooki
l
ye
me
r
ge
,t
hef
i
r
s
tt
hr
e
e
s
t
e
psar
eupwar
ds
t
e
psi
nahi
e
r
ar
c
hyo
fl
e
ve
l
sof
me
c
ha
ni
s
ms
,butt
hel
as
ti
sno
t
.Theabi
l
i
t
yof
or
gani
z
at
i
ont
oe
l
i
c
i
tno
ve
lc
aus
alpo
we
r
s(
t
hat
i
s
,nonaggr
e
gat
i
vebe
ha
vi
or
sand pr
ope
r
t
i
e
s
)i
s
unmys
t
e
r
i
ousbot
hi
ns
c
i
e
nt
i
f
i
cc
ommon s
e
ns
e
and c
ommon s
e
ns
e pr
ope
r(
Van Gul
i
c
k 1993;
Ki
m 1998)
.Appe
alt
os
t
r
ongors
pooky e
me
r
ge
nc
e
,on t
he o
t
he
r hand,j
us
t
i
f
i
abl
y ar
o
us
e
s
s
us
pi
c
i
on.I
nde
e
d,i
ti
sunc
l
e
arwhy pr
ope
r
t
i
e
s
t
hat e
me
r
ge i
nas
pooky f
as
hi
on s
houl
d be
t
houg
htofashi
ghe
r
l
e
ve
latal
l
.Pe
r
hapst
he
ve
r
yi
de
ao
fs
pookye
me
r
ge
nc
ei
si
nc
ohe
r
e
nt
.
6.
3.
4Mec
hani
s
t
i
cl
ev
el
sar
enotc
aus
al
l
y
r
el
at
edt
ooneanot
her
Aswi
t
hl
e
ve
l
sofr
e
al
i
z
at
i
on,ma
nyc
ommonas
s
umpt
i
onsaboutt
henat
ur
eofc
aus
at
i
onwoul
d
appe
art
omakec
aus
alr
e
l
at
i
onsbe
t
we
e
nme
c
hani
s
t
i
cpar
t
sandt
hepr
ope
r
t
i
e
sorbe
ha
vi
or
sof
whol
e
ss
us
pe
c
t
.I
t
e
msatdi
f
f
e
r
e
ntl
e
ve
l
so
faggr
e
gat
i
onandatdi
f
f
e
r
e
ntl
e
ve
l
so
fme
c
hani
s
ms
ar
ei
nt
i
mat
ewi
t
ho
neanot
he
ri
nmuc
ht
hes
ame
wa
yt
ha
ti
t
e
msa
tdi
f
f
e
r
e
ntl
e
ve
l
sofr
e
al
i
z
at
i
on
ar
ei
nt
i
mat
e
.Le
wi
si
se
xpl
i
c
i
t
.I
fC c
aus
e
sE:
C and E mus
tbedi
s
t
i
nc
te
ve
nt
s[
i
ft
he
y
ar
et
o be c
aus
al
l
yr
e
l
at
e
d]
—and di
s
t
i
nc
t
noto
nl
yi
nt
hes
e
ns
eo
fnoni
de
nt
i
t
y but
al
s
oi
nt
hes
e
ns
eofnono
ve
r
l
ap a
nd noni
mpl
i
c
at
i
on.I
two
n’
tdo t
os
a
yt
ha
tmy
s
pe
aki
ngt
hi
ss
e
nt
e
nc
ec
aus
e
smys
pe
aki
ng
Cr
av
e
r
,C.F.(
2015)
.Le
v
e
l
s
.
I
nT.Me
t
z
i
nge
r&J
.M.Wi
ndt(
Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
f
ur
tam Mai
n:MI
ND Gr
o
up.do
i
:10.
15502/
9783958570498
21|26
www.
o
pe
nmi
nd.
ne
t
t
hi
ss
e
nt
e
nc
e
;or t
hat my s
pe
aki
ng t
he
whol
eofi
tc
aus
e
smy s
pe
aki
ng t
hef
i
r
s
t
hal
fo
fi
t
;ort
hatmys
pe
aki
ngc
aus
e
smy
s
pe
aki
ng i
tl
oudl
y
,orvi
c
e ve
r
s
a.(
Le
wi
s
2000,p.78)
Ther
e
l
e
v
antki
ndo
fi
nt
i
mac
yf
orl
e
ve
l
sofme
c
hani
s
msi
so
ve
r
l
apbe
t
we
e
nt
oke
ne
ve
nt
sorpr
oc
e
s
s
e
s
.Ther
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
p be
t
we
e
n LTP and t
he
ope
ni
ngofNMDA r
e
c
e
pt
or
sdur
i
ngLTP i
nduc
t
i
on i
s di
r
e
c
t
l
y anal
ogous t
ot
he r
e
l
at
i
ons
hi
p
be
t
we
e
ns
pe
aki
ngt
hewhol
eofas
e
nt
e
nc
eand
s
pe
aki
ngi
t
sf
i
r
s
thal
f
.Thei
nduc
t
i
onofLTP i
s
par
t
l
yc
ons
t
i
t
ut
e
dbyt
heope
ni
ngoft
heNMDA
r
e
c
e
pt
or
.Thewoul
dbec
aus
ei
nt
hi
st
opdo
wn
c
aus
alc
l
ai
m al
r
e
ady c
ont
ai
nst
hewoul
dbee
f
f
e
c
twi
t
hi
ni
t
.The
r
ei
snot
hi
ngaddi
t
i
onalt
obe
pr
oduc
e
di
nt
hee
f
f
e
c
t
;t
heoc
c
ur
r
e
nc
eoft
hee
f
f
e
c
ti
nc
l
ude
st
heoc
c
ur
r
e
nc
eo
ft
hec
aus
e
.
Wha
ta
bo
utt
hebo
t
t
o
mupc
a
s
e
?Wemi
g
ht
s
a
yt
ha
tt
hes
pa
r
kpl
ug
sc
a
us
et
hee
ng
i
net
or
un,
a
l
lt
hewhi
l
ea
c
kno
wl
e
dg
i
ngt
ha
tt
hes
pa
r
ki
ngo
f
s
pa
r
kpl
ug
si
spa
r
to
ft
heo
pe
r
a
t
i
o
no
ft
hee
ng
i
ne
.
Thena
t
ur
a
l
ne
s
so
ft
hi
sl
oc
ut
i
o
ni
sa
tl
e
a
s
tpa
r
t
l
y
duet
oa
na
mbi
g
ui
t
yi
nt
hewa
ywec
o
mmo
nl
yde
s
c
r
i
bet
hebe
ha
vi
o
ro
fame
c
ha
ni
s
ma
sawho
l
e
.
So
me
t
i
me
swede
s
c
r
i
bei
ta
sa
na
c
t
i
vi
t
yo
rpr
oc
e
s
s
t
ha
ts
t
a
r
t
swi
t
ht
heme
c
ha
ni
s
m’
ss
e
t
upc
o
ndi
t
i
o
ns
a
nd e
nds wi
t
h i
t
s t
e
r
mi
na
t
i
o
n c
o
ndi
t
i
o
ns
(
Ma
c
ha
me
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27Thi
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2015)
.Le
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r&J
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Eds
)
.Ope
nMI
ND:8(
T)
.Fr
ank
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ur
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ND Gr
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:10.
15502/
9783958570498
22|26
www.
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6.
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