From villa to village

From villa to village. Late Roman to early medieval settlement networks in the ager Rusellanus Alessandro Sebastiani It is tempting to picture the Middle Ages as simple and static. Nothing is farther from the truth (Francovich and Hodges 2003:106). Introduction The publication of the volume Villa to Village: the transformation of the Roman countryside in Italy c. 400-1000 (Francovich and Hodges 2003) represented a milestone in the study of late antique to early medieval archaeology. Based on the results of the Medieval Landscape Project (University of Siena) (Francovich and Valenti 2005), and the extensive excavations at the early medieval monastery at San Vincenzo al Volturno (Hodges, Leppard, and Mitchell 2011), the book established the basis for a sensible debate on the transformation and development of the post-classical landscape in one of the quintessential regions of the former Western Empire: Italy. The analysis focused on the countryside and the structuring of early medieval villages, as opposed to the abandonment of Late Roman villas after their revitalisation in the 4th century (Francovich and Hodges 2003:107). The argument envisaged four main steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. new settlements (villages and villas) started soon after the first half of the 4th century; ‘the end of a civilization’ (to use Bryan Ward Perkins’ words) which took place between the 6th and the early 7th centuries; the completion of the transformation by the 9th century a century later, the rise of castelli (through the incastellamento process) marking the crucial passage from the signoria fondaria to the signoria territoriale. Fifteen years and many archaeological excavations later, the thesis developed by Francovich and Hodges holds as true as ever; recent archaeological research can only help to provide some new details in its support. My contribution to this volume in honour of Richard Hodges aims to detail the results of my archaeological research in the ager Rusellanus (in the modern province of Grosseto). My personal interest in this part of Tuscany emerged during my PhD programme, when I realised that the territory was archaeologically under­ investigated. The Etruscan-Roman city of Rusellae and its administrative territory had attracted little interest from the academic world. One of the main obstacles lay in the lack of scientific publications detailing the results of at least two centuries of archaeology within the urban centre. The main interest had always been focused on the monumental areas of the city, with almost no attention paid to its late antique and medieval phases. This, of course, was reflected in the archaeological analysis of the surrounding territory and its landscape. The ager Rusellanus was, when I started the Alberese Archaeological Project, almost unknown in the academic literature, in stark contrast with the nearby ager Cosanus (Carandini and Cambi 2002; Celuzza and Luzzetti 2013; Fentress 2003). So, in 2009, the Alberese Project was established to provide new data to understand better the Roman settlement network in the coastal area of southern Tuscany. At the same time, the project aimed to produce new evidence to determine how settlement changed in the course of the crucial passage into the Middle Ages. As the research progressed it became clear that a reassessment of the Roman-to-medieval city of Rusellae was also necessary, as was a more detailed study of the middle to lower valley of the river Ombrone, one of the key elements in the landscape of the ager Rusellanus. Fortunately, the difficulty (mainly financial) of setting up a large urban-project at Rusellae has been somewhat addressed by the establishment of the Impero Project which aims to investigate the economic connectivity of the territory of the city of Rusellae between the mid-Roman and early medieval periods. In this chapter, I will outline the results of the Alberese Project, present a preliminary prospect of the Impero Project and its expected outcomes and, finally, provide an overview on the city of Rusellae during Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages (Figure l). 281 Encounters , Excavations and Argosies Venturini Roman qnd late antique villa Dogana \ Castellaraccio Castel del Piano A/cidds$oi ,Bagnolo. Rusellae 'tim bro flumen IManufacturing district Temple area Diana Umbronensis Pigliano M andano Figure 1 The ager Rusellanus and sites mentioned in the text (Source - Author). Recent research on the late antique to early medieval coastal area: the Alberese Archaeological Project The aim of the project is to chart and understand the changes that occurred in this part of coastal southern Tuscany between the Roman conquest and the end of Antiquity (Sebastiani 2016a), through the detailed excavation of three main sites: the temple area and sanctuary of Diana Umbronensis at Scoglietto (Sebastiani, Chirico, Colombini and Cygielman 2015), the manufacturing district at Spolverino (Sebastiani 2014), and the maritime settlement of Umbro flumen (Sebastiani, Chirico, and Colombini 2016) (Figure 2). Given the chronological frame of this paper, I will focus on the late antique profiles of these sites rather than their earlier phases. H P Rusellae Punta Ala Roceamaie, Umbro flumen 1Manufacturing district Temple area Diana Umbronensis FonteWanda THE ALBERESE PROJECT 282 K Figure 2 The three archaeological sites excavated in the area of Alberese (Source - Author). Alessandro Sebastiani : From villa to village The sanctuary and temple area at Scoglietto lies on a hilltop some 20m above sea level, on a former promontory facing the Tyrrhenian Sea.1The site was established during the Republican period (2nd century BC) and flourished to reach its climax in the late 2nd century AD.12However, the site then underwent a series of radical changes, culminating in its systematic dismantlement at the end of the 4th century. Although the site was frequented and ceremonies continued there at least until the first half of the 5th century, the religious buildings were never reconstructed (Brando and Sebastiani 2016). The middle of the 6th century saw the construction of a small timber and clay structure, circular in plan with a sunken floor, used as a place for storage. Nearby, a series of postholes testify to the presence of associated facilities, possibly fences. The material residue recovered from within the hut suggests that the building was inhabited seasonally. While it is very likely that similar sites are scattered throughout the surrounding landscape, it is unlikely that they would have survived beyond the second half of the 6th century (Sebastiani 2015). The excavations at the manufacturing district at Spolverino revealed the existence of a large productive centre, doubtless related to the presence of a river harbour and the nearby Aurelia vetus. From the 3rd century onward, the area was subject to various private investments, apparently designed to improve and develop a new economy based, the evidence would suggest, on the recycling of metal and glass (Sebastiani 2016b). This process continued well into the 4th and the first half of the 5th century. However, from the second part of the 5th century, the area started to decline and part of the workshops was abandoned. Between the end of the 5th and the beginning of the 6th century, the manufacturing district was completely abandoned and a necropolis was constructed over the ruins. No later buildings or settlements were uncovered in the excavations and the area became agricultural fields, constantly flooded by the nearby river Ombrone. At the maritime site of Umbro flumen, recent excavations have shown how the site was constructed around the 2nd century BC, while a rich assemblage of material culture dating from the 1st century BC through to the mid-2nd century AD speak of how a residential unit here flourished during the early Imperial period. However, a hiatus can be documented from the 3rd century, when the site appears to have been largely abandoned, with only the northern portion of the complex continuing in use. A metal workshop, an oval kiln and the construction of a collective kitchen space on top of a pre-existing atrium underline a substantial shift in the original function of the settlement, from residential complex to productive centre. During the 5th century, another manufacturing room was created, again on the northern side of the building. Paved with an opus spicatum floor, this contained a raised platform with a drainage system, possibly used for the production of wine and/or olive oil. The information we have so far shows clearly that only the portion of the complex facing the river Ombrone survived into Late Antiquity, while the rest had been abandoned since the 3rd century. However, no evidence has been recorded for any occupation later than the early 6th century. The results of work in Alberese over the last nine years demonstrate that the sites along the final stretch of the river Ombrone and along the ancient coastline were abandoned during the first half of the 6th century. This is clearly seen in the three locations just described (the temple area at Scoglietto, the manufacturing district and Umbro flumen), but it also holds for other known sites in the region. It is true of a later Roman farm discovered during field survey, just lkm east of the temple area; and the Roman villa at Montesanto seems to have been largely abandoned in the 3rd century, with only a small portion of the site occupied through to the later 5th century (Vaccaro 2008:237). Similarly, the mansio at Hasta, along the Aurelia vetus was certainly abandoned by this time, as was a satellite site just 600m away (Vaccaro 2008: 237). A further marker of settlement transformation in the mid-6th century is the fact that these sites were never again occupied. When we do have evidence of new settlements, in the written sources, they are on new sites. The first of these is the so-called curte Astiano recorded in 973. The place name suggests that this settlement occupied at least part of the former mansio at Hasta. As the Aurelia vetus remained in use well into the Middle Ages and later, the early medieval village of Astiano, which became the Carolingian curtis, had a strategic position, controlling the surviving road system leading to Rome and Pisa. A charter from 973 speaks of another site on the right bank of the river Ombrone: Caliano, a medieval village/castle that can be identified with the modern San Mamiliano-Le Colonne (Citter 2005: 83-4). This settlement was built just across the river from the manufacturing district at Spolverino, on the route of the Aurelia vetus. Although no 1 The coastline in this part of Tuscany has changed dramatically between historical periods. In Roman times, the Tyrrhenian Sea ran along the western slopes of the Uccellina mountains, whereas nowadays, due to continuous floods and fluvial silting, it lies c. 5kms distant (Arnoldus-Huyzenveld and Citter 2015: 4-5). 2 For the details of these early phases of the settlement, see Sebastiani, Chirico, Colombini and Cygielman 2015: 26-53. 283 Encounters , Excavations and Argosies excavations have been carried out at the site, it is interesting to note that it is dedicated to Saint Mamilianus, the evangelizer of southern Tuscany and its islands during the mid-5th century. It is likely that the early medieval settlement network was organized around new nucleated settlements like curte Astiano and Caliano. If, during the Roman period, the landscape was configured through with a series of dispersed settlements of various kinds (i.e. villas, manufacturing districts, farms, temple areas, mansiones), the medieval arrangement revolved around the surviving Roman road system (the Aurelia vetus which was to become known as the Strada del Diavolo) and its control. A prominent early medieval building in the area of Alberese was the so-called Romitorio deiruccellina, built along a secondary, inner road, leading off the Aurelia towards the mountains. The later construction of the Abbey of San Rabano and its associated village might have led to yet another shift of the settlement network and to movements of the medieval population, looking for safer places to live (Maioli 2009). The Impero Project: New research on the late antique and early medieval countryside in southern Tuscany Investigation of a series of Roman to late antique sites in the Alberese region has produced a range of new data which affords a better understanding of the development of the settlement network in the region across the classical period. However, the next stage of research in southern Tuscany will focus on early medieval settlements and on the contribution of the later Roman economy and landscape organization to those later patterns. To this end, in 2017 we launched a new archaeological project. Entitled IMPERO (Interconnected Mobility ofPeople and Economy along the River Ombronej, the project aims to investigate economic and settlement patterns in south Etruria from the later Antonine period to the Age of Charlemagne (mid-2nd century to 9th century). Connectivity within the Mediterranean, its coastlands and hinterlands, as well as the mobility of economic agents, has been the focus of extended debates over the past decades. The recent view of the ‘unity and distinctiveness’ of the historical Mediterranean by Horden and Purcell (2000), for example, has opened up new directions in regional and pan-regional historical inquiry. Our research will aim to contribute to the writing of ‘a history of the interaction of [the Mediterranean] environment and the human beings within it’ (Harris 2006: 5). The project’s area of investigation will allow a reconstruction of economic and social dynamics over time, and will draw on Braudel’s idea of a balance between physical environment and human decision-making (Braudel 1972-3). The Impero Project, in other words, seeks to look into the relationship between the environment and human decision-making within a framework of changing economic agency and social history. These interactions have traditionally led to a radicalization of the problem and to a polarization of the debate: on one hand, the end of the Western Roman Empire is seen as marking the dissolution of an interconnected Mediterranean economic system, opening the doors to decline, crisis and catastrophe (Ward-Perkins 2005); on the other hand, Peter Brown (1971) and later historians (Goffart 2006; for a synthesis see Gasparri 2006), have argued for pervading continuity from Antiquity through Late Antiquiy (2nd to 8th centuries). A core challenge of our research is therefore to identify a third possible way to understand the changes that occurred in this territory and to establish a resilient model for the interpretation of the data (Walker and Salt 2006). The study area was designed to include a composite environmental and infrastructural network across the lower and middle valley of the river Ombrone (Province of Grosseto, Italy), as well as a large portion of the Roman ager Rusellanus (Figure 3). It also includes the previously studied region of Alberese along the Tyrrhenian Sea coastline (see above). The project aims to understand the relationships between different kinds of settlements (maritime, rural, riverine and urban) and the surrounding landscape. A further aim is to enhance our comprehension of the role of the river in the network of places and facilities, in ensuring the movement of goods and people across this landscape. The river, we will argue, plays a crucial role in understanding the agency of interconnected landscapes, providing the trait d union between the micro-local level of distribution (south Tuscany) and the macro-global market (the Mediterranean). Deploying a multi-scalar approach (see above), our investigations will focus on the changes that occurred between the mid Imperial period and the Early Middle Ages, through the lenses of connectivity, mobility and landscape exploitation. The excavation of two sites in the territory of Civitella Paganico (Grosseto), a Roman to late antique villa and the medieval castle of Castellaraccio (Monteverdi), combined with an extensive field 284 Alessandro Sebastiani : From Figure 3 The ager Rusellanus - sites central to the Impero Project (Source - Author). villa to village Grosseto ilf f r ./ IMPERO PROJECT survey of the middle to lower valley of the river Ombrone (Figure 4), will provide an outstanding opportunity to investigate these issues. Our objectives are to reveal the 1. 2. 3. 4. interconnected economic landscapes at a local level, interconnected economic landscapes and mobility of people and goods at a macro level, landscapes in transition at a local level, and economies in transition from a local to macro level. Roccasuada Roman and late antique villa Dogana I Ribolla lagno ili Paganco A - y avofrano I Castellaraccio Castel del Piano i A I 5^Sj Abbadia Salvatore ArCKhKSO « • tf S F J Bagnolo > " f l vJ i V AREA OF THE EXTENSIVE FIELD SURVEY Gv s r A c. 150 squared kms ri Umbro ^ { " ^ .s p e s e la flu m e n ^ ^ ® Manufacturing / Temple area iM i wSam*m ifiifa i B ri %1 , 'i t 1 Diana Umbronensis PKigliano Mandano Ponteblanda Figure 4 The Impero Project - the area to be covered in the extensive field survey (Source - Author). 285 Encounters , Excavations and Argosies The first objective, regarding interconnected local economic landscapes, aims at an understanding of the connections between the coastal and the hinterland settlements in the given timeframe and their relationship with the urban centre of Rusellae. The enquiry will examine the relation of the physical flow of the river with human interventions, through the construction of facilities and infrastructures, to guarantee the required connectivity from the mainland to the coast. Along its course, the river encountered different geographical and human landscapes, and plains, hills and mountains were interlaced with manufacturing districts, bridges, roads, urban centres and rural settlements which quickly became territorial markers, facilitating connectivity among economic hubs. The investigation of these markers will enhance our understanding of the locally-interconnected economic routes and their relationships with the surrounding environment. The second objective is to comprehend the role of the river and its territorial markers in terms of the movement of goods, economic agency, visibility and connectivity within the wider Mediterranean basin, across the longue durée (Horden and Purcell 2000; Purcell 2012). As stated above, the role of the river as an economic vector linking the region with the Mediterranean is one of the main foci of this project. In order to accomplish the task, a wide perspective will be needed, one embracing maritime trade routes along the Tyrrhenian Sea, the relationships among cabotage harbours and economic hubs (such as the manufacturing district at Spolverino), and connectivity across the Tuscan archipelago. Goods and people travelled short to long distances to supply different settlements. The project will attempt to understand the main terrestrial, riverine and maritime routes they followed to supply local markets with globalized products. Similarly, at the start of the medieval period, changes must have occurred in the mobility routes of people and goods. As local production and crafts became predominant (if not universal) some old routes would have been abandoned and new ones created, and this should imply the establishment of new settlement networks to respond to new necessities. The third objective is intimately connected to the last, and aims to understand the changes occurring in the settlement network along the middle to lower valley of the river Ombrone from the late Antonine period to the Age of Charlemagne. A crucial point will be the comprehension of the ‘life-cycle' of the villa network in the countryside. In neighbouring territories a decline in the number of villas has been recorded from the 3rd century, with a slow reversal in the 4th (Vaccaro 2008). Since these economic centres played a crucial role in the organization of the landscape, our research will reassess the role of villas within their territories as well as clarifying the existence and character of any subsidiary sites. With the beginning of the Middle Ages, the Roman settlement network appears to have been in decline, but there is still a substantial lack of knowledge regarding the transformations that occurred in the countryside up to the 9th century. The IMPERO project aims to fill this gap by investigating late antique and early medieval settlements, and their distribution across the landscape (for a comparable north-western European project, see Theuws 2012). Information garnered from early medieval documents, together with intensive field surveys will locate otherwise unknown settlements and facilities, and will contribute to establishing a wider picture for the region. The final objective aims to investigate the economic changes that occurred 1. 2. from the mid Imperial period to Late Roman times and from Late Antiquity to the early Middle Ages. The study will generate quantifiable data to model the changes observed during the sixth century, from both a globalized and a more localized perspective (for similar approaches in other Mediterranean and European regions, see Gelichi and Hodges 2012; Vroom 2003). An interdisciplinary approach, drawing on the strengths of material culture studies, zooarchaeology and bioarchaeology etc., will generate a steady stream of information for the construction of a new model of settlement, demography, and economy for this Mediterranean region. Reassessing the city of Rusellae As was hinted at the beginning, the urban centre of Rusellae has always suffered from a certain lack of interest in the modern archaeological debates, especially with regard to late antique to early medieval urbanism. In 1994, an attempt was made to summarise archaeological activities carried out at the late antique cathedral 286 A l e s s a n d r o Se b a s t ia n i : F r o m v il l a t o v il l a g e (Celuzza and Fentress 1994), but until recently there were no further publications on the subject (De Benetti and Catalli 2013; Chirico, Colombini, and Celuzza 2015; Sebastiani and Celuzza 2015). However, some new thoughts and hypotheses on the late antique and early medieval phases of the city now provide a basis for further conjectures (Vaccaro 2011: 52-71). The Etruscan-Roman city of Rusellae lies on a hilltop, some 150m above sea level. Founded sometime during the 9th century BC, the city was fortified between the 8th and the 7th century BC with a massive city wall, and the urban centre flourished during the Etruscan period. Facing the southern shore of the ancient Lake Prilus, the city grew at the expense of the nearby centre of Vetulonia. Soon after the Roman conquest Rusellae suffered a certain degree of decline, but subsequently its main public areas were refurbished through the benefaction of the Julio-Claudian Emperors. From the 3rd century AD, the city appears to have suffered a slow decay. The main bath complex, built under Hadrian, was abandoned, as were certain parts of the House of the Mosaics (Michelucci 1985:115-6). A new bath complex was built at the eastern entrance to the city by the procurator Betitius Perpetuus Arzygius between 366 and 370. The construction of this building represents a possible revival of the urban centre and, given its location at the beginning of the decumanus maximus, a move to forge a stronger relationship with the immediate countryside and its inhabitants. The decline, however, continued well into Late Antiquity, and by the 5th century the Forum area and most of the public buildings had been abandoned. However, some activities are still recorded within the city. At least one metal workshop was established in the bath area of the House of the Mosaics, where a reclamation dealer recycled metal scraps and artefacts coming mainly from neglected monuments and the nearby Etruscan necropolis. There is also limited evidence for the existence of a second workshop along the slopes of the northern hill of Rusellae: here deposits of ashes, large quantities of charcoal and an abundance of metal have been interpreted as a metal workshop, although no traces of working structures (forges/furnaces) were discovered during the excavation (Vaccaro 2011:4l). In addition, there are signs that a major construction phase took place sometime between the 6th and the 7th century. Certainly, the northern hill of the city was enclosed by a new perimeter wall at the beginning of the 6th century. This was constructed in opus africanum, reusing spolia and building materials from nearby abandoned monuments (Celuzza and Fentress 1994: 609). The amphitheatre was converted into a fortified area (castrum), and a phylacterion was built facing the ruins of the later Roman bath complex at the start of the decumanus maximus (Celuzza and Fentress 1994: 609-10; Nicosia and Poggesi 1998:160). An interesting piece of evidence, however, relates to the late antique/early medieval cathedral. The construction of the cathedral is usually dated to the late 5th century (Celuzza and Fentress 1994:608-9; Nicosia and Poggesi 1998:44-5), when the first bishop (Vitalianus) is attested in the written sources (Mommsen 1894; 400, n. 12). Unfortunately, the uncontrolled excavations in the 1940s within the cathedral complex, which was built over the ruins of the Hadrianic bathhouse, did not permit the establishment of a proper chronology for the construction strata, and only monumental and decorative elements were recovered by the excavators (Celuzza and Fentress 1994: 608). A recent attempt to redate the construction of the cathedral church to the late 6th-early 7th centuries is based on an analysis of the pottery assemblage from two contexts; however, these were not directly related to the nearby church building (Vaccaro 2011: 42). What is clear, however, is that a bishopric had been established at Rusellae by at least the end of the 5th century, and it is highly likely that a cathedral church was erected in the city centre then, or shortly thereafter. Unfortunately, little is known about the early medieval phases of the city. The only evidence is provided by a series of stone decorations from the cathedral, which had been refurbished sometime between the late 8th and the beginning of the 9th centuries. Recovered during the original excavations in the 1940s, some of these pieces are now on display at the Archaeological Museum in Grosseto, while perhaps the most interesting piece has been reused as a lintel in a modern cottage at the foot of the hill of Rusellae. This fragment of a panel from a stone screen bears the signature of the master mason in charge of the refurbishment of the cathedral, the magisterJohannes (Figure 5). The city suffered from the rise of nearby Grosseto and although some attempts were made to enlarge the cathedral and to equip it with a bell tower in the late 11th century, the bishopric was transferred to Grosseto in 1138 - a date traditionally said to mark the downfall of Rusellae. Archaeology has shown that shepherds continued to use the ruins of the amphitheatre as shelters in the early modern period and that the city became a quarry for building materials. 287 Encounters, Excavations and Argosies Figure 5 T he fragm ent o f th e panel from a stone screen bearing th e signature o f th e m aster m ason Johannas (Source - Author). Conclusions The recent work in the ager Rusellanus has demonstrated the power of archaeology to investigate the transformation of Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages in a territory that lies at the heart of the Roman Empire. From at least the 3rd century we can see a clear dichotomy in the intriguing relationship between the city of Rusellae and its administrative territory. The urban centre shows signs of decline after the Severan period, with the abandonment of the Hadrianic bath complex and changes within the House of the Mosaics. Gradual decay in the urban centre continued, and only the construction of a smaller and much more suburban bath complex by the procurator Arzygius points to any attempt at revival. By the mid-5th century, the city was a shadow of its glorious past and all the monumental areas had been abandoned and were in ruins. In the coastal area of its territoiy, however, the situation is rather different. The excavations at Alberese highlight a reaction to the crisis of the late Antonine period with the development of a new kind of economy based largely on the recy ding ofglass and metal. This is well reflected in the enlargement of the manufacturing district at Spolverino, with the construction of a larger glass workshop and the subdivision of at least ten rooms into highly specialised workshops. In this period too, the sanctuary area, although reduced in size, was refurbished and a new temple was laid out. The significance of this development should be seen not just in terms of the re ligio us function of the sanctuary, but also in terms of its role in the visual connectivity it provided to sailors and traders passing up the coast and along the via Aurelia vetus. As agriculture no longer dominated the regional economy, villas (like Montesanto) went into decline, while Umbro flumen was partially reused and rearranged to host a series of manufacturing activities and workshops. Overall, however, the whole area declined during the second half of the 5th century, ultimately mirroring the fate of the city. The 6th century represents a turning point for both city and territory. Both the Roman settlement network and the urbanistic configuration of towns were dismantled and replaced by new ways of arranging the landscape and central places. Rusellae became a bishopric and a cathedral was constructed there. A new city wall was built to enclose the northern hill, and the amphitheatre was fortified, possibly to create a castrum This new arrangement effected the shift of the core of the city from the Roman forum to the early medieval cathedral, which became the new focus for population and settlement. The settlement network in the territory of Alberese was reorganised, with the establishment of at least two early medieval nuclei at curte Astiano and Caliano. The new settlements guaranteed control over the 288 A l e s s a n d r o Se b a s t ia n i : F r o m v il l a t o v il l a g e main terrestrial and fluvial routes, i.e. the via Aurelia vetus and the river Ombrone. It is highly likely that this process was intimately connected with the rise of the signoria fondiaria in this part of the coastal area, epitomised in the list of estates in the document of 973 (Citter 2005: 83-4). 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