Reflections on musical intelligence

Reflections on musical intelligence Reflexiones sobre la inteligencia musical Tatiana GARCÍA-VÉLEZ, PhD. Associate lecturer. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid ([email protected]). Antonio MALDONADO RICO, PhD. Lecturer. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid ([email protected]). Resumen This article analyses the characteristics of musical intelligence within the framework of the multiple intelligences model with the aim of moving forward the relationship between development, learning, and the optimisation of these intelligences. The skills and capa­ cities that are developed in interaction with musical intelligence are analysed as are the main lines of teaching work in schools, espe­ cially in the case of people with a specific edu­ cational need. Similarly, a brief overview of the proven effects of musical practice and the development of musical intelligence is provi­ ded, identifying some of the cortical and sub­ cortical areas involved in these intelligences and the modifications that musical training generates, with some suggested criteria about its pedagogical uses. En el marco del modelo de las inteli­ gencias múltiples, se analizan las caracte­ rísticas de la inteligencia musical, con el objetivo de avanzar en la relación entre el desarrollo, el aprendizaje y la optimiza­ ción de estas inteligencias. Se analizan las habilidades y capacidades que se desarro­ llan en interacción con la inteligencia mu­ sical y las principales líneas de trabajo do­ cente en la escuela, especialmente en el caso de personas con alguna necesidad educativa específica. De igual forma haremos un breve recorrido por los efectos contrastados a que da lugar la práctica musical y el desarrollo de la inteligencia musical, identificando al­ gunas áreas corticales y subcorticales impli­ cadas en esta inteligencias y las modificacio­ nes que genera el entrenamiento musical, sugiriendo algunos criterios sobre los usos pedagógicos. Keywords: Multiple intelligences, musical intelligence, education, development, educa­ tional needs. Descriptores: Inteligencias múltiples, in­ teligencia musical, educación, desarrollo, necesidades educativas. Revision accepted: 2017-05-10. This is the English version of an article originally printed in Spanish in issue 268 of the revista española de pedagogía. For this reason, the abbreviation EV has been added to the page numbers. Please, cite this article as follows: García-Vélez, T., & Maldonado Rico, A. (2017). Reflexiones sobre la inteligencia musical | Reflections on musical intelligence. Revista Española de Pedagogía, 75 (268), 451-461. doi: https://doi.org/10.22550/REP75-3-2017-08 https://revistadepedagogia.org/ ISSN: 0034-9461 (Print), 2174-0909 (Online) revista española de pedagogía year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017, 451-461 Abstract 451 EV revista española de pedagogía year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017, 451-461 Tatiana GARCÍA-VÉLEZ and Antonio MALDONADO RICO 452 EV Within the academic community and in educational fields, the concept of mul­ tiple intelligences has been known about for a long time. This concept was proposed and developed by Howard Gardner, and although initially it was simply a theoret­ ical concept, studies currently show this theory’s possible applications to educa­ tion. This article refers to multiple intel­ ligences in general, but focusses specially on musical intelligence and on the impor­ tance of developing this at an educational level. At the current time when it seems like the arts are vanishing from curricu­ la and from the educational system, it is necessary to underline the importance of music and the arts in general in the cog­ nitive and emotional development of our children and adolescents. 1. Multiple intelligences The multiple intelligences theory, de­ veloped by Howard Gardner in 1983, is a very interesting idea about how we can change our understanding of intelligence and above all of human beings’ capacity to learn. From the educational perspec­ tive, the recognition that people do not all learn the same way, or learn the same things at the same pace has been partic­ ularly important. Accordingly, Gardner (2011b) asks why we continue teaching and evaluating everyone in the same way when we understand that everyone learns differently. Gardner (1994) con­ siders that the field of human cognition should embrace a more universal range of talents, accepting that human beings have evolved to display different intelli­ gences and not to rely in different ways on a single flexible intelligence. This con­ cept leads to the suggestion that multiple intelligences exist instead of the old idea that all human beings share a single type of intelligence. Gardner (2011a) initially proposed seven different types of intelli­ gence, as shown in Table 1; however, in the subsequent expansion of his work, he added naturalist intelligence, although there is also the possibility of contemplat­ ing other types of intelligence such as ex­ istential or pedagogical intelligence. Table 1. Types of intelligence. Frequency 88 60 28 13 1 190 Source: Gardner, 1998. Taking this concept of intelligence as a starting point, it is apparent that there are different forms in which each person can better perceive, understand, and in­ terpret the information that provides them with the socio­cultural spaces in which they develop. For example, people with a greater capacity for bodily­kinaes­ thetic intelligence learn and perceive in­ formation better through their body and its movement, and make connections be­ tween information through the body and its movements. These people are much more adept at sports and dance than, for example, people with greater logi­ Reflections on musical intelligence In the years since the publication of his theory of Multiple Intelligences, Gard­ ner has expanded his work in this area to include the concept that could be called «multiple minds». This is a very inter­ esting concept to develop and use in the different teaching practices of the school. Gardner (2008) notes the importance of educating children and young people in the development of five different types of minds as a way of reinforcing the multi­ ple intelligences, thus raising the really important challenges of current educa­ tion. He mentions three types of cogni­ tive minds and two emotional types of mind (2008). From the cognitive perspec­ tive, he describes the creative mind, the disciplinary mind, and the synthesising mind, and from an emotional or possi­ bly human perspective, as Gardner calls it, there are the ethical mind and the respectful mind. The disciplinary mind refers to the tendency of humans, and in particular schools, to turn people into spe­ cialists in a single area or topic, such as playing an instrument. Learning to play an instrument correctly requires years of practice, dedication, and study to ac­ quire this specialisation; therefore, high levels of discipline are required. There is also the synthesising mind, which is the one involved, for example, when solv­ ing a specific task, and can take a broad range of resources and use only that in­ formation that it identifies as important and useful for solving the task in ques­ tion. In the current digital era and with all the information available, processes of specialisation are becoming shorter and a rapid evaluation of all available infor­ mation —or much of it— is becoming very necessary with the aim of using only the information that is genuinely relevant to synthesise it and use it appropriately. Fi­ nally, from the cognitive perspective the creative mind is described; this might not be present in all people but schools should foster it. Gardner (2008) suggests boosting it by providing challenges and obstacles to learners in different subjects so that they can develop new ways of un­ derstanding and learning. This obviously does not involve encouraging competition between students; rather, the idea is that teachers are also creative when coming up with the topics and the way of working in the school. The aim is that students, by using the different minds and intelli­ gences, develop an approach to knowledge that motivates and interests them and so they acquire meaningful learning. From the more emotional perspective, Gardner describes ethical and respectful minds which are closely linked to moral develop­ revista española de pedagogía year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017, 451-461 cal­mathematical intelligence. This does not mean that each person can only have one type of intelligence or is unable to develop a given type, but this will large­ ly depend on the type of education they receive and on the setting in which they develop. The most interesting thing about this concept is understanding that no giv­ en intelligence is more important than any other and that all people can develop the different intelligences in one way or another if they are appropriately cultivat­ ed (Gardner, 2011a). In Gardner’s words, each of these intelligences is «a biopsycho­ logical potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture» (Gardner, 1999, p. 45). 453 EV Tatiana GARCÍA-VÉLEZ and Antonio MALDONADO RICO revista española de pedagogía year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017, 451-461 ment. Developing these minds is related to education in values and education for citizenship, considering these areas as vi­ tal for the development and well­rounded education of a human being, beyond the basic subjects on the curriculum. Given that the different intelligences can be cultivated and developed, Gardner, like Montessori, believes that teachers must prepare the learning environment so that it favours active and constructive learning (Ferrándiz et al., 2006). This model makes it possible to value criti­ cal thinking by children when they face tasks that are very different than the ones they are used to doing. The main objec­ tive is not to evaluate how much knowl­ edge they possess, but rather their skills, attitudes, and working habits relating to the different curriculum or learning areas. However, in schools, the differences between the intelligences are still ignored, or in simple terms only one or two of them is encouraged: linguistic and logical­ mathematical, with the development of the other intelligences being neglected, and the five minds mentioned above not being considered. The problem of ignoring the differences between types of intelli­ gence in students affects all of the educa­ tional community: schools, families, teach­ ing staff, students, and their sociocultural setting. The different learning styles and the various intelligences are not regard­ ed as being of equal importance (Bedoya & Amaris, 2007), resulting in the loss of talents and skills in the youth population. At present one of the areas that is most neglected in schools and in the curricu­ lum in Spain is the arts. Since the most recent legislative update —the Law for 454 EV Improving Educational Quality (LOMCE, 2013)— arts and music are no longer com­ pulsory subjects and how they are deliv­ ered and the amount of time dedicated to them have become the competence of each autonomous region, meaning that there is less and less space in the curriculum and in the class hours per week for the arts. We will now see why it is a priority to give the arts the prominence they deserve, especially music, if we want to improve our educational system and promote the development of our students. 2. Musical intelligence Musical intelligence and the develop­ ment of the so­called «musical brain» are fundamental topics in child development. A definition of musical intelligence will first be provided, then its implications for the pedagogic and emotional development of people undergoing education will be de­ scribed, and finally the implications at a pedagogical level will be discussed. Musical intelligence comprises an in­ dividual’s sensitivity to melody, harmony, rhythm, timbre, and musical structure (Gardner, 1998). This skill is not just expressed in the composition and perfor­ mance of pieces with pitch, rhythm, and timbre, but also in listening to and dis­ cerning them. It can be related to other intelligences, such as linguistic, spatial, and bodily-kinaesthetic (Gardner, 1998). According to recent studies (Levitin, 2014), we know that the human brain is capable of learning and deriving the rules and structure of any type of music with which it comes into to contact at an early age, in a similar way to how it does Reflections on musical intelligence with languages. This does not mean that it cannot be learnt throughout the indi­ vidual’s life, but as with second­language learning, exposure and early contact with the different structures produces signifi­ cantly better results. According to Levitin (2008, 2014), the neuronal developments of the human brain shows the cognitive capacity that characterises musical intel­ ligence: Gardner also states (1994) that the three skills relating to musical intelli­ gence —perception, execution, and pro­ duction— are skills that are developed from very early ages, before receiving any type of instruction or training in the top­ ic, but consistency is required in the influ­ ence of music from the socio­cultural area to ensure better future development. Creating art is a specifically human skill, both in its production and in the im­ portance given to it in the development as a person (Levitin, 2008). In this sense, music, as well as setting us apart as hu­ mans, in our ability to produce, appreci­ ate, and enjoy it, enables us to gain access to teaching and learning different key skills for relating with our surroundings, such as empathy and social relations, as Studies also show that each part of the brain has specific functions that enable the development of musical intelligence. Without going into too much detail, we can note that the motor cortex controls the tactile feedback required for playing an instrument or for dancing, the audi­ tory cortex makes it possible to perceive and analyse tones, the hippocampus is in­ volved in remembering music and its ex­ periences and contexts, the visual cortex is involved in the processes of observing dance and reading music, while the cer­ ebellum integrates all of the movements and emotional reactions associated with playing, listening to, or dancing to mu­ revista española de pedagogía year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017, 451-461 — The cognitive capacities of the­ ory of mind, representation and reor­ ganisation that we have as human be­ ings are what allows the development of musical intelligence. — The aim of art is to represent human experience selectively, empha­ sising the most striking elements of it or the sensations it produces. — Having a creative brain indicates cognitive and emotional flexibility. well as helping regulate different emo­ tional states. Consequently, playing an instrument or singing can modulate lev­ els of production of dopamine (Levitin, 2008), a neurotransmitter that helps to lift the mood and stimulates the immune system. This is very important when working in the classroom with children and adolescents as it can help regulate their emotional states, thus improving interpersonal relationships among the student body and between students and teachers. The development or stimulation of musical intelligence can be a way of helping to improve this and other aspects that interfere in the everyday process of teaching practice. Furthermore, rhyth­ mic, patterned music has a greater mne­ monic effect for codifying knowledge, the vital shared information that all members of society should know. It has also been shown that singing in a group releases oxytocin, a neurochemical substance that helps to create links of trust with other people (McNeill, 1995). 455 EV Tatiana GARCÍA-VÉLEZ and Antonio MALDONADO RICO sic. This shows how different parts of the brain are involved in musical process­ es and even how the two hemispheres interact, leading some authors such as Lacarcér (2003) to state that musical in­ telligence uses all of the brain, given that the interaction between the two hemi­ spheres is necessary for performing a piece of music, using the voice in a piece of music, and for musical expression and performance. All of this leads to harmoni­ ous learning and development. revista española de pedagogía year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017, 451-461 3. Pedagogic implications 456 EV After reviewing the importance of multiple intelligences, and musical intel­ ligence in particular, it is interesting to see how this model can and should be ap­ plied in the field of education and its pos­ sible benefits for students. Accordingly, it is important to set out what we are doing and we will refer to musical intelligence in school settings, but not relating di­ rectly to music teaching. In other words, musical intelligence involves a series of skills and capacities that involve different parts of the brain that are related to other skills, capacities, and learning by human beings beyond learning to play an instru­ ment, dance, or sing. Participating in mu­ sical activities can help children improve their skills in different learning areas such as reasoning and problem solving, lateral thinking, memory, social skills, and team work (Hobson, 2009). Similar­ ly, it is not our aim to discuss people with extraordinary talents, or with intelligence quotients above the average; in fact, our aim is to provide tools, models, and guide­ lines for developing and boosting this in­ telligence in all students. Accordingly, we note that Gardner (1998) suggests speaking of learning cen­ tres as a way of evaluating and developing cognitive competences. These spaces are set up within the classroom to ensure that all children have the same opportunities and explore the available materials in the eight types of intelligence. In a learning centre, topics are presented according to the interests and capacity of each group. This requires teaching that is both compre­ hensive and individual. Learning centres are created as spaces based around each of the intelligences, so that the children work and learn with the materials appropriate to each intelligence. The objective of learn­ ing centres for musical intelligence is to value the children’s capacity to maintain intonation, rhythm, and a continuous tem­ po within a particular melody, developing the skills of sensitivity to tone, rhythm and musical capacity (Ferrándiz et al., 2006). Despite its independence, musical in­ telligence has a close relationship with interpersonal intelligence. Regarding the former, one of the most interesting implications relates to bilingualism. It is known that numerous authors maintain that language and music are two capac­ ities with similar origins (Brow, 2001, Mithen, 2005, & Patel, 2003), with mel­ ody and speech as their connecting point, linked through intonation (Fonseca-Mo­ ra, Toscano-Fuentes, & Wermke, 2011). The areas where they show important similarities include: — Their status as capacities that are universal and are specific to the human being. — Both allow three forms of ex­ pression: oral, written, and gestural. Reflections on musical intelligence planning learning activities, it is always advisable to take these possibilities into account. However, it is also true that some people who show particular difficul­ ties when faced with learning and school, either on an occasional or permanent basis, and it is here that we believe that the development of musical intelligence might be of great use in schools and for teaching staff. From this perspective, it is clear that there are major similarities between lan­ guage learning and learning music. Some authors claim that structured musical training helps develop phonemic aware­ ness and auditory and rhythmic discrim­ ination (Toscano-Fuentes & Fonseca, 2012), facilitating children’s reading abil­ ity. The use of music in language teach­ ing boosts the development of reading, writing, listening and speaking skills (To­ scano-Fuentes & Fonseca, 2012). Being able to apply the pedagogical possibilities of music education helps with balanced and comprehensive training (Leganés, 2012), as well as being a very useful me­ dium for developing children’s linguistic capacity, both in comprehension and ex­ pression. In turn, the use of music in lan­ guage teaching helps the development of reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills in second languages. One constant concern in schools is what we can do to make them more in­ clusive, especially for people with special educational needs (SEN). It is important note that this refers not only to people with a diagnosed disability or condition, but that we must also include people who for different reasons require more or less intermittent extra support in their learn­ ing process. For example, a person of mi­ grant origin who still does not know the language of the host country. 4. Inclusion and music The act of discussing multiple intelli­ gences, as Gardner notes throughout his work, means accepting that each person has a different way of learning about the world, understanding it, and represent­ ing it to themselves. Therefore, whenever Since the 1990s, various types of study have been performed that note the influence of music on psychological and biological areas, especially in people with language difficulties (Leganés, 2012). Processing of language and of instrumental music are superimposed in the brain, suggesting that music education might help children with learning disorders like those affecting reading (dyslexia), and children with seri­ ous developmental disorders, such as those with autism, given that musical activity activates different circuits and specific special connections in the brain (Schlaug, Altenmueller, & Thaut, 2010). Similarly, it has been found that musical training im­ proves sound processing for language and emotions (Kraus, 2010). Therefore, we can use music as a way of capturing the revista española de pedagogía year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017, 451-461 — They are learnt in childhood without specific instruction. — They make it possible to create an unlimited number of new sequenc­ es with musical elements or words. — They have a structure with a fixed order and grammatical rules. — In both dimensions, the recep­ tive capacity is followed by the produc­ tive capacity. 457 EV Tatiana GARCÍA-VÉLEZ and Antonio MALDONADO RICO revista española de pedagogía year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017, 451-461 interest of motivating participation by chil­ dren with special educational needs who, as a result of the condition, are often iso­ lated and do not participate actively in the different classes. Evidently this situation requires a much greater commitment than usual from teachers, as what is sought is the ability to adapt the normal materials and methodology to the use of music in the different subjects. 458 EV Part of the evidence for how music can help to improve the inclusion and develop­ ment of people can be found in cerebral modifications. For example, the cerebral cortex has a clear ability to reorganise it­ self in line with its own needs, something which involves significant modifications. In the case of music, anatomical differ­ ences have been encountered in musi­ cians who have developed skills such as absolute pitch (Soria-Urios, Duque, & García-Moreno, 2011). Another example can be found in blind people who have de­ veloped auditory skills, leading to a great­ er size of the auditory space in their ce­ rebral cortex as they use visual areas for locating sounds (Soria-Urios, Duque, & García-Moreno, 2011). Other studies note that learning and acquiring a new skill produces changes in the cortical represen­ tation, such as for example, reorganisa­ tions of the motor cortex when learning to play an instrument (Soria-Urios, Duque, & García-Moreno, 2011). On these lines, it is worth mentioning a longitudinal study by Shlaug (2005) which found that children aged between 5 and 7 who start­ ed playing an instrument had better per­ formance in fine motor skill and auditory discrimination tasks fourteen months af­ ter starting their musical training. As stated above, processing music in­ volves various cognitive functions and is linked to improving attention, emotion, cognition, behaviour, communication, and perception (Soria-Urios, Duque, & García-Moreno, 2011). 5. Interpersonal intelligence and music Finally, we would like to underline the importance of focussing less on sub­ jects and returning to a more wide­reach­ ing sense of education. As Giroux (2001) notes, education is, above all, a process of socialisation. A process in which we learn to be citizens, relating to our surround­ ings in different sociocultural, political, and economic spaces. In all of this process, interpersonal and emotional development is vital but is often relegated to the back­ ground, as knowledge linked to the sub­ jects on the curriculum that focus more on knowledge and less on skills is favoured. Musical intelligence involves emotion­ al development that promotes empathy and expressing feelings, a process that involves knowledge and improvement of language and its expression, including sociocultural identity aspects (Rodríguez, Ezquerro, Llamas, & López, 2016). In addition, we should consider that when music is performed in a group, especially when improvised, it requires a high level of understanding of the other, empathy, and verbal and non­verbal expression (Davis, 1990). Toscano-Fuentes and Fonseca (2012), in a study performed at the University of Salamanca, found that working in class­ rooms with music created a change in Reflections on musical intelligence 6. Conclusions The concept of multiple intelligences is key to contemporary education, as we cannot continue educating the children of this century using techniques from the nineteenth­century. And yet it seems that this is what we do when we treat their intelligences and consequently their ways of learning as the same. If we con­ sider that every person understands, in­ terprets, and relates with the world and their surroundings in different ways, we should clearly understand that they learn in different ways. The theory of multiple intelligences seeks to help us guide these new pedagogies aimed at meeting the needs of a diverse population that might include people with special educational needs and definitively takes into account all of our educational population. In this vein, this theory states that no particular type of intelligence is better or worse than any other, but that they are all interre­ lated and can be strengthened through practice. From this perspective, we should re­ turn to Gardner’s idea of multiple minds, noting that not only do we have multiple intelligences, but that we have five types of mind that can help us to develop bet­ ter each one of the intelligences. Of the minds he describes, we particularly con­ centrate the respectful and ethical minds as these are the ones that have the emo­ tional and human component that is so important for children’s development and which is connected to the development of musical intelligence in particular. As we have seen, musical intelligence is a very important source of emotional, social, and communicative development, for all types of student. Studies have noted the im­ provement in relationships and empathy in the cases in which it has been worked on in the school with and through music. In addition, it is important to recall that musical training has very significant effects at a cerebral level. As has been shown, the musical mind is developed in different cognitive functions and different parts of the brain, and as more training is received, it is apparent how this causes physiological changes to adapt to the new needs, something that is highly desirable and important in the case of people with some type of special educational need, for example, a disability. revista española de pedagogía year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017, 451-461 behaviour among students and towards the teaching staff. Including music re­ laxes students, improves the classroom atmosphere, facilitates communication, provides greater social cohesion, and benefits inclusion in class. According to the information set out, we believe that the development of musical intelligence, above all the use of music and the other arts, in class in the different subjects is an interesting source of emotional and per­ sonal development for our students. This directly and indirectly involves work on self­esteem as the possibility of recognis­ ing the self and the other and working on empathy allows children and adolescents alike to evaluate and improve their levels of self-esteem. Furthermore, when boost­ ing their different capacities and taking into account their different ways of learn­ ing through multiple intelligences, we avoid stigmatising and isolating them or separating them from the educational system and so from society. 459 EV Tatiana GARCÍA-VÉLEZ and Antonio MALDONADO RICO In this article, we have tried to make it clear that we are not just referring to the importance of music teaching and arts in themselves within the school, but to the use and development of musical intelli­ gence in all areas of education, looking to strengthen different skills, including cog­ nitive, emotional and social. revista española de pedagogía year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017, 451-461 References 460 EV Brown, J. D. (2001). Using Surveys in Language Programs. Cambridge: University Press. Davis, M. (1990). Miles. Toronto: Simon and Schuster. Ferrándiz, C., Prieto, M., Bermejo, M., & Ferran­ do, M. (2006). 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Neurología, 53, 739­746. Toscano-Fuentes, C. & Fonseca-Mora, M. (2012). La música como herramienta facilitadora del aprendizaje del inglés como lengua extranjera. Teoría de la Educación. Revista Interuniversitaria, 24 (2), 197-213. Retrieved from http:// revistas.usal.es/index.php/1130-3743/article/view/10361 revista española de pedagogía year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017, 451-461 461 EV revista española de pedagogía año LXXV, nº 268, septiembre-diciembre 2017 Spanish Journal of Pedagogy year LXXV, n. 268, September-December 2017 Table of Contents Sumario Music education Jesús Manuel de Sancha Navarro Music in Secondary: interest for the contents, according to the students and the teachers of 4º of ESO Educación musical Guest editor: Ángela Morales Música en Secundaria: interés por los contenidos, según el alumnado y el profesorado de 4º de ESO 433 Editora invitada: Ángela Morales Ángela Morales Presentation: Music education, looking from the past to the future Presentación: La educación musical, una mirada del pasado al futuro Tatiana García-Vélez and Antonio Maldonado Rico Reflections on musical intelligence Reflexiones en torno a la inteligencia musical 389 Ángela Morales, Enrique Ortega, Elena Conesa and Cecilia Ruiz-Esteban Bibliometric analysis of scientific output in music education in Spain Análisis bibliométrico de la producción científica en Educación Musical en España Patrick Freer and Alfonso Elorriaga Llor Toward a pedagogy informed by research about the boy’s changing voice El desarrollo de la voz masculina durante la adolescencia: una pedagogía basada en la investigación 399 Roberto Cremades-Andreu and Desirée García-Gil Musical training for Primary Education graduates in the context of Madrid Formación musical de los graduados de Maestro en Educación Primaria en el contexto madrileño 451 463 Miguel Román Álvarez Technology at the service of music education Tecnología al servicio de la educación musical 481 Susana Toboso Ontoria, Inmaculada Tello Díaz-Maroto y Francisco José Álvarez García University musical training in a blended-learning context 415 Formación musical universitaria en un contexto de enseñanza blended-learning 497 Studies 2. Book reviews Estudios Ibáñez-Martín, J. A., & Fuentes, J. L. (Coords.) Sara González Gómez, Bernat Sureda García and Francisca Comas Rubí The educational renovation of the Barcelona City Council and its photographic diffusion (1908-1936) La renovación escolar del Ayuntamiento de Barcelona y su difusión fotográfica (1908-1936) 519 Vicente Llorent-Bedmar, Verónica CobanoDelgado and María Navarro-Granados School leadership and school management in underprivileged areas Liderazgo pedagógico y dirección escolar en contextos desfavorecidos 541 Educación y capacidades: hacia un nuevo enfoque del desarrollo humano [Education and capabilities: Towards a new focus on humandevelopment] (Cruz Pérez). Kristjánsson, K. Aristotelian Character Education (Juan Luis Fuentes). Barraca Mairal, J. Originalidad e Identidad Personal. Claves antropológicas frente a la masificación [Originality and personal identity: Anthropological keys in the face of overcrowding] (Aquilino Polaino-Lorente). Renzulli, J. S., & Reis, S. M. Enriqueciendo el currículo para todo el alumnado [Enriching the curriculum for all students] (Patricia Olmedo Ariza). Prats, E. Teorizando en Educación: entre erudición, poesía y opinionitis Theorising in education: Between erudition, poetry, and opinionitis] (David Reyero). Segura Peraita, C. (Ed.) El método socrático hoy. Para una enseñanza y práctica dialógica de la filosofía [The Socratic method today: For dialogical teaching and practice of philosophy] (Ernesto Baltar). 571 Table of contents of year LXXV Índice del año LXXV 603 This is the English version of the research articles and book reviews published orig­ inally in the Spanish printed version of issue 268 of the revista española de pedagogía. The full Spanish version of this issue can also be found on the journal's website http://revistadepedagogia.org. ISSN: 0034-9461 (Print), 2174-0909 (Online) https://revistadepedagogia.org/ Depósito legal: M. 6.020 - 1958 INDUSTRIA GRÁFICA ANZOS, S.L. 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