Liquefied natural gas is a mixture of gases

ISSN 1849-0638 ZBORNIK RADOVA PROCEEDINGS 22. SKUP O PRIRODNOM PLINU, TOPLINI I VODI 22 NATURAL GAS, HEAT AND WATER CONFERENCE nd 15 th 15 - - Suorganizator Co-organizer Uz potporu Supported by 5.09.- 09. 4. . 15. 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 4 ZBORNIK RADOVA 15 SKUPA O PRIRODNOM PLINU, TOPLINI I VODI 15th - RAOS 4 4 5. . 4. . 15. 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 5. . 4. . 15. 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 4 4 4 4 - 5. . 4. 22. skup o prirodnom plinu, toplini i vodi 15. m 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference POZVANO PREDAVANJE / INVITED LECTURE M I. ... 1 ............................................... 6 A. PLIN I PLINSKA TEHNIKA / GAS AND GAS TECHNIQUE ............................................................. 15 ................... 23 I. , ENERGETIKA I TOPLINSKA TEHNIKA / ENERGETICS AND HEATING TECHNIQUE ........................................................................... 32 M. P ...................................................................... 45 E ............................................................................................................. 54 ....................... 64 ......................................................................................................... 74 , J. Vajda ........................................................... 86 ................................................................ 95 M - ............................................... 105 .................................................................................................................................. 116 , V. Prokop Osijek, 25. do 27. rujna 2024. 22. skup o prirodnom plinu, toplini i vodi 15. m 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference URBANIZAM, GRADITELJSTVO I REGULATIVA / URBAN PLANNING, CONSTRUCTION AND REGULATIONS ................................................................................................................................... 128 ....................................................................................................... 141 ........................................... 153 ................................................................................. 164 M ............................................... 177 .................................................................................................................. 187 – ....... 199 - KONSTRUIRANJE I PROIZVODNE TEHNOLOGIJE / DESIGN AND PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES ...................................................................... 209 .................................................. 219 S. Švoger ................................................................................................................... 229 ........................................ 239 , S. Švoger, J. Srpak ......................................................................................... 249 - .................................................................................. 259 Osijek, 25. do 27. rujna 2024. 22. skup o prirodnom plinu, toplini i vodi 15. m 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference .......................................................................................................... 269 Á. Vér ..................................................................................................................... 277 - .............. 294 ......................................................................................................... 302 ........................................................................................................... 310 ........................................................................................... 316 ..................................................................... 326 ....................................................................................... 335 , M. Stojkov Osijek, 25. do 27. rujna 2024. 22. skup o prirodnom plinu, toplini i vodi 15. m 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference Liquefied natural gas is a mixture of gases Ukapljeni prirodni plin je mješavina plinova E-mail:[email protected] Abstract: Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is purified natural gas that turns into a liquid state by cooling for easier transportation. In international traffic, the abbreviation for liquefied natural gas is LNG, according to the English name liquefied natural gas. Liquefied natural gas occupies about 1/600 of the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state. It is colorless and odorless, nontoxic and non-corrosive. The reasons for the increase in use, and with it transport, are multiple. Its most often mentioned advantages over other energy sources are significantly less environmental pollution, fuel with high heating power and possible large deposits reserves. Keywords: LNG, Natural Gas, Consumption, Transport, Markets plin je 1. Introduction Gas is one of the most important energy sources in the global heat and energy market. Due to the large gas reserves, the important role of gas will certainly not change in the coming decades. Natural gas is a mixture of methane (more than 90 mole percent) with smaller amounts of ethane, propane and higher hydrocarbons, and may also contain carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide (such gas is called sour), nitrogen, and sometimes helium and lives According to the proportion of heavier hydrocarbons, they differ: dry gas, whose proportion is insignificant, and wet gas or wet gas, whose proportion of heavier hydrocarbons is greater and significant from gas and gas condensate reservoirs. Natural gas has limited possibilities as a fossil fuel. Osijek, 25. do 27. rujna 2024. 15 22. skup o prirodnom plinu, toplini i vodi 15. m 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference It is estimated that natural gas reserves could last another hundred years at current usage levels. The biggest problems with gas is that the proportion of methane in it varies from country to country, so for example in Russia the proportion of methane in natural gas is around 98%, while in the Netherlands it is 80% to 85%. LNG is natural gas which has been condensed into a liquid. Natural gas can be transformed into a liquid state by the application of pressure or extreme cooling or a combination of both sure, the LNG industry adopts a cooling process which operates at atmospheric pressure. LNG is predominantly methane, with small proportions of ethane, propane, butane and pentanes. The resulting liquid is chemically inert in respect of most substances and will not burn or explode. At ambient temperatures LNG boils away leaving no residue, and any LNG which transforms into gaseous state is about half the density of air and consequently rises and disperses. The transformation of methane gas into liquefied methane yields a volume reduction of approximately 600 to one. This super-cooled liquid can be stored cryogenically in insulated tanks constructed of special steel (as normal steel cannot withstand the low temperature of LNG) or aluminium, which can then be installed on ocean-going vessels for transportation. 2. The Energy Development Strategy The Energy Development Strategy sets guidelines for the implementation of activities to achieve a sustainable, reliable and flexible energy system through strategic management and market exploitation to achieve safe operation. and affordable energy supply, limiting greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector, more efficient energy use, and development and implementation of environmentally sustainable energy technologies [2]. Every country should have an energy development strategy because it is a fundamental document that determines the rules of the game in the energy sector. The goal of the strategy is to replace electricity for space heating and domestic water production with other types of energy: solar energy, biomass, natural gas and liquid gas in areas far from the natural gas network. This purpose does not apply to the use of electricity for heating and hot water production with heat pumps. In transport, forms that reduce energy intensity are promoted. 3. Energy Efficiency Despite the increase in energy efficiency, the further development of the economy requires an increase in energy consumption, which means that one of the basic conditions for economic growth and development is fulfilled [3]. At this point, it should be emp the main role of the state in this sense is the approval, implementation and control of energy policy. The main instruments of energy policy implementation are regulation of the energy sector, adoption of energy efficiency measures, consumer protection, including the cost of external effects of energy prices, etc. The efficient use of energy in production, transmission and immediate consumption is the basis of development guidelines for all sectors of the energy system. In the field of oil, oil Osijek, 25. do 27. rujna 2024. 16 22. skup o prirodnom plinu, toplini i vodi 15. m 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference of refineries and the use of advanced technologies in the disposal of oil fields and gas deposits. In the energy industry, energy efficiency requires the implementation of more efficient energy conversion technologies, such as advanced coal combustion technologies, high-efficiency gas-fired power plants, and cogeneration, as well as reducing transmission and distribution network losses, site-friendly. promotion of dec efficiency of energy conversion, implementation of cogeneration equipment and reduction of losses of heat energy distribution, decentral energy sources. 4. Natural Gas Natural gas is a fossil energy source that was formed deep underground. Natural gas contains a large number of different compounds. Methane, a compound with one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH4), makes up most of the composition of natural gas. Natural gas also contains smaller amounts of natural gas liquids (NGLs, which are also hydrocarbon gas liquids) and non-hydrocarbon gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapor. We use natural gas as an energy source, fuel and for the production of various materials and chemicals. Natural gas is not toxic, it is lighter than air (density of natural gas is about 0.68 kg/Sm3 compared to air density of 1,293 kg/Sm3). We usually measure it in standard m3 (One Sm3 corresponds to the amount of gas occupying 1 m3 of space at a pressure of 1,01325 bars and a temperature of 15oC). It is important to distinguish natural gas from LNG (LNG or propane-butane). LNG is produced by processing crude oil and is stored in tanks and gas cylinders. Unlike natural gas, LNG is heavier than air, so the rooms where it is used must be carefully ventilated. Its main characteristics are flammability and explosiveness, but only when mixed with air and exposed to flame. The ignition temperature is 640 °C. It burns with a bluish flame, and if there is not enough oxygen during combustion, the flame acquires a yellowish to reddish color. When it burns, it releases a large amount of energy. Depending on the proportion of methane and other hydrocarbons, 1 m3 of natural gas burns about 9 to 12 kWh of gas energy. Natural gas burns without harmful combustion products, soot, ash and a very small amount of carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide, which is one of the most ecologically clean energy sources. Natural gas is a competitive substitute for liquid fuels on the market, and the replacement of liquid fuels with renewable energy sources must be strongly encouraged by various means [4]. Households and services will continue to use liquid fuels, especially liquefied petroleum gas. LNG and fuel oil also cover the peak loads of the natural gas supply system for consumers in the event of a natural gas supply interruption, which balances the imbalance in the natural gas supply system. Osijek, 25. do 27. rujna 2024. 17 22. skup o prirodnom plinu, toplini i vodi 15. m 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 5. Liquefied Natural Gas Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas that becomes liquid (liquefied) after cooling to about -160 °C. The volume of natural gas in the liquid state is about 600 times smaller than in the gaseous state. This liquefaction process allows natural gas to be transported to places where natural gas pipelines cannot reach. When natural gas pipelines are not possible or available, LNG is a means of delivering natural gas from production areas to consumer markets. The reduction in volume makes transporting long distances much more economical. LNG liquefaction and export facilities receive natural gas through pipelines and liquefy it for transport on special LNG ships or tankers. LNG is transported by tankers with refrigeration (cryogenic) tanks. LNG is also transported in smaller containers that can be placed on ships and trucks. LNG vessels can be more than 300 meters long and the minimum water depth must be more than 12 meters when fully loaded. They must also be double-diaphragm and specially designed to withstand the low temperatures of LNG. At import terminals (regasification receiving terminals), LNG is unloaded from ships and stored in cryogenic tanks before returning to its gaseous state. After regasification, natural gas is transported by gas pipelines to end users - industry, gas plants, and private and commercial customers. Extracting the natural gas from the ground is the first step in the LNG value chain [5]. The gas supply that comes from the production field is called “feed” gas and the feed gas is first sent to the onshore processing plant for treatment prior to liquefaction. It is important to note that raw natural gas has to be purified before it is suitable for use by consumers. While the natural gas used by consumers is almost entirely methane, natural gas is associated with a variety of other compounds and gases such as ethane, propane, butane, carbon dioxide, and sulfur, as well as oil, water, and other substances. All of these must be removed prior to the liquefaction process. Because the composition of natural gas can vary widely depending on the gas field, pipeline companies and LNG buyers typically specify allowable ranges of components and heating values. In particular, the specifications for higher heating value (HHV) and gas interchangeability vary significantly worldwide, as do the LNG characteristics from worldwide sources. Historically, LNG product specifications were not major plant design issues since plant designs were based on long-term contracts with specified buyers so there was little need for flexibility in the plant designs. This situation has changed in recent years as LNG trade has become more global, with owners of liquefaction plant often targeting more than one market. Moreover, the growing spot market for LNG provides more opportunities for buyers and sellers who have the ability to be flexible on product specifications. As a result, various technical solutions have been developed for conditioning LNG on liquefaction and receiving ends. For example, LNG extraction is a common method for adjusting LNG HHV downward on both the receiving and liquefaction ends. Nitrogen injection is also used in existing terminals to reduce HHV. Osijek, 25. do 27. rujna 2024. 18 22. skup o prirodnom plinu, toplini i vodi 15. m 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference In the last few decades, LNG has become an important part of the natural gas value chain in Europe and East Asia [6]. More recently, LNG imports by the United States have been accelerating. LNG and its impact on natural gas pipelines merit mention. LNG import terminals temporarily store the LNG until it is regasified, warmed back up to normal pipeline temperatures, and delivered into transmission lines as a vapor. At first blush, handling LNG in a natural gas line would seem to present no liquids problems. After all, when LNG is created at its origin, the gas has to be cooled to –160 ºC to get it into the liquid state. In the process, long before that temperature is reached, the ethane, propane, butane and heavier molecules liquefy and could easily have been removed from the natural gas stream. But LNG often comes from stranded gas, a term that implies the gas production is located in some remote place, far from energy markets. If that is true, the market for NGL may be equally isolated. The owner of the LNG operation may be interested in leaving the NGL in the LNG as a means of transporting it cheaply to a market or increasing its BTU content. Some LNG can even be spiked with extra propane and butanes because the destination market pays a premium for the liquids. In this case, the liquids-laden LNG may pose the same liquids problems covered earlier. For this reason, LNG specifications and quality are receiving considerable attention. 6. Global Consumption Global consumption of natural gas has been steadily increasing over recent decades [7]. In the period 2000–2019 alone, consumption increased by nearly 60% from 2,400 billion cubic metres (bcm) to over 3,900 bcm. Despite increased global consumption, documented natural gas reserves are also growing as a result of new technology developments and discoveries of new gas fields. During the period 2000–2019, the volume of documented natural gas reserves increased from 138,900 bcm to 198,800 bcm, of which nearly 50% are located in the Russian Federation, Iran and Qatar. At the same time, the share of natural gas in global primary energy consumption is increasing. Analysing the process of consumption growth, we observe that natural gas consumption is growing fastest in the Middle East, Asia–Pacific and Africa. The fastest growth in the last two decades has occurred in global exports of liquefied natural gas. Between 2000 and 2019, international trade in liquefied natural gas increased from 140 bcm to 485 bcm, i.e. more than threefold, with particularly rapid growth over the past five years. Although the SARS CoV-19 pandemic, i.e. COVID-19, has contributed to a decline in gas consumption globally in 2020, the annual global LNG trade is expected to increase to 585 bcm by 2025. The pandemic contributed to a correction of the IEA’s (International Energy Agency ) forecasts reducing the assumed average annual growth rate from 1,8% to 1,5% by 2025, which means a loss of 75 bcm of natural gas growth in this period. This underlines the strategic importance of LNG in enhancing the security of supply to end users, and contributes to a competitive natural gas market in an environmentally sustainable manner. Discovery of further sources of natural gas in places remote from the existing and planned routes of transmission pipelines, as well as the development of maritime transport have contributed to the dynamic development of the global liquefied natural gas market. Osijek, 25. do 27. rujna 2024. 19 22. skup o prirodnom plinu, toplini i vodi 15. m 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference . The development of global trade in liquefied natural gas is determined by the number of countries with energy infrastructure capable of exporting and importing it. The availability of liquefied natural gas on the global market, which is being increasingly liberalised, is steadily increasing. LNG supply contracts are increasingly flexible, they are concluded for a short period of time, and the raw material price is indexed to the price of gas hubs. This means that the process of development of the global LNG market is similar to the way the global oil trade has developed. 7. Transport Natural gas in a great many ways represents a unique case study in the International Relations context [8]. Natural gas as an energy commodity has unique characteristics. Because it is a gas, not a liquid or a solid product, it has historically been delivered through pipelines in most interstate cases. This development has set the framework for long-term contracts between states and companies. Previously, concerns over supply security have dampened the success story of natural gas for years. However, due to the emergence of fundamental changes in the market owing to liquefied natural gas (LNG), which is mainly transported via ship and unconventional gas, a global, or at least a more interconnected system of natural gas markets emerges out of the formerly distinct interregional markets. However, the peculiar nature of natural gas-as it is diffusible in its natural state and not a complex liquid solution like oil-makes the value chain and especially the transportation of the molecules a more difficult issue, compared to oil. Gas pipelines dominate the global supply system, but pipelines come with their own strategic and economic implications, as pipelines, once built from the supply region to the demand center, cannot be rerouted. This leads to fixed political and economic dependencies, and crossborder transit through third countries comes with additional legal, geostrategic, and therefore political consequences. Undoubtedly, natural gas trade and transportation is more complex compared to other commodities as additional forces and risks are associated. Out of the International Relations and international bargaining perspectives, natural gas trade is a special case where domestic-international linkages expose national interests and are set for a long period of time. 8. Most long views incorporate increased global natural gas consumption for decades ahead [9]. Hundreds of billions of dollars invested in gas and liquefied natural gas (LNG) supply chains and gas-consuming infrastructure every year, backed by long-term contracts, support these expectations. There are few good, cost-effective options for balancing electricity provided by intermittent renewable energy sources. However, much less is said about the use of natural gas as “a,” or perhaps “the,” baseload fuel for electric power generation although at one time it was almost a generic assumption. For that matter, not much is said about natural gas as “a,” or “the,” key baseload fuel source for other applications, like Osijek, 25. do 27. rujna 2024. 20 22. skup o prirodnom plinu, toplini i vodi 15. m 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference transport, or even petrochemicals, in spite of the tremendous advantage natural gas molecular feedstocks have in the U.S. and the importance of materials to the global economy. Notwithstanding relative abundance and low cost, and regardless of its critical importance as a primary heating fuel in colder climates, natural gas is most often discussed as an incremental fuel source, one that ultimately would be replaced by vast additions of renewable energy capacity, hydrogen, and electrification. Expanding the role of natural gas even as a vital incremental fuel source faces many challenges, more so in regions and locations where infrastructure is weak and “rules of the game” do not provide clarity for risky investment. Value creation across the natural gas to transport natural gas from production areas to consumption centers. Effective natural gas systems need production gathering at the field level and processing to separate out various molecules so that mostly methane can be supplied to pipeline networks and other molecules for methane and natural gas liquids (NGLs) to balance daily and seasonal fluctuations in demand. For direct use of gas, effective natural gas systems incorporate local distribution companies to move methane to factories, businesses, and homes via smaller diameter pipelines. All direct methane and liquid petroleum gas (LPG) consumers need appropriate appliances. If customers will receive natural gas as imports via pipelines or as liquefied natural gas (LNG), they will need pipelines and LNG receiving terminals (along with supporting LNG supply chains). Natural gas infrastructure is expensive to build, maintain, represent a large portion of end-user prices. 9. Energy Transition The energy transition is aiming for an eventual replacement of fossil fuels with renewable low-carbon resources [10]. The additional impact of these changing dynamics in the realm of energy security will create further economic and political challenges for gas-exporting states. To illustrate, due to the gradual decrease of natural gas demand under low-carbon scenarios, between 2020 and 2050, natural gas traded as LNG is projected to decrease 60 per cent, and gas trade via pipeline is expected to fall by 65 per cent. This can reach up to a 75 per cent fall in annual per capita income from oil and natural gas in export-dependent countries by 2030. Furthermore, the vulnerability of states dependent on natural gas exports is far beyond their fossil fuel revenues and socio-economic structures attached to their hydro-carbon dependent systems, since they have heavy investments in human capital, and -carbon scenarios, the expected decrease of natural gas demand can therefore result in spillover implications for export-dependent countries, including socio-political turmoil. These factors and the role of natural gas as a temporary transition technology which ideally foresees a decreasing share of natural gas in the energy mix, have already led some gas exporters to diversify their economies away from natural gas, shifting their extractive revenues into alternative energy technologies such as hydrogen, wind or solar. Osijek, 25. do 27. rujna 2024. 21 22. skup o prirodnom plinu, toplini i vodi 15. m 22nd Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference 15th International Natural Gas, Heat and Water Conference On the other hand, if these suppliers are to dominate the changing map of the global gas market, which is projected to shift into emerging markets (especially to Asia), they can be still required to invest in new networks, new extraction capacities and technologies, which risk locking them into natural gas financially and technologically, by also delaying their own prolonging the existence of natural gas in the global energy mix, as the previous section has already addressed. This creates a dilemma for natural gas exporters to invest or not into a technology considered to be only a transition fuel in the short and medium terms. 10. Conclusion Natural gas placed in LNG plants will be treated by removing water, hydrogen sulfide, carbon storage. LNG is a mixture of gases dominated by methane, and smaller percentages of ethane, propane and butane are found in the mixture. According to its chemical composition, methane is a saturated hydrocarbon with one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. 11. Literature [1] Dyer, E.; Reinbott, D.; Williams, M.: Liquefied natural gas in Picton-Turbervill, G: Oil and Gas - A Practical Handbook, Globe Business Publishing Ltd, 2009, pp. 113. [5] Sakmar, S. L.: Energy for the 21st Century - Opportunities and Challenges for Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2013, pp. 33. – 34. [6] Miesner, T. O.; Leffler, W. L.: Oil & Gas Pipelines in Nontechnical Language, PennWell Corporation, 2006, pp. 92. The Development of Global LNG Exports in Liuhto, K.: The Future of Energy Consumption, Security and Natural Gas - LNG in the Baltic Sea Region, Palgrave Macmillan, 2022, pp. 1. – 2. [8] Kuhn, M.: Enabling the Iranian Gas Export Options - The Destiny of Iranian Energy Relations in a Tripolar Struggle over Energy Security and Geopolitics, Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden, 2014, pp. 30 [9] Foss, M. M.; Gülen, G.: Building Sustainable Natural Gas Markets in Foss, M. M.; Macmillan, 2021, pp. 363. – 364. [10] Sever, S. D.: Natural Gas and Energy Security in Olawuyi, D. S.; Pereira, E. G.: The Palgrave Handbook of Natural Gas and Global Energy Transitions, Palgrave Macmillan, 2022, pp. 109. – 110. Osijek, 25. do 27. rujna 2024. 22