The Buddha's Last Meditation in the Dīrgha-āgama

The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama Anålayo∗ Introduction The present article studies the last moments of the Buddha’s life in the way these are reported in the D¥rgha-ågama parallel to the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta of the D¥gha-nikåya. I begin by translating the relevant section from the D¥rgha-ågama version preserved in Chinese, 1 followed by a comparative study with a particular emphasis on the description of the Buddha’s attainment of the immaterial spheres, and of their significance in general. Translation The Buddha said to the monks: “If you have doubts about the Buddha, the Dharma, the Community, or doubts about the path, you should swiftly ask [for clarification]. This is proper and the time for it, do not regret it later. As long as I am still present, I shall explain it to you.” Then the monks were silent and without a word. The Buddha said again: “If you have doubts about the Buddha, the Dharma, the Community, or doubts about the path, you should swiftly ask [for clarification]. This is proper and the time for it, do not regret it later. As long as I am still present, I shall explain it to you.” Then the monks were still silent. ∗ 1 Numata Centre for Buddhist Studies, University of Hamburg, Germany; Dharma Drum Buddhist College, Taiwan. The translated part of DÓ 2 is found at T I 26b1 to 26c14, which has already been translated into German by Weller (1940: 181–184). 2 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 The Buddha said further: “If you feel personally ashamed and do not dare to ask, you should rely on a good friend to come and swiftly ask [for clarification]. This is proper and the time for it, do not regret it later.” Then the monks were still silent. Ónanda said to the Buddha: “I am confident that all in this community possess serene faith, not a single monk has doubts about the Buddha, the Dharma, the Community, or doubts about the path.” The Buddha said to Ónanda: “I, too, know myself that the least [developed] monks amidst this community now have all seen the tracks of the path, will not proceed to an evil destiny and will certainly eradicate the origin of du˙kha, returning at most seven times [to be born].” At that time the Blessed One declared that the one thousand two hundred [and fifty] disciples had attained [at the very least] the fruit of the path [of stream-entry].2 Then the Blessed One opened his upper robe, stretched out his golden coloured arm and said to the monks: “You should contemplate that a Tathågata emerges in the world [only] occasionally, just as an udumbara flower manifests [only] at a single time.” 3 At that time the Blessed One, contemplating its meaning again, spoke in verse: “The purplish golden coloured right arm The Buddha displayed, like an udumbara [flower].4 Past and future formations are impermanent, Present ones [also] cease, do not be negligent. “Therefore, monks, do not be negligent. Through not being 2 3 4 DÓ 2 at T I 26b13 mentions only one thousand two hundred disciples, 千二 百弟子. Such a count of disciples is unusual in the D¥rgha-ågama, which regularly presents the Buddha in the company of one thousand two hundred and fifty disciples; for instances within the same discourse (although related to different episodes) cf. DÓ 2 at T I 11a9, 13c4, and 14b11. The use of such numbers is of course symbolic. Other discourses in the Påli Nikåyas and in other Ógamas regularly employ the number five hundred instead; for a more detailed discussion cf. Anålayo (2011a: 417–419). In the present case, I take it that a textual error has occurred; hence in the translation I supplement the missing fifty. For a study of the Indian myth regarding the flowering of the udumbara tree cf. Norman (1991/1993). The formulation gives the impression of being a reciter’s remark, not something said by the Buddha. The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 3 negligent, I reached right awakening myself. An immeasurable multitude of goodness as well can be attained by not being negligent. All the ten thousand existing things are impermanent. These are the Tathågata’s last words.” Then the Blessed One entered the first absorption.5 He rose from the first absorption and entered the second absorption. He rose from the second absorption and entered the third absorption. He rose from the third absorption and entered the fourth absorption. He rose from the fourth absorption and entered concentration on the sphere of [infinite] space. He rose from concentration on the sphere of [infinite] space and entered concentration on the sphere of [infinite] consciousness. He rose from concentration on the sphere of [infinite] consciousness and entered concentration on nothingness. He rose from concentration on nothingness and entered concentration on neither-perceptionnor-non-perception. He rose from concentration on neitherperception-nor-non-perception and entered concentration on the cessation of perception. Then Ónanda asked Anuruddha: “Has the Blessed One attained Nirvåˆa?” Anuruddha said: “Not yet, Ónanda. The Blessed One is now in the concentration on the cessation of perception. Formerly I heard from the Buddha that he will attain Nirvåˆa on rising from the fourth absorption.” Then the Blessed One rose from concentration on the cessation of perception and entered concentration on neitherperception-nor-non-perception. He rose from concentration on neither-perception-nor-non-perception and entered concentration on nothingness. He rose from concentration on nothingness and entered concentration on the sphere of [infinite] consciousness. He rose from concentration on the sphere of [infinite] consciousness and entered concentration on the sphere of [infinite] space. He rose from concentration on the sphere of [infinite] space and entered the fourth absorption. He rose from the fourth absorption and entered the third absorption. He rose from the third absorption and entered the second absorption. He rose from the second absorption and entered the first absorption. 5 Adopting a variant without rest of the passage. 定, in keeping with the formulation used in the 4 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 He rose from the first absorption and entered the second absorption. He rose from the second absorption and entered the third absorption. He rose from the third absorption and entered the fourth absorption. Rising from the fourth absorption, the Buddha attained Nirvåˆa. At that time there was a great earthquake and all the devas and the humans in the world were greatly frightened. All the remote and dark places not illuminated by the sun and the moon were completely covered by a great brightness, so that each could see the other, and they said to each other: “Other beings are reborn here, other beings are reborn here!” That light was everywhere, surpassing the light of the heavens. Then the devas of the Thirty-three who were in mid-air strew mandårava flowers, utpala, padma, kumuda, and puˆ∂ar¥ka flowers on the Tathågata and the assembled community; and they strew heavenly sandalwood powder on the Buddha and the great community. Comparative Study The D¥rgha-ågama account of the Buddha’s passing away has discourse counterparts in the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta of the D¥gha-nikåya, in Sanskrit fragments of the Mahåparinirvåˆas¨tra, and in three discourses preserved as individual translations in Chinese. The extract translated above begins with the Buddha inviting the monks to have their doubts clarified. The parallel versions report a similar invitation, although with some minor differences in their descriptions as to what such doubts might concern. In agreement with the D¥rgha-ågama version, the Påli Mahåparinibbåna-sutta indicates that such doubts could be in regard to the three jewels (the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sa∫gha) or in regard to the path.6 The Mahåparinirvåˆa-s¨tra preserved in Sanskrit fragments also refers to the three jewels, besides which it mentions du˙kha, its arising, its cessation, and the path [to its cessation].7 6 7 DN 16 at DN II 154,25 mentions doubts about the magga and the pa†ipadå, alongside the three jewels; the same is also the case for a parallel to this section of DN 16 in AN 4.76 at AN II 79,13. Waldschmidt (1951: 390) (§42.2): yasya syåt kå∫kΣå vå vimatir vå buddhe The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 5 That is, the monks might have doubts about the four noble truths. The same is also the case for one of the individually translated Chinese versions.8 Another of the individually translated Chinese versions, however, records a single inquiry about doubts in regard to the discourses. 9 The third of the individually translated versions just mentions doubts, without further specifications. 10 Clearly the parallel versions show a considerable degree of variation regarding this last exchange between the Buddha and his disciples. In reply to this inquiry by the Buddha, Ónanda made it clear on behalf of the assembled monks that they had no doubts, something of which the Buddha had of course already been aware. In one of the individual translations, the monks themselves explicitly confirm that they indeed had no doubts.11 The Sanskrit fragments of the Mahåparinirvåˆa-s¨tra explain why the Buddha had invited the monks to ask questions to clarify their doubts, even though he already knew this was not required as they had no doubts: The Buddha had to act like this out of compassion for later generations.12 In other words, the point of the description is to convey to future disciples that at the time of the Buddha’s death there had been no doubts at all regarding the teachings, etc., among the disciples present on this occasion, 13 vå dharme vå sa∫ghe vå du˙khe vå samudaye vå nirodhe vå mårge vå. 8 9 10 有疑望非意在佛及法, 聖眾, 苦, 習, 盡, 道. T 5 at T I 172c7: 於經有疑結者; on the translator attribution for the cases of T 5 and T 6 cf. Park (2010). T 7 at T I 204c8: 若有疑難; this version agrees with the MahåparinibbånaT 6 at T I 188b4: sutta and the D¥rgha-ågama version that the Buddha made his inquiry three times; cf. T 7 at T I 204c12. 吾等無疑. 11 T 5 at T I 172c11: 12 Waldschmidt (1951: 392) (§42.8), api tu karaˆ¥yam etat tathågatena yathåpi tat paßcimåµ janatåm anukaµpamåna˙. 13 The circumstance that no bhikΣuˆ¥s are mentioned among those present on this occasion, as noted by von Hinüber (2008: 208), is only to be expected, since according to a rule found in the different Vinayas bhikΣus and bhikΣuˆ¥s were not allowed to travel together; cf. the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T 1429 at T XXII 1018c21, the Lokottaravåda Mahåså∫ghika Vinaya, Tatia (1975: 21,15), the Mah¥ßåsaka Vinaya, T 1422 at T XXII 197b14, the M¨lasarvåstivåda Vinaya, Banerjee (1977: 34,15), the Sarvåstivåda Vinaya, von Simson (2000: 210,5), and the Theravåda Vinaya, Vin IV 62,28. Given that this rule is attributed to the Buddha, it is no 6 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 thereby providing a contrast to disagreements about the teachings that arose in later times. According to early Buddhist doctrine, the complete removal of doubt takes place with stream-entry, 14 in fact in the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and the D¥rgha-ågama discourse the Buddha reveals that all of the monks present had at the very least attained stream-entry. 15 In one of the individually translated versions the Buddha instead indicates that those monks present on this occasion who had not yet attained [full] awakening will reach the eradication of the influxes after his Nirvåˆa.16 The nuance of assurance that emerges with this proclamation becomes more prominent with the other two individually translated discourses, as in them the Buddha predicts the advent of another Buddha in the future.17 The D¥rgha-ågama discourse translated above continues from the level of accomplishment of the assembled monks to the uniqueness of a Buddha appearing in the world. Similar to the D¥rgha-ågama presentation, several of the parallel versions also compare the appearance of a Buddha to the udumbara flower. 18 The D¥rgha-ågama account stands alone, however, in reporting that the Buddha revealed his right arm.19 According to the Sanskrit fragments of the Mahåparinirvåˆa-s¨tra, the Buddha rather displayed his (upper) body and invited the monks to look at it.20 An earlier version of this description might have been about the Buddha displaying how old age had affected his body, thereby 14 surprise that in a description of his passing away during one of his journeys the Buddha is accompanied only by monks. Cf., e.g., Sn 231, with a counterpart in the Mahåvastu, Senart (1882: 291,23). 15 DN 16 at DN II 155,28 and DÓ 2 at T I 26b11. 16 T 7 at T I 204c16. In T 5 at T I 172c3 he indicates that in 15 ko†¥s and 70.600.000 years there will be another Buddha. According to T 6 at T I 188b14, in one ko†i and 40.000 years Maitreya Buddha will appear. This is the case for the Sanskrit version, Waldschmidt (1951: 394) (§42.10), and for two of the individual translations, T 5 at T I 172c6 and T 6 at T I 188b15. 17 18 19 DÓ 2 at T I 26b14. 20 Waldschmidt (1951: 394) (§42.10): avalokayata bhikΣavas tathågatasya kåyam, vyavalokayata bhikΣavas tathågatasya kåyam. The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 7 providing a vivid reminder of impermanence to the assembled disciples.21 With the growth of docetic tendencies this would then have become an act of revealing the extraordinary nature of the Buddha’s body. Impermanence is then also the theme of the Buddha’s final statement, which the parallel versions report with some differences. According to the Sanskrit fragments of the Mahåparinirvåˆa-s¨tra, the Buddha told the monks to be silent and declared that “all formations are impermanent.” 22 The Mahåparinibbåna-sutta combines a similar indication with an injunction to be diligent: “Formations are impermanent, strive on with diligence.”23 One of the individual translations reports the Buddha’s final words as follows: “You should know that all formations are entirely impermanent. Even though I now have this vajra body, I too am not exempt from being changed by impermanence. Being amidst birth and death is highly fearful, you should diligently make an effort, try to be free quickly from this fiery pit of birth and death. This is my last teaching, the time for my Nirvåˆa has come.”24 In the other two individual translations the Buddha points out that half of the night has already passed. According to one 21 22 Waldschmidt (1948: 248) comments: “der Buddha nahm von seinen Jüngern Abschied, indem er seinen Körper vor ihnen entblö´te und ihnen die Vergänglichkeit alles Irdischen am Verfall seines eigenen Körpers vor Augen führte;” cf. also Waldschmidt (1939/1967: 87f). Waldschmidt (1951: 394) (§42.11): a∫ga bhikΣavas t¨Σˆ¥◊ bhavata, vyåyadharmå˙ sarvasaµskårå˙. 23 DN 16 at DN II 156,1: vayadhammå sa∫khårå, appamådena sampådethå ti. As Law (1933: 99) comments, this saying “strikes the key-note of the Buddha’s philosophy and mission.” 24 T 7 at T I 204c25: 汝等當知, 一切諸行皆悉無常, 我今雖是金剛之體, 亦復 不免無常所遷, 生死之中極為可畏, 汝等宜應勤行精進, 速求離此生死火坑, 此則是我最後教也, 我般涅槃其時已至; this part has already been translated into German by Waldschmidt (1939/1967: 82). Bareau (1971b: 14) comments on a similar reference to the impermanence of the Buddha’s vajra body in DÓ 2 at T I 27b12, where it forms part of stanzas spoken by an unnamed monk after the Buddha had passed away: “the author of this strophe probably had the idea that the body of the Beatific could not be constituted of the same flesh as men’s, but that it was made of a substance if not truly precious at least more capable of resisting the forces of destruction and, in consequence, extraordinary”; for a detailed study of the vajrakåya notion cf. Radich (2011/2012). 8 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 version he then tells the monks that they should make an effort, according to the other he indicates that there should be silence now.25 The main theme underlying these different records of the last words spoken by the Buddha would be that he used his own death as a final illustration of the characteristic of impermanence,26 and that he encouraged his disciples to devote themselves fully to their practice.27 In contrast to the considerable number of variations found among the parallel versions so far, these same versions are in close agreement when describing the Buddha’s meditative progression. Except for one individual translation, they all report that the Buddha proceeded through the nine successive meditative attainments up and down, and then went up from the first to the fourth absorption to attain Nirvåˆa. The individual translation that differs from this general consensus nevertheless has a reference to the Buddha mentally proceeding from the four heavenly kings up to the sphere of [neither-perception-nor]non-perception, and from there returning to come back to his own body.28 At first sight a variant appears to occur elsewhere in the Påli tradition, as the Pali Text Society edition of a Saµyutta-nikåya parallel to this episode does not mention his attainment of cessation. 29 Yet, the cessation attainment is found in all Asian 25 26 27 T 6 at T I 188b18: 汝其勉之, 夜已半矣, and T 5 at T I 172c12: 夜已且半, 勿復 有聲. Waldschmidt (1939/1967: 86) understands the passage in T 5 to be an indication that the Buddha will not say anything further, “kein Laut soll mehr (von mir) vernommen werden.” Pachow (1946: 25), however, takes the passage in T 5 to be an injunction to the monks to be silent, which he paraphrases as “the Buddha ordered the Bhikkhus to keep quiet.” As Gethin (1996: 210) points out, “one might go so far as to say that it is precisely his own death that constitutes the Buddha's profoundest teaching: whoever one is, whatever one does, one cannot avoid death, this is the nature of the world.” Gnanarama (1997: 16) comments that “even in the last few hours of His existence the Buddha was mindful to instill energy, exhorting the monks to exert themselves and strive for Liberation.” 從四天王上至不想入, 從不想轉還身中. 28 T 5 at T I 172c14: 29 Rhys Davids (1917/1979: 196 note 1), Geiger (1930/2003: 246 note 3), and Nakamura (2000: 292 note 111) noted that the cessation attainment mentioned in DN 16 is not found in a parallel to this episode in SN 6.15 at SN I 158,11, where the Buddha just goes up to neither-perception-nor-non- The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 9 editions, so that this difference is probably a textual error in the manuscripts used for the PTS edition.30 This Saµyutta-nikåya discourse shows several other differences when compared to the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta, however, which are also attested in the Asian editions. The Saµyutta-nikåya discourse does not report the exchange between Anuruddha and Ónanda regarding the Buddha’s attainment of cessation, 31 nor does it record that an earthquake marked the occasion.32 The Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels, however, agree that an earthquake marked the Buddha’s passing away.33 Other partial parallels to the present episode in the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels can be found in the two Saµyukta-ågamas. The completely preserved Saµyukta-ågama (T 99) contains two short discourses, one of which narrates the episode involving the conversion of Subhadda, concluding with a 30 31 32 33 perception and then descends again. Nakamura (2000: 292 note 111) then even drew the conclusion that “this fact suggests that this term was a later addition to the Mahåparinibbåna-suttanta.” Unlike the Ee edition, according to Be, Ce, and Se, as well as the new PTS edition by Somaratne (1998: 340), the Buddha proceeded up to the attainment of cessation; cf. also Bodhi (2000: 442 note 421). Another textual error on the side of the manuscripts used for the Ee edition appears to be that SN 6.15 at SN I 158,1 has the two parts of the Buddha's final injunction in the opposite order to DN 16, where again Be, Ce and Se, as well as the new PTS edition by Somaratne (1998: 340), agree on recording this in the same way as DN 16 at DN II 156,1. The episode where Ónanda inquires from Anuruddha if the Buddha has already passed away is mentioned only in the commentary on SN 6.15, Spk I 223,15. Another difference is that in SN 6.15 at SN I 158,35 the stanzas spoken by Ónanda in relation to the Buddha's passing away come before those of Anuruddha, whereas DN 16 at DN II 157,12 adopts the opposite sequence. Yet another difference occurs in relation to the stanzas spoken by Anuruddha, where according to DN 16 at DN II 157,13 he referred to the moment “when the sage passed away,” yaµ kålaµ akar¥ mun¥, whereas according to the corresponding part in SN 6.15 at SN I 159,4 he stated that “the one with vision [entered] final Nirvåˆa,” cakkhuma parinibbuto. SN 6.15 at SN I 158,24 continues directly from stating that the Buddha had attained final Nirvåˆa to the stanza spoken on this occasion by Brahmå Sahampati; the great earthquake is then reported in the commentary, Spk I 224,25, with explicit reference to the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta. For a study of earthquakes in Buddhist literature cf. Ciurtin (2009) and (2012). DN 16 at DN II 156,35, Waldschmidt (1951: 398) (§42.19), T 5 at T I 172c17, T 6 at T I 188c6, and T 7 at T I 205b1. 10 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 brief reference to the Buddha’s passing away.34 This episode is also reported in the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels. Since this Saµyukta-ågama discourse only takes up the Subhadda episode, it refers just briefly to the Buddha’s passing away to mark the fact that Subhadda had entered Nirvåˆa before the Buddha. The narrative context makes it natural that no further details are given regarding the Buddha. Another discourse in the same collection then takes as its main theme the various stanzas that were held to have been spoken by devas and men present on this occasion. Here, too, the actual passing away of the Buddha is not the main theme, but is only referred to in the introductory narration. 35 Hence here, too, it is natural that no further details are given.36 Another relevant discourse is found in the partially preserved Saµyukta-ågama (T 100). As already suggested by Bareau, this discourse is simply a combination of what in the completely preserved Saµyukta-ågama (T 99) are two discourses.37 This discourse in the partially preserved Saµyukta-ågama (T 100) also has only a brief reference to the Buddha’s passing away, presented together with the indication that Subhadda passed away before him.38 Similar to the two discourses in the completely preserved 34 The relevant part of SÓ 979 at T II 254b29 reads: “Then, after the venerable Subhadda had first [entered] Nirvåˆa, the Blessed One [entered] Nirvåˆa,” , . 時尊者須跋陀羅先般涅槃已 然後世尊般涅槃 35 SÓ 1197 at T II 325b10 indicates that: “At that time the Blessed One, in the middle of the night, [entered] Nirvåˆa in the Nirvåna [element] without remainder,” , . 爾時世尊即於中夜 於無餘涅槃而般涅槃 36 The Subhadda episode can also be found in EÓ 42.3, which has several episodes that in the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels occur in close vicinity to their description of the Buddha’s passing away. Nevertheless, EÓ 42.3 concludes at T II 752c23 with Subhadda’s final Nirvåˆa (T II 752c10) and the Buddha’s last instruction regarding how the monks should address each other in future (T II 752c16), without even mentioning the Buddha’s own passing away; for a translation cf. Bareau (1987: 28f). 37 Bareau (1979: 60) suggests that SÓ2 110 (his version C) would be the result of combining SÓ 979 and SÓ 1197 (his versions B and D), “la série C ... semble donc résulter d’une combinaison des séries B et D.” 38 According to SÓ2 110 at T II 413c22: “Subhadda then first entered Nirvåˆa, , after that the Tathågata also entered Nirvåˆa,” (adopting the variant instead of ). 於後亦入涅槃 槃 須跋陀羅即時先入涅槃 如來 盤 The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 11 Saµyukta-ågama (T 99), the Avadånaßataka also has two tales that briefly mention the Buddha’s passing away. As in the Saµyuktaågama, one of these tales reports the Subhadda episode, while the other records the stanzas spoken after the Buddha had passed away. Here, too, the actual passing away of the Buddha is merely mentioned in passing, without further details.39 Taking into account the narrative contexts of the Saµyuktaågama discourses and the tales found in the Avadånaßataka makes it clear that these need not be considered as alternative accounts of the Buddha’s passing away. Instead, they appear to be simply extracts that focus on a particular aspect of a wider tale. In fact the M¨lasarvåstivåda Vinaya has preserved a full version of the Mahåpariˆirvåna-s¨tra, 40 and this full version reports the Buddha’s passing away in detail. In agreement with the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels, the M¨lasarvåstivåda Vinaya reports that the Buddha proceeded through the nine meditative attainments in forward and backward order, followed by again ascending up to the fourth absorption in order to enter Nirvåˆa.41 So this tale was clearly known among M¨lasarvåstivåda reciters. A comparable case can be seen regarding what tradition reckons to be the Buddha’s first discourse. A Saµyukta-ågama discourse has preserved a version of this first discourse without any reference to the need to avoid the two extremes of sensual indulgence and self-mortification, 42 which are instead found in another discourse in the same collection.43 The Sa∫ghabhedavastu of the M¨lasarvåstivåda Vinaya, however, has the two extremes as 39 40 41 The first tale reports that “then the venerable Subhadra first [entered] final Nirvåˆa, after which the Blessed One [entered final Nirvåˆa],” Speyer (1906/1970: 234,6): tatråyuΣmån subhadra˙ prathamataraµ parinirv®ta˙, tata˙ paßcåd bhagavån. According to the second tale, “then in the middle watch of the night the Blessed One [entered] Nirvåˆa in the Nirvåna [element] without a remainder,” Speyer (1909/1970: 198,1): tatra bhagavån råtryå madhyame yåme ’nupadhißeΣe nirvåˆadhåtau parinirv®ta˙. The close correspondence between the accounts of the Buddha’s passing away in the Avadånaßataka and the M¨lasarvåstivåda Vinaya has been studied by Przyluski (1918: 488–496). T 1451 at T XXIV 399b13 and the Tibetan version in Waldschmidt (1951: 397,ult.). 42 SÓ 379 at T II 103c13, translated in Anålayo (2012a: 17–19). 43 SÓ 912 at T II 228c18, parallel to SN 42.12 at SN IV 330,26. 12 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 part of the first discourse. 44 Nevertheless, another section of the same Vinaya, the KΣudrakavastu, has a version of the first discourse without the two extremes. Moreover, the identical text, attributed to the same Yìjìng ( ) who translated the M¨lasarvåstivåda Vinaya, is found as an individual discourse in the TaishØ edition. 45 It seems obvious that what we have here are intentional extracts from a larger account known to the reciters of the M¨lasarvåstivåda tradition, not different versions of the first teaching given by the Buddha.46 The same also applies to the Saµyukta-ågama discourses that describe the final moments in the life of the Buddha. These appear to be similarly extracts from a larger account. 義淨 Supposed Lateness of the Meditative Progression While a comparative study of the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels thus gives the impression that the Buddha’s gradual progression through the four absorptions and the immaterial spheres up to cessation is fairly common ground among most of the otherwise quite different parallel versions, several modern scholars consider this episode to be the result of a later addition. In what follows, I critically survey the reasons given to support this view. In his comparative study of the accounts of the Buddha’s passing away, Bareau comes to the conclusion that the description of his meditative progression is a late element invented on purpose for the Mahåpariˆirvåna-s¨tra.47 Bareau bases his assessment on 44 45 46 47 T 1450 at T XXIV 127b24, translated in Anålayo (2012a: 21–24); cf. also Gnoli (1977: 134,10) and Waldschmidt (1957: 140) (§11.14). T 110 at T II 504a7 = T 1451 at T XXIV 292a29, translated in Anålayo (2012a: 39f). The identity between these two texts has already been noted by Chung (2006: 78). Pace Bareau (1963: 181), who holds that “à une lointaine époque, une partie au moins de docteurs du Bouddhisme ignoraient quel avait été le thème du premier sermon ou refusaient de considérer comme tel les quatre saintes Vérités.” For a more detailed critical reply cf. Anålayo (2012a) and (2013). Bareau (1979: 55): “le long récit de l'Extinction du Buddha, récit célèbre qui décrit les méditations et recueillements atteints successivement par le Bienheureux avant de parvenir à la paix suprême de la Délivrance définitive, a sans doute été inventé spécialement pour le MPNS [Mahåparinirvåˆa-s¨tra].” The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 13 the above-mentioned Saµyukta-ågama discourses, which he sees as different accounts of the Buddha’s passing away extant in Chinese translation. 48 He takes these to represent an ancient tradition which rejected the detailed account in the Mahåpariˆirvåna-s¨tra.49 Bareau’s discussion ignores the detailed study and translation of these two Saµyukta-ågama discourses by Przyluski, published more than half a century earlier in the Journal Asiatique as part of a set of four successive papers on the theme of the Buddha’s parinirvåˆa.50 In this study, Przyluski comes to rather different conclusions. After noting the close resemblance between the two Saµyukta-ågama discourses and the two Avadånaßataka tales, he suggests that these would have originally come into being as intentional discourse extracts, whose purpose was to introduce the accounts of the so-called councils (sa∫g¥ti), 51 thereby investing these accounts with authority. 52 In fact, one of the two 48 Bareau (1979: 55): “la preuve en est que deux autres s¨tra, qui ne nous sont parvenus que dans leur version chinoise et qui racontent chacun, en une courte série, des épisodes précédant et suivant celui du Parinirvåˆa, ne font que mentionner très brièvement celui-ci, sans donner aucun détail à son propos.” 49 Bareau (1979: 59) sees SÓ2 110 (his version C) and SÓ 1197 (his version D) as representing “auteurs [qui] étaient demeurés fidèles ... à la vieille tradition qui avouait implicitement ne savoir du Parinirvåˆa du Buddha que le simple fait qu’il avait eu lieu e qu’ils rejetaient comme apocryphe le récit très détaillé que nous en donnent les six versions du MPNS [Mahåparinirvåˆa-s¨tra]” (in the original the quoted part is in question form, the question being whether EÓ 42.3 can also be seen as reflecting the same ancient tradition). 50 Przyluski (1918), (1919a), (1919b), and (1920). Oldenberg (1879/1997: xxviii) assumed that differences between the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and the account of the first sa∫g¥ti at Vin II 284,2 implied that the reciters of the one text were ignorant of the other; cf. also Dutt (1957: 102), Franke (1908: 66–74), and An (2001: 52). Critical replies to this assumption can be found in Thomas (1927/2003: 165), Finot (1932: 243), Obermiller (1932), Thomas (1933/2004: 29), Frauwallner (1956: 45), Ch'en (1958), Upadhyaya (1971: 43–45), La Vallée Poussin (1976: 13 note 39), Jinananda (1993: 93), Witanachchi (2006: 723), and Anålayo (2011a: 863 note 43). Przyluski (1918: 505): “les récits des Conciles relatant des événements postérieurs à Çåkyamuni ne pouvaient prétendre d'eux-mêmes à la haute autorité qui s'attachait aux S¨tra ... on leur conféra en quelque sorte une 51 52 14 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 Avadånaßataka tales (no. 100) has the title saµg¥ti˙, clearly marking this as its chief topic. Przyluski’s suggestion thus offers a considerably more natural explanation than Bareau’s assumption. Bareau’s remark that the presentation in the Saµyuktaågama discourses is only extant in Chinese translation shows that he was also unaware of the parallel versions in the Avadånaßataka. He also did not take into account the M¨lasarvåstivåda Vinaya version. This reflects a basic methodological problem with Bareau’s study of the biography of the Buddha in general, in that he did not base his various hypotheses on a study of all relevant versions. In the case of the Saµyutta-nikåya discourse that also reports the Buddha’s meditative progression, Bareau summarily dismisses this version as a text that has been reworked to accord with the presentation in the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta.53 The evidence at our disposal stands in contrast to this conclusion. As mentioned above, there are several substantial differences between the Saµyutta-nikåya discourse and the relevant section of the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta.54 These differences are remarkable, given that these two discourse versions pertain to the same Theravåda Påli canon. Thus the Saµyutta-nikåya discourse cannot be regarded as merely a late reworking based on the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta. In sum, it seems preferable to follow the lead of Waldschmidt who, based on his detailed study and on taking into account the research by Przyluski, concludes that a comparative study of the relevant sources provides no support for the assumption that the progression of the Buddha through the nine meditative attainments on the eve of his passing away is a later expansion of an earlier shorter account.55 53 54 55 authenticité factice en la faisant précéder d'un S¨tra ou d'un fragment de S¨tra. Les textes racontant la fin du Maître furent naturellement désignés pour servir de lien et de transition entre les écrits reproduisant la parole du Buddha et le chroniques des premiers siècles de l'Église.” Bareau (1979: 55) refers to SN 6.15 as “un sutta påli qui, selon toute vraisemblance, a été remanié plus tard pour le rendre identique à la version pålie de notre ouvrage, ce qui rend donc nul son témoignage.” A survey of differences between the two versions can also be found in Przyluski (1918: 506–508). Waldschmidt (1948: 251): “der Vergleich der verschiedenen überlieferten Parinirvåˆatexte gibt keine Anhaltspunkte zur Stütze dieser Annahme,” The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 15 The Buddha’s Attainment of the Immaterial Spheres In what follows I survey other arguments raised in support of the assumption that the description of the Buddha’s attainment of the immaterial spheres on the verge of his death is a later addition. Due to the complexity of the topic, my discussion will also include an examination of the immaterial spheres in early Buddhism in general and of the Buddha’s pre-awakening meditation practice. In addition to arguments derived from the comparative study of the parallel versions of the Mahåparinirvåˆa-s¨tra, Bareau also supports his hypothesis by pointing out that no one could possibly have known what went on in the Buddha’s mind. As the Buddha passed away right at the end of his meditative progression through the absorptions and immaterial spheres, he would not have been able to tell others what took place in his mind right on the verge of his own death.56 Bareau is not the first one to make this point, as already T.W. Rhys Davids had expressed a similar view.57 To be sure, it is not really possible for us to reconstruct historical facts based on mere textual accounts that are the final products of a longer period of transmission. This is especially true in the case of the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels, which are clearly interspersed with hagiographic elements.58 Nevertheless, 56 57 58 written in relation to the suggestion that the reference to the immaterial spheres is a later addition to the description of the Buddha’s passing away (in the introduction to his study, Waldschmidt (1944: 3 note 11) explicitly mentions that he benefited from the work by Przyluski). As a methodological point in relation to studying the Mahåparinirvåˆa narrative in general, Snellgrove (1973: 409) comments “how unsatisfactory a proceeding it is to produce a plausible biography from these materials by simply accepting the parts which seem humanly possible and rejecting the miraculous elements as obvious accretions.” Bareau (1979: 62): “puisque, de toute évidence, le Bienheureux n’a pu expliquer à ses disciples par quelle méthode psychique, en ses derniers instants, il est parvenu au Parinirvåˆa, lui qui en était le seul témoin silencieux, il est donc certain que cette description est purement imaginaire.” Rhys Davids (1910: 174 note 1) comments that “no one, of course, can have known what actually did occur.” Williams (2000: 26f) explains that “the life-story of the Buddha is not a historical narrative but a hagiography ... in which how it was, how it should have been, and how it must have been ... are united under the overriding 16 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 it is possible to consider whether a particular narration is internally coherent and in line with general ideas and notions found in other early Buddhist texts. According to early Buddhist thought, meditative expertise enables knowing the state of mind of another. Such ability is regularly mentioned among a set of supernormal abilities held to be accessible once the mind has been cultivated up to the depth of concentration and inner stability of the fourth absorption. Such abilities are listed, for example, in the Såmaññaphala-sutta and its parallels.59 It would therefore be in keeping with such assumptions on the power of the mind when the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels attribute the information about the Buddha’s meditative experience to Anuruddha. 60 Anuruddha features in the early Buddhist tradition as an outstanding disciple in the exercise of a supernormal ability called the divine eye,61 thus evidently he was reckoned to have been an adept in meditative concentration. Hence the idea that no one could possibly have know what went on in the Buddha’s mind overlooks the role of Anuruddha in the Mahåparinirvåˆa narrative, where he explicitly informs Ónanda that the Buddha has entered cessation.62 59 60 61 62 concern of exemplary truth ... the life-story reflects the unification of is and ought in the vision and needs of the subsequent community ... the ‘is’ of historical fact was only one dimension, and a subordinate one, in the construction of the original hagiography. Thus the hagiography as a whole is to be read as an ideological document ... the Buddha’s hagiography should be read as an illustration of what is to Buddhists important.” DN 2 at DN I 79,26 and its parallels DÓ 27 at T I 109b8 (which abbreviates and thus needs to be supplemented from DÓ 20 at T I 86a23), T 22 at T I 275b26, and the Sa∫ghabhedavastu, Gnoli (1978: 248,16). In reply to the comment by Rhys Davids quoted above in note 57, Walshe (1987: 575 note 454) points out that “since Anuruddha is said to have had highly developed psychic powers, we cannot be so sure.” As Nyanaponika and Hecker (1997: 208) explain in relation to DN 16, according to the presentation in the discourse “Anuruddha, an arahant endowed with the divine eye, had been able to gauge the level of meditation into which the Buddha had entered.” AN 1.14 at AN I 23,20 and EÓ 4.2 at T II 557b9. The same explanation would also work for SN 6.15, even though this version does not record an explicit exchange between Anuruddha and Ónanda. Nevertheless, the fact that SN 6.15 at SN I 159,1 reports stanzas spoken by Anuruddha shows that he was on record as having been present The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 17 Another argument raised by Bareau is that he finds it difficult to understand why the Buddha would have gone up and down these various levels of meditative experience. According to Bareau, this difficulty makes it probable that the original description just mentioned the four absorptions and, having attained the fourth absorption, the Buddha entered Nirvåˆa.63 Here, too, Bareau is not the first one to make such a suggestion. In a detailed study of the absorptions in Buddhism, Heiler (1922: 44) drew a distinction between what he considered to be the ancient tradition of the Buddha’s meditation practice on the eve of his passing away and the four immaterial spheres and cessation as what according to him is a later addition. Similar suggestions have also been made by other scholars.64 In the case of Heiler, his presentation is part of an overall argument that the immaterial spheres are a late addition to early Buddhist meditation theory. Hence in what follows I first need to address the arguments made in support of this hypothesis by Heiler and other scholars. At the end of my discussion of the presumed lateness of the immaterial spheres, I will return to the significance of the description of the series of meditative attainments the Buddha passed through according to the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels. The Immaterial Spheres in Early Buddhism Heiler sees the immaterial spheres as being too different in character from the four absorptions to fit a meditative progression that covers both. According to him, while the four absorptions are a 63 64 on this occasion and would thus have been able to understand through his psychic powers what was going on in the Buddha’s mind. Bareau (1971a: 155f): “ces montées et descentes successives paraissent assez étranges, et l'on ne comprend pas bien, à première vue, pourquoi le Buddha n’est pas entré dans le Parinirvåˆa en sortant du recueillement de cessation, ni les deux premières fois où il a quitté la quatrième méditation ... on est ainsi conduit à admettre une version primitive réduite à cette seconde partie, dans laquelle le Bienheureux montait tout de suite jusqu’a la quatrième méditation, puis s’éteignait.” Thomas (1927/2003: 153 note 2), Falk (1939/2004: 339f), Foucher (1949: 313), King (1980/1992: 15), and Zafiropulo (1993: 67); cf. also Rhys Davids (1927: 713), who speaks of a “curious insertion of the Jhåna formulas into the account of the moment of his passing.” 18 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 contemplation of religious truths, the immaterial spheres are merely an intellectual abstraction.65 Another argument by Falk then even considers the four immaterial attainments to be lacking inner coherence, since the first two occur also among the kasiˆas, whereas the last two are mere negations. According to Falk, this then makes it probable that these four were put together based on two unrelated sets of two in order to arrive at the same count of four as the four absorptions.66 The distinctions drawn by Heiler and Falk seem to be based on a misunderstanding of the nature of the respective experiences. The main difference between the four absorptions and the four immaterial spheres is related to their respective objects. The four absorptions can be cultivated with a variety of objects, hence no specific object is mentioned when these are described. The immaterial spheres involve a transcending of whatever object has been used for attaining the four absorptions, consequently the descriptions refer to such transcendence. This of course does not mean that the experience itself is a mere intellectual abstraction. In the case of the four absorptions, the differences between them concern the depth of concentration reached. The early discourses describe this deepening of concentration in two complementary ways: The more commonly found descriptions are oriented on the type of happiness experienced. This proceeds from the rapture and happiness of seclusion in the first absorption, via the rapture and happiness of concentration in the second absorption and the 65 66 Heiler (1922: 29): “Den Ausgangspunkt der vier jhâna und appamaññâ bildet die ernste Betrachtung der religiösen Wahrheiten ... den Ausgangspunkt der arûpa hingegen bildet die gedanken- und gefühlose Konzentration der Aufmerksamkeit auf ein bedeutungsloses äu´eres Objekt oder die rein intellektuelle Abstraktionstätigkeit, deren Stoff au´erreligiöse neutrale Vorstellungen abgeben ... dort echtes und tiefes religiöses Erleben – hier eine äu´erliche Psychotechnik.” Falk (1939/2004: 340): “La serie dei quattro ar¨padhyåna é a sua volta composita. I primi due elementi ... ricompaiono in un’ altra classe di esercizi meditativi, nella classe dei kasiˆa ... gli ultimi due ... sono invece definiti per mera negazione ... non hanno però nessun chiaro rapporto con i primi due ... appare probabile che due gruppi di due elementi siano stati saldati insieme per riempire uno schema numericamente preformato, per ottenere quattro dhyåna dell’år¨pya-dhåtu correspondenti, in posizione superiore, ai quattro dhyåna del r¨padhåtu.” The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 19 happiness devoid of rapture in the third absorption, to a culmination point in the cultivation of concentration reached with the equanimity of the fourth absorption. Another presentation focuses on the role of mental application (vitarka) and its sustaining (vicåra), resulting in a threefold distinction: 1) both are required, 2) only sustaining is required 3) both are no longer required. Numbers 1 and 2 of this presentation correspond to the first absorption in the fourfold scheme, number 3 covers the rest of the four. With the fourth absorption attained, the standard descriptions in the discourses indicate that the mind has reached an acme of concentration considered as being “imperturbable”.67 With such imperturbability reached, according to early Buddhist meditation theory various options for further practice present themselves. A practitioner might decide to proceed towards the gaining of the threefold knowledge or the six higher knowledges. Both of these sets include the attainment of awakening, alongside various other supernormal abilities that are not in themselves considered necessary for reaching awakening. An alternative route to be taken based on the fourth absorption is to cultivate the immaterial spheres. These are at times individually or collectively reckoned to be forms of imperturbability, reflecting the fact that they are based on the same degree of concentrative imperturbability as the fourth absorption.68 67 68 Cf., e.g., DN 2 at DN I 76,15 and its parallels D 20 at T I 85c7, T 22 at T I 275a13, and Gnoli (1978: 245,15). Such imperturbability stands according to MN 66 at MN I 454,28 and its parallel MÓ 192 at T I 743b2 in contrast to the “perturbation” caused by the mental factors still present in the lower absorptions. All four immaterial spheres are presented as ways to reach the imperturbable in AN 4.190 at AN II 184,29. MN 105 at MN II 255,5, as well as MN 106 at MN II 263,13 and its parallels MÓ 75 at T I 542c10 and D 4094 ju 228a6 or Q 5595 tu 260b5, proceed from imperturbability to the third immaterial sphere, so that here imperturbability would stand for the lower two immaterial spheres. The third immaterial sphere is qualified as imperturbable in MN 102 at MN II 230,2 and its Tibetan parallel edited in Skilling (1994: 318,3). While there evidently is some variation in the application of the term “imperturbable”, it nevertheless seems clear that the four immaterial spheres are based on the level of imperturbable concentration reached with the fourth absorption. As Gunaratana (1985/1996: 108f) explains, progression “from one formless attainment to 20 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 Progress towards the immaterial spheres takes place by way of a change of the meditative object that has been the basis for cultivating the four absorptions. 69 This is first replaced by the meditative experience of the space that this object had occupied. This space is then attended to as being experienced by one’s own consciousness. This in turn is seen as insubstantial and thus in a way “nothing”. Eventually even this concept is given up, resulting in a condition where the mind can be said to be neither perceptive nor non-perceptive. There is thus indeed a difference between the four absorptions and the four immaterial spheres, but all of these eight experiences are ‘religious experiences’, if such terminology is to be used, and none of them involves mere intellectual abstraction. There is also indeed a difference between the first two and the last two of the four immaterial spheres, but there is also a difference between the first and the second, as well as between the third and the fourth immaterial sphere. All four, however, are part of a continuous meditative dynamic whose trajectory is based precisely on the progression that results from these differences, instead of being the outcome of a merely artificial construction with the aim to arrive at a total count of four. Heiler, based on the assumption that the four absorptions and the four immaterial spheres are incompatible with each other, comes to the conclusion that the immaterial spheres must be a later addition, resulting in an arbitrary and merely theoretical combination of two completely different forms of meditation practice.70 He finds confirmation for his assessment in the fact that 69 70 another is brought about by changing the object of concentration, not by eliminating or replacing component factors ... the fourth fine material jhåna and the four immaterial [spheres] ... contain the same basic constellation of mental concomitants ... and the same two jhåna factors, namely onepointedness and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling.” Govinda (1961/1991: 96) points out that “from the stand point of consciousness (cetasika), the arËpa-jhånas can be classified” under the fourth absorption, “with which they agree in the elimination of the first four factors (vitakka, vicåra, p¥ti, sukha).” King (1980/1992: 41) explains that “‘jhåna’ is a mode of meditative concentration not a content, whereas the immaterial states represent a content.” Heiler (1922: 29) comments in relation to “die ganze Konstruktion dieser jhâna und arûpa umfassenden Versenkungsleiter. Es handelt sich um die The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 21 the Såmaññaphala-sutta does not mention the immaterial spheres. Moreover, the Ariyapariyesanå-sutta reports the Buddha’s formal refusal of the immaterial spheres taught by his first teachers, which according to Heiler shows that the immaterial spheres were not accepted by the Buddha himself, but only taken over by later dogmatists.71 Regarding the Såmaññaphala-sutta, it needs to be kept in mind that the topic of this discourse is a description of the “fruits of recluseship” to a contemporary king. Therefore it is only natural that, out of the alternative routes to be taken after the fourth absorption,72 the description focuses on supernormal abilities and knowledges, instead of taking up the immaterial spheres. Within the narrative context, descriptions of such supernormal abilities are a better way of impressing on the king that the life of a recluse is indeed fruitful. Given the fact that the immaterial spheres are only one of the routes of mental cultivation possible after mastery of the fourth absorption also explains why in other passages at times the four absorptions are mentioned, but the immaterial spheres are absent. In fact, at times neither the immaterial spheres nor supernormal abilities and knowledges are mentioned. Depending on the context, a reference to the four absorptions can suffice to cover the concentrative development of the mind. This does not mean that those responsible for these passages were unaware of the possibility of attaining the immaterial spheres or of the willkürliche und künstliche, rein theoretische Kombinierung zweier völlig verschiedener Versenkungsmethoden.” Yet, as pointed out by King (1980/1992: 50), “the jhånic series leads naturally, even inevitably, into the formless or immaterial-base meditations.” 71 72 Heiler (1922: 45) comments that in this way “schweigt die dogmatische Darstellung des Heilspfades, das Sâmañña-phala-Sutta, von ihr [d.h. von der Stufenleiter der arûpa] vollständig. Ja, das Ariya-pariyesana-Sutta des Majjhima-Nikâya berichtet uns ebenso wie Lalita Vistara sogar von einer förmlichen Absage Buddhas an die Methode der abstrakten Versenkung ... aus dieser alten und glaubwürdigen Erzählung geht hervor ... da´ die Theorie und Praxis des arûpa jjhânam nicht von Buddha selbst, sondern erst von der späteren Ordensdogmatik übernommen und weiter ausgestaltet wurde.” Be it noted that the exposition of the various meditative attainments is not found at all in one of the versions of the discourse, EÓ 43.7 at T II 762a7 (the other parallels are listed above note 67). Meisig (1987: 35f) takes this to be an indication that the whole exposition is a later addition. 22 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 supernormal knowledges. In fact on such a reasoning one would have to conclude that, for example, the fact that the Sallekha-sutta and its Madhyama-ågama parallel list the four absorptions and the immaterial sphere without following this with a reference to awakening implies that the possibility to reach awakening was unknown among those responsible for this discourse.73 Instead of drawing such unconvincing conclusions, it seems more reasonable to take shorter references that do not exhaustively cover all aspects of the early Buddhist meditative path to be simply due to the context in which the respective exposition occurs.74 In the case of the Ariyapariyesanå-sutta, the point at stake is not a wholesale refusal of the immaterial spheres.75 Instead, the discourse only reports that the Buddha-to-be considered the third and fourth immaterial spheres he had learned from his teachers Ó¬åra Kålåma and Uddaka Råmaputta to fall short of being the final goal. Once the Buddha had reached awakening, according to the same discourse’s narration he thought that his former teachers would easily understand and wished to share his discovery with them. 76 This description clearly reflects a rather high value accorded to the immaterial spheres, however much they are considered to fall short of being the final goal.77 73 74 75 76 77 MN 8 at MN I 40,27 and its parallel MÓ 91 at T I 573b26. This would explain the observation by Bronkhost (1993/2000: xiii) that some summary listings of meditational states cover the four absorptions, but not the immaterial spheres; thus it is certainly not the case that “the most plausible explanation is again that the Formless States were not accepted during the earliest period of Buddhism.” It would also explain why the definition of uttarimanussadhamma in relation to the fourth påråjika at Vin III 91,30 just mentions jhåna, etc., but does not refer to the immaterial spheres. This does certainly not mean, as assumed by Zafiropulo (1993: 59), that at the time of the formulation of this explanation the immaterial spheres were not part of the known practices. It would be impossible to claim having attained an immaterial sphere without at the same time implicitly claiming to have attained jhåna. Thus the context does not require an additional listing of the immaterial spheres, since the way it reads already suffices for covering false claims to having attained an immaterial sphere. Pace Senart (1900: 347), who even speaks of “une attitude d’hostilit¡ intransigeante.” MN 26 at MN I 170,6+19 and its parallel MÓ 204 at T I 777a25 and 777b3; for a translation of the relevant section from MÓ 204 cf. Anålayo (2012b: 32). This has already been pointed out by Wynne (2007: 21f), who notes that The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 23 While Heiler takes the description in the Ariyapariyesanåsutta to be plausible, a similar argument regarding the supposed lateness of the immaterial spheres has been made by Bronkhorst on the assumption that the bodhisattva’s period of apprenticeship under Órå∂a Kålåma and Udraka Råmaputra is a later invention.78 Such a suggestion had already been made earlier by Bareau, based mainly on the fact that the Mah¥ßåsaka Vinaya does not report the apprenticeship of the future Buddha under these two teachers, but only his post-awakening wish to share his discovery with them.79 This supposed discrepancy is simply due to the fact that the Mah¥ßåsaka Vinaya proceeds from the bodhisattva’s meeting with King Bimbisåra directly to his attainment of awakening.80 In view of the narrative emphasis adopted in this Vinaya, it is only natural 78 79 80 “the teachers’ meditative practices are not denigrated, and it is implied that they must be of some soteriological benefit, for the Buddha is in no doubt as to the teachers’ spiritual qualities,” wherefore the discourse is “not a total condemnation of the teachers’ meditative methods.” Bronkhorst (1985: 308) suggests that “the meditational states covered by the term år¨pya do not appear to have been originally part of Buddhist meditation ... the Bodhisattva learned from them [his two teachers] the åkiñcanyåyatana and the naivasaµjñånåsaµjñåyatana respectively, but rejected these states since they did not lead him to the desired end. This story does not appear to be historical and was intended as a denouncement of these two states, and consequently of the 4 år¨pya.” Bareau (1963: 16) notes that this episode, found in MN 26 at MN I 163,31, MÓ 204 at T I 776b8, and the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T 1428 at T XXII 780b8, is absent from the Mah¥ßåsaka Vinaya, which nevertheless does report the intention to teach them, T 1421 at T XXII 104a11. Bareau (1963: 20) then concludes that therefore Órå∂a Kålåma and Udraka Råmaputra “son probablement fictifs”, a conclusion accepted by Vetter (1988: xxii). Several arguments raised in support of this hypothesis have already been successfully refuted by Zafiropulo (1993: 22–29) and Wynne (2007: 9–26); so in what follows I only intend to supplement their discussion by taking a look at the Mah¥ßåsaka Vinaya passage in question. T 1421 at T XXII 102c14 describes that the bodhisattva, after King Bimbisåra had left, approached the bodhi tree and asked a person nearby for some grass to sit on. Applying Bareau’s mode of interpretation consistently, one would have to conclude that the Mah¥ßåsaka Vinaya presents an alternative account according to which the bodhisattva attained awakening right away, without any need to search for a way to attain it and without any practice of asceticism. This of course does not match the remainder of the narration in the same Vinaya. 24 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 that neither the apprenticeship under Órå∂a Kålåma and Udraka Råmaputra nor the practice of austerities are mentioned. The same Mah¥ßåsaka Vinaya reports, however, that after his awakening the Buddha first wanted to disclose his discovery to Órå∂a Kålåma and Udraka Råmaputra, and then decided to approach his five former companions from the time of his ascetic practices. 81 It seems thus fairly obvious that the reciters of the Mah¥ßåsaka Vinaya were aware of what tradition generally associates with the period that precedes the Buddha’s awakening, and it is only due to its narrative emphasis that this Vinaya does not provide a full account of these as part of its pre-awakening narrative. In fact the Theravåda Vinaya, in the way it has come down to us, does not mention any of the pre-awakening events.82 To be sure, this does not imply that the Theravåda Vinaya reciters were not aware of the tradition concerning events believed to have preceded the Buddha’s awakening. So the absence of a full account in these two Vinayas need not be taken to have any deeper significance beyond the narrative choice of the reciters responsible for compiling and transmitting the respective texts. The future Buddha’s apprenticeship under these two teachers is in fact also mentioned in texts that Bareau did not take into account in his study, namely the Mahåvastu,83 a Vinaya text of the Mahåsåµghika Lokottaravåda tradition, 84 and the Sa∫ghabhedavastu of the M¨lasarvåstivåda Vinaya.85 In sum, the arguments proposed in support of the assumption that the immaterial spheres are a later addition to the descriptions of meditative practice in the early discourses are not convincing. This in turn implies that the mere fact that the immaterial spheres occur in the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its 81 82 83 T 1421 at T XXII 104a19 reports the Buddha reflecting that he could teach his five former companions and at 104b20 records that they refer to his former asceticism when expressing their disbelief in his awakening. Vin I 1,1 sets out only with the awakening already attained; cf. the discussion in Zafiropulo (1993: 24). Senart (1890: 118,6); the wish to teach them is then found in Senart (1897: 322,11). 84 On the Vinaya nature of this text cf. Tournier (2012). 85 Gnoli (1977: 97,4); the wish to teach them is found in Gnoli (1977: 130,16). The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 25 parallels as part of meditative practice of the Buddha on the verge of his death is not in itself a sign of later addition. Based on this general assessment I am now able to return to the query raised by Bareau, namely why the Buddha would have been depicted as going up and down these various levels of meditative experience before passing away. A discourse in the Saµyutta-nikåya and its Saµyuktaågama parallels report the Buddha proclaiming that he can freely attain each of the four absorptions and each of the four immaterial spheres.86 This proclamation implies that to be able to do so is a mark of meditative mastery. Hence for the Buddha to be on record as proceeding through the same series on the verge of his death is a way of showing that, in spite of being about to pass away, he was in full possession of his meditative mastery. There is thus a fairly straightforward rationale behind the description of the Buddha’s meditative progression at this moment. This rationale is fully in keeping with the general tendency in the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels to show the selfpossession of the Buddha when confronted with the most fearful of all human experiences: one’s own death. The same is evident, for example, in the depiction of his deliberate giving up of his life force on an earlier occasion.87 The step-by-step progression through this range of meditative attainments in forward and backward order is thus not a detour, leave alone a tortuous procedure,88 but from a Buddhist perspective much rather depicts the most peaceful and self-possessed way to meet one’s own death, exemplifying the Buddha’s high degree of self-mastery. Another discourse that helps bring out a further aspect of the significance of the Buddha’s meditative progression up to cessation at the time of his death can be found in the A∫guttaranikåya. According to this discourse, the Buddha had reached awakening by progressing step-by-step through the same nine 86 87 88 SN 16.9 at SN II 211,5 and its parallels SÓ 1142 T II 302a18 and SÓ² 117 at T II 416c24. A difference is that the attainment of cessation is only mentioned in SN 16.9 at SN II 212,8. DN 16 at DN II 106,21, Waldschmidt (1951, 212) (§16.14), DÓ 2 at T I 15c20, T 5 at T I 165a23, T 6 at T I 180c6, and T 7 at T I 191c8; cf. also Cowell and Neil (1886, 203,7). Pande (1957: 105) wonders: “one may ask why this tortuous procedure?” 26 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 levels of meditative mastery. Thus from the viewpoint of this discourse, the descriptions in the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels stand in a close relationship to the Buddha’s awakening. In other words, on the verge of his Nirvåˆa the Buddha once more passed through the experiences that had led him to his original attainment of Nirvåˆa. The Buddha’s Progress to Awakening In order to substantiate this suggestion, in what follows I take a closer look at this A∫guttara-nikåya discourse and other discourses that describe the Buddha’s progress to liberation. In this A∫guttara-nikåya discourse, of which no parallel seems to be known, the Buddha reports that he attained the four absorptions, the four immaterial spheres, and cessation, whereupon his influxes were destroyed. 89 The last in this series could imply that the Buddha’s actual realization of Nirvåˆa on the night of his awakening should be understood to have taken place through the attainment of cessation [or perception and feeling]. 90 That is, for one who has mastery of the four absorptions and the immaterial spheres, it would be possible to attain full awakening through entry into cessation. The next discourse in the A∫guttara-nikåya sets out with a verse, according to which the Buddha awakened to absorption, followed by depicting the same series of nine successive stages culminating in cessation.91 89 90 91 AN 9.41 at AN IV 448,7: åsavå parikkhayaµ agamaµsu, which thus uses an aorist form that differs from the standard formulation parikkh¥ˆå honti. Somaratne (2003: 216) explains that the reading åsavå parikkhayaµ agamaµsu in AN 9.41 implies that here “the Buddha is talking about a past experience where he achieved the cessation for the first time.” Commenting on AN 9.41, Bronkhorst (2009: 54) reasons that “since no mental processes take place in the cessation of ideation and feeling, the highest enlightenment cannot take place” in this attainment. Yet, as pointed out by Wynne (2002: 31), the description in AN 9.41 indeed “means that the Buddha attained liberation whilst in the state of cessation,” and thus by way of the most complete and thorough mode of experiencing Nirvåˆa. As Somaratne (2006: 750) explains, the ability to attain cessation means that “one is able to experience nibbåna physically here and now in its completeness.” AN 9.42 at AN IV 451,20. The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 27 While of this discourse, too, no parallel seems to be known, the verse recurs in the Saµyutta-nikåya and in the two Saµyuktaågamas. In the complete Saµyukta-ågama (T 99), the verse refers to the Buddha’s realization of what is to be realized in relation to absorption, the other Saµyukta-ågama (T 100) speaks of his realization on emerging from absorption. 92 While differing in formulation, the point common to the different versions of this verse appears to be that an aspect of the Buddha’s awakening was his penetrative insight into the nature of absorption, based of course on having mastered it. The main point made in the second A∫guttara-nikåya discourse that also has this verse appears to be the same as in the preceding A∫guttara-nikåya discourse, in that the Buddha’s awakening took place after he had progressed through the four absorptions and the four immaterial spheres and, in a way, seen through them. It is through such seeing through that he would have been able to proceed further and attain cessation. Returning to the first of these two A∫guttara-nikåya discourses, the eight concentrative attainments that precede cessation are specified to have each taken place at a different time, aparena samayena. 93 In other words, the discourse covers an extended time period, not a single meditation session. That it took some time for the Buddha before being able to proceed through the absorptions is also reported in the Upakkilesasutta and its Madhyama-ågama parallel, which adopt the alternative mode of describing the absorptions that focuses on the role of vitarka and vicåra. The two parallels agree that before being able to master absorption attainment, the future Buddha had to overcome a series of various mental obstructions one after the other.94 The Madhyama-ågama version makes explicit what would be implicit in the Upakkilesa-sutta, namely that the Buddha’s preawakening cultivation of absorption took place during consecutive 92 SN 2.7 at SN I 48,29: jhånam abuddhi, Be: jhånam abujjhi, Ce: jhånam budhå, new Ee ed. by Somaratne (1998: 110): jhånam abudhå, and its and SÓ 3042 at T II 477a25: parallels SÓ 1305 at T II 358c3: . 禪出覺了 禪思覺所覺 從 93 The qualification aparena samayena is found in all editions I have been able to consult; the remark in Bodhi (2012: 1832 note 1947) refers only to a doubling of this expression in Ee. 94 MN 128 at MN III 157,29 and MÓ 72 at T I 536c19. 28 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 days and nights.95 Thus when the Buddha is on record for having attained the four absorptions on the night of his awakening,96 this appears to reflect his relying on a meditative expertise he had acquired on an earlier occasion. According to the Mahåvastu and the Divyåvadåna, as well as the Påli commentarial tradition, the bodhisattva had trained under a seer before joining Ó¬åra Kålåma.97 The Sa∫ghabhedavastu adds that he had been well established in the absorption meditation, dhyåna, that was being practiced at the place of this seer.98 Judging from these texts the bodhisattva had already cultivated absorption before meeting Ó¬åra Kålåma, who then taught him how to progress further to the attainment of the third immaterial sphere.99 95 96 97 98 99 MÓ 72 at T I 538c9. This is reported in MN 4 at MN I 21,33 and its parallels EÓ 31.1 at T II 666b11, translated in Anålayo (2011b: 215), SHT IV 32 folio 37 and SHT IV 165 folio 15, Sander and Waldschmidt (1980: 131f and 190f), and SHT IX 2401, Bechert and Wille (2004: 195). Another instance indicating the same is MN 36 at MN I 247,17 and its parallels Sanskrit fragment 337r4 , Liu (2010: 228), and EÓ 31.8 at T II 671c27. The same report is also found in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T 1428 at T XXII 781a23, and in the Mahåvastu, Senart (1890: 131,16). Cowell and Neil (1886: 391, 27): asmin pradeße bhårgaveˆåßrameˆopanimantrita˙ (this is part of a description given during a tour of sacred places); Senart (1890: 195,12): bodhisatvo dharmåraˆyaµ vaßiΣ†hasya ®Σisya åßramapadaµ praviΣ†a˙; Th¥-a 2,17: bhaggavass’ åråmaµ gantvå tassa samayaµ pariggaˆhitvå, tato å¬åruddakånaµ samayaµ pariggaˆhitvå. Thus three different traditions agree that the bodhisattva had gone to stay with a seer, only disagreeing on his name. Gnoli (1977: 96,18): ®Σ¥ˆåm åßramapadam, tatropasa∫krånta˙, teΣåµ cåravihåratayå dhyånaparo vyavasthita˙. MN 26 at MN I 165,12 and 166,31 explicitly indicates that the attainments reached under the two teachers would lead to the corresponding rebirth, making it clear that the description intends the full attainment of the respective immaterial sphere. The same is also evident in the parallel MÓ 204 at T I 776b12+24, Anålayo (2012b: 27 and 29), where Óråda and Udraka describe the attainments taught by them as a going beyond the respective lower immaterial sphere. Thus the assumption by, e.g., Ireland (1998: 195) that the “experiences the Buddha had with these two former teachers had no relation to the jhånas as later taught by him” is simply unconvincing. It would in fact be difficult to find corroboration for the assumption that the immaterial spheres can be reached without previous training in absorption, since elsewhere the discourses present the four absorptions as what leads up to the immaterial spheres and from there to the attainment of cessation; cf., e.g., MN 25 at MN I 160,8 and its parallel MÓ The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 29 The Ariyapariyesanå-sutta and its parallel in fact report that the bodhisattva was “quickly” able to reach the attainments described by his two teachers.100 For him to be able to accomplish swiftly what his teachers found so impressive an accomplishment that they were willing to elevate him to their own rank of teacher makes it clear that he must have already been proficient in the cultivation of concentration. In fact according to the Mahåsaccaka-sutta and its Sanskrit fragment parallel the bodhisattva already had an experience of the first absorption before going forth.101 A reference to this experience occurs in an account of the Buddha’s approach to awakening given to the debater Saccaka, who appears to have been an advocate of asceticism. The Mahåsaccaka-sutta and its parallel agree that in this account of his own asceticism the Buddha throughout indicated that the pain he experienced never overwhelmed his mind.102 This provides a reply to the question asked by Saccaka if the Buddha had at some point been overwhelmed by pleasure or pain.103 The Mahåsaccaka-sutta states explicitly what is also implicit in the 100 101 178 at T I 720a22, just to mention one occurrence. Such an assumption would also not square too well with the indication that Udraka himself had not reached what he taught, which had only been accomplished by his father Råma; cf. the discussion in Skilling (1981). This indication only makes sense if the immaterial attainment he taught did indeed require a high degree of meditative expertise. The fact that the training in moral conduct and concentration required to reach the third and fourth immaterial spheres is not mentioned explicitly is simply due to the narrative purpose of MN 26 and its parallel, which is to depict the Buddha’s “noble quest”. Hence it is important to describe the attainments the Buddha reached and then rejected as not being the fulfilment of his noble quest, but the context does not require a complete account of the entire course of practice undertaken that led up to these attainments. MN 26 at MN I 164,25 and 166,7: nacirass’ eva khippam eva and MÓ 204 at T I 776b20 and 776c19: . 不久 102 MN 36 at MN I 246,31 and fragment 336v6, Liu (2010: 222); cf. also the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, T 1428 at T XXII 781a5; the Mahåvastu, Senart (1890: 130,15); and the Sa∫ghabhedavastu, Gnoli (1977: 107,27). Such a remark is also found in the account of the Buddha’s pre-awakening experiences in the Sa∫ghabhedavastu, Gnoli (1977: 103,11+24 and 104,5). This gives the impression that the original elements of this account might stem from a setting similar as what is depicted in MN 36. 103 MN 36 at MN I 240,12 and fragment 331r4, Liu (2010: 143). 30 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 Sanskrit version, in that since going forth no feeling of pleasure or pain had been able to overwhelm the Buddha’s mind. 104 This indication helps appreciating the reference to the first absorption experience before he had gone forth. The Mahåsaccaka-sutta and its parallel report that, once the bodhisattva recognized that nevertheless his ascetic striving was not fruitful, he reflected on alternative approaches and realized that the first absorption experienced before going forth was the path to awakening. Needless to say, the first absorption is not in itself the whole path to awakening. The whole path to awakening in early Buddhist thought is rather the noble eightfold path, where in the standard definition all four absorptions are one of the eight factors required for progress to liberation. But in the context of the situation depicted in the Mahåsaccaka-sutta the recollection of the former experience of the first absorption was the first step on the path to awakening, since it triggered the insight that the pleasure of such absorption is not something to be feared.105 This first absorption had been experienced at a time before the future Buddha had gone forth and therefore before he had established the type of mental detachment that ensured that no feeling would overwhelm his mind. Nevertheless, the pleasure he had experienced at that time had no unwholesome repercussions. This would have confirmed to the bodhisattva that pleasure is not a problem as such. It appears to have corroborated his dawning insight that the path to liberation does not require just engaging in pain and avoiding all forms of pleasure and happiness, which the fruitlessness of his asceticism had already made plain to him.106 Wholesome pleasures, like those experienced during absorption attainment, are instead an integral part of the path to awakening. In this way the attainment of absorption can be seen to have had a crucial role in the path to awakening that according to the 104 105 106 MN 36 at MN I 240,8. This point is made explicit in the Mahåsaccaka-sutta itself, where the bodhisattva reflects why he is afraid of a form of pleasure that is apart from sensuality and unwholesome states, MN 36 at MN I 246,37; cf. also Anålayo (2011a: 242f). In MN 85 at MN II 93,15 the Buddha reports that before his awakening he believed that progress to happiness requires going through pain. After having reached awakening he of course knew better. The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 31 textual accounts the Buddha himself traversed. His mastery of the four absorptions up to the level of mental imperturbability would have earlier enabled him to reach the lofty immaterial attainments described by Ó¬åra Kålåma and Uddaka Råmaputta. On the eve of his awakening he would have followed the alternative meditative route possible based on the same level of mental imperturbability by developing the three higher knowledges (tevijjå), the third of which corresponds to the breakthrough to full awakening. The Buddha’s Attainment of the Immaterial Spheres In this way the four absorptions, the four immaterial spheres, and the experience of Nirvåˆa are clearly central elements of the Buddha’s own mental cultivation as depicted in the early discourses. From this perspective, then, the description in the Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels does indeed seem to be mirroring the meditative progression that had led up to the Buddha’s awakening. This progression proceeds through eight levels – the four absorptions and the four immaterial spheres – that appear to have been common ground among contemporary practitioners, but on attaining the ninth level the distinct Buddhist contribution to this series is reached. Considered in this way, the attainment of cessation appears to be indeed required in the present context to convey the central message. This central message is to throw into relief the Buddha’s mastery and his transcendence of what in other traditions apparently was reckoned to be the final goal. Support for this suggestion can be found in the Brahmajåla-sutta and its parallels, for example. As part of a survey of what from a Buddhist viewpoint are mistaken views, the parallel versions show that the immaterial spheres had led contemporaries of the Buddha to adopt annihilationism, while the four absorptions had been mistaken to be Nirvåˆa here and now. 107 In the Påli 107 DN 1 at DN 34,32, DÓ 21 at T I 93b4, a Tibetan discourse parallel in Weller (1934: 56) (§186), a discourse quotation in the *Íåriputråbhidharma, T 1548 at T XXVIII 660b1, and a discourse quotation in D 4094 ju 151b5 or Q 5595 tu 174b8; for a comparative study cf. Anålayo (2009); for Sanskrit fragments corresponding to the section on annihilationism cf. also Hartmann (1989: 54) and SHT X 4189, Wille (2008: 307). This of course does not mean, as assumed by Zafiropulo (1993: 57f), that at the time of the formation of this discourse the immaterial spheres and the four absorptions 32 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 Nikåyas, the Brahmajåla-sutta is one of the few discourses quoted elsewhere in another Påli discourse, giving the impression that this discourse must be fairly early.108 Another relevant instance would be the C¨¬asakuludåyisutta and its parallel, just to mention one more example. The two discourses report the dismay of a group of contemporary practitioners on finding out that the Buddha knew an attainment that went beyond the realm corresponding to the third absorption, considered by them to be the supreme goal. 109 Notably, these practitioners are depicted as being ignorant of the way of practice that leads to what they considered as the highest goal. In other words, this discourse seems to reflect the existence of an ancient form of practice that led up to the third absorption.110 However, by the time of the encounter with the Buddha these practitioners were apparently only aware of the goal, the actual practice having fallen into oblivion. The C¨¬asakuludåyi-sutta and its parallel thus show the Buddha being able to teach these practitioners how to reach the goal of their aspiration, at the same time indicating that there are attainments that surpass their goal. The Mahåparinibbåna-sutta and its parallels fit well with 108 109 110 were not yet seen as related to each other. The point is only that some nonBuddhists are shown up for having mistaken the attainment of the absorptions as the final goal, leading to one particular type of wrong view, but other non-Buddhists who had further progressed to the immaterial attainments instead took these to be the final goal, resulting in another type of wrong view. The “sixty-two [forms of] going into views mentioned in the Brahmajålasutta” are quoted in SN 41.3 at SN IV 286,12 and 287,12, (such a full reference is not found in the parallel SÓ 570 at T II 151a18, however, which just speaks of these views in general). The count of sixty-two corresponds to the grounds for views discussed in the Brahmajåla-sutta and its parallels, including the four annihilationist views based on the experience of the immaterial spheres and the four views that uphold Nirvåˆa here and now, based on the attainment of the four absorptions. This gives the impression that by the time of the coming into being of this reference, the set of sixtytwo views was already well established and known. MN 79 at MN II 37,16 and MÓ 208 at T I 786a24; cf. also the discussion in Anålayo (2011a: 435f). This is explicitly stated in the commentary, Ps III 275,2; Bodhi in Ñå˜amoli (1995/2005: 1287f note 784) explains that according to the commentary these practitioners “knew that in the past meditators would ... attain the third jhåna.” The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 33 the depictions in the Brahmajåla-sutta and the C¨¬asakuludåyisutta, together with their respective parallels. In this way, even on the verge of his death the Buddha is endowed with complete mastery over all these attainments, the four absorptions and the four immaterial attainments. He is able to attain and leave each of them freely, proceeding onwards until he reaches what goes beyond the teachings and attainments known among his contemporaries, the attainment of cessation. His degree of detachment and self-mastery is such that he executes this progression in the forward order and the reverse direction, in line with what in early Buddhist meditation theory is a criterion for true meditative mastery: being able to proceed through a series of meditative attainments in the forward and backward order.111 After this demonstration of his meditative mastery, he uses the same step-by-step approach once again up to the fourth absorption, as a basis for his entry into final Nirvåˆa. The main point made in this way also emerges when turning to Buddhist art, such as a depiction of the Buddha’s Mahåparinirvåˆa from cave 26 at Ajaˆ†å (see next page). The depiction of the Buddha’s passing away in this image conveys an air of calm self-possession, of being at ease and in peace.112 Conclusion When considered from the viewpoint of early Buddhist meditation theory in the way this has been preserved in the early discourses, there seems to be nothing inherently incoherent or problematic in the depiction of the Buddha’s meditation practice on the verge of his passing away. This accords with the finding from a comparative study of the relevant passage, which gives the impression that the Buddha’s gradual progression through the four absorptions and the immaterial spheres is fairly common ground among otherwise quite different parallel versions. The main point of the passage is simply to show the Buddha’s meditative mastery right on the eve of his passing away, and at the same time 111 112 Cf., e.g., AN 9.41 at AN IV 448,8, according to which the precondition for the Buddha’s attainment of awakening was precisely his ability to progress through the nine meditative attainments in forward and backward order. Photograph by John C. Huntington; courtesy Huntington Photographic Archive at The Ohio State University. 34 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 exemplify his transcendence of meditative attainments esteemed among contemporary practitioners in ancient India with his attainment of Nirvåˆa. The Buddha’s Last Meditation in the D¥rgha-ågama 35 Abbreviations: AN A∫guttara-nikåya Be Burmese edition CBETA Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association C e Ceylonese edition D Derge edition DÓ D¥rgha-ågama (T 1) DN D¥gha-nikåya Ee PTS edition EÓ Ekottarika-ågama (T 125) MÓ Madhyama-ågama (T 99) MN Majjhima-nikåya Q Peking edition Ps PapañcasËdan¥ PTS Pali Text Society SÓ Saµyukta-ågama (T 99) 2 SÓ Saµyukta-ågama (T 100) Se Siamese edition SHT Sanskrithandschriften aus den Turfanfunden SN Saµyutta-nikåya Sn Sutta-nipåta Spk Såratthappakåsin¥ T TaishØ edition (CBETA) Th¥-a Ther¥gåthå-a††hakathå Vin Vinaya Acknowledgement: I am indebted to Adam Clarke and Såma˜er¥ Dhammadinnå for comments and suggestions. 36 The Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies 15, 2014 Bibliography: An, Yang-Gyu 2001: “The Date and the Origin of the Mahåparinibbåna-suttanta,” BukkyØ Kenky¨, 30: 45–79. 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