Nutritional and therapeutic value of fermented caprine milk

doi: 10.1111/j.1471-0307.2010.00575.x REVIEW Nutritional and therapeutic value of fermented caprine milk VEDRAN SLAČANAC, 1 * RAJKA BOŽANIĆ, 2 JOVICA HARDI, 1 JUDIT REZESSYNÉ SZABÓ, 3 MIRELA LUČAN 1 and VINKO KRSTANOVIĆ 1 1 Faculty of Food Technology, J. J. Strossmayer University, Franje Kuhača 20, HR-31 000 Osijek, 2Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University in Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, HR-10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, and 3Faculty of Food Science, CORVINUS University of Budapest, Ménesi ut 45, 1118 Budapest, Hungary Caprine milk is a nutritional and therapeutic food. The unique and beneficial characteristics of caprine milk that are superior to bovine milk include: better digestibility; greater buffering capacity; fat globules that are smaller in diameter and better distributed in the milk emulsion; higher content of short-chain fatty acids in the milk fat; higher content of zinc, iron and magnesium; stronger lactoperoxidase (antimicrobial) system as well as better immunological and antibacterial characteristics. The larger amounts of some minerals, such as calcium, zinc and magnesium, in caprine milk may influence the growth of lactic acid bacteria since they are a normal part of some enzymatic complexes involved in lactose fermentation. The higher whey protein content could also be significant because Lactobacillus acidophilus and bifidobacteria grow better in the presence of higher levels of some amino acids (valine, glycine, hystidine). The use of caprine and ovine milk in cheesemaking is well known, but the production of fermented caprine milk via probiotics has not yet been developed, although many studies have highlighted the requirements for production of that kind of healthy food. During fermentation caprine milk loses its characteristic ‘goaty’ taste, which is unacceptable to many consumers. Moreover, the nutritive value of caprine milk increases during fermentation. The rise in the number of goat farms in Croatia has created the need to find other products that can be produced using caprine milk. According to the present situation in Croatia, there is no real possibility of producing fermented caprine milk for the global market, but many studies of fermented caprine milk have been performed. Keywords Caprine milk, Fermentation, Nutritive and therapeutic value, Probiotics. INTRODUCTION *Author for correspondence. E-mail: [email protected]  2010 Society of Dairy Technology For centuries, humans have used goats for many purposes. However, although goats are present on all of the continents (FAO 2001), many authors have observed that the goat sector has not been well supported publicly or academically when compared with other animal production sectors, especially the cow sector or the bovine milk sector (Dubeuf et al. 2004). Moreover, in spite of some superior qualities, the economic and commercial potentialities of goats and caprine milk have not been recognised (Morand-Fehr 1996). There are many reasons for these tendencies. More than any other mammalian farm animal, the goat is the main supplier of dairy and meat products for rural people. Official statistics indicate there are significant amounts of unreported home production, especially in the developing countries of Asia and Africa (Dubeuf and Thomas 1996; Haenlein 2004). Caprine milk production in many countries depends on competition with bovine and ovine milk products. The high milk productivity of cows as well as the many products that can be produced from sheep (wool, meat, milk with a high content of solids for cheese production) promotes their production. Furthermore, as caprine dairy products are generally in specific markets (such as dietetic milks, fresh ripened cheeses, mould ripened cheeses), their profitability depends on their relative price. As a rule, such products from caprine milk are more expensive than similar products derived from bovine and ovine milk (FAO 2001). Another major problem which exists has been described as the special organisation of goat production systems (seasonal production, size of herds, caprine milk productivity etc) (Dubeuf et al. 2004). The optimum situation for farming, manipulation and marketing of caprine milk and caprine milk products definitely can be seen in the USA. Today, some states of the USA have a goat breeders’ association within a sector that is very active with magazines, fairs and innovative products such as new caprine cheeses, candy and cosmetic products made from caprine milk (Haenlein 2000, 2001). Finally, but importantly, the taste of caprine milk has been described specifically as ‘goaty’. Because of this characteristic, sometimes ‘sharp’ Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 International Journal of Dairy Technology 171 Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 goaty taste of the milk and its products, many consumers in the past have discarded caprine milk products (Haenlein 2001). However, because of the many articles that have emphasised the special value of caprine milk in human nutrition, scientific and commercial interest in caprine milk and caprine milk products has increased progressively over the past two decades (Martin-Diana et al. 2003; Boyazoglu et al. 2005a; Biss 2007). The importance of caprine milk and meat in human nutrition has been discussed in many recent proceedings of national and international conferences, which were cited by Haenlein (2004). Its importance is also reflected in the increase in the goat population during the last 20 years, which was the largest increase of any animal population, and the increase in caprine milk production tonnage, which exceeded that of other mammalian farm animals. According to FAO data (2001), which has been cited by Haenlein (2004), the number of goat farms in the world increased by some 58% between 1980 and 2000. According to Morgan and Gaborit (2001), the production of caprine milk worldwide was 12 million tonnes, a large part of which was used for direct consumption. European caprine milk is primarily produced in the Mediterranean countries, especially Greece, France, Spain and Italy (Morgan et al. 2003). The Mediterranean region produces 18% of the world’s supply of caprine milk (Pandya and Ghodke 2007). Apart from direct consumption, a large proportion of caprine milk in European countries has been used for cheese production, as well as for UHT caprine milk and caprine milk powder (Morgan et al. 2003). From the statistical data collected, it is obvious that the production as well as the processing of caprine milk into products in many European countries has a strong regional and artisanal character (Morand-Fehr et al. 2004; Boyazoglu et al. 2005b;. In the European Community, the originality of caprine and ovine milk products is protected by legislation on the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and the Protected Geographic Indications (PGI) (Raynal-Ljutovac et al. 2005). Many economic and scientific studies have proposed that artisanal caprine milk products will play an important role in global European markets in the future. Cheese has been a predominant caprine milk product in European countries, especially in the Mediterranean region. Caprine milk cheese is greatly appreciated for its organoleptic properties (Buffa et al. 2004). Thus, 90% of the caprine milk produced in France has been sold as cheese (Agreste 2001). In Spain, except for the production of cheeses directly from raw or heat-treated caprine milk, most of the caprine milk was mixed earlier with bovine or ovine milk (Dubeuf et al. 2004), and the mixture of these types of milk has been 172  2010 Society of Dairy Technology used for the production of many autochthonous (regionally-produced) cheeses (Freitas et al. 1996; Zarate et al. 1997; Dubeuf et al. 2004; Poveda and Cabezas 2006; Pandya and Ghodke 2007). In many recent studies on autochthonous Spanish cheeses from caprine milk, the composition, microbiology, biochemistry and changes during ripening have been comprehensively described (Casla et al. 1996; Fresno et al. 1997; Lopez et al. 1999; Fontecha et al. 2006; Calvo et al. 2007). Some of these studies described the antimicrobial activity of lactic acid bacteria isolated from these cheeses (Casla et al. 1996; Herrero and Requena 2006), which is one of the points of this review. Another two Mediterranean countries famous for their artisanal caprine cheeses are Italy (Guerzoni et al. 1999; Suzzi et al. 2000; Andrighetto et al. 2001) and Greece (Hatzikamari et al. 1999). In Italy, some types of cheese have been produced from raw or heat-treated caprine milk and most of them have regional character, such as Robiola di Roccaverano (Bonetta et al. 2008), Montasio (Marino et al. 2003) and others. Furthermore, some authors cited the rich taste and aroma of Italian cheeses derived from grazing goats, which have a potential place in many gourmand kitchens around the world, although there is no capacity for export production yet (Fedele et al. 2005). Some of the semi-ripened Sicilian cheeses from goats also must to be mentioned. One of these is Provola dei Nebrodi, with a predominance of the probiotic strain L. casei in its composition (Cronin et al. 2007). The most famous Greek cheese produced mostly from caprine or ovine milk definitely is Feta (Anifantakis 1991b Litopoulou-Tzanetaki and Tzanetakis 1992; Bintsis et al. 2000). In addition to Feta, many types of artisanal cheeses have been traditionally produced in Greece from raw or heat-treated caprine milk. The consistency (firmness), duration of ripening, microbiological characteristics and sensory properties of these Greek cheeses vary, depending on the locality and traditions (Anifantakis 1991a; Hatzikamari et al. 1999; Xanthopoulos et al. 2000; Psoni et al. 2003). In other European countries, outside of the Mediterranean region, the situation with respect to goat farming, as well as caprine milk products, is very different. In some countries, such as The Netherlands and the UK, simultaneously development has been recorded over last 20 years (Van Dijk 1996; Mowlem 2005; Eurostat 2007). However, in northern European countries, most of the goat farms disappeared in favour of more intensive production (bovine milk). Accordingly, the production of some traditional caprine cheeses from Norway and Sweden, such as Brunost and Gjetost, today has only rural importance with no significant influence on the global market in these countries (Rault 1998). Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 Although products other than milk and cheeses exist in some parts of the European market, it could be said that they have a lesser importance than caprine cheese and milk. Apart from thermally treated caprine milk (pasteurised or UHT) and a wide variety of caprine cheeses, only yoghurt made from caprine milk plays a certain role on the European market, but only in some countries and in small quantities (Pandya and Ghodke 2007). Pandya and Ghodke (2007) pointed out the following additional caprine milk products: cream, butter or butter oil, caprine milk fat, ice cream and whey protein concentrate from caprine milk. These products could have good nutritional value, because of the specific composition and structure of caprine milk. On the Croatian global market, there exist only two products made from caprine milk produced in Croatia: UHT caprine milk and a small number of caprine cheeses, such as Caprillo or Capridur. Although there has been a trend of continuously increasing numbers of goat dairy farms in Croatia from year to year, many of them are only small rural holdings. Nevertheless, some of the exceptional caprine cheeses have been produced on these farms. As in other Mediterranean countries, cheeses made from caprine milk in Croatia have strictly regional character and the types (characteristics) of cheeses vary, depending on the tradition and the region of Croatia in which they have been produced (Feldhofer et al. 1994; Lukač-Havranek 1995; Tratnik et al. 2000; Cvrtila et al. 2001; Drgalić et al. 2002; Samaržija and Antunac 2002; Kirin 2006). Consequently, Croatian authors in their studies mention fresh caprine cheeses, soft and brined caprine cheeses, semi-hard caprine cheeses, ‘cooked’ caprine cheeses and even the possibility of producing fresh caprine cheeses enriched with probiotic starters (Tratnik 1998; Tratnik et al. 2002). Many of these types of cheeses have loyal consumers, and the tendency to protect their origins and geographic indications is prevalent among all producers (Samaržija and Antunac 2002), as is their desire to increase the capacity of cheese production. A very significant fact is that many types of these artisanal farm cheeses have been exported to some countries of the European Union near Croatia, but in small quantities in terms of economic significance (Slačanac 2008). Until some 20 years ago, goat husbandry was primarily based on autochthonous breeds whose purpose was kid meat production, and the production of milk was secondary. For the past 20, and especially for the past 10, years interest in the production of caprine milk based on the Alpine and Saanen breeds has increased significantly (Mioč et al. 2008). The incorporation of probiotic bacteria into food products increased during the last two decades because of the beneficial effects that these  2010 Society of Dairy Technology microorganisms offer to the host (Fuller and Gibson 1997; Guarner and Schaafsma 1998; Saarela et al. 2000; Saxelin et al. 2000; Kehagias et al. 2008). Many of these products belong to the so-called ‘functional foods’ group and contain selected bacteria such as L. acidophilus or Bifidobacterium spp., providing several prophylactic and therapeutic benefits (Ishida et al. 2005). The viable lactic acid bacteria in fermented milk products have been associated with increased lactose tolerance, a well-balanced intestinal microflora, antimicrobial activity, stimulation of the immune system and antitumoural, anticholesterolaemic and antioxidative properties in human subjects (Kullisaar et al. 2003). The use of milk from small ruminants (goats or ewe) may represent one direction of innovation in the manufacturing of new products (Gomes and Malcata 1998). According to the present situation in Croatia, there is no real possibility of the production of fermented caprine milk products for the global market, especially not products with probiotic lactic acid bacteria. Only one (or maybe two) large dairy company in Croatia intensively raises dairy goats, but for the production of cheese or heattreated milk. Many studies over the past decade in Croatia have examined the conditions and possibilities for the production of fermented probiotic products produced from caprine milk (Božanić et al. 2002a,b, 2004; Tratnik et al. 2006). Furthermore, some of these studies done in Croatia pointed out the inhibitory effects of caprine milk fermented with probiotics against different gastrointestinal and urinary pathogens (Slačanac et al. 2004, 2007a,b). COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL P R O P E RT I E S In view of its basic composition (including solids, nonfat solids, proteins, fat, lactose, ash and minerals), caprine milk is very similar to bovine milk (Table 1). However, its exact composition varies according to many factors: breed, individual animal, diet and feeding, environmental and regional (local) conditions, lactation period, health status etc. (Jenness 1980; Park et al. 2007). This is the logical reason for deviations in composition data for caprine milk presented by different authors in the past. Some of these deviations are shown in Tables 1, 2 and 4. The results of Morgan et al. (2003) clearly reveal the variability of caprine milk characteristics collected during only 1 year from different European areas (Greece, Portugal and France). The authors determined a high level of variability in the biochemical composition, bacteriological quality and technological properties of caprine milk. According to the Croatian Livestock Center (CLC 2005a,b), cited in Mioč et al. (2007), 173 Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 are in direct correlation with the solid contents and protein structure of the milk (Vargas et al. 2008). It is important to note that, in all of the cited studies, similar changes in fat and protein content during lactation were observed for the same goat breeds in different locations around the world. The results presented in Table 1 show that ovine milk contains a higher proportion of total solids and major nutrients than caprine and bovine milk. This is a well-known fact, mentioned in many comparative studies and books (Tratnik 1998). However, in this article, a comparison between the composition and structure of caprine milk and bovine milk, as well as between related products, will be critically presented. Table 1 Average composition (g ⁄ kg) of basic nutrients in caprine, ovine, bovine and human milk (data compiled from Tratnik1998; Božanić et al. 2002; Park et al. 2007) (mean value calculated from the sum of the values which were presented by all cited authors) Composition (g ⁄ kg) Goat Sheep Cow Human Total solids Fat Solids, nonfat Lactose Protein Casein Albumin, globulin Nonprotein N Ash Caloriesa Cholesterol 119.4 33.5 89.0 45.5 33.0 25.5 7.5 4.0 8.0 70 0.10 190.0 79.0 120.0 49.0 62.0 42.0 10.0 8.0 9.0 105 n⁄a 128.9 38.5 90.0 47.0 33.3 27.0 6.5 2.0 7.3 69 0.13 127.4 40.0 89.0 69.0 12.0 4.0 7.0 5.0 3.0 68 n⁄a n ⁄ a, No data. a kcal ⁄ 100 mL. the average fat content in samples of caprine milk collected from small and medium enterprises (SME) in Croatia was 35.5 g ⁄ kg for the FrenchAlpine breed and 33.5 g ⁄ kg for the Saanen breed. The crude protein content of milk collected from SME in Croatia was approximately 30.8 g ⁄ kg for the French-Alpine and 30.5 g ⁄ kg for the Saanen breed (Mioč et al. 2007). In addition, in dairy goats the lactation period is a very important factor because some characteristics and components of the content vary during lactation, to a greater degree than in bovine milk (Table 2) (Zeng et al. 1997; Pierre et al. 1998; Antunac et al. 2001; Chilliard et al. 2003). The data presented in Table 2, which incorporate the results of the above-mentioned authors for samples from different countries (regions, climates, conditions etc.), could be a good indicator for caprine milk producers, especially for caprine cheese producers, because the cheese yield and quality significantly depends on the content of fat, proteins and total solids (Fekadu et al. 2005). The same could be said for the production of fermented milk, because the rheological properties of the coagulum Physico-chemical characteristics There are some differences in physico-chemical characteristics between caprine and bovine milk which can certainly influence their technological properties (Park 1994a, 2007). According to the results of many studies, the density of caprine milk is in the same range as that of bovine milk, but in all studies the values for caprine milk are slightly higher (Table 3). As a result of its higher density, caprine milk has a higher viscosity but lower refractive index and freezing point than bovine milk (Parkash and Jenness 1968; Jenness 1980; Haenlein and Cacesse 1984; Juarez and Ramos 1986; Park 1994a; Park et al. 2007). The titratable acidity of fresh, as well as heat-treated, caprine milk has been consistently higher than that of bovine milk. This has been confirmed by the results of many studies during the past 30 years (Antunac and Samaržija 2000; Park et al. 2007). Consequently, fresh caprine milk habitually has a lower pH value than fresh bovine milk. Differences in the specific physico-chemical fat values, and especially the protein micellar structure values, could suggest significant differences in technological properties between caprine and bovine milk (Table 3). These physico-chemical differences are the consequence of the different structures of caprine and bovine milk and have been significantly appreciable in cheeses, but also in fermented milk Table 2 Average composition (g ⁄ kg) of caprine milk from Alpine and Saanen breeds during 200 days of lactation collected in Croatia (Antunac et al. 2001), France (Zeng et al. 1997) and Oklahoma in USA (Fekadu et al. 2005; Pierre et al. 1998) Component(g ⁄ kg) 50th day 100th day 150th day 200th day Total solids Fat Proteins Lactose Asha 113.6 ± 6.1 33.0 ± 2.7 28.5 ± 0.4 44.2 ± 2.4 66.3 106.6 ± 4.8 29.7 ± 2.9 27.3 ± 0.2 43.5 ± 2.9 62.8 105.7 ± 3.9 29.2 ± 3.3 28.1 ± 0.2 42.7 ± 3.3 67.3 113.2 ± 3.0 33.1 ± 2.9 30.2 ± 0.9 42.0 ± 1.4 75.2 Mean values calculated from the sum of the values which were presented by all cited authors. a Data from Antunac et al. 2001. 174  2010 Society of Dairy Technology Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 Table 3 Basic physico-chemical properties of caprine and bovine milk; comparison of the physico-chemical values characteristic of lipid and protein properties (data compiled from Park et al. 2007) Basic physico-chemical properties Caprine milk Bovine milk Specific density Viscosity, Cp Surface tension (dynes ⁄ cm) Conductivity (X ⁄ cm) Refractive index Freezing point (deg H) Acidity (g ⁄ kg lactic acid) pH Lipid values Unsaponifiable fat (%) Acid value Iodine value Saponification value Reichert Meissl value Polenske value Protein values Noncentrifugal caseinb Average diameter Hydration of micelle Mineralization of micellec 1.029–1.039 2.12 52.0 0.0043–0.0139 1.45 ± 0.39 0.540–0.573 1.4–2.3 (6.80 SH)a 6.50–6.80 1.023–1.039 2.0 42.3–52.1 0.0040–0.0055 1.451 ± 0.35 0.530–0.570 1.5–1.8 (6.70 SH)a 6.65–6.71 0.41 ± 0.02 0.47 ± 0.02 19–20 228.6 ± 5.24 1.80 ± 0.35 3.49 0.41 ± 0.02 0.48 ± 0.05 27.09 ± 1.26 232.3 ± 7.61 25–33 4.55 8.7 260 1.77 3.6 5.7 180 1.9 2.9 a Božanić et al. 2002. Percentage of total casein. c g ⁄ Ca ⁄ 100 casein. b production, as differences in the following sensory characteristics: consistency, flavour, odour, colour, stability during storage and syneresis degree. The data presented in Table 3 (Park et al. 2007) show that caprine milk has a significantly higher content of noncentrifugal casein, a higher average diameter of micelles as well as a higher potential of micelle mineralisation than bovine milk. All of these differences in characteristics of the physico-chemical values follow from the different compositions and structures of the milk fat and protein system of caprine and bovine milk. Some of these characteristics could have an important influence on some of the technological properties during the manufacture of fermented milks and cheeses, such as acidification ability (Morgan et al. 2003), whey drainage ability (Jaubert and Kalantzopoulos 1996) and heat stability (Fox and Hoynes 1976). Lipids Of all of the basic nutrients present in milk, perhaps the greatest difference between caprine and bovine milk is in the composition and structure of the milk lipids. Lipids are the most important components of milk in terms of the physical and sensory characteristics that they impart to dairy products (Tamime and Marshall 1997; Park et al. 2007). Milk lipids has an influence on the flavour, consistency and texture of dairy products (Božanić et al. 2002b). Milk lipids is a complex mixture of different lipid substances with more than 200  2010 Society of Dairy Technology different fatty acids (FA), but only 15 of the FA in milk are present in amounts greater than 1% (Jandal 1996). Cerbulis et al. (1982) showed that the lipid fraction of whole caprine milk contains 97–99% free lipids and 1–3% bound lipids (bound lipids include neutral lipids, glycolipids and phospholipids, similar to bovine milk). As in bovine milk, the triacylglycerols (TAG) in caprine milk constitute the biggest component of the milk lipids (approximately 98%) (Park 2006). One of the basic nutritional advantages of caprine milk lipids vs bovine milk lipids is the structure, size and arrangement of the fat globules in caprine milk. Lipids are present in milk in the form of globules, which in caprine milk have a significantly smaller diameter than those of bovine milk (Table 4). Apart from their smaller diameter, the fat globules in caprine milk are better distributed in the milk lipids emulsion in comparison with the fat globules in bovine milk (Mehaia 1995; Attaie and Richter 2000). According to Park et al. Table 4 Fat globule size distribution in caprine and bovine milk (data compiled from Mehaia 1995) Parameter Caprine milk Bovine milk Determined fat content (%) 3.10 No. of globules ⁄ mL milk 1.9 · 109 Average diameter (lm) 3.10 3.40 1.5 · 109 3.60 175 Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 (2007), the fat globules in caprine milk are characteristically abundant in diameter less than 3.5 lm, with 65% than 3.0 lm. The smaller diameter of the fat globules, as well as better distribution in the lipids emulsion, has a significant influence on digestibility in the human organism (Park 1994b). For that reason, caprine milk is more digestible and undergoes more efficient lipid metabolism in the human intestinal tract compared with bovine milk. The smaller diameter, larger number and better distribution of fat globules in caprine milk could also have a technological impact. Parkash and Jenness (1968) stated that bovine milk creams up more rapidly than caprine milk. The fundamental physico-chemical reason for this is agglutination, which causes clustering of the fat globules in milk, but agglutinin is not present in caprine milk. Jenness (1980) used the term ‘naturally homogenised milk’ for caprine milk. Consequently, the separation rate of caprine milk lipids is considerably higher than that of bovine milk lipids. Another significant difference between caprine and bovine milk lipids is in the composition of their FA. Caprine milk is much higher in butyric (C4:0), caproic (C6:0), caprylic (C8:0), capric (C10:0), lauric (C12:0) and myristic (C12:0) acid (Haenlein 2004). These lipid components have been called short and medium chain fatty acids (SCFA and MCFA). Caprine milk contains on average 38% of MCFA (C6–C14) in milk lipids, whereas bovine milk contains only on average 18% of MCFA (Mehaia 1995). In addition, caproic, caprylic and capric acids (FAs named according to the term ‘caprine’) constitute 20% of all FA in caprine milk. In contrast, the FA content of bovine milk includes only 6% of these three FA (Table 5). SCFA and MCFA, as well as medium chain triglycerides (MCT), have become established medical treatments for an array of clinical disorders, such as intestinal resection, malabsorption syndromes, chyluria, hyperlipoproteinaemia, infant malnutrition, premature infant feeding, cystic fibrosis, coronary by-pass, steatorrhoea and gallstones (cited in Haenlein 2004). All these medical treatments are the consequence of the unique metabolic ability of SCFA, MCFA and MCT to provide direct energy instead of being deposited in adipose tissue, as well as their ability to lower serum cholesterol and inhibit cholesterol deposition in blood vessels (Babayan 1981; Alferez et al. 2001; Božanić et al. 2002; Haenlein 2004). In addition to their nutritional and therapeutic significance, SCFA, MCFA and MCT have a technological impact because they influence the specific flavour and aroma of caprine milk products (Park et al. 2007). Ceballos et al. (2009) by identical methodology analysed the composition of caprine and bovine milk produced under similar conditions. As in 176  2010 Society of Dairy Technology Table 5 Content (g ⁄ kg) of the main fatty acids in caprine and bovine milk (Božanić et al. 2002) Caprine milk Bovine milk Fatty acida Range Mean value Mean value C4:0 C6:0 C8:0 C10:0 C10:1 C12:0 C12:1b C14:0 Iso-C15:0a Anteiso C15:0a C14:1a C16:0 Iso-C16:0a Iso-C17:0a Anteiso C17:0a C16:1a C17:0a C17:1a C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 C20:0a C18:2d 14.9–42.3 42.8–88.2 17.0–41.2 85.9–126.4 1.9–3.8 38.0–73.2 1.0–4.0 107.0–152.6 01.2–01.5 01.7–2.4 1.7–2.0 273.5–406.6 1.7–4.0 2.4–5.2 3.0–5.0 10.0–27.0 5.2–9.0 2.4–4.8 47.3–99.3 103.4–170.8 25.4–48.1 2.0–17.2 0.8–3.5 3.2–11.7 29.9 65.2 25.2 104.1 2.4 56.4 1.9 128.1 1.3 2.1 1.8 348.0 2.4 3.5 4.2 15.9 7.2 3.9 68.4 132.6 36.0 8.8 1.5 7.0 33.0 16.0 13.0 30.0 n⁄a 31.0 n⁄a 95.0 n⁄a n⁄a n⁄a 288.0 n⁄a n⁄a n⁄a n⁄a n⁄a n⁄a 146.0 298.0 25.0 7.7c n⁄a 6.0b n ⁄ a, No data. a g ⁄ kg of total fatty acid methyl esters. b CLA total. c Data compiled from Park et al. (2007). d Data compiled from Ceballos et al. (2009). other studies which compared the composition of caprine and bovine milk lipids around the world, they found higher proportions of MCFA (C6–C14) in caprine milk lipids, but also higher proportions of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) as well as conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). Furthermore, Haenlein (2004) and Park et al. (2007) reported that caprine milk lipids have a higher content of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA). Similarly as for MCT, Haenlein (1992) emphasised the beneficial properties of MUFA and PUFA for human health, especially for cardiovascular conditions. CLA also has been identified as a significant nutrient for humans. Data from animal models have been used to prove that the CLA has anticarcinogenic properties and an antiatherogenic effect (Parodi 2003; Lee et al. 2005). In summary, because of the smaller diameter and better distribution of fat globules in the milk emulsion as well as the higher contents of SCFA, MCFA, MCT, PUFA and CLA, it has been concluded that caprine milk lipids has a higher Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 nutritional and potential therapeutic value than bovine milk. Proteins Milk proteins play the most significant role in the production of many dairy products. In addition, some milk proteins have been extensively used in other branches of the food industry (Kinsella et al. 1989). On the contrary, the nutritional impact of milk proteins on human health and conditions is well known (Mulvihill and Fox 1989; Tratnik 1998). The principal proteins in caprine milk are about the same as in bovine milk (Park et al. 2007). Milk proteins occur in two distinct phases: the unstable micellar phase composed of caseins (as suspended micelles) and the soluble phase composed of whey proteins (Kinsella et al. 1989; Mulvihill and Fox 1989; Tratnik 1998). Casein is the basic protein in milk (constituting about 80% of total milk proteins). The caseins (CN) in caprine milk are about the same as in the milk of cows or sheep: as1-CN, as2-CN, b-CN and j-caseins. A comparison of the structural features of the casein fraction between bovine and caprine milk is presented in Table 6, and the percentages of the main casein fractions in caprine and bovine milk are presented in Table 7. Caprine milk shows a specific variability in the nature and contents of the protein fraction. In general, caprine milk contains higher amounts of the b-CN fractions, lower amounts of the as-CN fractions and approximately equal amounts of the j-CN fractions (Table 7). In contrast to bovine milk, b-CN is the major protein of caprine milk. It has very important impact on the structural but also on the nutritive differences between caprine and bovine milk (Haenlein 2004). However, the essential singularity of caprine milk, which has been extensively studied by many authors in the past, is the polymorphism of as1-CN (Grosclaude 1995; Pierre et al. 1998; Clark and Sherbon 2000; Recio and Visser 2000). Moioli et al. (1988) mentioned 10 different genetic variations of as1-CN in caprine milk (A, B1, B2, B3, C, D, E, F, G, 0), but since 1988 some authors have mentioned novel types of as1-CN that have been identified. All of the previously mentioned types (genetic variants) have been connected to the amount of as1-CN in caprine milk. The ‘0’ type indicates its absence in some caprine milk (Remeuf 1993). Two types of as1-CN (F and G) are associated with low levels of as1-CN in caprine milk (0.45 g ⁄ L), two (E and I) with medium levels of as1-CN in caprine milk (1.1–1.7 g ⁄ L) and eight of the currently identified types (A, B1, B2, B3, B4, C, H and L) with high levels of as1-CN in caprine milk (3.5 g ⁄ L) (Remeuf 1993; Chianese et al. 1997; Grosclaude and Martin 1997). From the physico-chemical as well as the technological point of view, the level of as1-CN in caprine milk influences its coagulation properties. Higher levels of as1-CN are responsible for longer coagulation times of caprine milk. Accordingly, a ‘high as1-CN type’ of caprine milk has the longest coagulation time. In spite of that, caprine milk with a high level of as1-CN is the best choice for cheesemaking because it has a better yield and greater firmness of the cheese curd. In addition, Chilliard et al. (2006) mentioned that caprine as1-casein influences the milk FA composition, which also influences the quality of the cheese or fermented milk. From the point of view of nutrition, caprine milk with low levels of as1-CN is more digestible than caprine milk with high levels of as1-CN (Haenlein 2004). Except with the as1-CN type of milk, the curd firmness of caprine milk products is positively correlated with the contents of b-CN and calcium but negatively correlated with the average micellar size (Božanić et al. 2002b). Furthermore, the coagulation velocity of caprine milk is positively correlated with the as1-CN ⁄ b-CN ratio and the total calcium content (Alichandis and Polychroniadou 1997). Many studies of the nutritional properties of the caprine milk protein system have been published. In general, it has been emphasised that the proteins of caprine milk are more digestible than the proteins of bovine milk (Park 1994b; Park et al. 2007). In addition, better absorption of the amino acids from caprine milk in comparison with those Table 6 Composition of the structural features of the caseins in bovine and caprine milk (Martin et al. 2003) Caprine milk a Bovine milk b c a Caseins Amino acids Amino acids P-sites Amino acids Amino acidsb P-sitesc as1-CN as2-CN b-CN j-CN 199 208 207 171 15 15 15 21 11 ⁄ 11 16 ⁄ N.D. 6⁄6 6⁄3 199 207 209 169 15 15 15 21 9⁄9 17 ⁄ N.D. 6⁄5 5⁄3 a Number of amino acid residues in the mature chain of the protein. Number of amino acid residues in the signal peptide. c Number of phosphorylation sites (putative ⁄ actual). N.D, no data. b  2010 Society of Dairy Technology 177 Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 Table 7 Percentages of the main casein fractions in caprine and bovine milk (data compiled from Božanić et al. 2002) Caseine fraction Caprine milk Bovine milk as-CN b-CN j-CN as-CN ⁄ b-CN 26 64 10 0.41 56 33 11 1.70 of bovine milk in the human digestive tract has been also reported (Haenlein 2004). The casein micelles in caprine milk differ markedly from those in bovine milk in exhibiting a less complete sedimentation rate, greater b-CN solubilisation, more calcium and phosphorus, less solvation and lower heat stability (Jenness 1980). Curd of caprine milk is weaker than curd of bovine milk, which has a direct influence on digestibility in the gastrointestinal tract. Experiments performed by Haenlein (1992) showed that the addition of a strong acid to caprine milk causes the formation of smaller and less dense clusters compared with those in bovine milk. Furthermore, caprine milk has a higher amount of biologically valuable whey proteins than bovine milk, b-lactoglobulin and a-lactoalbumin (Park 1994b). Data presented in Table 8 show the results of comparative analyses of the amino acids in caprine and bovine milk. In spite of the ever present variability of the data, the results of comparative studies in the past showed higher amounts of some essential amino acids in caprine milk than in bovine milk. Data published in official USDA tables show higher levels of 6 of the 10 essential amino acids in caprine milk than in bovine milk: threonine, lysine, isoleucine, cystine, tyrosine and valine (Posati and Orr 1976; cited by Haenlein 2004). In studies with experimental animals (rats), Barrionuevo et al. (2002) found that a higher content of cysteine, which has been ordinarily derived from cystine, improves the intestinal absorption of copper and iron in experimental Table 8 Analysis of the amino acids in caprine and bovine milk (Urbiene et al. 1997) Amino acids Caprine milk Bovine milk a) Total amino acids (mg %) b) Total free amino acids (mg %) c) Total free essential amino acids (mg %) b ⁄ aa c ⁄ ab 2989 3199 2.51 2.38 1210 1280 0.084 40.48 0.074 40.01 a Essential amino acids ⁄ total amino acids. Free essential amino acids ⁄ total amino acids. b 178  2010 Society of Dairy Technology animals. The data of Urbiene et al. (1997), presented in Table 8, also show that caprine milk contains higher levels of free amino acids than bovine milk. Taurine is the most representative free amino acid in caprine milk (Tripaldi et al. 1998). Among the free amino acids, the taurine content is significantly higher in caprine milk and more similar to that of human milk (Mehaia and Al-Kanhal 1992). Taurine is widely distributed in the fluids and tissues of the human organism, and is considered to be a ‘conditionally essential amino acid’ in human beings (Huxtable 1993). Taurine is involved in many important roles in the human organism, such as formation of the infant brain, formation of bile salts, calcium flux, neuron excitability and the stabilisation of membranes (Huxtable 1993). Furthermore, cardiomyopathy, epilepsy, lack of growth and some other disturbances have been induced by taurine deficiency in human tissues (Tripaldi et al. 1998). In addition to these bioactive protein compounds, many researchers have isolated other bioactive peptides from caprine milk, especially in the past decade. Among them, antimicrobial peptides derived from caprine whey and caseins definitely could have certain biological impacts in humans, but further investigations are necessary to clearly define their biological functions (Park et al. 2007). This is especially relevant to nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) compounds. The NPN contents of caprine milk, similar to human milk, are higher than in bovine milk. According to some authors (Feldhofer et al. 1994), this is one of the reasons why caprine milk has been identified as ‘a healthy’ milk. Other constituents As in bovine milk, lactose is the major carbohydrate in caprine milk. Lactose is a valuable nutrient because it favours the absorption of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus, and the utilisation of vitamin D (Campbell and Marshall 1975). According to the results of published studies, the content of lactose in caprine milk is slightly, but not significantly, lower than in bovine milk (Table 1). Caprine milk is significantly rich in lactose-derived oligosaccharides compared with bovine milk. Milk oligosaccharides are thought to be beneficial for human nutrition because of their prebiotic and antiinfective properties (Kunz et al. 2000). The macrobiotic and trace mineral contents of caprine milk are affected by diet, breed, individual animal and stages of lactation (Park et al. 2007). The mineral contents of caprine and ovine milk are much higher than those of human milk (Park et al. 2007). In comparison with bovine milk, caprine milk has more Ca, P, K, Mg and Cl, and less Na and S (Table 9). Because of the higher content of K and Na, caprine milk has a specific slightly salty taste (Božanić et al. 2002b). Calcium plays an Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 Table 9 Mineral and vitamin contents (g ⁄ kg) of caprine and bovine milk (data compiled from Park et al. 2007) Constituents Mineral Ca P Mg K Na Cl S Fe Cu Mn Zn I Se Al Vitamin Vitamin A (IU) Vitamin D (IU) Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Panthotenic acid Vitamin B6 Folic acid Biotin Vitamin B12 Vitamin C Caprine milk Bovine milk 1.34 1.21 0.16 1.81 0.41 1.50 0.28 0.0007 0.0005 0.00032 0.0056 0.00022 0.0000133 n⁄a 1.22 1.19 0.12 1.52 0.58 1.00 0.32 0.0008 0.0006 0.0002 0.0053 0.00021 0.0000096 n⁄a 185 2.3 0.00068 0.0021 0.0027 0.0031 0.00046 0.00001 0.000015 0.00000065 0.0129 126 2.0 0.00045 0.0016 0.0008 0.0032 0.00042 0.00005 0.000020 0.00000357 0.0094 important role in the construction and protection of bones in humans, but it has many other biological functions connected to human vitality and wellbeing (Park 1994b; Tratnik 1998). The average absorption of calcium from food in the human small intestine is about 20% (Božanić et al. 2002b). Milk and dairy products are the best foodstuffs for providing a source of calcium in the human diet. The phosphorus in milk occurs in other types of compounds: inorganic salts (about 33%), organic esters (about 20%) and colloidal inorganic phosphate (39%) (Tratnik 1998). Together with calcium, phosphorus plays many positive roles in the human organism. In addition to the total amounts of calcium and phosphorus, the Ca ⁄ P ratio has important nutritional significance (Hill 1998). For humans, the ideal P2O5 ⁄ CaO ratio is assumed to be the same as in human milk (1.4). The P2O5 ⁄ CaO ratio in caprine milk is nearer to that of human milk than bovine milk (Slačanac 2004). Caprine and bovine milk, similar to human milk, contain many trace minerals, but only a few of them play important biological roles in the human organism. Fe and Cu have been most thoroughly investigated because of their role in lipid oxidation (Božanić et al. 2002b). The levels of Fe in caprine  2010 Society of Dairy Technology and bovine milk are significantly lower than in human milk (Table 9). In contrast, caprine and bovine milk contain a significantly higher content of iodine than human milk, which would be important for human nutrition since iodine and thyroid hormones are involved in determining the metabolic rate of physiological body functions (Underwood 1977). Caprine and human milk contain higher levels of Se than bovine milk. Furthermore, the glutathione peroxidase content is higher in caprine than in bovine and human milk (Debski et al. 1987). Glutathione peroxidase is an important ingredient of milk because it forms part of a defence system against undesirable microorganisms. Caprine milk contains 40% less citrate than bovine milk (Morgan et al. 2000). Overall, caprine milk is an excellent source of biodigestible calcium, phosphorus and magnesium because it contains higher amounts of these minerals in soluble form (Gueguen 1997). Results presented by Remeuf (1993) show that in European goat breeds soluble Ca ranged from 30 to 38%. The levels of soluble Mg and P in caprine milk were 66 and 39%, respectively. Milk contains almost all the known vitamins. Caprine milk has a higher content of vitamin A than bovine milk because goats convert all b-carotene from foods into vitamin A in the milk. For that reason, caprine milk is always whiter than bovine milk. Caprine milk supplies adequate amounts of vitamin A and excess amounts of thiamin, riboflavin and pantothenate for the human infant (Park et al. 2007). Compared with bovine milk, caprine milk has a fivefold lower level of folic acid and vitamin B12, which causes ‘caprine milk anaemia’ (Davidson and Townley 1977). Caprine milk and bovine milk are both deficient in vitamins B6, C and D, which are very important in infant nutrition (Park et al. 2007). THERAPEUTIC EFFECTS OF CAPRINE MILK The most significant therapeutic role of caprine milk compared to bovine milk is its hypoallergenic value (Park 1994b). 50% of the human population (according to some authors 40–100%) who were allergic to bovine milk tolerated caprine milk (Park 1994b). Results presented by Saini and Gill (1991) show that only one of 100 children who were allergic to bovine milk were also allergic to caprine milk. The reason for the hypoallergenic value of caprine milk in comparison to bovine milk is the difference between their protein structures (Imafidon et al. 1991). Results of in vitro studies, obtained by Almaas et al. (2006), showed that caprine milk proteins were digested by human gastric and duodenal enzymes faster than bovine milk proteins. 179 Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 The higher content of SCFA, MCFA and MCT, as well as the smaller diameter of the fat globules in caprine milk compared with those in bovine milk, also has important therapeutic significance. SCFA and MCFA have been used in the treatment of many physiological disorders in humans such as malabsorption, cystic fibrosis, coronary disorders, intestinal disorders and regulation of cholesterol levels (Jandal 1996). The naturally homogenised fat in caprine milk, unlike the processed fat in bovine milk, could be the great advantage of caprine milk consumption in the prevention of atherosclerosis (Haenlein 1992). Kullisaar et al. (2003) showed that the consumption of caprine milk fermented with probiotic strain L. fermentum ME-3 improved antiatherogenicity in 21 healthy subjects: it prolonged resistance of the lipoprotein fraction to oxidation, lowered levels of peroxidised lipoproteins, oxidised LDL and enhanced total antioxidative activity. Songiseep et al. (2005) reported that the reduction of oxidative stress when using fermented caprine milk formula provided a defence against enteric infection. In a study conducted on rats with malabsorption syndrome, the digestive utilisation of the fat was greater in the rats receiving a diet of caprine milk than in those given a cow milk-based diet. At the same time, the consumption of caprine milk reduced the levels of cholesterol (Alferez et al. 2001). Moreover, Alferez et al. (2006) reported that dietary caprine milk improves iron bioavailability in rats with induced ferropenic anaemia in comparison with bovine milk, and influenced an increase in Fe deposits in target organs. In addition to iron bioavailability, the beneficial effects of caprine milk on the nutritive utilisation of protein, magnesium, calcium, phosphorus, zinc and selenium were demonstrated in rats with resection of the distal small intestine (Alferez et al. 2003; Lopez-Aliaga et al. 2003). Better digestibility of caprine milk proteins, as well as the softer curd of fermented caprine milk products compared with those of bovine milk, also has therapeutic advantages. For that reason caprine milk could be used as an alternative food in the diet of patients with ulcers and ulcerative colitis (Park 1994b). It was cited above that caprine milk contains more Se and glutathione peroxidase than bovine milk. Se influences glutathione peroxidase activity. Gluathione peroxidase binds radicals in the human organism and influences cancer prevention (Desjeux 1993). In addition to these scientifically confirmed positive therapeutic effects of caprine milk, many anecdotal and medical benefits of caprine milk have been reported in the popular press. Positive effects in patients with pulmonary disorders are one of these benefits (Haenlein 2004). The nutritive value of some types of food can be presented by correlation of the food composition and human dietary allowances. The nutrient 180  2010 Society of Dairy Technology Table 10 Nutrient intake in one cup of milk (245 g) compared with RDA (recommended human daily dietary allowance) (Haenlein 1996) Nutritients Caprine milk Bovine milk RDA Tryptophan (g) Threonine (g) Isoleucine (g) Leucine (g) Lysine (g) Methionine (g) Cystine (g) Phenylalanine (g) Tyrosine (g) Valine (g) Ca (mg) Mg (mg) P (mg) K (mg) Thiamine (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg) C18:2 (g) C18:3 (g) 0.106 0.398 0.505 0.765 0.708 0.196 0.113 0.377 0.437 0.585 326 34 270 499 0.117 0.337 0.676 0.26 0.10 0.113 0.362 0.486 0.786 0.637 0.201 0.074 0.388 0.388 0.537 291 33 228 370 0.093 0.395 0.205 0.18 0.12 0.5 1.0 1.4 2.2 1.6 2.2 – 2.2 – 1.6 800 200 800 – 0.8 0.9 14 – – intake in one cup of caprine or bovine milk compared with the recommended human daily dietary allowances (RDA) is presented in Table 10. DEVELOPMENT OF FERMENTED CAPRINE MILK WITH PROBIOTICS Sensory and physico-chemical characteristics of fermented caprine milk During fermentation caprine milk loses its characteristic ‘goaty’ taste, which has been unacceptable for many consumers (Haenlein 2004). Many studies on fermented caprine milk products have been published in the past decade, but on the global European market fermented caprine milk products (especially products with probiotics) still account for a minor proportion. Caprine yoghurt is very popular in the United States as a specialty product and as a substitute for bovine milk products for those who have allergies to bovine milk (Haenlein 1996). In the European Union, caprine milk products are considered to be the dairy product with the greatest marketing potential and, therefore, several characteristics of caprine milk are currently the focus of increased research interest (Casalta et al. 2005). Today, caprine yoghurt is traditionally produced in the Mediterranean peninsula, the Middle East, southern Russia and the Indian subcontinent (Malek et al. 2001; Karademir et al. 2002; Stelios and Emanuel 2004; Tamime and Robinson 2007). Most of the fermented caprine milk products other than yoghurt have a strong traditional character, such as Chhana (Pandya and Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 Ghodke 2007), Labneh (Nsabimana et al. 2005) or Rob (Abdelgadir et al. 1998). Unfortunately, there are many technological difficulties associated with producing fermented caprine milk with good sensory properties. Many of them are connected with the specific composition and structure of caprine milk. The consistency of fermented caprine milk products has been determined to be one of the critical problems (Farnsworth et al. 2006). Caprine milk has a slightly lower casein content than bovine milk, with a very low proportion or absence of as1-casein, and a higher degree of casein micelle dispersion (Vegarud et al. 1999). Seasonal changes in the composition of caprine milk also influence the consistency of fermented caprine milk products (Guo 2003). All these factors influence the rheological properties of the curd in fermented caprine milk, which is much weaker than that of bovine milk (Novaković et al. 1997, 1998). Another problem is over-acidification of fermented caprine milk products in comparison with those of bovine milk (Rysstad and Abrahamsen 1983). In constant scientific trials to improve the sensory quality of fermented caprine milk products, many experiments were performed (Martin-Diana et al. 2003). In many of them, the nonfat solids content of caprine milk was enhanced with different procedures. Procedures such as concentration of the milk by membrane processes, the addition of stabilisers such as pectins or inulin, and employment of exopolysacharideproducing lactic acid bacteria have been used to improve the textural characteristics of fermented caprine milk, as in low fat fermented milk (Hess et al. 1997; Duboc and Mollet 2001). The addition of skim milk powder (SMP) and whey protein concentrate (WPC) was also used to increase the total solids in caprine milk before fermentation (Herrero and Requena 2006; Tratnik et al. 2006). Apart from these ordinary procedures for increasing nonfat solids in milk, some alternative methods were used on a trial basis to improve the consistency of fermented caprine milk products. Farnsworth et al. (2006) reported that the microstructure of caprine milk yoghurt can be improved by treatment of the milk with transglutaminase (TGase), or microbial transglutaminase (MTGase) (Farnsworth et al. 2006). Results presented by Mehaia and El-Khadragy (1998) showed that the concentrations of fat and protein in caprine milk increased proportionally with the volume concentration ratios during ultrafiltration treatment. All these experiments resulted in better textural properties of fermented caprine milk products, but most of their results are not incorporated in the global dairy industry yet. As opposed to gel firmness, some positive properties of the curd of fermented caprine milk products were determined. Vargas et al. (2008) showed that, in yoghurt produced  2010 Society of Dairy Technology from mixtures of caprine and bovine milk, the addition of caprine milk significantly decreased syneresis of the curd. Novaković et al. (1998) emphasised the better stability of caprine acidophilus milk curd during storage in a refrigerator than that of bovine acidophilus milk. In addition to the sensory characteristics, in some studies, the nutritional value of fermented caprine milk needed to be improved. As was mentioned in the text above, one of the basic nutritive limitations of caprine milk is a lack of folic acid. Apart from direct addition of folic acid to caprine milk products (Jenness 1980), some other treatments of caprine milk have been suggested. The addition of folate-producing bacteria during fermentation may be one of them (Sanna et al. 2005). From the nutritional as well as from the therapeutic point of view, the development of fermented caprine milk containing probiotic bacteria has been recommended as a great possibility for the production of therapeutic fermented dairy food (MartinDiana et al. 2003). As in bovine fermented milk, in many recent studies researchers want to enhance the functionality of fermented caprine milk products by promoting the growth of probiotic bacteria in caprine milk (Martin-Diana et al. 2003; Farnsworth et al. 2006; Kongo et al. 2006; Tratnik et al. 2006; Kehagias et al. 2008). In general, the high nutritional and therapeutic potential of fermented caprine milk with probiotics has been emphasised. Fermentation of caprine milk with different starters In spite of the absence of fermented caprine milk products on the national market, in the last 15 years many scientific studies of fermented caprine milk have been performed in Croatia. The results presented by Božanić and Tratnik (2001) showed that commercial yoghurt starter grew better, as well as producing faster fermentation of caprine milk than bovine milk. In subsequent experiments with yoghurt DVS starters (YC350 and YC180), caprine milk and bovine milk were aromatised with fruity aromas as well as enriched with sucrose, SMP and WPC (Božanić et al. 2003a, 2004). Aromatisation as well as the addition of SMP improved the sensory characteristics of caprine yoghurt, while the addition of WPC had a negative effect on caprine yoghurt quality, especially on its textural properties. Contrary to caprine milk, the addition of WPC to bovine milk improved the fermentation rate as well as the sensory quality of the fermented products from bovine milk. Based on experimental results, the optimal amounts of SMP and WPC to be added were determined: 1% of WPC and SMP for bovine milk and 2% of SMP for caprine milk (Božanić et al. 2001b). The positive effect of SMP addition on the texture of caprine fermented milk was also 181 Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 proved by the results of Hardi et al. (2000). Additives stimulated lactobacilli growth during fermentation in both types of milk (Božanić et al. 1998) and improved the sensory properties of the fermented products. Božanić and Tratnik (2001) analysed the quality of caprine and bovine bifido milk during storage at refrigerator temperature. On the basis of instrumental and sensory examinations, the authors reported a higher overall quality of caprine bifido milk in comparison with bovine bifido milk, during all storage periods. The results of Božanić et al. (2002a) showed that probiotic ABT4 culture fermented bovine milk faster than caprine milk when both types of milk were enriched with 1.5% of inulin. Opposite to these results, in studies with L. acidophilus La-5, the addition of inulin improved the curd firmness of fermented caprine and bovine milk, but had no influence on the fermentation activity and viability of L. acidophilus La-5 during storage at refrigerator temperature (Božanić et al. 2001a). Contrary to fermentation with ABT-4 culture, Božanić et al. (2004) found faster growth of L. acidophilus La-5 in caprine milk than in bovine milk. Similar results have been reported by Slačanac (2004) and Slačanac et al. (2005a). Their results showed higher fermentation activity of ABT-2 culture in caprine milk than in bovine milk, as well as higher numbers of probiotic lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in caprine milk in all fermentation phases (Figure 1). In a report by Slačanac et al. (2005a), alteration of the FAs content during fermentation of caprine and bovine milk with ABT-2 culture was presented. In another study, the production of antibacterial organic acids during the fermentation of caprine and bovine milk with Bifidobacterium longum Bb-46 was also reported by Slačanac et al. (2005b) (Table 11). The results of the both these studies show that higher contents of SCFA and MCFA developed during fermentation of caprine milk (Table 11). In addition, higher contents of lactic and acetic acids developed during fermentation with Bifidobacterium longum Bb-46 of caprine milk compared with bovine milk. This is interesting data because the positive physiological function of SCFA and MCFA has been well known and investigated (Park 1994b; Mehaia 1995). Božanić and Tratnik (2001) fermented caprine and bovine milk with Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis Bb-12. Caprine milk did not coagulate at the isoelectric point of casein (pH = 4.6) but at significantly lower acidity, at pH values of 5.0–5.5. Further fermentation of caprine milk caused an increase in syneresis, as well as a degeneration in overall sensory properties. Božanić et al. (2003b), as well as Tratnik et al. (2006), reported significantly poorer sensory characteristics of caprine kefir in comparison with those of bovine kefir. Inhibitory effect of fermented caprine milk A wide range of investigations in our laboratory has focused on the inhibitory effect of fermented caprine and bovine milk on some intestinal and urogenital pathogens. All these studies are based on the results of some previous work over the past two decades regarding the antagonistic action of probiotics against many pathogens (Mitsuoka 1990; Salminen et al. 1998; Niku-Paavola et al. 1999; Reid et al. 2001). The inhibitory effect of a mixed ABT culture (containing bacteria L. acidophilus La-5, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis Bb-12 and Streptococcus thermophilus) Figure 1 Changes of CFU of Lactobacillus acidophilus La-5 and Bifidobacterium lactis Bb-12 during the fermentation of ABT-2 culture in caprine and bovine milk. 182  2010 Society of Dairy Technology Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 Table 11 Changes of short chain (SCFA) and medium chain (MCFA) fatty acids contents (mol ⁄ 100 mol of total fatty acids) during fermentation of caprine and bovine milk with Bifidobacterium longum Bb-46 (Slačanac et al. 2005) Fermentation time ⁄ hours Milk Caprine Bovine Caprine Bovine Caprine Bovine Caprine Bovine Caprine Bovine Caprine Bovine Fatty acid Butyric Caproic Caprylic Capric Lauric Myristic 0 12 a 3.44 2.90 2.32 1.09 3.47 0.67 9.03 2.31 6.77 2.46 12.57 10.15 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± b 0.18b 0.04a 0.03b 0.1a 0.05b 0.16a 0.38b 0.02a 0.15b 0.25a 0.04d 0.27a 3.46 3.27 2.39 1.15 3.76 0.85 9.65 2.36 7.01 2.54 12.18 11.76 24 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.06b 0.12b 0.2b 0.0a 0.29b 0.08a 0.04c 0.14a 0.07b 0.25a 0.28cd 0.35bc 3.86 3.78 3.27 1.05 6.95 0.75 11.21 2.32 8.31 2.42 21.20 11.33 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± 0.35c 0.14c 0.22c 0.06a 0.22c 0.14a 0.31d 0.07a 0.38c 0.07a 0.35e 0.16b a Mean ± standard deviation, n = 5. Mean values followed by the same letter in the same column and in the same row are not significantly different (P < 0.05) – for all fatty acids separately. b against E. coli, isolated directly from the cervixes of 50 women with acute bacterial vaginosis or urinary tract infection, was analysed by in vitro experiments (Slačanac et al. 2004a). There were no significant differences in inhibitory effect between fermented caprine and bovine milk. However, the results of all of the in vitro trials showed that semi-fermented ABT-2 culture of caprine and bovine milk (pH = 5.3–5.6) more strongly inhibited the growth of the uropathogenic E. coli strain than fully fermented samples (pH = 4.6–4.8). In another two studies with uropathogenic microorganisms, the antagonistic activity of caprine and bovine milk fermented with B. longum Bb-46 (Slačanac et al. 2004b), as well as with ABT-2 culture (Slačanac 2004), against Candida albicans was determined by in vitro trials (Hardi et al. 2006). As in the case of E. coli, C. albicans were isolated directly from the cervixes of women with diagnosed yeast vaginitis. The results obtained have shown a considerably higher inhibitory effect of caprine milk fermented with B. longum Bb-46 on the growth of C. albicans compared with that of fermented bovine milk. Similarly, ABT-2 culture of caprine milk inhibited the growth of C. albicans to a significantly greater extent than that of bovine milk. In all of these studies, there was no significant correlation between changes of pH or CFU of the analysed probiotic strain during fermentation and the inhibitory effect of fermented caprine and bovine milk. Pavlović et al. (2006) analysed the antagonistic action of caprine and bovine milk fermented with B. longum Bb-46 on the pathogenic organisms Serratia marscenses and Campylobacter jejuni. Their results showed that the inhibitory effect of B. longum Bb-46 fermented caprine milk increased with the fermentation time. In contrast,  2010 Society of Dairy Technology the largest inhibitory effect of fermented bovine milk was obtained from samples taken in the middle of the fermentation period. All samples of fermented caprine and bovine milk exhibited an inhibitory effect on the growth of C. jejuni. From all the in vitro experiments done in our laboratory, the greatest differences between fermented caprine and bovine milk were noted for the case of Salmonella enteritidis D growth (Slačanac et al. 2007a). In a number of in vitro experiments, S. enteritidis D bacteria, which were isolated directly from the faeces of an infant diagnosed with salmonellosis, were inhibited by caprine and bovine milk fermented with B. longum Bb-46. The results obtained showed a considerably larger inhibitory effect of fermented caprine milk on the growth of S. enteritidis D compared with that of fermented bovine milk. Finally, inhibition of the growth of Staphylococcus aureus by caprine and bovine milk fermented with B. longum Bb-46 was examined (Slačanac et al. 2007b). The results showed a significantly larger inhibitory effect of fermented caprine milk on the growth of S. aureus, compared with that of fermented bovine milk. Fermented caprine milk inhibited the growth of S. aureus during the whole fermentation period. In contrast to fermented caprine milk, the weaker inhibitory effect of fermented bovine milk was observed only during the first phase of fermentation (incompletely fermented samples at higher pH values and lower numbers of viable cells of B. longum Bb-46). All these results demonstrate the diversity in microbiological interaction. In many cases, neither the acidity of the fermented milk nor the number of probiotic viable cells was a critical factor in determining the degree of inhibition. 183 Vol 63, No 2 May 2010 Current investigations in our laboratories are focused on ways to ferment caprine sweet whey using different lactic acid starters, as well as reconstituting with different additives, in order to produce fermented products with good sensory properties and high nutritional value. The most recent experiments in our laboratories include the addition of honey, as a strong antimicrobial substance, to fermented caprine and bovine milk. CONCLUSION The unique characteristics of caprine milk have been investigated and reported in many studies during the last two decades. Caprine milk products other than cheese and heat treated milk are considered to be the dairy products with the greatest marketing potential and, therefore, several characteristics of caprine milk are currently the focus of increased research interest. Fermented caprine milks incorporating live probiotic cells represent a group of products with great prospects in the future with regard to their functional and therapeutic properties. As in other Mediterranean countries, the rise in the number of goat farms in Croatia has pointed to the requirement for production of some other products from caprine milk. The results of scientific studies conducted on fermented caprine milk have been a great support to the production sector, but further investigations are necessary. REFERENCES Abdelgadir W S, Ahmed T K and Dirar H A (1998) The traditional fermented milk products of the Sudan. International Journal of Food Microbiology 44 1–13. 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