Abigail: The Wise Woman of Carmel

Ab^ail: The Wise Woman of C a^el· Amy Smith Carman Pepperdine University [email protected] Abigail’s wise and independent intervention to avert the impending disaster sparked by herfoolish husband saves herselfand her householdfrom slaughter and Israel’s future king from presumption and bloodguilt. A n examination ofthe 1 Samuel 25 narrative concerningAbigail’sprophetic act of mediation, which draws David’s gratitude and Tahweh’s blessing, contributes to the understanding ofthe role women played in ancient Israel, The story o f the wise and beautiful Abigail is a foscinating glimpse into the life o f an aneient Near Eastern woman inspired by Yahweh to use her wisdom to save the future king o f Israel. The author o f l Samuel places this story between two accounts in wlrich David exercises mercy and spares Saul’s life.2 In this intervening story, the audience does not see the compassionate David who restrains himself horn violence but an enraged David who B ea ten s bloodshed after being insulted by Nabal ( I Sam 25:34). Before this can occur however, Nabal’s wife, Abigail, stays David’s hand with her wisdom ‫ س‬understanding concerning his future (25:23-31). Abigail acts as a prophetic figure who speaks for Yahweh and sagaciously advises David. The future king is moved by her words and repents from his vow o f slaughter (25:34). Abigail’s husband soon dies at the hand o f Yahweh, and she agrees to become David’s wife (25:37-40). Besides a smattering o f minor references, Abigail disappears from history.2 She gives no further speeches and her wisdom is never again displayed for the audience. The following narrative analysis o f Abigail’s po^ayal, actions, and speeches will 1 This article was fee winning graduate-level paper in fee student paper competition at fee 2014 Stone-Campbell Journal Conference on March 14-15, at Johnson University, Knoxville, TN. 2See John Van Seters, TheBiblicalSaga ofKingDavid (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2009) 175‫־‬ 186, for a history ofinterpretation on fee two stories of David sparing Saul’s life as well as his views on fee author’s purpose in placing fee story of Abigail between fee two texts. 31 Sam 27:3; 30:5; 2 Sam 2:2. Each time, she is simply mentioned among a list of David’s wives. Stone-Campbell Journal 18 (spring , 2015) 47-60 SG J18(Spring,2015):47-40 shed light on the story and demonstrate how it cart contribute to the study o f women in ancient Israel· (^^ C T E R IZ A T IO N OF A b ig a il The protagonist o f this story is undoubtedly Abigail.* She is the only named female character, the only one to interact ^ t h all the other major characters in the pericope, and she has the longest speeches. At tlie heart o f this story is Abigail’s bravery, which prevents David from committing a terrible sin that will impede his rise to power.5 The accounts bracketing Abigail’s narrative depict David’s reluctance to take Saul’s life for a theological reason: Saul is the anointed one o f God (24:6; 26:9).6 Yet in this chapter, David is ‫أﺳﺎو‬ to draw his sword. Although he seems to understand God’s plan concerning Saul, he is ignorant o fh o w to act with Nabal. Abigail is the one who must steer David to the hiring course o n c tio n . The narrator reveals the heart o f the characters at the onset o f the story. H e first introduces Abigail’s husband, whose vast wealth is described before he is named‫ ؛‬Nabal’s attachment to his wealth is die fault that brings about his death/ The author presents Nabal in sharp contrast with his wife. Husband and wife are depicted as opposites.8 The lovely Abigail is “clever ‫ س‬beautifid,” while her husband is “surly and mean” (2 5 ‫ت‬3 (.‫ و‬The author emphasizes their dissimilarity 4While David is a major character in fee surrounding chapters, this paper will focus on Abigail as fee central character of 1 Sam 25. Tammi j. Schneider, Mothers ofPromise: Women in the Book ofGenesis (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008) 10-13, notes feat most female characters are usually assumed to be part of someone else’s story. As seconda!‫״‬y characters, they are only viewed in their relationships to male characters ‫ س‬have not been properly studied in their own right. She continues, “Recent studies show women’s roles in fee narrative are more than just footnotes to fee m en.. . . [Schneider’s work] highlights how attention to detail displayed in scholarship regarding issues of concern to male scholars has so shaped fee field that fee same attention to detail for female characters is only now beginning.‫ ״‬This paper seeks to follow fee lead of these emerging studies. 5Alice Bach, “The Pleasure ofH erText,” USQR4Z (1989) 41-58. 6Ralph ¥ lm , ISamuel(WBC 12‫ ؛‬Waco, TX: Word, 1983) 246. 7 Jon D. I^venson, “1 Samuel 25 as Literature and as History, 28 -11(1978) 40 0 ‫ﻴﻤﻢ‬ ‫ﺟ״‬ , highlights fee significance feat Nabal’s possessions are mentioned foremost. This emphasis on his goods is precisely fee key to his undoing later in fee chapter. 8 Joyce G. Baldwin, land 2 Samuel: An Introduction and C om m ent (TOTC 8‫ ؛‬Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1988) 147. 9All &:tipture quotations are fiom fee NRSV unless otherwise noted. Athalya Brenner, The Israelite Woman: Social Role and Literary Type in Biblical Nanative (Sheffield, England: JSOT, 1985) 33-45, comments feat most people who are considered wise in fee Hebrew Bible are male. However, a few women are mentioned as having this attribute, such as fee woman ofTekoa (2 Sam 14) and fee woman 0^ 1-tefe-m aa ca h (2 Sam 20:14-22). Wisdom is also personified as a woman in Proverbs 1-9. Am y Smith Carman: Abigail, the Wise Woman ofCarmel through chiasm in 25:3, making it painfully apparent to the audience that Nabal is not worthy ofhis wifo. Abigail is the embodiment 0 £‫( ?؟ כ ל‬sekel; “prudence,” “discernment”); she is the Proverbs 31 wife.10 Conversely, Nabal’s very name means fool (‫ נ ב ל‬, näbäij; he is the foil ofhis wife.11 Literacy, the two characters personify wisdom and foolishness. Afeor Abigail’s initial introduction, the author cuts away to develop the rising action until the heroine is needed in 25:14. In the meantime, the plot thickens as Nabal insults David and his small militia, even though they have kept his sheep and shepherds safe (25:14-16).٧ The household servants sense the danger o f their mas‫־‬ ter’s insult, and one o f them reports it to his mistress, telling her, “Evil has been decided against our master and against all his house; he is so iH‫־‬natured that no one can speak to him” (25:17). Abigail must act s^fily. She orders the servants to gather the items needed to fulfill David’s re‫ ؟‬uest. The narrator specifically mentions that she does not tell her husband about her actions (25:19). Abigail sends the gift ahead in order to disarm David and cool his fiery temper. She is committed to saving her household as well 10 Bach, “Pleasure ofHer Text,” 46. 11 Few scholars believe Nabal is an actual name. Levenson, “1 Samuel 25,” 14, emphasizes that the character is not a “harmless simpleton” but a “vicious, materialistic, and egocentric misfit.” Other biblical passages present one called a ‫( נ בל‬mbdtj as an embarrassment to his father (Prov 17:21), a glutton (Prov 30:22), a hoarder (Jer 17:11), an atheist (Ps 14:1; 53:1), and one who refuses to give food ‫س‬ ‫ س‬to the needy (Isa 32:6). Similar cognates refer to sexual misconduct20:6,10 (Judg ‫ول؛‬: 23 ‫ م‬4 ‫إ‬ 2 Sam 13:12,13) or rebellion against God (Josh 7:15). Jeremiah 29:23 refers to both sexual deviance and covenant-breaking. To underscore Nabal’s nefarious character, both his servant ‫ س‬Abigail refer to him as a “son of Belial” (‫ ؛ בך בל מנל‬ben-bHîya'al in 25:17 and ‫’ ; אל־איש הבלייעל‬el-’is habb3ltya(al 1n 25:25). The meaning of the phrase is aptly summarized by Ben-Meir, “Nabal, the Villain,” JBQ22 (1994) 249-251, “It can clearly be seen that all these terms apply to people who epitomize deviance: moral, judicial, religious, and political. ٠.. It is then quite conceivable that Nabal had committed grave transgressions against God and His Law.” The narrator has such contempt for Nabal that he is remembered only by the insult used to expose his villainy, ^rthermore, both the narrator and characters cannot help but ‫ آس‬him ‫ آل؛‬nearly every reference. 12 Debate abounds on whether David is simply requesting goods in return for a favor (Ben-Meir, “Nabal, the Villain,” 250) or running some form of “protection racket” for supplies (Joel s. Baden, The Historical David: The Real Life (fan Invented Hero (New York: Har^rOne, 2013) 95-97). If the former, then Nabal is foolish to reject and fosult David; if the latter, then Nabal is refusing to give in to David’s threats. Ben-Meir sees it as a reasonable request for repayment for a fovor, especially since Nabal was feasting ‫ س‬had plenty to share. He argues that David does not conduct himself as an outlaw; instead, he and his men protect the vulnerable. Baden, on the other hand, sees David as a lawless soldier who uses the threat of violence to provide food for his small army. Baden even bequeaths the title 0 f“H01yTerr0rist” to David to describe his years in the desert. Given that Nabal’s servant finds David’s request reasonable and his master’s reaction unwarranted, the author most likely intends it to be seen as a reasonable request. SCJ18 (Spring, 2015): 47-60 as David and his soldiers.13 God has given Abigail a clear vision o f David’s future, and she wishes to prevent him from veering from his destiny. The moment Abigail meets David, she foils before him and addresses him before he is able to utter a word. She speaks‫ ؛‬David listens. She begs David to let her take the blame and punishment for the incident (25:24a).14 Following this passionate start, Abigail admits the folly o f her husband by using wordplay with Nabal’s name {N abal [‫ נ ב ל‬, näbäl\ is his name, and folly [‫ ؛נ ב ל ה‬n*bäläh] is with him” 25:24b).٧ She then contends that had she witnessed the request o f David’s men, she would have granted it (25:24c). Does this, as Brenner asserts, hint that the true power and “real responsibility for the household is hers”?^ Abigail insists her wisdom should cancel out her husband,s foolishness. Similarly, Levenson remarks on the power o f Abigail’s speech: Her argument Is a rhetorieal masterpiece. She first disarms David by taking full blame for Nabal’s in s e n s ib ility . . . Abigail devises the perfect solution to the dilemma: she intercedes in behalf o f Nabal (1 Sam 2 5 2 4 ‫)؛‬, although conceding that he has no case and no hope o f survival (w . 25-26). In other words, while overdy defending him, she coverdy dissociates herself from him, so that by the end o f her address only she appears as the potential beneficiary o f David’s change o f heatt. . It is also essential that Abigail neither appears to be bribing David, lest she injure the warrior’s pride, nor com e empty-handed, lest she seem to underestimate the man’s resolve and the seriousness with w h ich he takes the matter.^ ٠ ٠ ٠ She may “speak as a handmaid,” but clearly, she “is master o f the situation.”13 13 Several scholars, such as Klein, ] Samuel, 251, maintain that when Abigail acts against her husband’s wishes and does not inform him öfter plans, she is not so much saving her husband as joining David’s side. David Toshio Ternura, The First Book of Samuel (NICOT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2007) 582, adds that Nabal’s own servants also side with David. Other scholars contend Abigail acts to save her household in addition to David. Baldwin, land 2 Samuel, 150. 14Ronald T. Hyman, “Rower of Persuasion: Judah, Abigail, and Hushai , ” / R16 -9 )23‫ل‬9 ‫؛و‬5 ‫(ر‬ 15 The same pun is made ‫ ط‬Isa 32:6. Baden, The Historical David, 96, however, maintains that Abigail is actually foe fool tecause by giving David supplies, she reveals Nabal has plenty of food to spare. Once David and his men run out of food, they will return and resume their threats. Baden bases his ar^ment on his own reconstruction of the historical David, who kills Nabal ‫ س‬marries his widow to gain his wealth and seize control of the Calebite trite. Baden argues that a pro-Davidic writer attempts to smooth over foe problematic murder ofNabal and acquisition ofhis property. 16Brenner, Thelsraelite Woman, 41. 17Levenson, “I Samuel 25,” 19. 18 Baldwin, 1 and 2 Samuel, I5fi-I5I. She refers to herself as a “servant” ٠٢ “handmaid” (’ämäh) five ‫ س‬calls David “lord” (}adôn) fifteen times. David’s sovereignty and her own humbleness are aspects Abigail clearly wishes to highlight. . Am y Smith Carman: Abigail, the Wise Woman ofCarmel The power o ^ b ig a h ’s case lies in her prophetic emphasis on David’s future and the effect his current actions will have in altering his fote.*‫ ؟‬She recognizes the Lord is using her to stop David from committing “bloodguilt and taking vengeance with [his] own hand” (25:26). Then, she makes the striking declaration that “the L o r d will certainly make my lord a sure house” (25:28a). Later rabbis viewed these declarations as prophetic‫ ؛‬Abigail is counted among the seven women in the Hebrew Bible who were said to have been graced by the Holy Spirit.^ Her language is nearly identical to Nathan’s prophecy in 2 Sam 7 6 ‫ﻟﺖ‬, which ‫آس‬ emphasizes the author’s intentional casting o f Abigail as a prophetess.^ In 25:30, she again announces with certainty that the Lord will make him prince over Israel. Attached to this prophecy, however, is the stipulation that David must reach the throne without any guilt “for having shed blood without cause ٠٢ for having saved him self’ (25:31b). She “speaks o f YHWH’s commitment to his chosen servant, one that vouchsafes to him a security which should enable him to overlook this temporary irritation, which must in no case impede David’s ascent to the throne” (2 5 ‫ ث‬2 83‫م ( ل־‬ Abigail challenges David to look at the big picture and pardon this insult. She is contident the Lord will bring about tlte downfoll o f David’s enemies; this not only includes Nabal, but Saul as well.^ Thus, David should not concern himself with personal vengeance. David responds to Abigail’s prophety with praise and thanksgiving. H e is persuaded that she is right in evetything she has said and that Yahweh has used her to restrain him (25:32 3 4‫م (־‬ Acting as a king would, David grants her petition to spare Nabal’s life (25:35). Abigail returns home victorious in averting calamity for her entire household through her wisdom and courage. Upon returning home, she finds her husband feasting as if he were a king, though earlier he had no food to spare for David and his men (25:36). Nabal never notices his wife’s absence, and she decides to say nothing about her actions until morning when he is sober. 19 ?eter D. Miscall, 1 Samuel: A Literary Reading (Indiana Studies in Biblical Literature‫ ؛‬Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1986) I5L ^Levenson, “I Samuel 25,” 20. 21 Bach, “Pleasure of Her Text,” 44-45, contends Abigail is the “God-helper link between Samuel and Nathan.” While David does not have a prophet to advise him, Abigail keeps him on the right path. Perhaps one can even push Bach further on Iter own language and ar^e that Abigail is a prophetess, not simply a “God-helper link.” ^Levenson, “1 Samuel 25,” 19. 22Baldwin, 1 and 2 Samuel, 151. 24Tsumura, ‫ ل‬Samuel, 72, 592, especially emphasizes rite hand of foe Lord moving ‫ ط‬this event. SCJ18 (Spring, 2015): 47-60 The moment Abigail explains the events o f the previous day, Nabal’s heart is turned to stone, and he dies ten days later (25:37-38). Unable “to stand the light ofjustice,” Nabal apparently dies from the shock ofhearing how his wife intervened on his behalf.** The ^ord is not m en tion ed to have a hand in the situation until Nabal dies ten days later. Abigail is left a widow. David WOOS her, and they are manned (2 5 ‫ ت‬39 4 2‫م (־‬ After David’s proposal, Abigail responds humbly and offers to wash the feet o f his slaves (25:41). Thus ends the tale o f the feture king, who was saved and taught a lesson by a prophetic, wise woman. W om en in A n c ie n t I s r a el Did Abigail act and speak as a conventional woman o f ancient Israel, or was hers an extraordinary feat? Would the author ‫ س‬audience view her actions as inappropriate or heroic? Tö answer these ‫ ؟‬uestions, it is necessary to look at the roles that describe Abigail, such as a wife and mediator and compare the findings to what was expected o f ancient women filling the same roles. Scholars vary widely in their opinions o f Abigail and her behavior, ?hyllis Bird notes, “The most important thing that we know today about women in the eastern Mediterranean world o f the second and first millennia B € E is how little we know.”27 However, it is possible and key to interpretation o f the Hebrew Bible to reconstnrct a picture o f women from what data we have.** 2s Levenson, “1 Samuel 25,” 16-17. ^Baden, TheHistoricalDavid, 97, maintains David’s marriage proposal was another act ‫؛‬٠ violence. In most situations, Abigail would have been given another husband from within fee Calebite tribe, but David desired Nabal’s extensive property. Even more important than tangible goods, David coveted Nabal’s power ‫ س‬position in fee Calebite clan. Baden argues feat Nabal was fee chief of the Calebites ‫ س‬feat David inherits this position by marrying Abigail. He also alludes feat Abigail may not have had a choice in fee matter, since fee spoils of war often include women. However, there is no hint of this in 4* 27 Phyllis A. Bird, “Women in fee Ancient Mediterranean World: Ancient Israel,” ER 39 (1994) 31‫־‬ ** It is important to recover what we can from the glimpses history has left us of our foremothers. Furthermore,it canactasaguidcto tetter inte‫ ؟‬ret fee Word of Cod. Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, In MemoryofHer:AFeministTheok1gicalRuomructionofClmmanOH¿[ins(Scv/Y0 Tk: Crossroad, 1994) 110, comments on women in fee fest century CE aptly apply to earlier Jewish pictures of women. She writes, “If, however, our general picture ofpre70‫ ־‬Judaism is blurred ٠.. then fee picture of fee position and fonction of women in the multifaceted Jewish movements at fee beginning of fee common era must remain even more in historical darkness. Yet fee available material still gives us some clues to such a picture. The following must therefore not be misunderstood to be even a partial ‫־‬٠‫׳‬ of women in pre70‫ ־‬Judaism. It only points to some ‘shades’ feat allow us to see fee overall colors in a somewhat different light.” Am y Smith Carman: Abigail, the Wise Woman ofCarmel Carol Meyers, £٠٢ example, has ereated perhaps Otte o f the more intricately reconstructed pictures ‫؛‬٠ ' women in ancient Israelite society.^ She convincingly argues that in the period prior to the monarchy, while power was still localized and fomilial, women enjoyed a tíme o f general e‫ ؟‬uality with men. The role ofwornen changed when “the locus o f power shifted to a nation-state. And the new conditions under the monarchy left us the texts that suggest ^triarchy and female subservience.”30 The story o f Abigail takes place during this time o f great upheaval in gender roles-** Nakhai adds that die culture would have been “heterarchical rather than patriarchal or hierarchical. . . . A s a whole, women’s contributions stood alongside, and not below, those o f their male counterparts.”32 Such scholars argue that women such as Abigail would have had more freedom and independence than their coum terparts in later Israelite history. In her own setting, her actions would have been widely accepted and even applauded.33 A b ig a il ’s R o l e oe H onor Honor and shame concern both the way in which individuals view tiiemselves and the way hi which they are regarded by society.3* While revend virtues are common to both genders, the concept ofhonor and shame includes a range o f variables, such as a person’s gender, positíon hi society, and standing in the household.3‫ ؟‬The 29 Carol L· Meyers, Discovering Eve: Ancient Israelite Women in Context (New York: Oxford Univerity Press, 1988) 188-190, argues that the rise of the nation state meant the gradual end ofa society in which the household was die doniinant social unit. The “locus of power” relocated from die family household, with its “gender parity,” to a public world of male control. 30 Meyers, Discovering Eve, 188. 31 Ibid., 190, armies that from Solomon’s reign on, these negative changes became more pronounced. During Saul’s reign these modifications would have just begun to come about in society. It is interesting, however, that strong women can still be found in 1 Samuel, a text written centuries later, if there were such dramatic changes as Meyers is proposing. Klein, 1 Samuel, xxviii-xxx, argues for the terminus a quo of I Samuel as the Babylonian exile. 32 Beth Alpert Nakhai, “Gender ‫ س‬Archaeology in Israelite Religion,” Religion Compass 1 (2007) 512-528 (see especially 518-519). 33 Contra Brenner, Israelite Woman, 132. 3*Renata Rabichev, “The Mediterranean Concepts ()،'Honour and Shame as Seen in the Depiction of Biblical Women,” R&T 3 (1996) 51-63. Karel van der Toom, From Her Cradle to Her Grave: The Role ofReligion in the Life ofthe Israelite and the Babylonian Woman (trans. Sara 1. Denning-Boll; Biblical Seminar ^3‫ ؛‬Sheffield: JSOT, 1994) 22, arares that the division between women and men was rigidly upheld in everyday life in Israel. These were sometimes suspended for certain feasts and rites of passage. Van der Toom focuses on the religious aspects that were infused into the rites of passage in a woman’s life. 35 Rabichev, “Mediterranean Concepts,” 51 ٠ SCJ18 (Spring, 2015): 47-60 virtues that give honor to men and women are very different, and the idea o f status involves many variables‫ ؛‬therefore, not all women are n a tu ^ y inferior to all men.^ For example, nearly every character in the story o f ‫ ل‬Samuel 25 (including the narrator) values Abigail more than her husband. The narrator praises Abigail and belittles Nabal from the beginning (25:3). The characters include the servants who place their hope and trust in Abigail ( 2 5 : 7 ‫ ل‬4 ‫) ل ־‬, Abigail herself, who considers her husband a fool (25:25) ,‫ س‬finally David, who blesses Abigail and vows evil against 3 5-25:32) ‫ﻛﺲ‬ ). For men, shame is su iv a ien t to loss o f honor but for women it is a positive value. Shame refers to a woman’s sensitivity regarding what others ‫ ﻛﺎس‬about her as well as her Jtnowledge o f proper moral behavior. Scholars debate whether Abigail acts honorably in ‫ ل‬Samuel 25. On the one hand, Meyers and Bird argue she conforms to foe criteria o f honor‫ ؛‬foe author portrays her as “intelligent, beaurifitl, discreet, and loyal to her husband.”37 Bach, on foe other hand, sees Abigail as a woman whose shrewd, “subversive” speech belies her meek countenance and gains her what she desires.3* As will be seen below, the view o f Abigail acting as an honorable woman is ultimately more convincing. T h e H d u s e h o l d‫ ؛‬a W o m a n ’s R o l e a s W if e One o f foe central roles many women filled was that o f wife. Singleness was an fo r m a lit y , not just ‫ آل؛‬Israel but also throughout foe ancient Near East.39 Women normally married at a very young age, and foe wedding was rile most important event o f a woman’s life. At that rime, authority over her was tr e fe r r e d from her fether to her husband. It also ratified an important political and economic covenant between foe fiunilies o f foe bride and groom.*‫*؛‬ 36Carol Meters, “Everyday Life in Biblical Israel· Women’s Social Networks,” in Lifeand Culture in tkAncim t Near East (ed. Richard E. Averbeck, Markw. Chavalas, and David B. Weisberg; Bethesda, M D :C D L,2003) 185-204. 37 Phyllis Bird, “Images ofWomen in the Old Testament,” in TheBibleandLiberatimiPoliticaland Social Hermeneutics (ed. Norman K. Gottwald and Richard A. Horsley‫ ؛‬Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1983) 252-288. Adele Berlin, “Characteri^tion in Biblical Narratives: David’s Wives,” JSOT2Í (1982) 69‫־‬ 85, agrees with Bird’s basic assertions. She remarks that Abigail “is a model wife ‫ س‬modest woman” and “is portrayed as sensitive, assertive, and ready to protect her husband although he does not deserve 3*Bach, “Pleasure o f Her Text,” ‫لا‬. 39HennieJ. Marsman, Women in Ugaritand Israel: Their Social and Religious Position in the Context cftbeAnckntNearEast(Boston: Brill, 2003) 50, 57. ٠٠^ctor Harold Matthews ‫ س‬Don c. Benjamin, Social World ofAncient Israel, 1250-587BCE (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1993) 31. Am y Smith Carman: Abigail, the Wise Woman ofCarmel A wife’s realm was most often wrapped up in domestic and family pursuits.** Her time and energy were spent bearing children, managing the household by supervising domestic production, rationing and preparing food, processing and storing food, mediating clan conflicts, and teaching clan values to young children.^ These activities represent the consensus concerning women’s work in early monarchic Israel. What is less clear, however, is the valuation o f such activity. Did women operate liberally with a great sense o f agency? Were they seen as little better than a servant? Opinions on this subject vary widely. Two works help to situate the discussion. Matthews and Benjamin argue women had meaningful power and authority over decision-making and ^ oblem -^ lving for both the home and the children.43 The wife was household manager, whose responsibilities included making ٠٢ overseeing the production o f cloth, pottery, baskets, and other household items.** As household manager, the wife determined the amount o f food consumed and stored. In uncertain times, this could mean the difference between rite survival and death. Her authority over food rationing was absolute in many cases.*5 Many scholars conclude men and women had different powers in the household, but feminine roles were not innately inferior to masculine. The woman’s res^nsibilities o f homemaking and childbearing were not necessarily subordinate or unrewarding.46 Women typically understood these as necessary duties, not r e lic tio n s against them. ** Brenner, Israelite Woman, 132. Marsman, Women in Ugarit and Israel, 153, notes that in the ancient Near East in general,astrong dichotomy existed between fee mridominated sphere and the female-dominated private sphere. 42 See van der Toorn, From Her Cradle to Her Grave, for fee intrinsic role religion played in every aspect of a woman’s life, such as her becoming a wife, a mother,‫ س‬even a widow. 43 Matthews and Benjamin, Social World) 23, argue ^ttiarchyisnot based on fee subordination and exploitation of females but ratlier on fee efforts of everyone trying to survive. While feat may have offen been fee case, it is probably too idealistic to cover all situations ‫ ط‬ancient Near Eastern Atures. Philip I. King and Lawrence E. Stager, Life in Biblical Israel (Louisville, KY: Westminster lohn Knox, 2001) 50-51, view ancient Israel as a place where a woman was at a distinct disadvantage in society. However, they also note feat motherhood as well as marriage (Hosea 1-3) are common biblical metaphors and depict fee sacredness ‫ س‬importance of these roles. **The ،social position and wealfe ofa wife determined whether she ^rformed fee housework herself or served as overseer to those who did the actual work. Marsman, Women in Ugant and Israel, 166. 45 Matthews and Benjamin, Social 25-23 , ‫ ﻣﺤﺲ‬. They translate an ancient Egyptian poem entitled “The Sufferer and fee Soul” as: “Aman ordered Itis wife to serve all her food at noon, but she refesed— ‘This food is for our supper!’ The man stormed out of fee house. . . he was still furious. Why wouldn’t he listen to his wife’s advice, why couldn’t anyone in his fomily reason wife him?” This example of fee woman’sauthority over food consumption may be important for understanding whether Abigail had fee right to give food to David. 46Matthews and Benjamin, Social World, 24. SCJ18 (Spring, 2015): 47-60 Marsman, on the other hand, presents a slightly more eonservatlve picture but still argues that women were highly valued.^ She argues that marriage was not “egalitarian in the modern sense o f tire word nor was it the hierarchy o f master and servant, but a bond between loving intimates. Although an Israelite had authority over his wife, this ‫ س‬not exclude a relationship o f mutual help, love, and trust.٠ Modern concerns o f egalitarianism would not necessarily have been o f great concern in an Iron-Age society. Marsman’s viewpoint places women’s work as secondaty in importance but does not exclude the idea o fa woman being respected ٠٢ loved by her husband ‫ س‬other men in her household. Ultimately, a wide spectrum o f views exists among scholars concerning rire value placed on women in ancient Israel. Both genders saw women’s roles as neeessaty for survival. Many women could hold power over certain areas o f life, but that does ‫ آس‬mean all women, including female servants, had this luxury.*‫؟‬ Ultimately, the positions o f Marsman and Mathews and Benjamin represent a ‫س‬ o f continuum for the positive valuation o f wom en’s roles in the ancient Near East during early monarchic Israel. A b ig a il as W if e When comparing Abigail to contemporary ancient Near Eastern women, most scholars understand her actions as those beyond the conventional boundaries o f a typical wife.^ She is initially introduced as the wife ofNabal, but it ‫ ؟‬uickly becomes apparent that she commands more control and allegiance than he does (25:36).51 47Marsman, Women in Ugaritand Israel, 69. ** Ibid., 113. One example is the frequent use ofthe metaphor ofhusband and wife to describe the relationship between Yaliweh ‫ س‬Israel in the Hebrew Scriptures. The two are clearly unequal partners, but they still have mutual responsibilities to each other. Furthermore, Yahweh is described as deeply 10Ving Israel (Exod 20:2-6; Isa 54:5-6). However, one should be cautious of drawing too inuch from the divine metaphor and applying it to human relationships. 49 Examples ofhow little value some men placed on women’s lives and bodies are also found in the Hebrew Bible, ?hylhs Trible, Texts ٠/ Tenor: Litemry-Feminist Readings of Biblical Nanatives (?hiladelphia: Eortress, 1984), notoriously named “texts of terror” indude Sarah and Abraham’s abused slave Hagar (Gen 16:1-16; 21:9-21), Jephthah’s young daughter who is made a human sacrifice (Judg 11:29-40), the concubine who suffers gang-rape, murder, ‫ س‬dismemberment (Judg 19:1-30), and Tamar’s rape (2 Sam 13:1-22). These examples are included to caution against extending the freedom Abigail commands to all women ofthe Hebrew Bible. While these tales are dark, the beauty of Abigail’s story should be all the more studied and celebrated for the light it shines in the all-too-often dark world ofa woman’s value in the ancient world. ‫؟‬٥In contrast to Bird, “Images ofWomen,” 271, and Berlin, “David’s Wives,” 77. 51 Miscall, 1 Samuel٠153, also notes that the title for Abigail is absent by the end ofthe text. Miscall maintains the narrator is signaling Abigail’s equal ٠٢ superior status when 25:36 speaks ofthe husband and wife but does not refer to their relationship. Am y Smith Carman: Abigail, the Wise Woman ofCarmel Abigail ‫ ﺻﻞ‬only manages the household affairs, but she also commands the loyalty o f the servan The text explicitly states Abigail acts without Nabal’s knowledge or permission (25:19). She moves freely without a “proper chaperone, [which] is a measure o f her status and relative independence.”53 Abigail is uncharacteristic o f a typical wife and “brave enough to ride out from the closed security o f her home to face the storms o f her husband’s enemy.”54 Yet, her actions are not the only characteristic out o f place. A closer look at Abigail’s language reveals it to be !nore subversive than it initially appears.55 The narrator, however, does not see this as a negative trait. Abigail manages to control her life while “appearing socially dependent and compliant” to authoritative males in her life.56 The instant she sees David, she begins to speak and delivers a series o f demands that absorb the insults o fh er husband. Such speech demonstrates she is “comfortable issuing orders, while at the same time deflecting male anger.”^ Furtlaermore, she prophesies s e e m i n g David, an act that implies Yahweh has inspired her speech, as well as her conduct. Abigail’s behavior indicates that she is, in fact, accustomed to controlling situations. The narrator does not see her as merely fulfilling the role o fa good wife. N o mention is made o f the typical rewards a woman receives, such as the promise oflong life and a powerfitl male heir. Children are never mentioned in the narrative. Although Abigail is Nabal’s wife, the narrator views her as fulfilling a completely dift'erent role in this story, ftowever, her actions are not presented as shamefill, even though they are atypical o f the role o fa simple wife. This is clear in David’s later proposal to Abigail: He would not have asked a shamefifl woman for her hand in marriage. If Abigail is viewed as more than simply the wife o f Nabal, a better explanation for her actions can be seen: that o f mediator and wise woman. 52 “[Abigail’s] relationship to the servants is much more like that 0 ‫ ؛‬David to his men, one characterized by mutuality and solidarity.‫ ״‬The servants do not place any confidence in Nabal, but trust their well-being to Abigail. Levenson, “1 Samuel 25,” 18. 53 Brenner, Israelite Woman, 39-40. Some scholars argue this is unconventional and atypical even i£ the story takes place in a framework of soft patriarchy. 54Bach, “?leasure ofH er Text,” 44. 55 Ibid. 56Ibid. 57Ibid. 57 SCJ18 (Spring, 2015): 47-60 M e d ia t o r s and W is e W o m e n The tolc o f wise woman was one o f the few signihcant political roles available to women when power was localized.58 “Firmly rooted in the tribal ethos,” women were ideally suited to play this tole, as it most likely developed from the practice o f ^trilocality.8‫؟‬ A married woman had experience living in two separate households, her parents’ and her husband’s. She could play the role o f mediator b e ^ e e n the two fàmilies.60 What is more, women were usually responsible for m^ntaining ties with kin in nearby settlements; this was usually accomplished through women’s ne^orks.^ “The mother o f the household also attempted to defase conflicts and broker outof‫־‬court settlements between members o f her household before they reached the village assembly.”** The two major examples o f wise women are the woman from Tekoa (2 Samuel 14) and the woman fl‫״‬om Abel (2 Samuel 20). Camp notes, “They are idem tifled by a single adjective and the names o f their respective towns, which suggests the audience who heard these accounts may have had some prior image o f these two nameless women who stand so boldly before the most powerftfl men in the nation.”63 Two key traits both women exhibit when speaking are their independent “voice o f authority” and “the utterance o f ^overbs” and other wise sayings.** Particularly, in the example o f the woman o f Abel, she is obeyed without ‫ ؟‬uestion by evety character hi the stoty (2 Sam 20:16-17,22); her words “are not mere advice but are meant to be followed on penalty o f death.”65 Wise women held considerable power and influence. 58 Claudia Camp, “The Wise Women 0 f2 Samuel,” in Women in the Hebrew Bible (ed. Alice Bach; New York: Rut l edge, 207 -195 ( ‫ ووول‬, maintains there is no evidence £٠٢ this role continuing beyond the time o£David. Brenner, Israelite Woman, 33, agrees the term refers to a particular class made up of wise people. The adjective still refers to males more often than females. 59 Camp, “Wise Women,”195. The term “^trilocality” is borrowed ftom Matthews ‫ س‬Benjamin, Social World, 29, who define it as the practice ‘in which a woman left the household of her parents to live in the household ofher husband (Gen 24:54-61). *٠Matthews ‫ س‬Benjamin, Social World, 29. 192 ‫ ﻟﻬﺎة‬،‫ل‬.‫م‬. 63 Camp,“Wise Woman,” 199. 64Ibid., 197, argues, “In tire early years of Israel ٠٠. such qualities might have placed women not uncommonly in positions of authority in the village-tribal setting.” 65 Camp, “Wise Women,” 197. Am y Smith Carman: Abigail, the Wise Woman ofCarmel A b ig a il as M e d ia t o r and W is e W o m a n In light (ff these two figures, one may ask whether Abigail can be considered as acting in the role o f a wise woman. Since die role itself is nebrilously defined, one must read between die lines o f the story. The first clue in 1 Samuel 25 is Abigail’s ease in deftising the conflict, and it is telling that the servants turn to her when the dispute arises, fully expecting her to handle this dangerous situation. After she learns o f the brewing trouble, Abigail immediately gathers a large gift and sends it to David. Then she appears alone and helpless before him. She begs to have die guilt placed on her. She succeeds in diftusing David’s wrath and mediates a peacefiil solution.** Abigail’s speech mirrors that o f the wise women’s and suggests she may have held a similar position.^ Like the woman ofTekoa, Abigail speaks to David about bloodgtiilt (I Sam 25:31; 2 Sam 14:4-7) and asks that it be placed on her shoulders (I Sam 25:24; 2 Sam 14:9).68 Similar wording appears when Abigail asks whether she may speak further (I Sam 25:24; 2 Sam 14:12). Like the woman o f Abel, her negotiation saves many lives.69 However, as with the vague references surrounding the wise women, difficulties arise in deciphering whether Abigail held a similar position. For example, the adjective used to describe Abigail is not the same as is used concerning the wise woman in 2 Samuel 14. Abigail is described as a woman o f “good sense” (‫ ל‬5 ‫טו־בוד?؟؛‬, pobat-s'eke[}) but the narrator does not use the adjective “wise” (‫ ח כ מ ה‬, hakäm äh)P The narrator, nonetheless, seems to intentionally cast Abigail in the light o f a skilled mediator or wise woman; despite the differences in vocabulary. C o n c l u s io n The narrator o f l Samuel 25 characterizes Abigail as a sagacious woman who becomes the unforeseen savior o f the filture king. Unlike her foolish husband, Abigail is the embodiment o f wisdom. After her husband insults David, she is able **Bach, “?lcasure of Her Text,” 47, astutely notes that unlike Bathsheba, who “enflâmes David,” sparking a meeting that results in sin, Abigail “cools David’s ardor” ‫“ س‬keeps him from sinning” 67Tsumura, 1 Samuel, 587. *8Brenner, Israelite Woman, 40, draws similar conclusions. 69 David tells Abigail that she saved die lives of all the males ofher household in 25:34. The woman of Abel advises the town to give Joab the head of Sheba so he will withdraw from the city peaceflflly in 2 Samuel 20:19-22. In both cases, die wise women save a large household ٠٢small town of people from violence and death. 70 Brenner, Israelite Woman, 41, describes Abigail as one with “good sense” but not “wise.” See Van Seters, The BiblicalSaga ofKing David) 188, for frirther information on the differences in vocabulary. SCJ18 (Spring, 2015): 47-60 ٢٠ mediate a peaeefai outcome to the situation that benefits the majority ‫ آه‬her household, David, and Israel. Her actions are approved by rite other characters, impress David, and are blessed by Y ^w eh. However, since women o f this stature are so few in the Hebrew Bible, it is difficult to declare with certainty how the author’s original audience would have react‫־‬ ed to Abigail’s behavior. N vertheless, the author portrays her in a positive light and evidently desired the audience to receive her in a fovorable manner. This leaves many modem readers pondering why Abigail’s narrative is recorded, especially since it casts David in a ‫ ؟‬uestionable light. It seems out o f the ordinaty that such a long interlude is given simply for purposes o f introducing one o f David’s wives. After all, one o f David’s other wives, Ahinoam, is given only a single sentence at the end o fa chapter dedicated to Abigail (25:43). The chief reason for Abigail’s narrative seems to be that it fimctions as an opportunity for a wise woman to deliver a prophetic message for Yahweh. Abigail recognizes the Lord has anointed David and that he will rule Israel. The narrator sees this as an important confirmation in David’s rise to power, especially since his power base has eroded significantly in the previous few chapters/* Abigail declares to David, “For the Lord will certainly make my lord a sure house, because my lord is fighting the battles o f the Loro (25:28).” D add’s answer implies that he too can see Yahweh’s hand moving to shape history through Abigail (25:32,34). Abigail is easily and often passed over and regarded as a footnote in the saga o f David’s rise to power. However, readers must not pass over the character o f Abigail. She is a heroine in her own right. For a moment in time, a woman “steps outside the bounds o f convention: a woman succeeds in stopping the future king from committing bloodguilt.”^ But this may be too much for the narrator, for Abigail’s “voice must be stifled” after this incident, and the “prophety is not to be repeated.”^ Furthermore, the story o f Abigail is a narrative o f inspiration for all people. Women should be encouraged by texts that promote the bravery, wisdom, and intelligence o f those women who are exemplars, leaders, and prophets ofYahweh. Women and men alike should be inspired b ^ a h w e h ’s unanticipated use o f women and men o f history to do his will to shape others and to shape the world around them .8‫! ؟‬ 71 For more information on foe power dynamics in foe years ofDavid’s wandering in foe wilderness, refer to Baden, The Historical 6 ‫ ﺑﻤﺲ‬83 ‫ ; ﻟﻞ ־‬Steven L. McKenzie, King David: A Biography (New York: Oxford University Fress, 200 1),8‫ ﻟﻞ*و‬0 ; ‫ س‬p. Kyle McCarter Jr., “The Apology of David” JBL 99 (1980)489-504. 72 Bach, “Pleasure of Her Text,” 43. ^Ibid., 43. ‫آلﻣﺂورلم؛‬ Copyright and Use: As an ATLAS user, you may priut, dow nload, or send artieles for individual use according to fair use as defined by U.S. and international eopyright law and as otherwise authorized under your respective ATT,AS subscriber agreement. No eontent may be copied or emailed to multiple sites or publicly posted without the copyright holder(s)’ express written permission. Any use, decompiling, reproduction, or distribution of this journal in excess of fair use provisions may be a violation of copyright law. This journal is made available to you through the ATLAS eollection with permission from the eopyright holder(s). The eopyright holder for an entire issue ٥ ۴ ajourna! typieally is the journal owner, who also may own the copyright in each article. However, for certain articles, tbe author o fthe article may maintain the copyright in the article. 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