how to develop your spoken english

B.A. Mass Communication (I year) B.M.C BMC-103 ENGLISH Directorate of Distance Education Guru Jambheshwar University of Science & Technology BMC-103 1 HISAR-125001 List of Contents Sr. no. Lesson Title Page no. 1 Introduction to Language 1 2 Written and Spoken English 14 3 Vowels and Consonants 22 4 Words: Origin, Meaning, and Usage 30 5 Sentences and Paragraphs 48 6 Active Voice & Passive Voice 72 7 Phrases and Idioms 84 8 British and American English 104 9 Nouns 125 10 English Usages 147 Writer: Prof. Sudhir Kumar Former Faculty, CCSHAU, Hisar Vetter: Sh. S. K. Singh Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar Converted into SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra Senior Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar BMC-103 2 Bachelor of Mass Communication (1st year) ENGLISH (BMC-103) Block: A Unit: I Lesson: 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH LANGUAGE Writer: Prof. Sudhir Kumar Former Faculty, CCSHAU, Hisar Vetter: Sh. S. K. Singh Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar Converted into SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra Senior Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar LESSON STRUCTURE: In this lesson, we shall discus about the various introductory aspects of English language. Specifically, we shall focus on some important aspects and functions of English. We shall also discuss the importance of English. The lesson structure shall be as follows: 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Presentation of Content 1.2.1 Language- An Introduction 1.2.2 Functions of Language 1.2.3 English as a Language 1.2.4 Importance of English 1.3 Summary 1.4 Key Words 1.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 1.6 References/Suggested Reading BMC-103 3 1.0 OBJECTIVES: This lesson will give you an introduction to language. We shall discuss the uses of language for individuals and the importance of language in the society. Various aspects of the English language will also be covered. After studying this lesson you should be able: o To Get An Introduction to Language o To Know About the Functions of Language o To Know About the English as a Language o To Know About the Importance of English 1.1 INTRODUCTION: Language is universal to all human beings and is central to our lives. In fact, it regulates and shapes all human behaviour. Therefore it is essential to have a clear understanding of language, and also its importance. We must know as to what is language. Why is it important to us? What are its various aspects? Here we shall try to find answers to such questions. This lesson will give you an introduction to the various aspects of English language. We shall discuss the uses of language for individuals and the importance of language in the society. 1.2 PRESENTATION OF CONTENT: The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows: o Language- An Introduction o Functions of Language o English as a Language o Importance of English BMC-103 4 1.2.1 LANGUAGE- AN INTRODUCTION: Language may be defined as a system of sounds and words used by human beings to communicate with each other. Through language we express our ideas and feelings by using symbols in writing, and sounds while speaking. Language is used to express ideas, information, knowledge, attitudes, and feelings. Now, how do we share them with others? We share them through symbols and sounds which means language is written as well as spoken. Man has been a social being. From the beginning, man has lived in societies. In so doing, he has developed patterned ways of doing things and talking about them in a way that may facilitate communication. A language is part of the culture of a people and the chief means of interaction necessary for a social life. Language is the system of communication by sounds and words used by human beings. It is intimately tied to man’s feelings and activity. Language is closely related to nationality, religion, culture and the feeling of self. It is used for work, for worship, for play by everyone, whether one is a king or a beggar, a savage in the jungle or civilized man in a big city. Because of its importance it is the object of study by many branches of learning viz. linguistics, psychology, anthropology, education, sociology to mention a few. It is the central subject of study, for writers, journalists, teachers, lawyers, etc. Many people think that a silent man is a dangerous man. Language puts people at their ease and it creates harmony among groups of people. This is sociable use of language. People speak to release or express BMC-103 5 their feelings and to air their views. They also speak to awaken a response in their fellows and to influence their attitudes and acts. Language has a very individual side. It is the mirror of one’s personality. When a person speaks, a listener interprets and analysis what he says. An utterance consists of symbols referring to whatever is being talked about; but it is also at the same time an index to various things about the speaker, particularly his personality. Pronunciation, general handling of the voice, and gesture are clues to personality. People put forward different points of view with clarity through appropriate language in debates and discussions. One can either persuade the other party or defend. Almost everyone, when meeting a stranger, arrives at an immediate judgment on the way the other person talks. And when meeting people known to us, we can often infer from their speech, whether they are in a bad temper, or feeling well disposed. Language not only brings human beings into relationship with each other, it also brings them into relationship with the outside world. Language mediates between man and his environment. Language enables man to live in society, but the kind of society in which he lives will profoundly affect his language. A language, therefore, is a component of culture as well as a central network through which the other components are expressed. 1.2.2 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE: Now you know what language is. Just imagine what will happen if you are asked not to communicate with anyone for a month: no talking, no writing. It would be a big punishment. No person, group or society can exist without interaction with others. Life would be miserable if we did not talk with anyone at home; didn’t listen to lectures at school or college; and if BMC-103 6 we didn’t speak to friends and co-workers. Language is important to us for its various functions. Some major functions of language are: SOCIALIZATION: Language makes it possible for individuals to live in society. Man is a social animal, and language helps in the socialization process. INFORMATION DISSEMINATION: It is through language that enormous information about the environment we live in is provided to us. Information, these days, is regarded as power. The more informed you are the more powerful you become. Language is tool of gaining the power of information and awareness. KNOWLEDGE AND INSTRUCTION: Language instructs and educates the members of a society. It provides knowledge. This function begins at home- first in the family; then at school and college; and this process continues throughout life. In addition to providing knowledge, language also provides us skills and expertise for various jobs; so that we may become effective members of the society. INTEGRATION: Language is a great integrating factor in nations and societies By means of shared languages; individuals, groups, and even cultures come to know each other. We understand and appreciate each other’s ways of life and develop tolerance towards each other. It creates cohesiveness. BMC-103 7 CULTURAL PROMOTION: Through poems, plays, articles and other creative writing, language provides opportunities for culture to be preserved and promoted. RELIEVES TENSION (WORKS A AN OUTLET): Language relieves people’s feelings, reduces tensions, and provides outlets for suppressed emotions. Some times; even if there is nothing to say one must talk; conversation puts people at their ease and in harmony with each other. 1.2.3 ENGLISH AS A LANGUAGE: English Language is the chief medium of communication of people in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and many other countries. English is spoken in most parts of the world. English is spoken more than many other languages. Worldwide more people speak English than any other language, except Chinese. VOCABULARY: The English vocabulary has increased greatly in more than 1500 years of development, growing to more than one million words. It is larger than the vocabulary of any other language. A continual process of borrowing and adopting words from other languages add new words in English. This is also done by other processes like addition of prefixes and suffixes, the free formation of compounds, etc. SPELLING: English has one of the most difficult spelling systems in the world, mainly because the spelling of words has often not changed but their sound has BMC-103 8 changed and because foreign spellings of words have been retained in new English words. NEW WORDS: As a result of colonial expansion in the past and globalization in the present, many new words have entered the English language, including words from the North America, from Australia, from Africa and Asia. In addition, thousands of scientific terms have been developed to denote new concepts; discoveries, and inventions. In Britain the speech of educated people is known as Received Standard English. In India we mostly use British English though the use of American English has increased lately. The most distinguishing differences between American English and British English are in pronunciation and vocabulary, with slighter differences in spelling, pitch, and stress. A unique feature of the English language remains its tendency to grow and change. In recent years, the English language has become the chief language of international communication. 1.2.4 IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH: English is the second language in India. It is spoken all over the country. Because of the British influence of many decades, the English print media – newspapers, magazines, books, and other printed material has served the people for a long time and has flourished greatly. Some big English newspapers have multiple editions coming out of several cities. Now English has extended to the electronic media too. There are many channels devoted only to English programmes. Today, BMC-103 9 English as a language, has acquired great importance in various fields in India. Some of the reasons why English is important are: o English is our link language with the world. o English is a link language between the various regions of India. o English is the medium of instruction for higher studies all over the country. o Most of the competitive exams are held through the medium of English. o Most of the information in the computer is in the English language. Also most of the communication through the Internet is also in English. o English is a necessary requisite for admission to the universities of U.S., England, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and many other countries, which have now opened their doors to Indian students. o Most of the interviews in India and abroad are held in English. o Journalism and electronic media have further expanded the scope and extent of English in the recent times. There are many Indian channels telecasting programs only in English. o Knowledge of “good spoken and written English” is a desired qualification for most of the jobs. o Job opportunities in teaching, journalism, advertisement, acting, public relations, tourism, etc., have increased. All these professions, besides others, require a good command of written and spoken English. o Literature on scientific and technical information is available mostly in English. BMC-103 10 1.3 SUMMARY: o Language is used to express ideas, information, knowledge, attitude and feelings. How do we share them with others? We share them through symbols and sounds which means language is written as well as spoken. o Language is the system of communication by sounds and words used by human beings. It is intimately tied to man’s feelings and activity. o Language is closely related to nationality, religion, culture and the feeling of self. It is used for communication; work, for worship, whether one is a king or a beggar, a savage in the jungle or civilized man in a big city. o Language has a very individual side. It is a mirror of one’s personality. When a person speaks, a listener interprets and analysis what he says. An utterance consists of symbols referring to whatever is being talked about; but it is also at the same time an index to various things about the speaker, particularly his personality. o It is through language that enormous information about the environment we live in is provided to us. Information, these days, is regarded as power. The more informed you are the more powerful you become. Language is tool of gaining power of information and awareness. o Language instructs and educates members in a society. It provides knowledge. This function begins at home- in the family, at school and college, and continues throughout life. o Language provides us knowledge, expertise and skills for various jobs, so that we may become effective members of society. BMC-103 11 o Language is a great integrating factor in nations and societies By means of language shared commonly, individuals and groups and even cultures come to know each other, understand and appreciate each other’s ways of life and develop tolerance towards each other. It creates cohesiveness. o Through poems, plays, articles and other creative writing language provides opportunities for culture to be preserved and promoted. Literary language is usually written language. o The importance of English can be gauzed from the fact that it is our link language with the world. English is a link language between the various regions of India. It is the medium of instruction for higher studies all over the country. o Most of the information in the computer is in the English language. Also most of the communication through the Internet is also in English. o Owing to colonial expansions in the past and globalization in the present, many new words have entered the English language, including words from the North America, from Australia, from Africa and Asia. o Thousands of scientific terms have been developed and added to the English vocabulary to denote new concepts, discoveries, and inventions. o Job opportunities in teaching, journalism, advertisement, acting, public relations, tourism, etc., have increased. All these professions, besides others, require a good command of written and spoken English. BMC-103 12 1.4 KEY WORDS: Language: Language is used to express ideas, information, knowledge, attitude and feelings. How do we share them with others? We share them through symbols and sounds which means language is written as well as spoken. Functions of Language: Many functions are performed by language. These are: Socialization, Information, Knowledge and Instruction, Debates and Discussions, Integration, and Cultural Promotion. Information Dissemination: It is through language that enormous information about the environment we live in is provided to us. Information, these days, is regarded as power. The more informed you are the more powerful you become. Language is tool of gaining power of information and awareness. Knowledge and Instruction: Language instructs and educates members in a society. It provides knowledge. This function begins at home- in the family, at school and college, and continues throughout life. Language provides us knowledge, expertise and skills for various jobs, so that we may become effective members of society. Integration: Language is a great integrating factor in nations and societies By means of language shared commonly, individuals and groups and even cultures come to know each other, understand and appreciate each other’s ways of life and develop tolerance towards each other. It creates cohesiveness. Cultural Promotion: Through poems, plays, articles and other creative writing language provides opportunities for culture to be preserved and promoted. Literary language is usually written language. English Vocabulary: The English vocabulary has increased greatly in more than 1500 years of development, growing to more than 1 million BMC-103 13 words. It is larger than the vocabulary of any other language. New words in English are being created by borrowing from other languages and by other processes like addition of prefixes and suffixes, the free formation of compounds, etc. Spelling: English has one of the most difficult spelling systems in the world, mainly because the spelling of words has often not changed but their sound has changed and because foreign spelling of words have been retained in new English words. Addition of New Words: As a result of colonial expansion in the past and globalization in the present, many new words have entered the English language, including words from the North America, from Australia, from Africa and Asia. In addition, thousands of scientific terms have been developed to denote new concepts; discoveries, and inventions. Importance of English: English is our link language with the world. It is a link language between the various regions of India. English is the medium of instruction for higher studies all over the country. Knowledge of “good spoken and written English” is a desired qualification for most of the jobs. Literature on scientific and technical information is available mostly in English. 1.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs): 1. Discuss the importance of language for individuals and society. 2. Write a detailed note on the salient features of English as a language. 3. Discuss the various functions of English. 4. English is the most important language in the world. Do you agree? Discuss. BMC-103 14 1.6 REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READING: o New Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2000) o Correct English Usage; W. Mc. Mordie; Taraporewala & Sons o A Practical English Grammar; A. J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet; ELBSLow Price Edition o English Grammar, Composition & Usage: J.C. Nesfield; Revised by N. K. Agarwal o English Grammar- An Outline of General Phonetics; R.K. Bansal; OUP: 1971 o Spoken English for India; R. K. Bansal and J. B. Harrison; Longman o Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary; Daniel Jones; E.L.B.S (13th Editions) BMC-103 15 Bachelor of Mass Communication (1st year) ENGLISH (BMC-103) Block: A Unit: II Lesson: 2 WRITTEN AND SPOKEN ENGLISH Writer: Prof. Sudhir Kumar Former Faculty, CCSHAU, Hisar Vetter: Sh. S. K. Singh Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar Converted into SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra Senior Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar LESSON STRUCTURE: In this lesson we shall discus about some important aspects of English. First, we shall focus on spoken English. Then we shall also briefly discuss written English. The lesson structure shall be as follows: 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Presentation of Content 2.2.1 Spoken English 2.2.2 Written English 2.3 Summary 2.4 Key Words 2.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 2.6 References/Suggested Reading BMC-103 16 2.0 OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this lesson are: o To Learn About Spoken English o To Learn About Written English 2.1 A INTRODUCTION: language performs many functions. These are: Socialization, Information, Knowledge and Instruction, Debates and Discussions, Integration, and Cultural Promotion. English language performs all these functions more than any other language. English is our link language with the world. It is a link language between the various regions of India. English is the medium of instruction for higher studies all over the country. Knowledge of “good spoken and written English” is a desired qualification for most of the jobs. So it is important not only to learn English, but it is also important to know more about English language. In this lesson we shall focus on spoken English, and also briefly discuss written English. 2.2 PRESENTATION OF CONTENT: The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows: o Spoken English o Written English 2.2.1 SPOKEN ENGLISH: Here we shall consider the salient points of written and spoken English. The spoken expression shows the full intonation, stress, and rhythm of a language. Spoken utterances express the language code fully and BMC-103 17 completely while written expressions are partial representation of the spoken forms. Let us take an example. If you come across the phrase the dog, it could be read in a variety of ways. If it is an answer to a question; it might have a matter-of-fact statement intonation. If it referred to a person, it would have a low intonation throughout. If the animal is found after having been missing for some time, the phrase might have a high to extra-high intonation. In written language we use punctuation marks and other means to make our communication clear and effective. In spoken English, pronunciation and rhythm of the language are important. Also, the same letter may have different pronunciation in different words such as the letter i in fine, machine, chin. Similarly, words with similar pronunciation may be represented by different letters like ee in feet, ea in seat, ei in receive, ie achieve, i in machine, and e in even. Before we take up the subject of spoken English, let us first discuss written English. 2.2.2 WRITTEN ENGLISH: There is a lot of difference between telling a story and writing a story. To tell even a simple story well, it requires some practice. An uneducated person generally tells a tale badly. He does not mentally look ahead as he tells it and does not plan it out. So he repeats himself, omits important items, which he may use afterwards in an out of place manner. He may dwell too long on minor details. He may fail to emphasis the leading points. So PLANNING is important for a good written piece. Before starting the writing of drafting process, one must have the whole piece clear in his or her mind. And then, the main points should be arranged in the proper order. BMC-103 18 We write a wide variety of things, It could be an informal friendly letter or a matter-of-fact business communication, a report, a feature, a story, an essay or an article for publication Whether one is writing to inform, to instruct, to request, to entertain, or to persuade; the written communication has to be all the more carefully planned and presented. Before writing, one should be quite clear about a few things. These are: o Subject o Format o Point of View o Approach o Sequence o Cohesiveness o Conclusion o Grammar o Revision SUBJECT: For, writing anything you must have some thing to say on some topic. You must have a clear idea of the subject in your mind before you begin to write. FORMAT: You must write in the format suitable to the type of write-up and the subject. For example, a friendly letter may begin with “Dear Ravi, I am writing this from the sea-shore at Goa” and end with “As ever”. But this format need not be the same in a formal business letter or an application. There are special formats of various letters, notes, and invitations. One must know something of the characteristics of newspaper writing, reports, plays, digest, abstracts, press-notes etc. BMC-103 19 POINT OF VIEW: You must have a point of view and focus. The same subject may be written about from a variety of points of view and focus. You must adopt a clear and consistent point of view and purpose. It could be: sympathetic, friendly, unfriendly, detailed, scientific, humorous, educational, etc. APPROACH: You should decide whether to write about the past (past tense), whether to set the write-up in the present (present tense), or set it in the future (present tense). You should also decide in advance whether to treat the subject from a close range in great detail or from a distance and in quick outline. SEQUENCE: Follow the plan you have chosen, i.e., do not omit any point, and keep to the order in which the points are in the outline. COHESIVENESS: Be careful to connect the points planned in the outline naturally; so that the whole will read well as a connected piece. Otherwise the whole piece will be disconnected and jerky. You must fill in the details that should connect one point with the next, and so on. CONCLUSION: The conclusion is important. “The whole piece’ should be made to lead up to it naturally. GRAMMAR: See that your writhen piece is correct – both grammatically and idiomatically and in good simple English. REVISION: Revise your work and if necessary rewrite it, until it is as good as your can make it. BMC-103 20 Since the object of writing is to communicate information with a point of view in mind, clarity and effectiveness are desirable. The composition must be well organized so that the intended reader can follow it readily. And within this decided structure or the organization, the content must be so presented that it will have the desired effect upon him. The effectiveness of the composition will depend on such matters as order of presentation, emphasis, point of view, and style. But there is no single way to be effective. One thing every body suggests to beginners, that is- extensive outside reading. Diversified and extensive reading helps a lot in improving both written and spoken English. 2.3 SUMMARY: o English is our link language with the world. It is a link language between various regions of India. English is the medium of instruction for higher studies all over the country. Knowledge of “good spoken and written English” is a desired qualification for most of the jobs. o Spoken utterances express the language code fully and completely while written expressions are partial representation of the spoken forms. The spoken expression shows the full intonation, stress, and rhythm of a language. o In written language we use punctuation marks and other means to make our communication clear and effective. In spoken English, pronunciation and rhythm of the language are important. o Planning is important for good writing. Whether one is writing to inform, to instruct, to request, to entertain, or to persuade; the BMC-103 21 written communication has to be all the more carefully planned and presented. o You should decide whether to write about the past (past tense), whether to set the write-up in the present (present tense), or set it in the future (present tense). o You should also decide in advance whether to treat the subject from a close range in great detail or from a distance and in quick outline. o Follow the plan you have chosen, i.e., do not omit any point, and keep to the order in which the points are in the outline. o Be careful to connect the points planned in the outline naturally; so that the whole will read well as a connected piece. Otherwise the whole piece will be disconnected and jerky. You must fill in the details that should connect one point with the next, and so on. o Diversified and extensive reading helps a lot in improving both written and spoken English. 2.4 KEY WORDS: Functions of Language: A language performs many functions. These are: Socialization, Information, Knowledge and Instruction, Debates and Discussions, Integration, and Cultural Promotion. English language performs all these functions more than any other language. Tips for Writing: Before writing, one should be quite clear about a few things. These are: subject, format, point of view, approach, sequence, cohesiveness, conclusion, grammar, and revision. Format in Writing: Format means the structure. There are special formats of various letters, notes, and invitations. One must know BMC-103 22 something of the characteristics of newspaper writing, reports, plays, digest, abstracts, press-notes etc. 2.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs): 1. Write a detailed note on spoken English. 2. Write a detailed note on written English. 3. What are the basic considerations that need to be kept in mind while writing? Discuss in detail. 2.6 REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READING: o New Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2000) o Correct English Usage; W. Mc. Mordie; Taraporewala & Sons o A Practical English Grammar; A. J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet; ELBSLow Price Edition o English Grammar, Composition & Usage: J.C. Nesfield; Revised by N.K. Agarwal o English Grammar- An Outline of General Phonetics; R.K. Bansal; OUP: 1971 o Spoken English for India; R.K. Bansal and J.B. Harrison; Longman o Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary; Daniel Jones; E.L.B.S (13th Editions) BMC-103 23 Bachelor of Mass Communication (1st year) ENGLISH (BMC-103) Block: B Unit: I Lesson: 3 VOWELS AND CONSONANTS Writer: Prof. Sudhir Kumar Former Faculty, CCSHAU, Hisar Vetter: Sh. S. K. Singh Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar Converted into SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra Senior Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar LESSON STRUCTURE: In this lesson we shall discus about the various introductory aspects of the various speech sounds, specifically, vowels and consonants. We shall focus on diphthongs. We shall also briefly discuss phonetic transcription and syllables. The lesson structure shall be as follows: 3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Presentation of Content 3.2.1 Vowels and Consonants 3.2.2 Diphthongs 3.2.3 Phonetic Transcriptions 3.2.4 Syllables 3.3 Summary 3.4 Key Words 3.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 3.6 References/Suggested Reading 24 BMC-103 3.0 OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this lesson are: o To Know About Vowels and Consonants o To Know About Diphthongs o To Understand Phonetic Transcriptions o To Know About Syllables 3.1 INTRODUCTION: Spoken communication is based on speech related sounds. These sounds are codified. The speech related sounds are the counterparts of alphabets. While in writing, the alphabets have specific physical structure in terms of shapes. Similarly, the spoken counterparts are represented by sounds. These are the vowels and consonants. In this lesson we shall try to cover both vowels and consonants. 3.2 PRESENTATION OF CONTENT: The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows: o Vowels and Consonants o Diphthongs o Phonetic Transcriptions o Syllables 3.2 VOWELS AND CONSONANTS: In this lesson, we shall study the classification of various speech sounds. The two broad categories of speech related sounds are the vowels and the consonants. BMC-103 25 VOWEL: A vowel is a speech sound in which the mouth is open and the tongue is not touching the top of the mouth or the teeth. For example, one has to open his or her mouth while uttering the alphabet a or e. (See phonetic transcription later in this lesson for more examples). In English, the vowels are a, e, i, o, u. CONSONANT: A consonant is a speech sound made by completely or partly stopping the flow of air being breathed out through the mouth. Here one has to both ‘open and close’ or ‘close and open’ his or her mouth to be able to pronounce these alphabets. Examples of consonants are the alphabets b, c, d, f, etc. In fact, all alphabets with the exception of the five vowels are called the consonants. EXPLANATION: Just utter or say the word ‘see’. You will realize that when you utter this word, particularly the vowel sound represented by the letters ee, air escapes through the mouth freely and continuously without any audible friction. In contrast, when you say ‘ssss’ the air escapes through the mouth with friction. Now try uttering ‘saw’. You will realize that when you utter the vowel represented by the letters aw, air escapes through the mouth freely without any friction. Alphabetical or speech-related sounds, during the production of which the air escapes through the mouth freely and continuously without any audible friction, are called vowels and all other alphabetical or speech-related sounds are called consonants. BMC-103 26 Let us take another example. Utter the word ‘see’, prolonging the vowel sound represented by the letters ee. You will find that, when we utter this word air escapes freely and continuously without any friction. So this sound is a vowel. Now utter the word shoe. Once again there is a prolonging of the sound represented by the letters oe. During the articulation of this sound also, it will be seen that the air escapes freely and continuously without any friction. So the sound represented by the letters oe in the English word shoe is also a vowel sound. 3.2.2 DIPHTHONGS: There are some vowels, the sound qualities of which are not constant. Here, the sounds of these change from the sound of one vowel to another vowel. For example, compare the vowels in the English words car and cow. In the vowel in car (a) there is no change in its quality. The vowel in cow (o), however, changes its quality. Here the ‘o’ sounds like an ‘a’. Here the tongue changes its position during the articulation of the vowel in cow. A diphthong is a combination of two vowel sounds, for example the sounds ai, as in pipe, high or the letters ou in doubt or cow. 3.2.3 PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION: The dictionary gives the meaning and spelling of words while the phonetic transcription tells about the pronunciation of various sounds. Phonetic transcription is a useful device to represent on paper the way in which words are pronounced in a language. This is particularly, useful when one is dealing with a language like English in which one letter of the alphabet can represent different sounds. BMC-103 27 In English, one letter often represents several sounds (consider the letter ‘a’ in fat, fate and father. The same letter ‘a’ represents three different sounds in these words. Consider the letters ‘ch’ in chips, machine and character. The same letters ‘ch’ represent three different sounds in these three words. Also, different letters often represent the same sound. Consider the words cot and kite. The letter B ‘c’ in cot represents the sound, which is represented by the letter ‘k’ in kite. To cite another example, the letter ‘s’ in sit and the letter ‘c’ in cease represent the same sound. To express the various sounds there are standard symbols called phonetic symbols. You must go through the list of phonetic symbols frequently. Soon you will get used to them. There are two other very useful dictionaries, which use these symbols. One is Daniel Jones’s English Pronouncing Dictionary (ELBS cheap edition) and the other is The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English by Hornby and others (ELBS cheap edition). 3.2.4 SYLLABLE: For analyzing speech, we have to break it up into units. These units are called the syllables. And some times, a syllable can be the starting point. Many words have more than one syllable each. For example, the English word tailor has two syllables, tai and lor. Similarly the English word examination has five syllables ig-z-mi-nei-shun. Likewise, the Hindi word firkth has three syllables fi - rk - th. So now we know that a syllable is a unit of a word. Words are divided into a few syllables, containing a vowel sound and usually one or more consonants. BMC-103 28 A vowel is a central part of a syllable. A consonant on the other hand is marginal, i.e., it occurs at the beginning or the end of a syllable. And finally, here are a few examples of disyllabic words, tri-syllabic words, and words with more than three syllables: DISYLLABIC WORDS: A/way A/go A/llow Un/known Per/form TRI-SYLLABIC WORDS: Re/por/ter Do/mi/nate Ex/per/tise Te/le/phone WORDS WITH MORE THAN THREE SYLLABLES: Hip/po/pot/am/us Res/pon/si/bi/li/ty Cir/cu/la/tion Ad/mi/ni/stra/tion In/ter/na/tio/na/li/za/tion 3.3 SUMMARY: o The speech related sounds are the counterparts of alphabets. While in writing, the alphabets have specific physical structure in terms of shapes. Similarly, the spoken counterparts represented by sounds. These are the vowels and consonants. BMC-103 29 are o A vowel is a speech sound in which the mouth is open and the tongue is not touching the top of the mouth or the teeth. For example, one has to open his or her mouth while uttering the alphabet a or e. o A consonant is a speech sound made by completely or partly stopping the flow of air being breathed out through the mouth. Here one has to both ‘open and close’ or ‘close and open’ his or her mouth to be able to pronounce these alphabets. o For analyzing speech, we have to break it up into units. These units are called the syllables. And some times, a syllable can be the starting point. 3.4 KEY WORDS: Vowels: A vowel is a speech sound in which the mouth is open and the tongue is not touching the top of the mouth or the teeth. For example, one has to open his or her mouth while uttering the alphabet a or e. In English, the vowels are a, e, i, o, u. Consonants: A consonant is a speech sound made by completely or partly stopping the flow of air being breathed out through the mouth. Here one has to both ‘open and close’ or ‘close and open’ his or her mouth to be able to pronounce these alphabets. Examples of consonants are the alphabets b, c, d, f, etc. In fact, all alphabets with the exception of the five vowels are called the consonants. Phonetic Transcription: tells about the pronunciation of various sounds. Phonetic transcription is a useful device to represent on paper the way in which words are pronounced in a language. Syllables: For analyzing speech, we have to break it up into units. These units are called the syllables. And some times, a syllable can be the BMC-103 30 starting point. Many words have more than one syllable each. For example, the English word tailor has two syllables, tai and lor. Similarly the English word examination has five syllables ig-z-mi-nei-shun. 3.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs): 1. Write a detailed note on vowels and consonants. 2. What are diphthongs? Discuss. 3. Write a detailed note on syllables. 3.6 REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READING: o New Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2000) o Correct English Usage; W. Mc. Mordie; Taraporewala & Sons o A Practical English Grammar; A. J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet; ELBSLow Price Edition o English Grammar, Composition & Usage: J.C. Nesfield; Revised by N.K. Agarwal o English Grammar- An Outline of General Phonetics; R.K. Bansal; OUP: 1971 o Spoken English for India; R.K. Bansal and J.B. Harrison; Longman o Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary; Daniel Jones; E.L.B.S (13th Editions) BMC-103 31 Bachelor of Mass Communication (1st year) ENGLISH (BMC-103) Block: B Unit: II Lesson: 4 WORDS : FORMATION AND PRONUNCIATION Writer: Prof. Sudhir Kumar Former Faculty, CCSHAU, Hisar Vetter: Sh. S. K. Singh Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar Converted into SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra Senior Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar LESSON STRUCTURE: In this lesson we shall discus about the various aspects of words as the most basic unit of language. First, we shall focus on the formation of words. We shall also briefly pronunciation and spelling of words. The lesson structure shall be as follows: 4.0 Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Presentation of Content 4.2.1 Formation of Words 4.2.2 Pronunciation 4.2.3 Spelling of Words 4.3 Summary 4.4 Key Words 4.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 4.6 References/Suggested Reading BMC-103 32 4.0 OBJECTIVES: Words are the basic units of language. Thus, it is important to know how words formed. It is also important to know the pronunciation of words. We shall study about al these aspects in this lesson. The objectives of this lesson are: o To Understand the Formation of Words o To Know More About Pronunciation of Words o To Know More About Spelling of Words 4.1 INTRODUCTION: A word is a unit of language that carries meaning. Words can be combined to create phrases, clauses, and sentences. The study of words is as important as the study of sentences because sentences are made up of words. The study of words not only helps us recognize the parts of speech (i.e., the grammatical class of a word) by their structure but also shows the relationship between classes of words: noun-verb; noun-adjective; adjective-adverb; adjective-verb; etc. In this lesson we shall discus about the various aspects of words including the formation of words, pronunciation of words, and spelling of words. 4.2 PRESENTATION OF CONTENT: Here we shall study about words. These are the most basic unit of language. We shall start with the formation of words. Then we shall discuss pronunciation of words. Finally, we shall discuss about spelling of words. The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows: o Formation of Words o Pronunciation of Words o Spelling of Words BMC-103 33 4.2.1 FORMATION OF WORDS: There are many ways how words are formed. Often by adding a small unit either at the beginning or at the end, new words are formed. There are three important principles in word-formation: o AFFIXATION o CONVERSION o COMPOUNDING 4.2.1.1 AFFIXATION: Here some thing is added to an existing word to form a new word. Affixation is usually done using prefixation (adding something at the beginning of a word) or suffixation (adding something at the end). PREFIXATION: Prefixes do not generally alter the class of the word. Negative Prefixes: un-, non-, il-, ir-, im-, dis-, a-, abExamples: unfair, unwise, non-smoker, non-conformist, insane, illogical, irregular, impossible; disobey, amoral, abnormal. o il-is used before words beginning with ‘I’ o r-is used before words beginning with ‘r’ o Im-is used before words beginning with ‘m’, ‘p’, ‘b’ (immoral, impolite, imbalance) Some prefixes change the meaning of the action indicated by the main word; they do not have a negative implication: un-, de-, disExamples: undo, untie, unpack, dehydrate, decode, defrost, decentralize, disown. Some prefixes give the sense of ill, bad, wrong, wrongly, not in the right way, etc.: mis-, mal-, pseudoBMC-103 34 Prefixes of Degree or Size: arch-, super-, out-, sur-, sub-, over-, under-, hyper, ultra-, miniExamples: archbishop, supernatural, superfluous. Locational Prefixes: super-, sub-, inter-, transExample: superstructure, subway, international, transatlantic Prefixes of Time and Order: fore-, pre-, post-, ex-, reExamples: forewarn, pre-war, post-war, ex-president, reappear. SUFFIXATION: Suffixes often alter the word-class. For example, the adjective ‘kind’, by the addition of the suffix ‘– ness’, is changed into an abstract noun ‘kindness’. One kind of nouns into another kind of noun: -er gang-gangster -er teenage-teenager -eer profit-profiteer -let book-booklet Other Miscellaneous Examples: agent-agency; crime-criminal; engineengineer; law-lawyer; library-librarian; message-messenger; music- musician; poet-poetry; scene-scenery; slave-slavery; thief-theft; treasuretreasury. BMC-103 35 Verbs into Nouns: -er Work-worker; -er Serve-server (also ‘servant’) -ature sign-signature -al refuse-refusal -ing drive-driving Miscellaneous Pairs: behave-behaviour; compare-comparison; growgrowth; hate-hatred; heal-health; know-knowledge; laugh-laughter; prayprayer; serve-service. Nouns into Verbs: -en length-lengthen -fy beauty-beautify -ze apology-apologize -ify class-classify -ize critic-criticize -efy liquid-liquefy Nouns into Adjectives: -y curl-curly -ial colony-colonial -ly friend-friendly -tial confidence-confidential -ful cheer-cheerful -ic artist-artistic -less care-careless -etic sympathy-sympathetic -ous courage-courageous -atic system-systematic -ious mystery-mysterious -ish child-childish -al accident-accidental -like child-childlike -tal horizon-horizontal -en wood-wooden Miscellaneous Pairs: Ambition-ambitious; anxiety-anxious; caution- cautious; religion-religious; suspicion-suspicious; variety-various; circlecircular; fortune-fortunate; satisfaction-satisfactory; picture-picturesque; bother-bothersome; praise-praiseworthy; authority-authoritarian. 36 BMC-103 Adjectives into Nouns: -ness bitter-bitterness -th deep-depth; true-truth -y honest-honesty -ce distant-distance -ty cruel-cruelty -cy efficient-efficiency -ity original-orginality Examples: brave-bravery; foreign-foreigner; free-freedom; hard-harship; highheight; just-justice; literary-literature; proud’”pride; strangestranger; wise-wisdom; young-youngster. . Adjectives/Nouns: -ite, -ian” -ese, -ist, -ism Examples: Israelite, Indonesian, republican, Chinese, stylist, idealism. Verbs into Adjectives: -ent obey-obedient -able agree-agreeable -ant please-pleasant -ible sense-sensible -ive act-active -ed damage-damaged -tive attend-attentive -en swell-swollen -ing annoy-annoying -ative imagine-imaginative -itive sense-sensitive Miscellaneous pairs: continue-continuous; forget-forgetful; imagineimaginary; live-alive; quarrel-quarrelsome; satisfy-satisfactory; sleepasleep; slip-slippery; wake-awake. Adjectives into Verbs -ize civil-civilize -en dark-darken BMC-103 37 4.2.1.2 CONVERSION OF WORDS: Conversion is the process whereby a word is converted into a new wordclass without adding an affix. For example, the word ‘release’ can be used as a verb or as a noun: o They released him. (Verb) o They ordered his release. (Noun) There are several types of conversions. The important ones are. Verb-Noun Conversion: o The guard was unnoticed. o The captain guarded the men. Some of the common words that are used as verbs and as nouns are: aim, answer, attempt, bottle, break, cause, change, comb, command, cook, cure, curse, dance, defeat, exercise, fall, fear, finger, flash, guard, guide, hope, limit, love, note, pile, pin, promise, pump, regret, reply, report, roar, share, sign, smile, smoke, support, walk, witness, wound, wreck. Adjective-Noun Conversion: o He seemed average. (Adjective) o The average was eighty. (Noun) Some of the common words that are used as adjectives and nouns are: average, cold, dear, elastic, equal, English (American, Indian, etc.) explosive, evil, fat, final, human, ideal, light, moral, native, natural, official, orange, particular, plain, public, secret, solid, sore, special, welcome. Adjective-Verbs Conversion: o They were very humble. (Adjective) o They humbled him. (Verb) BMC-103 38 Some of the common words that are used as adjectives and verbs are: Blind, calm, clean, clear, complete, cool, correct, direct, dirty, dry, dull, empty, faint, fit, free, idle, level, near, open, slow, tame, thin, tidy, upset, wet. Some words like- average, equal, hollow, welcome, etc, may be used as adjectives, verbs and nouns: He seemed average. (Adjective) Let’s average the scores. (Verb) The average was interesting. (Noun) Proper Noun-Common Noun Conversion: He is a Shelley. (Common noun) I have read the poem of Shelley. (Proper noun) Adjective-Adverb Conversion: The poem reads well. (Adjective) He read the poem well. (Adverb) Some of the common words that are used both as adjectives and adverbs are: Alone, backward, early, far, fast, fine, first, hard, high, late, lively, last, long, low, near, next, right, well, wrong. Transitive-Intransitive Conversion: We run the water. (Transitive verb) The water runs. (Intransitive verb) 4.2.1.3 COMPOUNDING: A compound word is a unit that consists of two or more bases. There is no one formal criterion that can be used for a general definition of compound words. Sometimes, in writing, they are hyphenated (e.g. tax-free); sometimes, they are written as one word (e.g. bedroom); and sometimes, as two words without a hyphen (e.g. reading room). BMC-103 39 In speech, compounds can often be identified as having a main stress on the first unit and secondary stress on the second unit (e.g. ‘blackbird = a species of bird). But, many speakers place a secondary stress on the first unit (e.g. head-’master). 4.2.2 PRONUNCATION: Because of the advancement in the electronic media, spoken English is as important today as is written English. And in spoken English, pronunciation plays a very important role. The letter ‘I’ is pronounced in many ways in English o A short sound as in pin, thin, din o A long sound as in pine, title, mine o An almost unnoticed or obscure sound something like U as in bird, first, or thirst. o Sound equivalent to EE as in machine, fatigue, police, unique. Now speak loudly the words given below with proper pronunciation. Fist, feast. Sin, seen. Hit, heat. Slipper, sleeper. Sick, seek. Kill, keel. Din, dean. Pitches, peaches. Knit, neat. Six, seeks. Liver, ever. Scissors, Caesars. Live, leave. Slip, sleep. bitten, beaten Sheep, ship, ship. Lips, leaps. Still, steel. Riches, reaches. Since, sins, scenes. The letter C has a K-like sound before any consonant, as care, cork, curve, clock, crown. BMC-103 40 Sometimes, it has an S sound before E, Y, and I as in centre, city, and Cyprus. Note the various pronunciations of C in the following words: Calico, Calcutta, Decency, Currency Cancel, Conceal, Coincide, Society In some words CI and in others CE should be pronounced like SH: as insocial, precious, provincial, and ocean. Because of the influence of the regional languages the letter D is not pronounced properly. In Hindi and many other languages D is used for D, DH, and DHA sounds. Practice pronouncing the following words; Told, Yield, Faded, Said, Pride, Cloud, Body, Made, Loaded, Dead, Could, Divided The letter F in of should be sounded like V. But, F in off should have its sharp sound. The letter P at the beginning of a word is silent before N,S,T: as, psalm, psychology. P is silent in receipt, corps. Many mistake the precise power of the letter O in such words as top, lost, properly, not., box, dog, profit, morning, body. The letter O in these words is commonly but wrongly sounded like aw as in law; the proper sound of O in such words is short and sharp. BMC-103 41 Many apparently short O’s have acquired the sound of short U, as in above, among, bombard, color, come, cover, does, hover, none, nothing, tongue, worry; in a few words O has the sound of OO, as do, lose, prove, tomb; this long sound being somewhat shortened in words, like woman. A similar hint is needed with regard to the diphthong au in such common words as out, house, found, rout, sound, plough, pronounce. When not a diphthong, OU has the sound of o In dough, mould, shoulder, soul, though, court, course, four, mourn, source; o Of short U in country, couple, courage, cousin, double, enough, flourish, tough, journey, young; o Of OO in group, route, through, tourist, uncouth, you, wound; o Of AW in bought, fought, wrought. o The regular long sound of accented U is like OO (W) proceeded by Y. This power of U is peculiar to the English language. Examples: unit, usual, cubit, mule, unanimous, union. The same sound is heard in European, eucalyptus (a tree), beauty, feudal, ewe, yew, view, cue, W is silent in answer, and is silent also before R at the beginning of a word, as in wrong, wrath, and wrist. The combination TH is sometime found to be difficult to pronounce. It has a sharp sound, as in thin, breath, cloth, author, athlete; and a soft sound, as in thine, breathe, wither, father, mother, fathom, clothing. BMC-103 42 TH when followed by E mute, is soft or flat as scathe, and TH in with, smooth, and in the verbs mouth, bequeath, is soft. Commonly TH final is sharp as in faith, moth. The plurals of those nouns which end in TH have commonly the TH sharp as death, deaths. But in the following seven nouns TH is sharp in the singular and flat in the plural:- bath, cloth, mouth, oath, path, wrath. In Thomas, Thames H is silent: in isthmus and asthma, H is silent and T is scarcely heard. The consonant S has a variety of powers. It has a simple hissing sound in sir; it is equivalent to Z in pens: it has the power of SH in sugar; and it is pronounced like ZH in measure. The general rule for the combination of consonants is that a sharp sound is followed by sharp sound and flat sound by a flat sound. Do not give final S its sharp sound after R. Final S after R ought always to have its Z-sound as in cars, pores, tears, and doctors. But when a word ends in RSE, as verse, the S should have its sharp sound: as in Sparse, coarse inverse, remorse, worse, purse. Sometimes has the power of SS Some people often pronounce prison, crimson, treason, proposal, wisdom, as if S in then should have the sound of ZH; this is wrong; it should have its flat Z-sound. SCI should be sounded like SH in conscience, prescience, but not in science. Sch at the beginning of a word has in some words the sound of SK: as school, scheme, schooner, it is equivalent to sharp S in schism, and to SH in schedule. BMC-103 43 The termination-OUS is sometimes wrongly sounded as if it were two syllables: it is but one syllable and should be pronounced as such like the pronoun as, covetous, virtuous, mountainous, porous, zealous. PRACTICE THE FOLLOWING: Paris, US rules, roads, gets, paths, keeps, gases, noses, fruits, St. Paul’s, hearts, chances, prays, Aesop’s Fables, lover’s sighs, cats and dogs, masts and sails, pipes and drums, he sleeps and dreams, she laughs and talks, he mouths his words he takes great pains to learn his lessons; darkness hides. Usually it is not easy, for students to pronounce accurately some of the combinations of consonants to be found in English. Practice pronouncing the following till you can articulate all the sounds correctly: Lists, lasts, tasks, coasts, beasts, tempests, Fists, risks, tusks, masks, priests, attempts, last fasts, masts, bursts, physics, statistics, lisps, lusts, trusts, boats, molests, moralists, Tests, costs, clasps, grasps, requests Postscript, Ash, ass, six tusks, five fights, ashes, asses, Irish sea, mist strive, six locusts, swift Six sticks, fix six sticks, soft timber, foolish sailors. streams, 4.2.3 SPELLING: There are forty-two elementary sounds in the English language and only twenty-six letters to represent them. Five vowels represent thirteen vowel sounds and the some sounds are represented in one hundred different ways. Two or more letters sometimes represents the same sound, and the BMC-103 44 some letter often- represents two or more sounds. But by comparing the same vowels and the same vowel sounds in the following, we can see these irregularities; tale, fail, say, gaol, eight, gauge, they Mole, goat, toe, four, sew, low, yeoman, beau, owe Besides, modern English is a very complex language. English has many words, which have come from different sources. Words form these sources often retain, more or less of their original spelling. RULES OF SPELLING: There are a few simple rules of spelling which every student should know; but there are many exceptions. When a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a word ending in E, the final E of the word should be omitted before the suffix: as, Love, loving, lovable, pure, purity, nature, natural; blue bluish; virtue, virtuous. Exceptions: When the final E comes after G soft, the E is not omitted before able and -ous: as in: Change- Changeable Courage, Courageous When the final E is preceded by C soft, the E is retained before able and is changed into I before –ous: as, peace, peaceable, grace, gracious; space, spacious. BMC-103 45 But when C-soft changes into C-hard, the rule holds good; final E being omitted, as in: practice, practical, practicable. Verbs ending in EE, IE, OE, or YE, retain the final E before -ing and able, as in: fleeing, agreeable, hoeing, and eyeing. When a suffix or termination beginning with a consonant is added to a word, which ends in E, the E is retained before the suffix; as in; Love, lovely; care, careful, blue, blueness. Exceptions: duly, truly, awfully, wholly, width, wisdom, and some words ending in –ment, as arguement, judgement. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant when a suffix beginning with a vowel is added: as, Cut, cutter; cutting; slip, slipped; slipper; begin, beginner; propel, propeller; forgot, forgotten. Exception When a suffix is added to a word accented on the last syllable, then the final consonant of the word is not doubled: as prefer, preferable, preference; confer, conference. Note that when two vowels in one syllable precede, the final consonant is not doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, Sleep, sleeper, sleeping; broad, broader, broaden; reveal, revealed, revealer. Generally speaking when a suffix is added to a word ending in Y preceded by a consonant, the Y is changed into I: as, Try, tried, trial; BMC-103 46 mercy, merciful, merciless; glory, glories, gloried, glorious, glorify, glorification; ally, alliance; vary, variance, variable; merry, merrily, merriment. • The Y of sly, shy, commonly remains unchanged before –LY or - • NESS; as, slyness; shyness. • suffix as in the following. Note that final Y following another vowel is usually retained before Survey, surveys, surveyed, surveyor, boy, boyish, boyhood; day, days; joy, joyful, joyous, enjoyable; convey, conveyance; buy, buys, buying, betray, betrayed, betrayal; employ, employer, employing, • employment. The natural position of the accent in English words is on the first syllable, as in father, industry, and language; or on the root syllable, as in admires, and congratulates, omit, upheaval. 4.3 SUMMARY: o A word is a unit of language that carries meaning. Words can be combined to create phrases, clauses, and sentences. o Three important principles in word-formation are: affixation, conversion, and compounding o When some thing is added to an existing word to form a new word, it is affixation. Affixation is usually done using prefixation (adding something at the beginning of a word) or suffixation (adding something at the end). o A compound word is a unit that consists of two or more bases. There is no one formal criterion that can be used for a general BMC-103 definition of compound 47 words. In speech, compounds can often be identified as having a main stress on the first unit and secondary stress on the second unit (e.g. ‘blackbird = a species of bird). But, many speakers place a secondary stress on the first unit (e.g. head-’master). o There are forty-two elementary sounds in the English language and only twenty-six letters to represent them. Five vowels represent thirteen vowel sounds and the some sounds are represented in one hundred different ways. Two or more letters sometimes represents the same sound, and the some letter often- represents two or more sounds. o Besides, modern English is a very complex language. English has many words, which have come from different sources. Words form these sources often retain, more or less of their original spelling. 4.4 KEY WORDS: Word: A word is a unit of language that carries meaning. Words can be combined to create phrases, clauses, and sentences. Affixation: Here some thing is added to an existing word to form a new word. Affixation is usually done using prefixation (adding something at the beginning of a word) or suffixation (adding something at the end). Conversion of Words: Conversion is the process whereby a word is converted into a new word-class without adding an affix. For example, many words can be used both as a verb or as a noun. Compounding: A compound word is a unit that consists of two or more bases. There is no one formal criterion that can be used for a general definition of compound words. Sometimes, in writing, they are hyphenated BMC-103 48 (e.g. tax-free); sometimes, they are written as one word (e.g. bedroom); and sometimes, as two words without a hyphen (e.g. reading room). 4.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs): 1. Write a detailed note on word formation. 2. Discuss in detail pronunciation in English. 3. Write a detailed note on spelling of words. 4.6 REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READING: o New Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2000) o Correct English Usage; W. Mc. Mordie; Taraporewala & Sons o A Practical English Grammar; A. J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet; ELBSLow Price Edition o English Grammar, Composition & Usage: J.C. Nesfield; Revised by N.K. Agarwal o English Grammar- An Outline of General Phonetics; R.K. Bansal; OUP: 1971 o Spoken English for India; R.K. Bansal and J.B. Harrison; Longman o Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary; Daniel Jones; E.L.B.S (13th Editions) BMC-103 49 Bachelor of Mass Communication (1st year) ENGLISH (BMC-103) Block: C Unit: I Lesson: 5 SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS Writer: Prof. Sudhir Kumar Former Faculty, CCSHAU, Hisar Vetter: Sh. S. K. Singh Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar Converted into SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra Senior Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar LESSON STRUCTURE: In this lesson we shall discus about the various introductory aspects of sentences and paragraphs. Specifically, we shall focus on the various types of sentences and how sentences are transformed. We shall also briefly discuss about paragraph writing. The lesson structure shall be as follows: 5.0 Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Presentation of Content 5.2.1 Sentences 5.2.2 Types of Sentences 5.2.3 Transformation of Sentences 5.2.4 Paragraph Writing 5.3 Summary 5.4 Key Words 5.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 5.6 References/Suggested Reading 50 BMC-103 5.0 OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this lesson are: o To Know More About Sentences o To Know More About the Types of Sentences o To Understand About Transformation of Sentences o To Know More About Paragraph Writing 5.1 INTRODUCTION: Words are the most basic elements of any language. But it is not always possible to converse and communicate fully only with the help of words. For communication to be complete, words need to be put together in the shape of sentences. In fact, sentences are better equipped to carry information, ideas, feelings, attitudes, etc. Again sentences need to be put together in the form of paragraphs to make communication more complete. In this lesson, we shall discuss about various aspects of sentences and paragraphs. 5.2 PRESENTATION OF CONTENT: The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows: o Sentences o Types of Sentences o Transformation of Sentences o Paragraph Writing BMC-103 51 5.2.1 SENTENCES: When we speak or write we use words. We use these words in groups that make sense. A combination of words that makes complete sense is called a sentence. Ex. He sang a song. Here we shall discuss about the following aspects of sentences: o Subject and Predicate o Kinds of Phrases o Kinds of Clauses o Kinds of Sentences SUBJECT AND PREDICATE: A sentence has a Subject and a Predicate. The word or words denoting the person or thing about which something is said are called the Subject of the sentence. The boy sang a song. In this sentence, The Boy is the Subject. The word or words, which say something about the person or thing denoted by the subject, are called the Predicate. The boy sang a song. In this sentence, sang a song is the Predicate. The subject of a sentence usually comes first but occasionally it is put after the predicate: as in: Here comes the bus. (In this sentence, Here comes is the predicate and the bus is the subject) If a subject or a predicate is absent but implied, the group is still a sentence. For example, Thank you. (I thank you.) Shocking! (It is shocking.) Well done! (It is well done.) BMC-103 52 KINDS OF SENTENCES: o A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called a Declarative or Assertive sentence. In assertive sentences, the subject usually comes first followed by the predicate. But sometimes the subject is placed after the predicate. o A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence. Ex. Will you help me? o A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is called an Imperative sentence. In imperative sentences, the subject is usually left out; as in: Come in. Sit down. Open the window. o A sentence that expresses some strong and sudden feeling(s) is called an Exclamatory sentence. Example: Alas! I am finished. (Defeat and sorrow); How beautiful the flower is? (Surprise) KINDS OF PHRASES: For understanding the structure of sentences we must also know what is a phrase and a clause. A combination of words that makes sense, but not complete sentence, is called a phrase. Phrases may be classified according to the parts of speech for which they are used as substitutes: o Noun phrases o Adjective phrases o Adverb phrases Noun phrases: This is a phrase, which does the works of a noun. Adjective phrases: This is a phrase, which does the work of an adjective. Adverb phrases: This is a phrase, which does the work of an adverb. BMC-103 53 KINDS OF CLAUSES: We have discussed that a sentence is a group of words that usually contains at least one subject and one predicate and makes complete sense. A phrase is a group of words that makes sense but does not contain a predicate either expressed or understood, as in: Turning to the left he came upon a ruined temple. He came in the morning. A clause is group of words forming part of a sentence and containing a subject and predicate. A clause is never a complete sentence. Clauses are of three types: o Noun Clauses o Adjective Clauses o Adverb Clauses Noun Clauses: Look at the words in italics in the following sentences: 1. She hoped to win a prize [Hoped what?] 2. She hoped that she would win a prize. [Hoped what?] The first group of words to win a prize is the Object of the verb hoped. It therefore does the work of a Noun and since it has no Subject and no Predicate of its own it is a Noun Phrase. The second group of words that she would win a prize is also the Object of the Verb hoped and so does the work of a Noun. But as it has a Subject and Predicate of its own, it is called a Noun Clause. Again, the Noun Phrase to win a prize is equivalent in meaning to the Noun Clause. It can therefore be replaced by it. We have seen that there are three kinds of Clauses. 1. BMC-103 An Adverb Clause, which does the work of an Adverb. 54 2. An Adverb Clause, which does the work of an Adjective. 3. A Noun Clause, which does the work of a Noun. Examine the Clauses in the following sentences: 1. I know where she lived. (Noun Clause) 2. I went to the place where she lived (Adjective Clause) 3. I went where she lived. (Adverb Clause) So, we see that the same word (where) can introduce a Noun Clause, an Adjective Clause, and an Adverb Clause. Therefore the kind of Clause depends upon the role it performs in a sentence. Adjective Clauses: Look at the words in italics in the following sentences: 1. The boys in the gallery could not hear. [Which boys?] 2. The boys who were in the gallery could not hear. [Which boys?] The first group of words in the gallery describes the boys, that is, it qualifies the Noun boys and does the work of an Adjective. It is therefore an Adjective Phrase. The second group of words who were in the gallery also describes the boys and so does the work of an Adjective. But since it has a Subject and a Predicate of its own it is an Adjective Clause. Again the Adjective Phrase in the gallery is equivalent in meaning to the Adjective Clause and can therefore be replaced by it. Adverb Clauses: Look at the words in italics in the following sentences: 1. BMC-103 At sunset they returned home. [Returned when?] 55 2. When the sun set they returned home. [Returned when?] In sentence 1, the group of words at sunset is an Adverb Phrase since it does the work of an Adverb. In sentence 2, the group of words when the sunset is not a Phrase. It has a Subject (the sun) and a Predicate (when set) of its own but forms part of a larger sentence. Such a group of words, as we have already seen, is called a Clause. Since the Clause when the sun set does the work of an Adverb it is called an Adverb Clause. It will be seen further that the Adverb Phrase at sunset is equivalent in meaning to the Adverb Clause when the sun set and can therefore be replaced by it. 5.2.2 TYPES OF SENTENCES: Sentences are of four types: o Simple Sentences o Double Sentences o Multiple Sentences, and o Complex Sentences A Simple sentence is one that has only one finite verb expressed or understood. 1. The earth moves round the sun. A Double sentence is one that could be split into two other sentences. 1. The sun rose and the fog dispersed. 2. We asked her where she had lost the ring; but she-refused to answer. BMC-103 56 A Multiple Sentence is one that could be split into three or more sentences. 1. Man may come and may go but I go on forever. This sentence consists of three sentences: o Men may come. o Men may go. o I go on forever. A Complex sentence consists of a main clause (i.e., a Clause containing the main Verb of the sentence and one or more Dependent Clauses, for example: 1. We all know that God helps those who help themselves. This sentence consists, of three Clauses: a. We all know (Main Clause). b. That God helps those. (Subordinate Adjective Clause). c. Who help themselves. (Subordinate Adjective Clause). The Clause we all know makes good sense by itself and can stand-alone. It is therefore called the Main or Principal Clause. The Clause that god helps those does not make good sense by itself and therefore cannot stand-alone. It depends for its full meaning on the clause we all know. It is a Subordinate Clause. Again the Clause who help themselves is connected with the Pronoun those, which it qualifies as an adjective, would do. It also cannot stand-alone. It also is a Subordinate Clause. Thus, the sentence is a complex sentence consisting of one Main Clause and two Subordinate Clauses. BMC-103 57 5.2.3 TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES To transform a sentence is to change it from one grammatical form to another without altering its sense. The different ways of transforming sentences are: • • Sentences containing Adverb “too”. • Interchange of Exclamatory and Assertive Sentence. • Interchange of Negative and Affirmative Sentence. • Conversion of Double Sentences to Simple. • Conversion of Complex Sentence to Simple. • Interchange of Degrees of Comparison. • Interchange of Interrogative and Assertive Sentence. • Conversion of Simple Sentences to Double. • Conversion of Simple Sentences to Complex. • Conversion of Double Sentence to Complex. Conversion of Complex Sentence to Double. SENTENCES CONTAINING THE ADVERB ‘TOO’: Sentences containing the Adverb ‘too’ may be written in the following or other forms: 1. This news is too good to be true. This news is so good that it cannot be true. 2. It is never too late to mend. It is never so late that one cannot mend. 3. He is too honest to accept a bribe. He is so honest that he will not accept a bribe. BMC-103 58 INTERCHANGE OF DEGREES OF COMPARISON: The following examples will show that it is possible to change the Degree of Comparison of an Adjective or Adverb in a sentence without changing its meaning. (a) (b) (c) Positive: He is as dull as an ass. Comparative: An ass is not duller than he is. Positive: Birds do not fly as fast as the aeroplane. Comparative The aeroplane flies faster than birds. Comparative: The air of the hills is cooler than that of the plains. Positive: The air of the plains is not so cool as that of the hills. (d) Superlative: Mumbai is the best seaport in India. Comparative: Mumbai is better than any other seaport in India. (e) Positive: No other seaport in India is so good as Mumbai. Superlative: Asoka was one of the greatest of Indian rulers. Comparative: Asoka was greater than most other Indian rulers. (f) Positive: Very few Indian rulers were so great as Asoka. Positive: Some grains are not less nutritious than rice. Comparative: Rice is not more nutritious than some other grains are. (g) Superlative: Rice is not the most nutritious of all grains. Positive: I have never seen so beautiful a place as this. Comparative: This place is more beautiful than any other that I have ever seen. BMC-103 59 Superlative: This is the most beautiful place that I have ever seen. INTERCHANGE OF EXCLAMATORY AND ASSERTIVE SENTENCES: a) b) c) d) Exclamatory: O what a fall there was, my countrymen! Assertive: That was a terrible fall, my countrymen. Exclamatory: O that the deserts were my dwelling-place! Assertive: I wish that the deserts were my dwelling place. Exclamatory: How lovely were thy tents, O Israel! Assertive: They tents, O Israel, were very lovely. Exclamatory: If only I could win the first prize! Assertive: My greatest ambition is to win the first prize. INTERCHANGE OF INTERROGATIVE AND ASSERTIVE SENTENCES: a) b) Interrogative: Can the Ethiopian change his skin? Assertive: The Ethiopian cannot change his skin. Interrogative: Who would not love his country? Assertive: Everyone would love his county. INTERCHANGE OF NEGATIVE AND AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCES: a) b) Negative: One but the brave deserve the fair. Affirmative: The brave alone deserve the fair. Negative: His services cannot be forgotten. Affirmative: His services have been too great to be forgotten. c) d) Negative: No sooner did he see the tiger than he fled. Affirmative: As soon as he saw the tiger he fled. Negative: There is nobody but believes in his honesty. 60 BMC-103 e) f) Affirmative: Everybody believes in his honesty. Negative: There is no smoke without fire. Affirmative: Where there is smoke there is fire. Negative: I am not so intelligent as you. Affirmative: You are more intelligent than I. CONVERSION OF SIMPLE SENTENCES TO DOUBLE SENTENCES: Simple sentences can be converted into Double ones by using conjunctions and expanding words or phrases into Co-ordinate Clauses. a) b) c) d) Simple: Besides making a promise, he kept it. Double: He not only made a promise, but he also kept it. Simple: He must pay for the damage to escape being fined. Double: He must pay for the damage, or he will be fined. Simple: Notwithstanding his sorrow, he is hopeful. Double: He is sorrowful, but yet hopeful. Simple: Owing to ill health, he could not work. Double: He was in ill health, and so he could not work. CONVERSION OF DOUBLE SENTENCES TO SIMPLE SENTENCES: The following examples will illustrate how Double sentences can be converted into Simple ones. (a) (b) By substituting a Participle for a Finite Verb: Double: The sun rose and the fog dispersed. Simple: The sun having risen, the fog dispersed. By substituting a Preposition, etc., for a Clause: Double: He was a poor man, and yet he was of an independent spirit. BMC-103 61 Simple: Notwithstanding his poverty, he was of an independent spirit. (c) By substituting an Infinitive for a Clause: Double: You must work hard, or you will not get promotion. Simple: Hard work is necessary, for you to get promotion. CONVERSION OF SIMPLE SENTENCES TO COMPLEX SENTENCES: Simple sentences can be converted to Complex ones, by expanding words or phrases into Subordinate clauses. The following examples will serve to indicate the process: (a) (b) (c) Noun Clause: Simple: I am certain of giving you satisfaction. Complex: I am certain that I shall give your satisfaction. Adjective Clause: Simple: He paid off his father’s debts. Complex: He paid off the debts, which his father had contracted. Simple: His offence was unpardonable. Complex: His offence was such as could not be pardoned. Adverb Clause: Simple: He started by night to escape being seen by anyone. Complex: He started by night lest he should be seen by anyone. Simple: On reaching manhood you will have to work for your living. Complex: As soon as you have reached manhood, you will have to work for your living. BMC-103 62 CONVERSION OF COMPLEX SENTENCES TO SIMPLE SENTENCES: Complex sentences can be converted to Simple sentences by the following methods: Noun Clause: (a) By substituting a Noun for the Noun clause introduced by the Conjunction ‘that’: (b) Complex: It is sad that he died so young. Simple: His death at so early an age is sad. By substituting a Noun for the Noun clause introduced by a Relative Adverb: (c) Complex: Tell me when and where you were born. Simple: Tell me the date and place of your birth. By substituting a Noun for the Noun clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun: Complex: We need not disbelieve what he said. Simple: We need not disbelieve his word. Adjective Clause (a) (b) (c) By using some Adjective or Participle: Complex: Pupils who work hard may win a prize. Simple: Hard-working pupils may win a prize. By using a Noun in the Genitive Case or a Possessive Adjective: Complex: They soon forgot the labours they had endured. Simple: They soon forgot their past labours. By using a Noun in Apposition: Complex: This rule, from which all our troubles have come, is much disliked. Simple: BMC-103 This rule, the source of all our troubles, is much disliked. 63 (d) By using a Preposition with its subject (i.e., an Adjective Phrase): Complex: The benefits that he derived from his early training were soon lost. Simple: (e) (f) The benefits of his early training were soon lost. By using a Gerundial Infinitive: Complex: I have no money that I can spare. Simple: I have no money to spare. By using a Compound Noun: Complex: That is the place where my father was buried. Simple: That was my father’s burial-place. Adverb Clause (a) (b) (c) By using a Preposition or a Phrase introduced by a Preposition: Complex: The boy was pleased that he had won a prize. Simple: The boy was pleased at having won a prize. By using a Participle: Complex: As the main point has been gained, success is certain. Simple: The main point having been gained, success is certain. By using a Gerundial Infinitive: Complex: They were surprised when they heard him confess. Simple: They were surprised to hear him confess. CONVERSION OF DOUBLE SENTENCE TO COMPLEX SENTENCE: In a Double sentence composed of two Simple ones, the second to two Coordinate clauses is the one that completes the sense, and is therefore the more important of the two. Hence it follows that, in transforming a sentence of this kind to a Complex one, the second clause must be made the Principal, and the first the Dependent. BMC-103 64 (a) (b) (c) Cumulative Conjunctions: Double: Speak the truth, and you will never regret it. Complex: If you speak the truth, you will never regret it. Double: Spare the rod and spoil the child. Complex: If you spare the rod, you will spoil the child. Alternative Conjunctions: Double: Leave the room or I will compel you to do so. Complex: Unless you leave this room, I will compel you to do so. Double: Hold your tongue, or you will repent it. Complex: If you do not hold your tongue, you will repent it. Adversative Conjunctions: Double: He was a poor man, but he was always honest. Complex: He was always honest, although he was poor. Double: In the discharge of his duty he was strict but always just. Complex: In the discharge of his duty, though strict, he was always just. (d) Illative Conjunctions: Double: He was very tired, and therefore he fell sound asleep. Complex: He fell sound asleep, as he was very tired. Double: My son suffered from ill-health last year; and so missed much of his schooling. Complex: As my son suffered from ill-health last year, he missed much of his schooling. CONVERSION OF COMPLEX SENTENCES TO DOUBLE SENTENCES: In a Complex sentence the Principal or Containing clause is, as its name implies, of more importance than the Subordinate or Contained clause. BMC-103 65 Hence it follows that in transforming a complex sentence to a Double one, the Principal clause must be placed last, and the Subordinate (which now becomes a Co-ordinate) clause must be placed first. Complex: The enemy fled as soon as our guns opened fire. Double: Our guns opened fire, and the enemy fled immediately. Complex: He is honest, though poor. Double: He is poor, but honest. Complex: I have found the sheep that I had lost. Double: I had lost a sheep, but I have found it again. Complex: He is more a fool than a knave. Double: He is something of a knave, but still more a fool. Complex: Unless he speaks the truth, or he will not be acquitted. Double: He must speak the truth, or he will not be acquitted. Complex: If he acts so foolishly, he will certainly be ruined. Double: He must not act so foolishly, or he will certainly be ruined. Complex: He works hard in order that he may become rich. Double: He wants to become rich, and therefore he works hard. Complex: If he were here, I would explain everything to him. Double: He is not here, or I would explain everything to him. 5.2.4 PARAGRAPH WRITING: In any newspaper, magazine, or book you will notice that each chapter is divided up in to sections with the first line of each being indented slightly to the right. These sections are called Paragraphs. Chapters, essays, reports and other prose compositions are broken up into paragraphs to make reading easier. The beginning of new paragraph marks a change of topic or a step in the development of an argument or of a story. In writing essays or other compositions, it is important to know how to BMC-103 66 divide them properly into, paragraphs; a communication not so broken up looks uninteresting and is not easy to read. A paragraph is a number of sentences grouped together and relating to one topic; or, a group of related sentences that develop a single point. This means, that the paragraphs are not mere arbitrary divisions. The division of a composition into paragraphs must be made according to the change of ideas. PARAGRAPH LENGTH: No rule can be laid down for determining how short or long a paragraph should be. The length of a paragraph, like that of a sentence, depends upon the amount of matter to be put into it, and the amount of matter depends chiefly upon the scope and treatment of the theme. A paragraph may be short or long according to the necessity in any given situation. A paragraph may consist of a single sentence or of many sentences. Paragraphs are long or short according to the idea to be expressed or the amount of information to be put. The beginner is advised, however to make his paragraphs short. Short paragraphs are suitable for a short narrative or a shot essay. PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE: A paragraph consists of a series of sentences all bearing upon some main fact and connected with one another in various ways by unity of purpose. The main fact thus explained, illustrated, and commented on is called the theme. There is no strict rule as to what the position of the theme should be. It might be at the beginning or at the end. The beginning of the paragraph is the most natural position for the theme. BMC-103 67 The opening sentence obviously is the first to arrest the reader’s attention. THE BEGINNING OF PARAGRAPHS: The topic, theme, or subject of a paragraph is very often expressed in one sentence of the paragraph generally the first sentence. This sentence is called the topical sentence because it states the topic or the key sentence. It unlocks or opens the subject to be dealt with in the paragraph. The topical sentence should arouse the interest of the reader. This sentence states the topic that may be a fact, a statement, an idea, or a proposition. UNITY IN PARAGRAPHS: Unity is necessary in a paragraph. It means that the paragraph must deal with one subject at a thl1e. It implies a sustained purpose and forbids digressions and irrelevant matter. The first and most important principle to be observed in constructing a paragraph is that of unity. Just as each sentence deals with one thought each paragraph must deal with one topic or idea and with no more than one. In writing a report for example, every head and every subhead should have its own paragraph to itself. And every sentence in the paragraph must be closely connected with the main topic of the paragraph. The paragraph and every part of it must be the expression of one theme, topic, or subject. Read the two paragraphs below: (1) there are many people in this country who make their loving by writing. They write books, stories and magazine articles. They write advertising copy. Some of them write for daily newspapers. These are professional writers who know what they want to say and exactly how to say it. BMC-103 68 (2) Have you ever wondered how these writers work? How do they get their sentences to turn out so smoothly? The main secret of their success is revision. No professional writer would think of turning in a piece of writing until he has gone over it several times to make sure that it says what he wants it to say. Each paragraph tells about one central topic. The topic of the first paragraph is ‘professional writers’. It tells you who professional writers are and what they do. The topic of the second paragraph is ‘revision’. ORDER IN PARAGRAPHS: The second principle of paragraph construction is order, i.e. logical sequence of thought or development of the subject. Events must be related in the order of their occurrence and all ideas should be connected with the leading idea and arranged according to their importance or order. VARIETY IN PARAGRAPHS: The third principle of paragraph construction is, variety by which is meant that to avoid monotony the paragraphs should be of different lengths and not necessarily of the same length. Sentence construction may also be varied. PARAGRAPH CONCLUSION: The two most important sentences in the paragraph are the first and the last. The concluding sentence of paragraph is as important as the opening sentence. The first should arouse the reader’s interest the last should satisfy it. The last sentence should sum up the contents of the paragraph or contain some brief comment on what has gone before. It must make the reader feel the paragraph is closed. BMC-103 69 5.3 SUMMARY: o Words are the most basic elements of any language. But it is not always possible to converse and communicate fully only with the help of words. For communication to be complete, words need to be put together in the shape of sentences. In fact, sentences are better equipped to carry information, ideas, feelings, attitudes, etc. o A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called a Declarative or Assertive sentence. In assertive sentences, the subject usually comes first followed by the predicate. But sometimes the subject is placed after the predicate. o A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence. Ex. Will you help me? o A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is called an Imperative sentence. In imperative sentences, the subject is usually left out; as in: Come in. Sit down. Open the window. o A sentence that expresses some strong and sudden feeling(s) is called an Exclamatory sentence. Example: Alas! I am finished. (Defeat and sorrow); How beautiful the flower is? (Surprise) o A combination of words that makes sense, but not complete sentence, is called a phrase. Phrases may be classified according to the parts of speech for which they are used as substitutes: Noun phrases, Adjective phrases, and Adverb phrases. o A clause is group of words forming part of a sentence and containing a subject and predicate. A clause is never a complete sentence. Clauses are of three types: Noun Clauses, Adjective Clauses, and Adverb Clauses. o A good paragraph is a group of sentences that explain or develop one central topic. When we write a report or an answer to a question or a BMC-103 70 letter, we want to be sure what we write can be read easily. The, easiest way to make sure that our writing will be understood is to use topic sentences. o The essentials of good paragraphing are: unity, a good topical sentence, and logical sequence of thought, variety, and a final sentence in conclusion. o A major principle of paragraph construction is order, i.e. logical sequence of thought or development of the subject. Events must be related in the order of their occurrence and all ideas should be connected with the leading idea and arranged according to their importance or order. o Another major principle of paragraph construction is, variety by which is meant that to avoid monotony the paragraphs should be of different lengths and not necessarily of the same length. Sentence construction may also be varied. o The conclusion in a paragraph should sum up the contents of the paragraph or contain some brief comment on what has gone before. It must make the reader feel the paragraph is closed. 5.4 KEY WORDS: Sentences: Words are the most basic elements of any language. But it is not always possible to converse and communicate fully only with the help of words. For communication to be complete, words need to be put together in the shape of sentences. In fact, sentences are better equipped to carry information, ideas, feelings, attitudes, etc. Again sentences need to be put together in the form of paragraphs to make communication more complete. Declarative or Assertive Sentence: A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called a Declarative or Assertive sentence. In assertive BMC-103 71 sentences, the subject usually comes first followed by the predicate. But sometimes the subject is placed after the predicate. Declarative or Assertive Sentence: A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative sentence. Ex. Will you help me? Imperative Sentence: A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty is called an Imperative sentence. In imperative sentences, the subject is usually left out; as in: Come in. Sit down. Open the window. Exclamatory Sentence: A sentence that expresses some strong and sudden feeling(s) is called an Exclamatory sentence. Example: Alas! I am finished. (Defeat and sorrow); How beautiful the flower is? (Surprise) Phrases: A combination of words that makes sense, but not complete sentence, is called a phrase. Phrases may be classified according to the parts of speech for which they are used as substitutes: Noun phrases, Adjective phrases, and Adverb phrases. Clauses: A clause is group of words forming part of a sentence and contains a subject and predicate. A clause is never a complete sentence. Clauses are of three types: Noun Clauses, Adjective Clauses, and Adverb Clauses. Paragraphs: A good paragraph is a group of sentences that explain or develop one central topic. When we write a report or an answer to a question or a letter, we want to be sure what we write can be read easily. The, easiest way to make sure that our writing will be understood is to use topic sentences. Order in Paragraphs: A major principle of paragraph construction is order, i.e. logical sequence of thought or development of the subject. Events must be related in the order of their occurrence and all ideas should be connected with the leading idea and arranged according to their importance or order. Variety in Paragraphs: An important principle of paragraph construction is, variety by which is meant that to avoid monotony the paragraphs should be of BMC-103 72 different lengths and not necessarily of the same length. Sentence construction may also be varied. 5.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs): 1. Write a detailed note on sentences. 2. Discuss the various types of sentences with examples. 3. Write a detailed note on phrases. 4. Write a detailed note on clauses. 5. Write a detailed note on paragraph writing. 5.6 REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READING: o New Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2000) o Correct English Usage; W. Mc. Mordie; Taraporewala & Sons o A Practical English Grammar; A. J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet; ELBSLow Price Edition o English Grammar, Composition & Usage: J.C. Nesfield; Revised by N.K. Agarwal o English Grammar- An Outline of General Phonetics; R.K. Bansal; OUP: 1971 o Spoken English for India; R.K. Bansal and J.B. Harrison; Longman o Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary; Daniel Jones; E.L.B.S (13th Editions) BMC-103 73 Bachelor of Mass Communication (1st year) ENGLISH (BMC-103) Block: C Unit: II Lesson: 6 ACTIVE VOICE & PASSIVE VOICE Writer: Prof. Sudhir Kumar Former Faculty, CCSHAU, Hisar Vetter: Sh. S. K. Singh Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar Converted into SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra Senior Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar LESSON STRUCTURE: In this lesson we shall discus about the various introductory aspects of active voice and passive voice. Specifically, we shall focus on the. We shall also get familiar with some conversions from active voice to passive voice and vice versa. The lesson structure shall be as follows: 6.0 Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Presentation of Content 6.2.1 Voice in Language- An Introduction 6.2.2 Transitive Verbs & Intransitive Verbs 6.2.3 Change From Active Voice to Passive Voice 6.3 Summary 6.4 Key Words 6.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 6.6 References/Suggested Reading 74 BMC-103 6.0 OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this lesson are: o To Get an Introduction to Voice in Language o Transitive Verbs & Intransitive Verbs o Change From Active Voice to Passive Voice 6.1 INTRODUCTION: When in a sentence, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb, then it is said to be in active voice. In such sentences, the subject acts. When in a sentence, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb and the subject is acted upon, then it is said to be in passive voice. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted. Most writers prefer sentences in active voice. This is because such sentences seem and sound lively, active and direct. On the other hand, sentences in passive voice sound indirect. Sentences in passive voice are often used for their dramatic value. Sometimes the use of passive voice can create awkward sentences. Also, overuse of passive voice throughout a write up can cause the prose to seem flat and uninteresting. In dramatic writing, however, passive voice is more readily accepted. This practice of using passive voice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular person or thing. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests. For these reasons, sentences in passive voice are also used in scientific writing. BMC-103 75 In this lesson we shall discus about the various introductory aspects of active voice and passive voice. 6.2 PRESENTATION OF CONTENT: The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows: o Voice in Language- An Introduction o Transitive Verbs & Intransitive Verbs o Change From Active Voice to Passive Voice 6.2.1 VOICE IN LANGUAGE- AN INTRODUCTION: In most English sentences with an action verb, the subject performs the action denoted by the verb. Because the subject does or "acts upon" the verb in such sentences, the sentences are said to be in the active voice. One can change the normal word order of many active sentences (those with a direct object) so that the subject is no longer active, but is, instead, being acted upon by the verb - or passive. Because the subject is being "acted upon" (or is passive), such sentences are said to be in the passive voice. Some times sentences cannot be changed to passive voice if the sentence does not have a direct object. To change a sentence from active to passive voice, do the following: o Move the active sentence's direct object into the sentence's subject slot. o Place the active sentence's subject into a phrase beginning with the preposition by. o Add a form of the auxiliary verb be to the main verb and change the main verb's form. BMC-103 76 Because passive voice sentences necessarily add words and change the normal doer-action-receiver of action direction, they may make the reader work harder to understand the intended meaning. A sentence in active voice flows more smoothly and is easier to understand than the same sentence in passive voice. It is generally preferable to use the ACTIVE voice. To change a passive voice sentence into an active voice sentence, simply reverse the steps shown above. o Move the passive sentence's subject into the active sentence’s direct object slot. o Remove the auxiliary verb be from the main verb and change main verb's form if needed. o Placing the passive sentence's object of the preposition by into the subject slot. Because it is more direct, most writers prefer to use the active voice whenever possible. The passive voice may be a better choice, however, when the doer of the action is unknown, unwanted, or unneeded in the sentence Example: The writer wishes to emphasize the action of the sentence rather than the doer of the action. Example: The writer wishes to use passive voice for sentence variety. 6.2.2 TRANSITIVE VERBS & INTRANSITIVE VERBS: Here, we shall study the two different ways in which we may express ourselves see these two sentences. o Harish sings a song. BMC-103 77 o A song is sung by Harish. Both the sentences express the same meaning. The first sentence is said to be in the Active Voice the second is in the Passive Voices Now read these sentences: o The boy kicks the football. o The boy laughs loudly. In the first sentence, the action denoted by the verb- kick- passes over from the doer or subject (boy) to some object (football). The verb kicks is therefore called a Transitive verb. (Transitive means passing over. The verb passes over from the boy to football). A Transitive Verb is a verb that denotes on action, which passes over from the doer or subject to an object. In the second sentence, the action denoted by the verb laughs stops with that doer or Subject boy and does not pass over to an object. The verb laughs is therefore called an Intransitive Verb. (Intransitive means not passing over.) Definition: A Transitive Verb is a Verb that denotes an action, which passes over from the doer or Subject to an Object. Definition: An Intransitive Verb is a verb that denotes an action, which does not pass over to an object. Most Transitive Verbs take a single object. But some Transitive Verbs as give, ask, offer, promise, tell, etc., take two objects after them – an Indirect Object and a Direct Object. An Indirect Object is one, which denotes the person to whom something is given or for whom something is done, and a Direct Object is usually the name of some thing as, His father gave him (Indirect) a rupee (Direct). He told me (Indirect) a secret (Direct). BMC-103 78 6.2.3 CHANGE FROM ACTIVE VOICE TO PASSIVE VOICE: Note the change from Active Voice to Passive Voice in these sentences. Active Voice Passive Voice Hari loves books. Books are love by Hari. Who killed the tiger? By whom was the tiger killed? I will finish the work. The work will be finished by me Compare the two sentences given below: Ram helps Hari. Hari is helped by Ram. In the first sentence, the form of the Verb shows that the person denoted by the subject does something. Ram (the person denoted by the Subject) does something. The Verb helps is said to be in the Active Voice. In the second sentence, the form of the verb shows that some thing is done to the person denoted by the subject. [Something is done to Hari (the person denoted by the Subject)]. The verb is helped is said to be in the Passive Voice. Definition: A Verb is in the Active Voice when its form denoted by the Subject does something; or, in other words, is the doer of the action. The Active Voice is so called because the person denoted by the subject acts. Definition: A Verb in the Passive Voice when its form shows that something is done to the person or thing denoted by the Subject. BMC-103 79 The Passive Voice is so called because the person or thing denoted by the Subject is not active but passive, that is, suffers or receives some action. See the change from Active to Passive in the following sentences: Passive Voice Active Voice 1. Sita loves Savitri. 1. Savitri is loved by Sita. 2. The mason is building the wall. 2. The wall is being built by the mason. 3. The servant opened the gate. 3. The gate was opened by the servant wounded man. 4. Some boys were helping the wounded man. 5. He will finish the work in a week. 4. The wounded man was being helped by some boys. 5. The work will be finished him in a week. 6. Who did this? 6. By whom was this done? 7. Why did your brother write 7. Why such a letter? by was such a letter written by your brother? It will be noticed that when the Verb is changed from the Active Voice to the Passive Voice, the Object of the Transitive Verb in the Active Voice becomes the Subject of the Verb, in the Passive Voice. Thus in sentence 1, Sita which is the object of loves in the Active Voice, becomes the Subject of is loved in the Passive Voice. Since the Object of a Verb in the active voice becomes the Subject of the passive form, it follows that only Transitive Verbs can be used in the Passive Voice, because an Intransitive Verb has no Object. Let us see some more examples: - When a sentence is changed from the Active form to the Passive, the Object the Active Verb becomes the Subject to the Passive Verb. BMC-103 80 Object to Active Verb Subject to Passive Verb Animals cannot make tools. Tools cannot be made by animals. Animals do not possess hands. Hands are not possessed by animals. The king punished the thief. The thief was punished by the king. We drove him out of the house. He was driven out of the house by us. We need six camels for our work. Six camels are needed by us for our work. The shepherd has lost six sheep. Six sheep have been lost by the shepherd. God will bless good men. Good men will be blessed by God. When verbs that take both a direct and an indirect object in the Active Voice are changed to the Passive, either object may become the subject of the Passive verb, while the other is retained. Active Passive The guard refused him admittance. Admittance was refused him by the guard. He was refused admittance by the guard. Mr. Kumar teaches us grammar. Grammar is taught us by Mr. Kumar. We are taught grammar by Mr. Kumar. The manger will give you a ticket. A ticket will be given you by the manager. You will be given a ticket by the manager. Who taught you? By whom was English taught you? By whom were you taught English? He handed her a chair. A chair was handed her. She was handed a chair. The Active Voice is used when the doer (or Subject) is to be made prominent; the Passive, when the person or thing acted upon (or the Object) is to be made prominent. Hence the a Passive Voice may be used when the doer is unknown, or when for any reason, we do not care to name the doer; as, BMC-103 81 The ship was wrecked. The house was built long ago. Exercises Change the following sentences so that the verbs will be in the Passive Voice: 1. We saw you and him. 2. They asked me my name. 3. We refused them admission. 4. I bought the baby a doll. 5. They found him guilty of murder. 6. A thunderstorm often turns milk sour. Rewrite the following sentences so that the Verbs will be in the Active Voice: 1. He was praised by his father. 2. The first railway was built by George Stephenson. 3. The horse was frightened by the noise. 4. Not a word was spoken by Latif. 5. The teacher was pleased with the boy’s work. 6. He was taken to the hospital by these friends. We give below further examples of the interchange of Active and Passive Voice. Active. All his friends laughed at him. Passive. He was laughed at by all his friends. Active. They made him king. Passive. He was made king by them. Active. The Romans expected to conquer Carthage. Passive. It was expected by the Romans that they would conquer Carthage. BMC-103 82 Active. One should keep one’s promises. Passive. Promises should be kept. Active. Give the order. Passive. Let the order be given. Active. Enter by this door. Passive. You are requested to enter by this door. In the following sentences change the Voice: 6.3 1. We elected Balu captain. 2. I saw him opening the box. 3. We must listen to his words. 4. Shall I ever forget those happy days? 5. By whom was this jug broken? 6. His subordinates accused him of various offences. 7. One cannot gather grapes from neem trees. 8. The telegraph wires have been Gut. 9. Alas! We shall hear his voice no more. 10. The French surrendered Quebec to the English in 1759. 11. Without effort nothing can be gained. 12. Do not insult the weak. SUMMARY: o In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb. In such sentences, the subject acts. In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted. o This practice of using passive voice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present BMC-103 83 research and conclusions without attributing them to particular person or thing. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests. o A Transitive Verb is a Verb that denotes an action, which passes over from the doer or Subject to an Object. o An Intransitive Verb is a verb that denotes an action, which does not pass over to an object. 6.4 KEY WORDS: Active Voice: In sentences written in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed in the verb. In such sentences, the subject acts. Passive Voice: In sentences written in passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed in the verb; the subject is acted upon. The agent performing the action may appear in a "by the . . ." phrase or may be omitted. Reasons of Using Active Voice & Passive Voice: This practice of using passive voice helps to create the appearance of an objective, fact-based discourse because writers can present research and conclusions without attributing them to particular person or thing. Instead, the writing appears to convey information that is not limited or biased by individual perspectives or personal interests. Changing Active Voice in to Passive Voice: To change a sentence from active to passive voice, do the following: move the active sentence's direct object into the sentence's subject slot, place the active sentence's subject into a phrase beginning with the preposition by, and Add a form of the auxiliary verb be to the main verb and change the main verb's form. Changing Passive Voice in to Active Voice: To change a passive voice sentence into an active voice sentence: move the passive sentence's subject BMC-103 84 into the active sentence’s direct object slot, remove the auxiliary verb be from the main verb and change main verb's form if needed, placing the passive sentence's object of the preposition by into the subject slot. Transitive Verb: A Transitive Verb is a Verb that denotes an action, which passes over from the doer or Subject to an Object. Intransitive Verb: An Intransitive Verb is a verb that denotes an action, which does not pass over to an object. 6.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs): 1. Write a detailed note on use of voices in English language with suitable examples. 2. Discuss in detail transitive and intransitive verbs and their usage in voice transformation. 3. Discuss the changes in style, structure, and verbs in sentences when they are changed from active voice to passive voice. 6.6 REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READING: o New Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2000) o Correct English Usage; W. Mc. Mordie; Taraporewala & Sons o A Practical English Grammar; A. J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet; ELBSLow Price Edition o English Grammar, Composition & Usage: J.C. Nesfield; Revised by N.K. Agarwal o English Grammar- An Outline of General Phonetics; R.K. Bansal; OUP: 1971 o Spoken English for India; R.K. Bansal and J.B. Harrison; Longman o Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary; Daniel Jones; E.L.B.S (13th Editions) BMC-103 85 Bachelor of Mass Communication (1st year) ENGLISH (BMC-103) Block: D Unit: I Lesson: 7 PHRASES AND IDIOMS Writer: Prof. Sudhir Kumar Former Faculty, CCSHAU, Hisar Vetter: Sh. S. K. Singh Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar Converted into SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra Senior Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar LESSON STRUCTURE: In this lesson we shall discus about phrases and idioms. Specifically, we shall focus on phrases. We shall also discuss idioms in detail. The lesson structure shall be as follows: 7.0 Objectives 7.1 Introduction 1.2 Presentation of Content 7.2.1 Phrases in English Language 7.2.2 Idioms in English Language 7.3 Summary 7.4 Key Words 7.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 7.6 References/Suggested Reading BMC-103 86 7.0 OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this lesson are: o To Know About Phrases in English Language o To Know About Idioms in English Language 7.1 INTRODUCTION: In English, we use a lot of phrases and idioms. Phrases are groups of words, which make sense in certain contexts. These donot make much sense when used out of context. Idioms are, in essence, often colloquial metaphors - terms, which require some foundational knowledge, information, or experience, to use only within a culture where parties must have common reference and as such are not considered an official part of the language, but rather a part of the culture. As cultures are typically localized, idioms are more often not useful for communication outside of that local context. However some idioms can be more universally used than others, and they can be easily translated, or their metaphorical meaning can be more easily deduced. In this lesson, we shall discuss about phrases and idioms. 7.2 PRESENTATION OF CONTENT: The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows: o Phrases in English Language o Idioms in English Language 7.2.1 PHRASES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE: Examine the group of words: “in a corner” It makes sense but not complete sense. Such a group of words, which makes sense but not complete sense is called a phrase. BMC-103 87 In the following sentences the groups of words in italics are phrases: The sun rises in the east. Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall. There came a giant to my door. It was a sunset of great beauty. The tops of the mountains were covered with snow. Show me how to do it. PHRASE AND CLAUSE: For understanding the structure of sentences we must also know what is a phrase and a clause. A combination of words that makes sense, but not complete sense, is called a Phrase. Examine the words in italics in the following sentence:On the river Through thick and thin A bird in the hand It follows therefore that a phrase cannot contain a predicate either expressed or understood. Examine the group of words in italics in the following sentence: This is the house where we live. Here, where we live is not a phrase because it has a subject (we) and a predicate (live). Since it has a subject and a predicate of its own it resembles a complete sentence yet. It is not a complete sentence. It is only a part of a sentence. Such a group of words as forms part of a sentence and contains a subject and predicate is called a Clause. BMC-103 88 KINDS OF PHRASES: Phrases may be classified according to the parts of speech for which they are used as substitutes. Noun phrase: One that does the works of a noun. How to do this is a difficult question. Adjective phrase: One that does the work of an adjective. A bird in the hand is worth two (birds) in the bush. Adverb phrase: One that does the work of an adverb. I shall wait a few minutes. He shouted at the top of his voice. So, we have learn that A sentence is a group of words that contains at least one subject and one predicate and makes complete sense. A Clause is group of words forming part of a sentence and containing a subject and predicate. This is the boy who won the first prize. A phrase is a group of words that makes sense but does not contain a predicate either expressed or understood, as Turning to the left he came upon a ruined temple. He came in the morning. 7.2.2 IDIOMS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE: An idiom is an expression whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal definitions and the arrangement of its parts, but refers instead to a figurative meaning that is known only through common use. In linguistics, idioms are widely assumed to be figures of speech that contradict the principle of compositionality; however, some debate has recently arisen on this subject. BMC-103 89 Idioms tend to confuse those not already familiar with them; students of a new language must learn its idiomatic expressions the way they learn its other vocabulary. In fact many natural language words have idiomatic origins, but have been sufficiently assimilated so that their figurative senses have been lost. Idioms may be defined as expressions peculiar to a language. They play an important part in all languages. They cannot be translated in other languages though, their equivalents may be found. Many verbs when followed by various prepositions or adverbs acquire an idiomatic sense, as, o He backed up (supported) his friend’s claim. o The present disturbances will soon blow over (pass off). o The police produced evidence to bear out (substantiate) the charge of murder. o You most not build your hopes upon (rely upon) his promises. o The matter has been cleared up (sorted). o He is ready to dispose off (sell) his car for Rs.1,00,000/o They fixed upon (chose) him to do the work. o My good behaviour so far gained on (won the favour of) the Principal. o Please hear me out (i.e., hear me to the end.) o I have hit upon (found) a good plan to get rid of him. o About an hour ago I saw a fellow hanging about (loitering about). o These events led up to (culminated in) the establishment of a republic. o During her long illness she often longed for (desired) death. o I could not prevail on (persuade, induce) him to attend the meeting. o For yeas I could not shake off (get rid of) malaria. o I threatened to show him up (expose) him. o He is sticking out for (persists in demanding) better terms. BMC-103 90 o I must think the matter over (i.e., consider it). o Train up (educate) a child in the way he should go. o He seems to be well off (in comfortable Circumstances. Here are some more idiomatic expressions with different words: BEAR o Satish bore away (won) many prizes at the school sports. o The new king has been able to bear down (over throw crush) all opposition. o His evidence bears out (confirms, corroborates) the evidence of others. o In his misfortune God gave him strength to bear up (to keep up spirits not to despair). o A religious hope bears up (supports), a man in his trials. o His evidence did not bear upon (was not relevant to) the inquiry. o I trust you will bear with (have patience with, show forbearance to) me a few minutes more. BREAK o He broke down (failed) in the middle of his speech. o He broke off (stopped suddenly) in the middle of his story. o I gave him no cause to break with (quarrel with) me. o The burglars broke into (entered by force) the house. BRING o His folly has brought about (caused) his ruin. o Idleness and luxury bring forth (produce, cause) poverty and want. o That building brings in (yields as rent) Rs.700 a month. o Our teacher often tells us a story to bring out (show) the meaning of lesson. BMC-103 91 o The publishers have recently brought out (published) a cheap edition of their new dictionary. o He found great difficulty in bringing her round (converting her) to his views. o She brought up (reared) the orphan as her own child. CALL o His master called for (demanded) an explanation of his conduct. o New responsibilities often call out (draw forth) virtues and abilities unsuspected before. o Call in (summon, send for) a doctor immediately. o He called on me (paid me a brief visit) yesterday. o The old man could not call up (recollect) past events. CARRY o He agreed to carry out (execute) my orders. o His passion carried him away (i.e. deprived him of self-control). o His son carried on (managed) his business in his absence. o Many persons were carried off (killed) by plague. CAST o The ship was cast away (wrecked) on the coast of Africa. o He was much cast down (depressed) by his loss. COME o How did these things come about (happen)? o How did you come by (get) this purse? o When does the Convocation come off (take place) o At last the truth has come out (transpired). o The taxes come to (amount to) a large sum. o The question came up (was mooted or raised for discussion) before the Municipal Corporation last week. BMC-103 92 o I expect he will come around (recover) within a week. o I hope he will come round (agree) to our views. CRY o Men of dissolute lives cry down (depreciate) religion, because they would not be under the restraints of it. o He cried out against (protected against) such injustice. o That young author is cried up (extolled) by his friends. CUT o He was cut off (died) in the prime of life. o You must cut down (reduce) your expenditure. o He is cut out for (specially fitted to be) a sailor. o His wife’s death cut him up (affected him, distressed him) terribly. DO o I am done for (ruined). o Having walked twenty miles he is quite done. (fatigued, exhausted). FALL o At last the rioters fell back (retreated, yielded). o At my friend’s tea party I fell in with (met accidentally) a strange fellow. o The measure falls in with (happens to meet) the popular demand. o The scheme has fallen through (failed) for want of support. o I am told the two brothers have fallen out (quarreled). o It is said that the standard of efficiency in public service has recently fallen off (deteriorated). o In the second school-term the attendance fell off (diminished). GET o His friend expected that he would get off (escape) with a fine. o It is hard to get on with (agree or live sociably with) a suspicious man. o The thief got away (escaped) with my cash-box. BMC-103 93 o I can’t get out (remove) this stain. o The revolt of the tribal chiefs has been got under (subdued). o The dog tried to get at (attack) me. o He has got through (passed) his examination. o They soon got the fire under (under control) by pouring buckets of water over it. o You were lucky to get out of (escape from) his clutches. GIVE o We are credibly informed that the murderer has given himself up (surrendered himself) to the police. o The doctors have given him up (i.e., have. no hope of his recovery). o Soon after it was given forth (published, noised abroad), and believed by many, that the King was dead. o The fire gave off (emitted) a dense smoke. o The strikers seem determined, and are not likely to give in (submit, yield). o It was given out (published, proclaimed) that he was a bankrupt. o The horses gave out (were exhausted) at the next milestone. o The rope gave way (broke, snapped) while the workmen were hauling up the iron pillar. o He would not listen to me at first, but at last he gave way (yielded). o The Governor gave away (distributed, presented) the prizes. o Given over (abandon) this foolish attempt. o In his cross-examination he ultimately gave himself away (betrayed himself). GO o You cannot always go by (judge from) appearances. o It is a good rule to go by (to be guided by). o He promised to go into (examine, investigate) the matter. BMC-103 94 o Have you anything to go upon (i.e., any foundation for your statement.) o We have no data to go upon (on which to base our conclusions). o That story won’t go down (be believed). o The concert went off well (was a success). o The auditor went over (examined) the balance sheet. o The poor woman has gone through (suffered) much. o I must first go through (examine) the accounts. HOLD o The rebels held out (offered resistance) for about a month. o He holds out (gives) no promise of future prospects. o They were held up (stopped on the highway and robbed) by bandits. o The subject is held over (deferred, postponed), till the not meeting. KEEP o A few boys were kept in (confined after school-hours). o I was kept in (confined to the house) by a bad cold. o They kept up (carried on) a long conversation. o Little disputes and quarries are chiefly kept up (maintained) by those who have nothing else to do. o He is trying his best to keep up (maintain) the reputation of his family. o The rubber syndicate keeps up (maintains) the price. o She kept on (continued) talking. o I shall keep back (conceal) nothing from you. KNOCK o He has knocked about (wandered about) the world a great deal. o The dressing-table was knocked down (sold at an auction) for fifty rupees. o We were greatly knocked up (exhausted) after our steep climb. BMC-103 95 LAY o The rebels laid down (surrendered) their arms. o He had laid out (invested) a large sum in railway shares. o Foolish people, who do not lay out (spend) their money carefully, soon come to grief. o He resolved to lay by (save for future needs) a part of his income. LET o I was let into (made acquainted with) her secret. o This being his first offence he was let off (punished leniently) with a fine. LOOK o His uncle looks after (takes car of) him. o He looks down upon (despises) his poor cousins. o Look up (search for) the word in the dictionary. o The old man is looking forward to (expecting with pleasure) the visit of his grandchildren. o I will look into (investigate) the matter. o I look on (regard) him as may son. o Some look to (rely on) legislation to hasten the progress of social reforms. o Look to (be careful about) your manners. o Prices of pieced-goods are looking up (rising). o Things are looking up (improving). o His friends look up to (respect) him. o He will not look at (i.e., will reject) your offer. MAKE o Contentment makes for (conduces to) happiness. o He made over (presented, gave in charity) his bungalow to the orphanage. o I cannot make out (discover) the meaning of this verse. BMC-103 96 o I cannot make out (read, decipher) his handwriting. o You have failed to make out (prove) your case. o Sometime ago the two brothers quarreled, but they have now made it up (become reconciled). PASS o He generally passed by (overlooked) the faults of his subordinates. o The crew of the boat passed through (underwent) terrible sufferings. o He passed himself off as (pretended to be) a nobleman. o He passes for (is regarded as) a great scholar. PICK o The Committee picked out (selected) the best players for the team. o He lost twenty pounds in sickness, but is now picking up (regaining or recovering health). PULL o Unless we pull together (co-operate, work together in harmony) we cannot succeed. o My cousin pulled through (passed with difficulty) the examination. o The doctor says the patent will pull through (recover from his illness). o It is far easier to pull down (demolish) than to build up. o He was pulled up (scolded, rebuked) by the President. PUT o He puts on (assumes) an air of dignity. o Please, put out (extinguish) the night. o He was put out (vexed, annoyed) when I refused his request for a loan. o The plaintiff was put out (disconcerted) when the suit was dismissea. He tried to put me off (evade me, satisfy me) with promises. o He has put in (made, sent in) a claim for compensation. o While traveling I had to put up with (endure) a good deal of discomfort. BMC-103 97 o I cannot put up with (tolerate) his insolence. o They put him up to (incited him to) mischief. o I am sorry to put you to (give you) so much trouble. o He put off (postponed) his departure for a week. o The measure was put through (passed) without opposition. RUN o On account of over work he is run down (enfeebled). o He always runs down (disparages) his rivals. o The lease of our premises has run out (expired, come to an end). o He has run though (squandered away) his fortune. o The tailor’s bill has run up to (amounted to) a large amount. o While turning the corner I ran against (chanced to meet) an old friend. o Recently my expenses have run up (increased) considerably. o The cistern is running over (overflowing.) SEE o I saw through (detected), the trick. o It is hard to see into (discern) his motive. o His friends were present at the station to see him off (witness his departure). SET o The High Court set aside (annulled) the decree of the lower court. o He immediately set about (took steps towards) organizing the department. o He set off (started) for Delhi early this morning. o The frame sets off the picture (i.e., enhances its beauty by contrast). o He has set up (started business) as a banker. o I have enough capital to set me up (establish myself) in trade. o He hired a palatial bungalow and set up for (pretended to be) a millionaire. BMC-103 98 o I was obliged to set him down (snub him). o You may set down (charge) this loss to me. o Who set you on (instigated you) to do it? o These seats are set apart (reserved) for ladies. o In his speech on prohibition, he set forth (explained, made known) his views at length. o The robbers set upon (attacked) the defenseless travelers. o Winter sets in (begins) about December. SPEAK o In Mumbai there is no free library to speak of (worth mentioning). o I was determined to speak out (express my opinion freely). STAND o They are determined to stand up for (vindicate, maintain) their rights. Let this matter stand over (be deferred or postponed) for the present. o It is hard, but I think I can stand it out (endure it to the end without yielding). o He is always standing up for (championing the cause of) the weak and the oppressed. o We shall be formidable if we stand by (support) one another. STRIKE o He is struck down with (attacked by) paralysis. o The Medical Council struck off (removed) his name from the register of medical practitioners. o While we were planning a family picnic, my sister struck in (interrupted) with a strange suggestion that we invite our neighbour’s children as well. TAKE o The double-bed takes up (occupies) too much room. BMC-103 99 o It would take up (occupy) too much time to tell you the whole story. He takes after (resembles) his father. o At present I am reading the Gita, but it is some times difficult to take in (comprehend, understand) the meaning. o Recently he has taken to (become addicted to) opium eating. TALK o I am afraid your antecedents will tell against you (i.e., prove unfavourable to you). o The strain is telling upon (affecting) his health. THROW o My advice was thrown away (wasted) upon him, because he ignored it. o The bill was thrown out (rejected) by the Assembly. o In disgust, he threw up (resigned) his appointment. When he became rich he threw over (abandoned or deserted) all his old friends. TURN o The factory turns out (produces, manufactures) 20,000 yards of cloth a day. o If he is lazy, why don’t you turn him off (dismiss him)? o He turned out (proved) to be a thief. o His very friends turned against (became hostile to) him. o Who can say what will turn up (happen) next? o He promised to come, but he never turned up (appeared). WORK o We tempted him with many promises, but nothing would work on (influence) him. o He worked out (solved) the problem in a few minutes. o He is sure to work up (excite) the mob. BMC-103 100 o He worked upon (influenced) the ignorant villagers. o These are only a few examples to lead you to idiomatic phraseology. Idioms and culture The most common idioms can have deep roots, traceable across many languages. To have blood on one's hands is a familiar example, whose meaning is relatively obvious, although the context within English literature (see Macbeth and Pontius Pilate) may not be. While many idioms are clearly based in conceptual metaphors such as "time as a substance", "time as a path", "love as war" or "up is more", the idioms themselves are often not particularly essential, even when the metaphors themselves are. For example, "spend time", "battle of the sexes", and "back in the day" are idiomatic and based in essential metaphors, but one can communicate perfectly well with or without them. In forms like "profits are up", the metaphor is carried by "up" itself. The phrase "profits are up" is not itself an idiom. Practically anything measurable can be used in place of "profits": "crime is up", "satisfaction is up", "complaints are up" etc. Truly essential idioms generally involve prepositions, for example "out of" or "turn into". For example: Not all that glitters is gold, refering to the fact that many things look appealing or "glitter" but that does not mean there are what they appear to be or "gold", another form of this idiom is if its too good to be true it probably is. Common features of Idioms: Non-compositionality: The meaning of a collocation is not a straightforward composition of the meaning of its parts. For example, the meaning of kick the bucket no longer has anything to do with kicking buckets (Kick the bucket BMC-103 101 means to die) even if it once did (the phrase "kicking the bucket" originally referenced suicide by hanging, wherein the despondent person would stand on a bucket with the noose around his or her neck, and then kick the bucket upon which they were standing to allow the noose to tighten). Non-substitutability: One cannot substitute a word in a collocation with a related word. For example, we cannot say kick the pail instead of kick the bucket although bucket and pail are synonyms. Non-modifiability: One cannot modify a collocation or apply syntactic transformations. For example, John Nag kicked the green bucket or the bucket was kicked have nothing to do with dying. It is likely that every human language has idioms, and very many of them; a typical English commercial idiom dictionary lists about 4,000. When a local dialect of a language contains many highly developed idioms it can be unintelligible to speakers of the parent language; a classic example is that of Cockney rhyming slang. But note that most examples of slang, jargon and catch phrases, while related to idioms, are not idioms in the sense discussed here. Also to be distinguished from idioms are proverbs, which take the form of statements such as, "He who hesitates is lost." Many idioms could be considered colloquialisms. 7.3 SUMMARY: o A group of words, which makes sense but not complete sense is called a phrase. o Phrases may be classified according to the parts of speech for which they are used as substitutes: noun phrases, adjective phrases, and adverb phrases. BMC-103 102 o Phrases, which do the works of a noun, are noun phrases. For example: How to do this is a difficult question. o Phrases, which do the work of an adjective, are adjective phrases. For example: A bird in the hand is worth two (birds) in the bush. o Phrases, which do the work of an adverb, are adverb phrases. For example: I shall wait a few minutes. o Idioms may be defined as expressions peculiar to a language. They play an important part in all languages. They cannot be translated in other languages though, their equivalents may be found. o Idioms tend to confuse those not already familiar with them; students of a new language must learn its idiomatic expressions the way they learn its other vocabulary. In fact many natural language words have idiomatic origins, but have been sufficiently assimilated so that their figurative senses have been lost. o The meaning of a collocation is not a straightforward composition of the meaning of its parts. For example, the meaning of kick the bucket no longer has anything to do with kicking buckets (Kick the bucket means to die) even if it once did (the phrase "kicking the bucket" originally referenced suicide by hanging). o One cannot substitute a word in a collocation with a related word. For example, we cannot say kick the pail instead of kick the bucket although bucket and pail are synonyms. BMC-103 103 7.4 KEY WORDS: Kinds of Phrases: Phrases may be classified according to the parts of speech for which they are used as substitutes: noun phrases, adjective phrases, and adverb phrases. Noun phrase: Phrases, which do the works of a noun, are noun phrases. For example: How to do this is a difficult question. Adjective phrase: Phrases, which do the work of an adjective, are adjective phrases. For example: A bird in the hand is worth two (birds) in the bush. Adverb phrase: Phrases, which do the work of an adverb, are adverb phrases. For example: I shall wait a few minutes. Idiom: An idiom is an expression whose meaning cannot be deduced from the literal definitions and the arrangement of its parts, but refers instead to a figurative meaning that is known only through common use. Idioms are expressions peculiar to a language. They play an important part in all languages. They cannot be translated in other languages though, their equivalents may be found. Idioms tend to confuse those not already familiar with them; students of a new language must learn its idiomatic expressions the way they learn its other vocabulary. Non-compositionality of Idioms: The meaning of a collocation is not a straightforward composition of the meaning of its parts. For example, the meaning of kick the bucket no longer has anything to do with kicking buckets (Kick the bucket means to die) even if it once did (the phrase "kicking the bucket" originally referenced suicide by hanging, wherein the despondent person would stand on a bucket with the noose around his or her neck, and BMC-103 104 then kick the bucket upon which they were standing to allow the noose to tighten). Non-substitutability of Idioms: One cannot substitute a word in a collocation with a related word. For example, we cannot say kick the pail instead of kick the bucket although bucket and pail are synonyms. Non-modifiability of Idioms: One cannot modify a collocation or apply syntactic transformations. For example, John Nag kicked the green bucket or the bucket was kicked have nothing to do with dying. 7.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs): 1. Write a detailed note on phrases. 2. What are the different types of phrases? Discuss. 3. Write a detailed note on idioms. 7.6 REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READING: o New Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2000) o Correct English Usage; W. Mc. Mordie; Taraporewala & Sons o A Practical English Grammar; A. J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet; ELBSLow Price Edition o English Grammar, Composition & Usage: J.C. Nesfield; Revised by N.K. Agarwal o English Grammar- An Outline of General Phonetics; R.K. Bansal; OUP: 1971 o Spoken English for India; R.K. Bansal and J.B. Harrison; Longman o Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary; Daniel Jones; E.L.B.S (13th Editions) BMC-103 105 Bachelor of Mass Communication (1st year) ENGLISH (BMC-103) Block: D Unit: II Lesson: 8 BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH Writer: Prof. Sudhir Kumar Former Faculty, CCSHAU, Hisar Vetter: Sh. S. K. Singh Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar Converted into SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra Senior Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar LESSON STRUCTURE: In this lesson we shall discus about English as used in Britain and America. Specifically, we shall first focus on British English. Then we shall also briefly discuss American English. The lesson structure shall be as follows: 8.0 Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Presentation of Content 8.2.1 British English 8.2.2 American English 8.3 Summary 8.4 Key Words 8.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 8.6 References/Suggested Reading BMC-103 106 8.0 OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this lesson are: o To know about British English o To know about American English 8.1 INTRODUCTION: The influence of the mass media appears likely to result in a more standardized use of English in different parts of the world. This includes areas like- pronunciation, more uniform spelling, and eventually a spelling closer to actual pronunciation. Despite the likelihood of such standardization, a unique feature of the English language remains its tendency to grow and change. Despite the warnings of linguistic purists, new words are constantly being coined and usages modified to express new concepts—change is inherent in language so this is an infinite process that can never be halted. The vocabulary of the English language is constantly enriched by linguistic borrowings, particularly by cross-fertilizations from American English. Global media, the Internet, and ever-improving technology are just some of the reasons why English is fast becoming a world language, but as predictions about language are very difficult to make, this situation could easily change very quickly. In this lesson we shall discus about English as used in Britain and America. Specifically, we shall first focus on British English. Then we shall also briefly discuss American English. 8.2 PRESENTATION OF CONTENT: The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows: o British English BMC-103 107 o American English 8.2.1 BRITISH ENGLISH: British English is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere in the Anglophone world. British English encompasses the varieties of English used within the UK, including those in England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. Some may also use the term more widely, to include other forms such as Hiberno-English (spoken in Ireland). Most Britons- the majority of whom speak English as either a first or a second language- consider that they just speak "English", rather than "British English" specifically; the term "British English" is used only when necessary to distinguish it from other forms of English. This tendency to see one's own version of English as just "English" is also true of Americans and Australians. There are slight regional variations in formal written English in the United Kingdom (for example, although the words wee and little are interchangeable in some contexts, one is more likely to see wee written by a Scottish or Northern Irish person than by a Welsh person). Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within the United Kingdom, and this could be described as "British English". The forms of spoken English, however, vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken, and a uniform concept of "British English" is therefore more difficult to apply to the spoken language. According to Tom McArthur in the Oxford Guide to World English, the phrase British English shares "all the ambiguities and tensions in the word British, and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within a range of blurring and ambiguity". The widespread use of English worldwide is largely attributable to the power of the former British Empire, and this is reflected in the continued use BMC-103 108 of the language in both its successor (the Commonwealth of Nations) and many other countries. In the days before radio and television, most communication across the English-speaking world was by the written word. This helped to preserve a degree of global uniformity of the written language. However, due to the vast separation distances involved, variations in the spoken language began to arise. This was also aided by émigrés to the empire coming into contact with other, non-British cultures. In some cases, resulting variations in the spoken language have led to these being reflected in minor variations in written language usage, grammar and spellings in other countries. Dialects and accents vary not only between the nations of Britain, but also within the countries themselves. There are also differences in the English spoken by different socio-economic groups in any particular region. The major divisions are normally classified as English (or English as spoken in England, which comprises Southern English dialects, Midlands English dialects and Northern English dialects), Welsh English, Scottish English and the closely related dialects of the Scots language. The various British dialects also differ in the words, which they have borrowed from other languages. The Scottish and Northern English dialects include many words originally borrowed from Old Norse and a few borrowed from Gaelic. Following its last major survey of English Dialects (1950–1961), the University of Leeds has started work on a new project. In May 2007 the Arts and Humanities Research Council awarded a grant to a team led by Sally Johnson, Professor of Linguistics and Phonetics at Leeds University to study British regional dialects. Johnson's team are sifting through a large collection of examples of regional slang words and phrases turned up by the "Voices project" run by the BBC, in which the BBC invited the public to send in examples of English still BMC-103 109 spoken throughout the country. The BBC Voices project also collected hundreds of news articles about how the British speak English from swearing through to items on language schools. This information will also be collated and analyzed by the Johnson's team both for content and where it was reported. "Perhaps the most remarkable finding in the Voices study is that the English language is as diverse as ever, despite our increased mobility and constant exposure to other accents and dialects through TV and radio." Work by the team on is project not expected to end before 2010. When reporting the awarding of the grant on 1 June, 2007, The Independent's last paragraph was: The most common form of English used by the British ruling class is that originating from southeast England (the area around the capital, London, and the ancient English university towns of Oxford and Cambridge). This form of the language is known as the "Received Standard", and its accent is called Received Pronunciation (RP), which is improperly regarded by many people outside the UK as "the British accent". Earlier it was held as better than other accents and referred to as the King's (or Queen's) English, or even "BBC English". Originally this was the form of English used by radio and television. However, there is now much more tolerance of variation than there was in the past; for several decades other accents have been accepted and are frequently heard, although stereotypes about the BBC persist. English spoken with a mild Scottish accent has a reputation for being especially easy to understand. Moreover, only approximately two percent of Britons speak RP, and it has evolved quite markedly over the last 40 years. Even in the south east there are significantly different accents; the local inner east London accent called Cockney is strikingly different from RP and can be difficult for outsiders to understand. BMC-103 110 There is a new form of accent called Estuary English that has been gaining prominence in recent decades: it has some features of Received Pronunciation and some of Cockney. In London itself, the broad local accent is still changing, partly influenced by Caribbean speech. Londoners speak with a mixture of these accents, depending on class, age, upbringing, and so on. Since the mass immigration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and its close accent borders, it has become a source of various accent developments. There, nowadays, one finds an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a mixture of many different local accents, including East Midlands, East Anglian, Scottish, and Cockney. This accent is found as North as Melton Mowbray, and as south as Bedford. Also, found in the town of Corby five miles north, one can find Corbyite, which unlike the Kettering accent, is largely based on Scottish. This is due to the influx of Scottish steelworkers, which is a major industry in the town. Outside the southeast there are, in England alone, other families of accents easily distinguished by natives, including: o West Country (South West England) o East Anglian o West Midlands o East Midlands o Liverpool (Scouse) o Manchester and other east Lancashire accents o Yorkshire o Newcastle (Geordie) and other northeast England accents Although some of the stronger regional accents may sometimes be difficult for some English-speakers from outside Britain to understand, almost all 'British BMC-103 111 English' accents are mutually intelligible amongst the British themselves, with only occasional difficulty between very diverse accents. However, modern communications and mass media have reduced these differences significantly. In addition, most British people can to some degree temporarily 'swing' their accent (and particularly vocabulary) towards a more neutral form of 'standard' English at will, to reduce difficulty where very different accents are involved, or when speaking to foreigners. This phenomenon is known in linguistics as code shifting. STANDARDIZATION: As with English around the world, the English language as used in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland is governed by convention rather than formal code: there is no equivalent body to the Académie française or the Real Academia Española, and the authoritative dictionaries (for example, Oxford English Dictionary, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Chambers Dictionary, Collins Dictionary) record usage rather than prescribe it. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other strains of English, and neologisms are frequent. For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the 9th century, the form of language spoken in London and the East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education within Britain. To a great extent, modern British spelling was standardized in Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), although previous writers had also played a significant role in this and much has changed since 1755. Scotland, which only underwent parliamentary union in BMC-103 112 1707, still has a few independent aspects of standardization, especially within its autonomous legal system. As the British ruled over India for about two hundred years, the language of the British was adopted as ideal in educated Indian society. The standard English known as ‘King’s English’ was the standard form of written and spoken English till recently, but things changed after independence and words and expressions (and even pronunciation) of what is commonly known as American English made their way into the English used by Indians. The reasons for this new development are many. 1) After Independence, the British influence diminished gradual. 2) Democracy gave more freedom to people to choose words and expressions of their choice. In the latest Oxford Advanced Learner Dictionary a separate Indian English Supplement of about 10 thousand words spread over 43 pages has been added. 3) Globalization has brought people and countries nearer to each other this has influenced the form of English used by different people. 4) Many young men and women have had their higher education, in U.S.A. They have brought back American English. 5) The media T.V., films, magazines, etc. is using a lot of American English expressions. 6) The computer uses American English. In view of the above, it is essential to understand the salient differences between American English and British English because they are the foremost varieties of the English language and serve as reference norms for other varieties of English in India. Their comparison and contrast is a difficult matter yet some distinctions are quite obvious and need to be understood. BMC-103 113 In view of the above, it is essential to understand the salient differences between American English and British English because they are the foremost varieties of the English language and serve as reference norms for other varieties of English in India. This comparison and contrast is a difficult matter yet some distinctions are quite obvious and need to be understood. Generally, in dictionaries British English means that this word has more currency in Britain than in the U.S. though it could be used elsewhere too. The deciding line is becoming thinner and vague every day. It is primarily spelling that indicates whether a text is British or American English. Because British English and American English are the foremost varieties of the English language and serve as reference norms for other varieties, they have often been compared and contrasted. Such comparison and contrast are complex matters, made even more complex by the ambiguity and vagueness of the terms themselves. They are ambiguous in that each has more than one meaning; they are vague in that the boundaries between them are often fuzzy. For example, to say that the spelling colour is British English means that it is used widely in UK, is not used, or not widely used, or no longer used, in the US. To say that the spelling color is American English means that it is used widely in the US, is not used, or not widely used, or no longer used, in Britain. General ambiguity and vagueness: Different people use the terms British English and American English in different ways for different purposes. They may refer to: 1 ) Two national varieties. 2) Two international varieties. Here we shall consider only the main differences. BMC-103 114 Spelling Most spelling differences between British English and American English do not signal differences in pronunciation. It is primarily spelling that indicates whether a text is British or American in origin. (1) The colo(u)r group AMERICAN BRITISH Color clour Arbor arbour Armor armour Endeavor endeavout Ravor flavour Humor humour Labor labour Odor odour In American English, the colo(u)r group has or in its inflections (coloring), derivatives (colorful, coloration), and compounds (colorblind). (2) The centre/center group In words of this type, British English has –re and American English – er.centrel/center, meager/meager, fiBritish mitre/miter, English/fiber, saBritish goiter/goiter, Englishl/saber, litre/liter, somber/somber, spectre/specter, theatre/theater. Many words in both varieties have –er (banter, canter) and –re (acre, lucre, massacre, mediocre, ogre). (3) The (o) estrogen group British English has oe in exclusive variants, American English, e or less BMC-103 115 commonly oe, am(o) esophagus, (o) estrogen, (o) estrous. The differences are maintained in all inflections, derivatives, and compounds, f(o) etus and f(o) etid. The pronunciation of British English oestrogen is therefore ‘ees-’, of American English estrogen is generally ‘ess-’. (4) The (a) esthete group British English has tended to keep ae as an exclusive variant. (a) eon, arch(a) emia, encylop(a)edia, (a)esthetics, an(a)emia, h(a)emophilia, h(a)emorrhage. The spelling differences are maintained in inflections, derivative, and compounds. The –ize and –ise group Some verbs can only have –ize: capsize, seize. In some, only –ise is possible: advise, seize. In some only –ise is possible: advise, surprise. In many, both – ise is possible: advise, surprise. In many, both –ise and –ize ar possible, as in civilize/civilize, organize/organize, and the –s-or –z- is preserved in derivatives: civilization/civilization. Where differences exist, American English spellings tend to be shorter than British English spellings: catalog, color; American English jewelry, jeweler, British English jewellery, jeweler; American English councilor, counselor, British English councilor, counselor. Exceptions include: American English instill and installment, British English instill and installment; American English skillful and thralldom, British English skilful and thralldom. In general terms, a spelling used in Britain is more likely to be acceptable in American English than is an American English spelling in Britain. BMC-103 116 Pronunciation Because British English and American English spelling can be seen in printed and edited texts, comparing and contrasting them is more or less straightforward. What follows is a comparison of two major features in the pronunciations shown in British dictionaries, typically based on the accent called Received Pronunciation or RP, with those in American English dictionaries, typically clustering round a set of pronunciations often called General American English. Grammar A discussion of grammatical differences is closer to a discussion of spelling than of pronunciation, because it can be based on textual evidence. The following are significant contrasts: (1) Shall/will. Though shall is even less common in American English than in British English, the only significant differences concern two of the least common British English uses: second-person questions and the contraction shan’t, as in Shall you be at the embassy reception? –No, I’m afraid I shan’t. Both are virtually, unknown in American English. (2) Should/would. In polite first-person statements (We should be happy to comply with your request), should is rarer in American English than in British English, particularly in advice-giving formulas (I should dress warmly if I were you). (3) Time expressions. The form Monday to Friday inclusive is shared, while the synonymous Monday through Friday is American English. The use of past in time expressions (10 past 6, (a) quarter past 6) is shared; the corresponding use of after (10 after 6, (a) quarter after 6) is BMC-103 117 chiefly American English. The form ten (minutes) of six is American English. Vocabulary and idioms BRITISH ENGLISH AMERICAN ENGLISH Windscreen Windshield Autumn Fall Power point Outlet PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH In Great Britain there exists an accent that is not region-specific, known as Received Pronunciation (RP). A class dialect rather than a regional dialect (it used to be exclusively associated with the educated and rich), it is based on the type of speech cultivated at public schools and at such older universities as Oxford and Cambridge. Many English people who speak regional dialects in their childhood acquire Received Pronunciation while attending school and university. Its influence became even stronger in the recent past because of its use by public media such as the British Broadcasting Corporation (RP is also known as “BBC English”). Widely differing regional and local dialects are still employed in the various counties of Great Britain. Other important regional dialects have also developed; for example, the English language in Ireland has retained certain individual characteristics of pronunciation, such as the pronunciation of lave for leave and fluther for flutter; certain syntactical characteristics, such as the use of after following forms of the verb be; and certain differences in vocabulary, including the use of archaic words such as adown (for down) and Celtic borrowings such as banshee. The Lowland Scottish language, sometimes called Scots, first made known throughout the English-speaking world by the songs of the 18thBMC-103 118 century Scottish poet Robert Burns, contains differences in pronunciation also, such as neebour (“neighbour”) and guid (“good”), and words of Scandinavian origin peculiar to the dialect, such as braw and bairn that have influenced the English spoken in Scotland. Australian English, with its marked diphthongization of vowels, also makes use of special words, retained from English regional dialect usages, or taken over from indigenous Australian terms. 7.2.2 AMERICAN ENGLISH: An important development of English outside Great Britain occurred with the colonization of North America. American English may be considered to include the English spoken in Canada, although the Canadian variety retains some features of British pronunciation, spelling, and vocabulary. The most distinguishing differences between American English and British English are in pronunciation and vocabulary. There are slighter differences in spelling, pitch, and stress as well. Written American English also has a tendency to be more rigid in matters of grammar and syntax, but at the same time appears to be more tolerant of the use of neologisms. Despite these differences, it is often difficult to determine—apart from context—whether serious literary works have been written in Great Britain or the United States/Canada—or, for that matter, in Australia, New Zealand, or South Africa. Basic English A simplified form of the English language based on 850 key words was developed in the late 1920s by the English psychologist Charles Kay Ogden and publicized by the English educator I. A. Richards. Known as Basic English, it was used mainly to teach English to non-English-speaking people BMC-103 119 and promoted as an international language. The complexities of English spelling and grammar, however, were major hindrances to the adoption of Basic English as a second language. The fundamental principle of Basic English was that any idea, however complex, may be reduced to simple units of thought and expressed clearly by a limited number of everyday words. The 850-word primary vocabulary was composed of 600 nouns (representing things or events), 150 adjectives (for qualities and properties), and 100 general “operational” words, mainly verbs and prepositions. Almost all the words were in common use in Englishspeaking countries; more than 60 per cent were one-syllable words. The abbreviated vocabulary was created in part by eliminating numerous synonyms and by extending the use of 18 “basic” verbs, such as make, get, do, have, and be. These verbs were generally combined with prepositions, such as up, among, under, in, and forward. For example, a Basic English student would use the expression “go up” instead of “ascend”. Pidgin English English also enters into a number of simplified languages that arose among non-English-speaking peoples. Chinese Pidgin English, spoken in the Melanesian islands, New Guinea, Australia, the Philippines, and Hawaii and on the Asian shores of the Pacific Ocean, developed as a means of communication between Chinese and English traders. The Chinese adopted many English words and a few indispensable non-English words and created a means of discourse, using a simple grammatical apparatus. Chinook Jargon, used by a small number of Canadians and North Americans contains English, French, and Native American words; its grammatical structure is based on that of the Chinook language. West African Pidgin English (WAPE) is spoken in various West African countries (from Gambia to Cameroon). It is BMC-103 120 mutually intelligible across some of these countries and has become a creole in some areas. WAPE arose in the 16th century through contact between West Africans and English traders. English Around the World Since the mid 20th century, the English language has become so widespread it is often considered the world language. The fast spread of English was facilitated by a number of factors, including the dominance of the United States as a world power and the remnants of British colonial power around the world. Nowadays, the English spoken around the world is quite different from that spoken in the UK where it originated, with many different varieties existing and evolving across the globe. The majority of World English speakers use English as a second or third language, and live in an environment where multilingualism is the norm, although English may be the official language. In many countries, including Singapore and Nigeria, English is the main language of instruction in schools (especially after primary education level) and is used in business and other official transactions. Just as UK English differs from US English, Indian English, Singaporean English, Nigerian English, and others are all varieties of English that have individual syntactic, lexical, and phonological systems, often influenced by the other languages in daily use. In fact some of these varieties are so distinct that some linguists suggest that they are separate, although related, languages. 8.3 SUMMARY: o British English is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere in the Anglophone world. British English encompasses the varieties of English used within the UK, including those in England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. Some may also use the term BMC-103 121 more widely, to include other forms such as Hiberno-English (spoken in Ireland). o There are slight regional variations in formal written English in the United Kingdom (for example, although the words wee and little are interchangeable in some contexts, one is more likely to see wee written by a Scottish or Northern Irish person than by a Welsh person). o The widespread use of English worldwide is largely attributable to the power of the former British Empire, and this is reflected in the continued use of the language in both its successor (the Commonwealth of Nations) and many other countries. In the days before radio and television, most communication across the Englishspeaking world was by the written word. o Dialects and accents vary not only between the nations of Britain, but also within the countries themselves. There are also differences in the English spoken by different socio-economic groups in any particular region. o The major divisions are normally classified as English (or English as spoken in England, which comprises Southern English dialects, Midlands English dialects and Northern English dialects), Welsh English, Scottish English and the closely related dialects of the Scots language. The various British dialects also differ in the words, which they have borrowed from other languages. The Scottish and Northern English dialects include many words originally borrowed from Old Norse and a few borrowed from Gaelic. o Because British English and American English spelling can be seen in printed and edited texts, comparing and contrasting them is more or less straightforward. What follows is a comparison of two major features in the pronunciations shown in British dictionaries, typically BMC-103 122 based on the accent called Received Pronunciation or RP, with those in American English dictionaries, typically clustering round a set of pronunciations often called General American English. o A discussion of grammatical differences is closer to a discussion of spelling than of pronunciation, because it can be based on textual evidence. 8.4 KEY WORDS: British English: British English is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere in the Anglophone world. British English encompasses the varieties of English used within the UK, including those in England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. Some may also use the term more widely, to include other forms such as Hiberno-English (spoken in Ireland). Regional Variations: There are slight regional variations in formal written English in the United Kingdom (for example, although the words wee and little are interchangeable in some contexts, one is more likely to see wee written by a Scottish or Northern Irish person than by a Welsh person). Spread of English: The widespread use of English worldwide is largely attributable to the power of the former British Empire, and this is reflected in the continued use of the language in both its successor (the Commonwealth of Nations) and many other countries. In the days before radio and television, most communication across the English-speaking world was by the written word. Dialects and Accents: Dialects and accents vary not only between the nations of Britain, but also within the countries themselves. There are also differences in the English spoken by different socio-economic groups in any particular region. BMC-103 123 Divisions of English: The major divisions are normally classified as English (or English as spoken in England, which comprises Southern English dialects, Midlands English dialects and Northern English dialects), Welsh English, Scottish English and the closely related dialects of the Scots language. The various British dialects also differ in the words, which they have borrowed from other languages. The Scottish and Northern English dialects include many words originally borrowed from Old Norse and a few borrowed from Gaelic. Pronunciation: Because British English and American English spelling can be seen in printed and edited texts, comparing and contrasting them is more or less straightforward. What follows is a comparison of two major features in the pronunciations shown in British dictionaries, typically based on the accent called Received Pronunciation or RP, with those in American English dictionaries, typically clustering round a set of pronunciations often called General American English. Grammar: A discussion of grammatical differences is closer to a discussion of spelling than of pronunciation, because it can be based on textual evidence. American English: An important development of English outside Great Britain occurred with the colonization of North America. American English may be considered to include the English spoken in Canada, although the Canadian variety retains some features of British pronunciation, spelling, and vocabulary. Differences between British English & American English: The most distinguishing differences between American English and British English are in pronunciation and vocabulary. There are slighter differences in spelling, pitch, and stress as well. Written American English also has a tendency to be BMC-103 124 more rigid in matters of grammar and syntax, but at the same time appears to be more tolerant of the use of neologisms. BMC-103 125 BASIC ENGLISH: A SIMPLIFIED FORM OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE BASED ON 850 KEY WORDS WAS DEVELOPED IN THE LATE 1920S BY THE ENGLISH PSYCHOLOGIST CHARLES KAY OGDEN AND PUBLICIZED BY THE ENGLISH EDUCATOR I. A. RICHARDS. KNOWN AS BASIC ENGLISH, IT WAS USED MAINLY TO TEACH ENGLISH TO NON-ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLE AND PROMOTED AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE. THE COMPLEXITIES OF ENGLISH SPELLING AND GRAMMAR, HOWEVER, WERE MAJOR HINDRANCES TO THE ADOPTION OF BASIC ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE. PIDGIN ENGLISH: ENGLISH ALSO ENTERS INTO A NUMBER OF SIMPLIFIED LANGUAGES THAT AROSE AMONG NON-ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLES. CHINESE PIDGIN ENGLISH, SPOKEN IN THE MELANESIAN ISLANDS, NEW GUINEA, AUSTRALIA, THE PHILIPPINES, AND HAWAII AND ON THE ASIAN SHORES OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN, DEVELOPED AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CHINESE AND ENGLISH TRADERS. WEST AFRICAN PIDGIN ENGLISH (WAPE) IS SPOKEN IN VARIOUS WEST AFRICAN COUNTRIES (FROM GAMBIA TO CAMEROON). IT IS MUTUALLY INTELLIGIBLE ACROSS SOME OF THESE COUNTRIES AND HAS BECOME A CREOLE IN SOME AREAS. ENGLISH AROUND THE WORLD: SINCE THE MID 20TH CENTURY, THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE HAS BECOME SO BMC-103 126 WIDESPREAD IT IS OFTEN CONSIDERED THE WORLD LANGUAGE. THE FAST SPREAD OF ENGLISH WAS FACILITATED BY A NUMBER OF FACTORS, INCLUDING THE DOMINANCE OF THE UNITED STATES AS A WORLD POWER AND THE REMNANTS OF BRITISH COLONIAL POWER AROUND THE WORLD. NOWADAYS, THE ENGLISH SPOKEN AROUND THE WORLD IS QUITE DIFFERENT FROM THAT SPOKEN IN THE UK WHERE IT ORIGINATED, WITH MANY DIFFERENT VARIETIES EXISTING AND EVOLVING ACROSS THE GLOBE. THE MAJORITY OF WORLD ENGLISH SPEAKERS USE ENGLISH AS A SECOND OR THIRD LANGUAGE. 8.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs): 1. Write a detailed note on British English. 2. Write a detailed note on American English. 3. Write a detailed note differentiating American and British English. 8.6 REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READING: o New Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2000) o Correct English Usage; W. Mc. Mordie; Taraporewala & Sons o A Practical English Grammar; A. J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet; ELBSLow Price Edition o English Grammar, Composition & Usage: J.C. Nesfield; Revised by N.K. Agarwal o English Grammar- An Outline of General Phonetics; R.K. Bansal; OUP: 1971 BMC-103 127 o Spoken English for India; R.K. Bansal and J.B. Harrison; Longman o Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary; Daniel Jones; E.L.B.S (13th Editions) BMC-103 128 Bachelor of Mass Communication (1st year) ENGLISH (BMC-103) Block: E Unit: I Lesson: 9 NOUNS Writer: Prof. Sudhir Kumar Former Faculty, CCSHAU, Hisar Vetter: Sh. S. K. Singh Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar Converted into SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra Senior Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar LESSON STRUCTURE: In this lesson we shall discus about nouns. We shall first try to get familiarized with parts of speech. Then we shall discuss about nouns in greater detail. The lesson structure shall be as follows: 9.0 Objectives 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Presentation of Content 9.2.1 Parts of Speech 9.2.2 An Introduction to Nouns 9.3 Summary 9.4 Key Words 9.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 9.6 References/Suggested Reading BMC-103 129 9.0 OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this lesson are: o To Know About Parts of Speech o To Get An Introduction to Nouns 9.1 INTRODUCTION: Languages are means of communication. All languages have specific composition formats. Language uses different elements or parts for composition. Prominent among these elements are nouns and verbs. Other such elements are pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Collectively, these are called “parts of speech”. We shall discuss about these parts of speech in this lesson. 9.2 PRESENTATION OF CONTENT: The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows: o Parts of Speech o An Introduction to Nouns 9.2.2 PARTS OF SPEECH: Parts of Speech are words classified according to their functions in sentences. This is done for purposes of traditional grammatical analysis. Eight parts of speech have been identified. These are: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, verbs, and interjections. NOUNS: A noun (Latin, nomen, “name”) is usually defined as a word denoting a thing, place, person, quality, or action and functioning in a sentence as the subject or object of action expressed by a verb or as the object of a preposition. In modern English, proper nouns, which are always capitalized BMC-103 130 and denote individuals and personifications, are distinguished from common nouns. ADJECTIVES: An adjective is a word that modifies, or qualifies, a noun or pronoun, in one of three forms of comparative degree: positive (strong, beautiful), comparative (stronger, more beautiful), or superlative (strongest, most beautiful). In many languages, the form of an adjective changes to correspond with the number and gender of the noun or pronoun it modifies. ADVERBS: An adverb is a word that modifies a verb (he walked slowly), an adjective (a very good book), or another adverb (he walked very slowly). Adverbs may indicate place or direction (where, whence), time (ever, immediately), degree (very, almost), manner (thus, and words ending in -ly, such as wisely), and belief or doubt (perhaps, no). Like adjectives, they too may be comparative (wisely, more wisely, most wisely). PREPOSITIONS: Words that combine with a noun or pronoun to form a phrase are termed prepositions. In languages such as Latin or German, they change the form of the noun or pronoun to the objective case (as in the equivalent of the English phrase give to me), or to the possessive case (as in the phrase the roof of the house). CONJUNCTIONS: Conjunctions are the words that connect sentences, clauses, phrases, or words, and sometimes paragraphs. Coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or, however, nevertheless, neither... nor) join independent clauses, or parts of a sentence; subordinate conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses (where, when, after, while, because, if, unless, since, whether). BMC-103 131 PRONOUNS: A pronoun is an identifying word used instead of a noun and inflected in the same way nouns are. In English, personal pronouns are I, you, he/she/it, we, you (plural), and they. Demonstrative pronouns are thus, that, and such. Introducing questions, who and which are interrogative pronouns; when introducing clauses they are called relative pronouns. Indefinite pronouns are each, either, some, any, many, few, and all. VERBS: Words that express some form of action are called verbs. Their inflection, known as conjugation, is simpler in English than in most other languages. Conjugation in general involves changes of form according to person and number (who and how many performed the action), tense (when the action was performed), voice (indicating whether the subject of the verb performed or received the action), and mood (indicating the frame of mind of the performer). In English grammar, verbs have three moods: the indicative, which expresses actuality; the subjunctive, which expresses contingency; and the imperative, which expresses command (I walk; I might walk; Walk!) INTERJECTIONS: Interjections are exclamations such as oh, alas, ugh, or well (often printed with an exclamation mark). Used for emphasis or to express an emotional reaction, they do not truly function as grammatical elements of a sentence. 9.2.2 NOUNS- AN INTRODUCTION: Noun literally means name. Nouns are representative. Nouns may represent a thing, place, person, quality, or action and functioning. In a sentence, nouns may perform as the subject or object of action. Proper nouns denote BMC-103 132 individuals and personifications. These are distinguished from common nouns. Nouns and verbs may sometimes take the same form. Verbal nouns, or gerunds, combine features of both parts of speech. They occur in the Semitic and Indo-European languages and in English most commonly with words ending in -ing. Nouns may be inflected to indicate gender (masculine, feminine, and neuter), number, and case. In modern English, however, gender has been eliminated, and only two forms, singular and plural, indicate number (how many perform or receive an action). Some languages have three numbers: a singular form (indicating, for example, one book), a plural form (indicating three or more books), and a dual form (indicating, specifically, two books). English has three cases of nouns: nominative (subject), genitive (possessive), and objective (indicating the relationship between the noun and other words). Noun phrases may be modified with a determiner (for example, Leave the dog alone). Nouns are of five different kinds: o Proper o Common o Collective o Material o Abstract A Proper Noun denotes one particular person or thing as distinct from every other; as Ramesh (a person), Yamuna (a river), Delhi (a city), Haryana (a state). Note: Proper Nouns should always be commenced with a CAPITAL LETTER. BMC-103 133 A Common Noun denotes no one person or thing in particular but is common to any and every person or thing of the same kind; as ‘man’, ‘book’, ‘country’. A Proper Noun becomes a Common Noun when it denotes a class of persons or things and is used in a descriptive sense. “He is the Tendulkar of our college,” that is, the best batsman of the college. A Collective Noun denotes a group or collection of similar individuals, considered as a one complete whole: team crowd, group, mob, army, family flock.’ Flock’ is a Collective Noun, because it stands for all the sheep at once and not for anyone sheep taken separately. There is also a MATERIAL NOUN, which denotes the matter or substance of which things are made. Thus ‘sheep’ is a Common Noun; but ‘mutton’ (or the flesh of sheep) is a Material Noun. An Abstract Noun denotes some quality, state, or action, apart from anything processing the quality, etc. Quality – Courage, height, humility, roguery, colour. State – Poverty, manhood, bondage, pleasure, youth. Action – Laughter, movement, flight, choice, revenge. Note: The names of Arts and Sciences (e.g., philosophy, music, chemistry, etc.) are also Abstract Nouns. HOW ABSTRACT NOUNS ARE FORMED Abstract Nouns can be formed from Adjectives, or from Common Nouns, llor from Verbs: Abstract Nouns formed from Adjectives: BMC-103 134 Bitter bitterness Just justice Brave bravery Long length Broad breadth Poor poverty Dark darkness Proud pride Deep depth Prudent prudence False falsehood Short shortness Great greatness Sole solitude High height True truth Honest honesty Vain vanity Hot heat Wide width Humble humility Wise wisdom Intelligent intelligence Young youth Note: Youth may also be a Common Noun (a youth of seventeen) and a Collective Noun (Give youth its chance). In this latter sentence youth = young people thought of collectively. Abstract Nouns formed from Common Nouns: Common Abstract Common Abstract Agent agency Man manhood Bond bondage Mother motherhood Boy boyhood Owner ownership Captain captaincy Priest priesthood Child childhood Rascal rascality Friend friendship Regent regency Hero heroism Rogue roguery Infant infancy Salve slavery King kingship Thief theft BMC-103 135 Abstract Nouns formed from verbs: (d) Verbs Abstract Noun Verb Abstract Noun Advise advice Laugh laughter Admit admission Live life Arrive arrival Move motion Agree agreement Neglect negligence Behave behaviour Obey obedience Believe belief Permit permission Choose choice Please pleasure Conceal concealment Protect protection Defend defence Punish punishment Depart departure Relieve relief Die death See sight Expert expectation Serve service Enter entrance Succeed success Fail failure Seize seizure Free freedom Think thought Hate hatred Unite union, unity Judge judgment Warm warmth There are some Nouns of the same form as Verbs Abstract Nouns of the same forms as Verbs, like Verbs Abstract Noun Verb Abstract Noun Cry cry Rise rise Desire desire Run run Fall fall Sleep sleep Fear fear Sob sob BMC-103 136 Hope hope Stand stand Laugh laugh Stay stay Love love Step step Move move Stop stop Order order Taste taste Regret regret Touch touch Ride ride Walk walk Point our the kind or use of each of the nouns occurring below: Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, was conqueror of Persia. Cows are as fond of grass as babies are of milk. Health is one of the greatest blessings. Arjun was the bravest of the Pandavas. Kalidas was the Homer of India. Almost every Hindu belongs to some caste. A shower of rain does not give so much trouble to a traveler as a fall of snow. During the cricket season our eleven defeated the teams from several other schools. Some kinds of food are not conducive to health. The love of money is the good. There is no slate in the rocks of these hills. Give him the slate. Witchcraft is the art practiced by a witch or wizard. Salt is necessary to life. Cleanliness is next to godliness. He spent his last years in peace and safety. Is that chain of your made of gold or brass? BMC-103 137 BMC-103 138 The Noun- Gender: Nouns denoting male members : Masculine Nouns denoting female members : Feminine Nouns denoting members of either sex : Common Nouns denoting things of neither sex : Neuter (Things without life) Ways of Forming The Feminine of Nouns: There are three different ways by which a Masculine Noun is distinguished form a feminine noun: o By a change of word; as bull, cow. o By adding a word; as he-goat , she-goat. o By adding ess to the Masculine; as host, hostess. Gender Change With Change of Word: Masculine Feminine Masculine Fem Bachelor spinster (or maid) Gentleman lady Boar sow Hart hind Boy girl Horse mare Brother sister Husband wife Buck Doe king queen Bull (Ox) cow lord lady Bullock heifer Man woman Cock hen Nephew niece Colt filly Papa mamma Dog bitch Ram ewe Drake duck sir madam Drone bee Son daughter BMC-103 139 Earl countess Stag hind Father, mother Swain nymph Friar (or monk) nun Uncle aunt Gander goose Wizard witch GENDER CHANGE BY ADDING A WORD: By adding a prefix By a change of suffix Masculine Feminine Masculine Fem Bull-calf cow-calf Grand-father grand-mother Buck-rabbit doe-rabbit Great-uncle great-aunt Cock-sparrow hen-sparrow land-lord land-lady He-goat she-goat Pea-cock pea-hen Jack-ass she-ass; jenny-ass Dairy-man dairy-maid Man-servant maid-servant Washer-man washer-woman The following are examples of Nouns in the Neuter Gender: Parent, relation, friend, cousin, child pupil, servant, person, enemy, orphan, student, monarch, baby, neighbor. The Noun: NUMBER When one thing is spoken if, the Noun is Singular; when two or more things are spoken of the noun is plural. Proper, and Abstract Nouns generally have no Plural, unless they are used as Common Nouns: Proper: Egypt is a country in Africa. (Proper) Many Egypt (=countries as large as Egypt) could be obtained in India. (common) BMC-103 140 Abstract Kindness is part of his character. (Abstract) He did many kindnesses ( = kind acts) (Common). But a proper Noun may be used in the plural, and still remain a proper Noun, when several people, or places of the some name are referred to collectively; the Kumar’s Toe salmons The general rule for forming Plurals of Nouns is by adding to the Singular; as, Singular Plural Singular Hand hands House houses Eye Rupee rupees eyes Plural But if the Noun ends in s, x, sh, or ch, the Plural is formed by adding es to the Singular; as, Singular Plural Singular Plural Glass glasses Brush brushes Box boxes Bench benches If the Noun ends in y is preceded by a consonant, the Plural is formed by changing the y in to ‘ies’: Singular Plural Singular Plural Army armies Fly flies Duty duties Lady ladies But if the final y is preceded by a vowel (as in ay ey, or oy,) the Plural is formed by simply adding’s to the Singular as in the general rule of adding’s Singular Plural Singular Plural Day days Monkey monkeys Play plays Boy boys Key keys Toy toys BMC-103 141 If the Noun ends in o and the o is preceded by a consonant the plural is generally formed by adding ‘es’ to the singular: Singular Plural Singular Plural Buffalo buffaloes Negro negroes Cargo cargoes Mosquito mosquitoes Echo echoes Potato Potatoes Hero heroes Mango mangoes But all word ending in oo, all words ending in io, eo, or yo, and some words ending in o, preceded by a consonant, form the Plural ins, and not in es:Singular Plural Singular Plural Bamboo bamboos Cuckoo Cuckoos Memento mementos Piano pianos Proviso provisos Portfolio portfolios Embryo embryos Solo solos If the Noun ends in f or fe, the Plural is generally formed by changing f or fe in to ues: Singular Plural Singular Plural Knife knives Lea leaves Life lives Myself ourselves Wife wives Calf calves Elf elves Half halves But there are Nouns ending in f or fe which form the Plural by simply adding in accordance with the general of adding an ’s’ BMC-103 142 Singular Plural Singular Plural Belief beliefs Proof proofs Chief Chiefs Roof roofs Safe safes Dwarf dwarfs scarf scarves Gulf gulfs Turf tufts There are eight Nouns, which form the Plural by change of the inside, vowel: Singular Plural Singular Plural Foot feet Dormouse dormice Goose geese Louse lice Man men Mouse mice Woman women Tooth teeth There are four Nouns, which form the Plural in en or ne: Singular Plural Singular Plural Child children Ox oxen Brother brethren (or bothers) A Compound Noun generally forms the Plural by adding’s to the principal word: Singular Plural Daughter-in- law daughters-in-law Father-in-law father-in-law Mother-in-law mother -in law Son -in-law sons-in-law Looker-on lookers-on Passer-by passers-by Step-son step-sons 143 BMC-103 Foreign Plurals: These are some Plurals which have been borrowed direct form foreign nouns some examples are: Singular Plural Agendum agenda Apparatus apparatus Appendix appendices (or appendixes) Axis axes Datum date Focus foci Formula formulae (or formulas) Fungus fungi Genius genii (or geniuses) Medium media Memorandum memoranda Radius radii Singular Plural (Greek) Analysis analyses Basis bases Crisis crises Criterion criteria Hypothesis hypotheses Thesis theses Some Nouns, which take the Plural form at ordinary times, retain the Singular form to express some specific quantity or number. A ten-rupee note, A twelve-month, A three-foot rule, An eight day clock, A six-year-old horse BMC-103 144 There are some Nouns which have two forms in the Plural each form with a separate meaning of its own. Brother Brothers, some of the same mother. Brethren, members of the same society. Cloth Cloths, kinds of pieces of cloth. Clothes, articles of dress. Die Dies, stamps for coinage. Dice, * small cubes used in games. Staff Staves, sticks or poles. Staffs, departments in the army, or a business; salaried employees taken collectively. * in modern English dice is often used as a singular. The following Nouns are generally used in the Plural: Alms - I gave alms to the beggar and for these he thanked me. Eaves - The eaves were hung with icicles. Odds - The odds against him were very heavy. 9.3 SUMMARY: • Parts of Speech are words classified according to their functions in sentences. This is done for purposes of traditional grammatical analysis. Eight parts of speech have been identified. These are: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, verbs, and interjections. • A noun (Latin, nomen, “name”) is usually defined as a word denoting a thing, place, person, quality, or action and functioning in a sentence as BMC-103 145 the subject or object of action expressed by a verb or as the object of a preposition. In modern English, proper nouns, which are always capitalized and denote individuals and personifications, are distinguished from common nouns. • An adjective is a word that modifies, or qualifies, a noun or pronoun, in one of three forms of comparative degree: positive (strong, beautiful), comparative (stronger, more beautiful), or superlative (strongest, most beautiful). In many languages, the form of an adjective changes to correspond with the number and gender of the noun or pronoun it modifies. • An adverb is a word that modifies a verb (he walked slowly), an adjective (a very good book), or another adverb (he walked very slowly). Adverbs may indicate place or direction (where, whence), time (ever, immediately), degree (very, almost), manner (thus, and words ending in -ly, such as wisely), and belief or doubt (perhaps, no). Like adjectives, they too may be comparative (wisely, more wisely, most wisely). • Words that combine with a noun or pronoun to form a phrase are termed prepositions. In languages such as Latin or German, they change the form of the noun or pronoun to the objective case (as in the equivalent of the English phrase give to me), or to the possessive case (as in the phrase the roof of the house). • Conjunctions are the words that connect sentences, clauses, phrases, or words, and sometimes paragraphs. Coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or, however, nevertheless, neither... nor) join independent clauses, BMC-103 146 or parts of a sentence; subordinate conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses (where, when, after, while, because, if, unless, since, whether). • A pronoun is an identifying word used instead of a noun and inflected in the same way nouns are. In English, personal pronouns are I, you, he/she/it, we, you (plural), and they. Demonstrative pronouns are thus, that, and such. Introducing questions, who and which are interrogative pronouns; when introducing clauses they are called relative pronouns. Indefinite pronouns are each, either, some, any, many, few, and all. • Words that express some form of action are called verbs. Their inflection, known as conjugation, is simpler in English than in most other languages. Conjugation in general involves changes of form according to person and number (who and how many performed the action), tense (when the action was performed), voice (indicating whether the subject of the verb performed or received the action), and mood (indicating the frame of mind of the performer). In English grammar, verbs have three moods: the indicative, which expresses actuality; the subjunctive, which expresses contingency; and the imperative, which expresses command (I walk; I might walk; Walk!) • Interjections are exclamations such as oh, alas, ugh, or well (often printed with an exclamation mark). Used for emphasis or to express an emotional reaction, they do not truly function as grammatical elements of a sentence. • Nouns are of five different kinds: Proper nouns, Common nouns, Collective nouns, Material nouns, Abstract nouns. BMC-103 147 • A Proper Noun denotes one particular person or thing as distinct from every other; as Ramesh (a person), Yamuna (a river), Delhi (a city), Haryana (a state). • A Common Noun denotes no one person or thing in particular but is common to any and every person or thing of the same kind; as ‘man’, ‘book’, ‘country’. • A Collective Noun denotes a group or collection of similar individuals, considered as a one complete whole: team crowd, group, mob, army, family flock.’ Flock’ is a Collective Noun, because it stands for all the sheep at once and not for anyone sheep taken separately. • An Abstract Noun denotes some quality, state, or action, apart from anything processing the quality, etc. 9.4 KEY WORDS: Parts of Speech: Parts of Speech are words classified according to their functions in sentences. This is done for purposes of traditional grammatical analysis. Eight parts of speech have been identified. These are: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, verbs, and interjections. Nouns: A noun (Latin, nomen, “name”) is usually defined as a word denoting a thing, place, person, quality, or action and functioning in a sentence as the subject or object of action expressed by a verb or as the object of a preposition. In modern English, proper nouns, which are always capitalized BMC-103 148 and denote individuals and personifications, are distinguished from common nouns. Adjectives: An adjective is a word that modifies, or qualifies, a noun or pronoun, in one of three forms of comparative degree: positive (strong, beautiful), comparative (stronger, more beautiful), or superlative (strongest, most beautiful). In many languages, the form of an adjective changes to correspond with the number and gender of the noun or pronoun it modifies. Adverbs: An adverb is a word that modifies a verb (he walked slowly), an adjective (a very good book), or another adverb (he walked very slowly). Adverbs may indicate place or direction (where, whence), time (ever, immediately), degree (very, almost), manner (thus, and words ending in -ly, such as wisely), and belief or doubt (perhaps, no). Like adjectives, they too may be comparative (wisely, more wisely, most wisely). Prepositions: Words that combine with a noun or pronoun to form a phrase are termed prepositions. In languages such as Latin or German, they change the form of the noun or pronoun to the objective case (as in the equivalent of the English phrase give to me), or to the possessive case (as in the phrase the roof of the house). Conjunctions: Conjunctions are the words that connect sentences, clauses, phrases, or words, and sometimes paragraphs. Coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or, however, nevertheless, neither... nor) join independent clauses, or parts of a sentence; subordinate conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses (where, when, after, while, because, if, unless, since, whether). Pronouns: A pronoun is an identifying word used instead of a noun and inflected in the same way nouns are. In English, personal pronouns are I, you, BMC-103 149 he/she/it, we, you (plural), and they. Demonstrative pronouns are thus, that, and such. Introducing questions, who and which are interrogative pronouns; when introducing clauses they are called relative pronouns. Indefinite pronouns are each, either, some, any, many, few, and all. Verbs: Words that express some form of action are called verbs. Their inflection, known as conjugation, is simpler in English than in most other languages. Conjugation in general involves changes of form according to person and number (who and how many performed the action), tense (when the action was performed), voice (indicating whether the subject of the verb performed or received the action), and mood (indicating the frame of mind of the performer). In English grammar, verbs have three moods: the indicative, which expresses actuality; the subjunctive, which expresses contingency; and the imperative, which expresses command (I walk; I might walk; Walk!) Interjections: Interjections are exclamations such as oh, alas, ugh, or well (often printed with an exclamation mark). Used for emphasis or to express an emotional reaction, they do not truly function as grammatical elements of a sentence. Types of Nouns: Nouns are of five different kinds: Proper nouns, Common nouns, Collective nouns, Material nouns, Abstract nouns. Proper Noun: A Proper Noun denotes one particular person or thing as distinct from every other; as Ramesh (a person), Yamuna (a river), Delhi (a city), Haryana (a state). Common Noun: A Common Noun denotes no one person or thing in particular but is common to any and every person or thing of the same kind; as ‘man’, ‘book’, ‘country’. BMC-103 150 Collective Noun: A Collective Noun denotes a group or collection of similar individuals, considered as a one complete whole: team crowd, group, mob, army, and family flock.’ Flock’ is a Collective Noun, because it stands for all the sheep at once and not for anyone sheep taken separately. 9.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs): 1. Write a brief note on parts of speech. 2. Discuss in detail the importance of nouns in English language. 3. Write a detailed note on the various types of nouns. 9.6 REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READING: o New Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2000) o Correct English Usage; W. Mc. Mordie; Taraporewala & Sons o A Practical English Grammar; A. J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet; ELBSLow Price Edition o English Grammar, Composition & Usage: J.C. Nesfield; Revised by N.K. Agarwal o English Grammar- An Outline of General Phonetics; R.K. Bansal; OUP: 1971 o Spoken English for India; R.K. Bansal and J.B. Harrison; Longman o Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary; Daniel Jones; E.L.B.S (13th Editions) BMC-103 151 Bachelor of Mass Communication (1st year) ENGLISH (BMC-103) Block: E Unit: II Lesson: 10 ENGLISH USAGES Writer: Prof. Sudhir Kumar, Former Faculty, CCSHAU, Hisar Vetter: Sh. S. K. Singh, Faculty, Department of C M & T, GJUST, Hisar Converted into SIM format by: Sh. M. R. Patra LESSON STRUCTURE: So far we have studied different aspects of English. In this lesson we shall discus about the some usages of English. Specifically, we shall focus on commands, requests, invitations, and suggestions. The lesson structure shall be as follows: 10.0 Objectives 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Presentation of Content 10.2.1 Commands 10.2.2 Requests 10.2.3 Invitation 10.2.4 Suggestions 10.3 Summary 10.4 Key Words 10.5 Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) 10.6 References/Suggested Reading BMC-103 152 10.0 OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this lesson are: o To Know about Commands o To Know about Requests o To Learn about Invitation o To Learn about Suggestions 10.1 INTRODUCTION: English language originated in England. It is the first language for most people in the Anglophone Caribbean, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It is used extensively as a second language and as an official language throughout the world, especially in Commonwealth countries and in many international organizations. More than 375 million people speak English as their first language, as of 2007. English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the Chinese Languages, depending on whether or not distinctions in the latter are classified as "languages" or "dialects." Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly from 470 million to over a billion depending on how literacy or mastery is defined. India has the most such speakers ('Indian English') and it is claimed that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world. Following India is the People's Republic of China. BMC-103 153 Modern English is sometimes described as the first global lingua franca. English is the dominant international language in communications, science, business, aviation, entertainment, radio and diplomacy. The influence of the British Empire is the primary reason for the initial spread of the language far beyond the British Isles. Since World War II, the growing economic and cultural influence of the United States has significantly accelerated the adoption of English. A working knowledge of English is required in certain fields, professions, and occupations. As a result, over a billion people speak English at least at a basic level. English is one of six official languages of the United Nations. In this lesson we shall discus about the some usages of English. Specifically, we shall focus on commands, requests, invitation, etc. 10.2 PRESENTATION OF CONTENT: The content of this lesson shall be presented as follows: o Commands o Requests o Invitation o Suggestions 10.2.1 COMMANDS: An order given to a person (or animal) is a command. It can be expressed in many ways. Here are a few examples: Command in direct speech: The teacher said, “Stop talking, boys”. Command in indirect speech: The teacher told the boys to stop talking. BMC-103 154 Indirect commands are usually expressed by: a verb of command + object + infinitive. The verbs of command could be: tell, order, command, shout, warn, etc. according to the context of the speech. Here are few more examples of direct and indirect commands: Direct command: ‘Pick up the guns’, said the officer. Indirect command: The officer commanded them/the soldiers to pickup the guns. Direct Command: The captain shouted, “Hit hard’ Indirect Command: The captain shouted to them/the team to hit hard. Direct Command: ‘Go out of the field’, said the umpire. Indirect Command: The umpire ordered the player/him/her to go out of the field. Negative Commands are usually reported by not + infinitive. Direct Command: The instructor said, “Don’t climb too high, girls’ Indirect Command: The instructor warned the girls not to climb too high. Direct Command: “You had better not go out”, said my friend. There have been a lot of robberies here. Indirect Command: My friends warned me not to go out alone, as there had been a lot of robberies there. In Negative Commands we may use the ‘be + infinite’ construction with say or tell. Direct Command: He said, ‘Don’t shut the computer.’ Indirect Command: He told me not to shut the computer. 155 BMC-103 Command can also be express by using the words command and order with should. He ordered that the watchman should open the gates. (Active voice) He ordered the watchman to open the gates. He ordered that the gates should be opened. He ordered the gates to be opened (Passive voice) Sometimes, command is also expressed by using Let him/her/them. It is then usually reported in induced speech by Say + be + infinitive or command / order with: Let the city be bombarded, said the general. = The general said the city was to be bombarded Must is also used for permanent commands He said, “must, respect their Country’s flag. = He said that citizens must respect their country’s flag. Commands are also expressed, as obligations by using must. You must not drive without a helmet. You must read the instructions before using the machine. =You must carry your identity card with you. The simplest form of command is the one word order. “Stop, ‘Halt’, ‘Wait’, ‘Go’, etc. For the negative we put do not (don’t) before the verb. Don’t stop, Don’t wait, Don’t go. BMC-103 156 The person to whom a command is given is usually not mentioned in such commands. But the noun may be placed at the end of the phrase. “Come on, boy’s” “Stand up, Harish”. Commands are also expressed by use of shall in subject + Shall construction for third person. This is normally in formal written regulations or rules etc. All teachers shall submit a report every month (College rules) The President shall be elected after every two years (club rules) Subject + will for third person commands is usually used in written instructions by persons in authority e.g. Vice Chancellor, Principal, Officers, trainers and coaches of teams etc. Teachers will assemble at 10.00 Am. The N.S.S. cadets will reach the village on Monday for Van Mahotsav Order can also be conveyed by the be + infinitive construction This machine is to be operated by; an expert only. You are o report for duty on Tuesday Shall is used to express a command in the second and theirs persons. Every student shall identity card Participates shall wear a badge (Universally regulations) This construction is chiefly used rules, regulations legal and other formal documents. In indirect speech shall is replaced by must, have/had to, is/was to. The formal command, similar to must or is/are to (above) is formal and is used in notices etc in colleges universities, army etc. All students will assemble in the hall at 10.30 A.M. (University notice) No one will not go on leave till the war is over, said the officer BMC-103 157 Here too in the past i.e. indirect speech we use be = + infinitive construction or tell/orders etc. with object infinitive All students were to assemble in the hall at 10.30 A.M. All students were or ordered to assemble in the hall at 10.30 A.M. 10.2.2 REQUESTS: When we may ask for something or ask somebody to do something in a polite or formal way we make a request to him or her Some of the usages for making requests are given in the following action. Requests can be expressed by using will you? or would you? “Will anyone help this old man, please? (the use of the word ‘Please’ emphasizes politeness. In the present ‘would you?’ Can be also be used; ‘would you’ is more polite than ‘will you’. Would you post this letter? Would you show me your notes? In the indirect speech ‘would’ may be used. He asked if I would post that letter He asked if I would show him my toes But it is more common to say: He asked me to post that letter He requested me to show him my notes (i.e. object + infinitive construction) BMC-103 158 Could you too is used for requests: “Could you please guide me to the History department” He asked me to guide him to the History department. Request inn letters like applications: ‘I should/would be very grateful if you would’ is a formal request form. It can be used in Spoken English too. “I should be very grateful if you would give me a chance to join your Organization”. ‘Would you be good or kind enough to’ is another form for a request. “Would you be good enough to guide me in this matter? Would you be or so kind to guide me in this matter. Another form is: ‘Would you mind + - ing’ “Would you mind repeating this sentence? = Please repeat the sentences Indirect requests, like commands, are usually expressed by a verb of request like request, urge, implore, entreat beg, ask is different from other words here. It can be followed directly by ‘to’ before certain verbs like see, Speak to, talk to etc. These verbs require object + infinitive i.e. they must be followed directly by the person addressed without the preposition to i.e. the person address + infinitive. They must be followed directly by the person addressed. It is incorrect to say’ I without requested to him to try again The person addressed in most cases, is not mentioned in direct requests BMC-103 159 Direct request: Please, try again While reporting such requests we must add a noun or pronoun. Indirect request: I urged him to try again Negative request to are usually reported by not + infinitive “Please, do not open the door, Ashok, he said He requested Ashok not to open the door Would you show me your identity card, please he said He asked me to show him my identity card We may also say it in this way. He asked me for my identity card. He asked to see my identity card. Please don’t risk your life like this said his friend. His friend begged/implored him not to ask his life like that. ‘Will you...? Sentences or usually requests and are reposted by ask + object + infinitive ‘Will all of you, Please stand in a line,’ The officer asked all of us to stand in a line. Could you, request is also normally reported by ask + object + infinitive. Requests seeking advice mat be expressed this ‘What shall I say, Sir’ he said. He asked the teacher what he should say 10.2.3 INVITATIONS: A spoken or written request to somebody to do something or to go somewhere is an invitation, which can be expressed in the following ways the use of by, will you? Would you? Or would you, like o Will you have some biscuits? o Would you like to have some biscuits? BMC-103 160 o Would you like to swim? In reporting these invitations in indirect speech normally used, asked too can be used in the reported speech: He offered me some biscuits He asked if I would like to have some biscuits He asked if I would like to swim As usual, ‘will’ changes into would and would doesn’t change Would you come to the party? He invited me to the party “Would you like to go to the circus? He asked if I would like to go to the circus. invitations can be extended for a more party, circus, tour, picnic, play, lunch, visit to a place, etc. 10.2.4 SUGGESTIONS: In English usage there are many ways to put forward an idea or a (plan i.e. suggest for other people to think about, The most common construction is to use the word suggest with ‘ing’ form. Direct: Lets go to the Swimming pool; Indirect: He suggested going to the Swimming pool Suggest can also be followed by object + ing form Direct: Why don’t you join the army, Ramesh,” said the teacher Indirect: The teacher suggested Ram/Ram’s joining the army. Suggest can also be followed by that + subject + should BMC-103 161 The teacher suggested that Ramesh should join the army He suggested that sweets should be distributed He suggests sending out letters of thanks Suggest in a future, present or present perfect times can be followed by that + subject + present tense. Will suggest Suggests Is suggesting Has suggested Suggest in a past tense cab be followed by That + subject + past tense He suggested that you met the Vice-Chancellor Was suggesting Had suggested Propose, can be used with ‘ing’ form, He proposed buying a computer He proposed your/you buying a computer He proposed that you should buy computer The nouns proposal and suggestions can be followed by that…….. Should’ The suggestion / proposal that the Chief Minister was accepted by everyone. He suggested setting the house He suggested my setting the house He suggested that I should sell the house. He suggested that Harish should sell the house. BMC-103 162 He suggested that the house should be sold (In the above construction ‘Should’ is sometimes, omitted. He proposed that Dr. S. D. Kumar be made the Principal. He proposed buying a computer He proposed your buying a computer. He proposed you buying a computer. He proposed that you should buy a computer The suggestion/proposal that the Chief Guest was accepted by every one. EXERCISE OF COMMANDS: In the following exercise, the verb said has been used throughout but the student should use the verbs and should also supply a suitable indirect object. ‘Come down at once,’ my father said. ‘Be patient / the Prime Minister said. ‘Don’t bathe here,’ I said. ‘Go to the other counter,’ the clerk said. ‘Translate the fist twenty lines,’ the teacher said. ‘Don’t believe everything she tells you,’ he said. ‘Look ever where,’ he said. ‘Never lend money to people you don’t know,’ he said to his’ son. ‘Don’t put your hands near the bars,’ the zookeeper said. ‘Don’t put the spirit near the fire,’ I said. The following are possible, answers. He told her to put some coal I asked may to lend me her Warned mary not to touch the switch Told the bank clerk to put his hands up BMC-103 163 Told the children not to their train Warned them not to miss their train Ordered the porter to send Asked me to see if I could find Warned her not to go Asked the customer to pay Warned her to think weir before she answered (Other introductory verbs and other indirect objects ate usually possible.) My father ordered me to come down at once Urged the country/the people to e patient Warned them not to bathe there Asked the customer to go Told the travelers to have their passports Told the boy to translate Warned me not to believe everything she told me Urged me to look Warned his son never tend money to people he didn’t know Warned the children not to put their hands Warned her not to put COMMANDS EXERCISE In the following exercise, the verb said has been used throughout but the student should use the verbs and should also supply a suitable indirect object. ‘Come down at once,’ my father said. ‘Be patient,’ the Prime Minister said. ‘Don’t bathe here,’ I said. BMC-103 164 ‘Go to the other counter,’ the clerk said. ‘Translate the fist twenty lines,’ the teacher said. ‘Don’t believe everything she tells you,’ he said. ‘Look ever where,’ he said. ‘Never lend money to people you don’t know,’ he said to his son. ‘Don’t put your hands near the bar’s,” the zookeeper said. ‘Don’t put the spirit hear the fire,’ I said. 10.3 SUMMARY: o English originated in England. It is the first language for most people in the Anglophone Caribbean, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It is used extensively as a second language and as an official language throughout the world. o More than 375 million people speak English as their first language, as of 2007. English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the Chinese Languages. o India has the most such speakers ('Indian English') and it is claimed that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world. Following India is the People's Republic of China. o Modern English is sometimes described as the first global lingua franca. English is the dominant international language in communications, science, business, aviation, entertainment, radio and BMC-103 165 diplomacy. The influence of the British Empire is the primary reason for the initial spread of the language far beyond the British Isles. o An order given to a person (or animal) is a command. It can be expressed in many ways. Here are a few examples: The teacher said, “Stop talking, boys”. The teacher told the boys to stop talking. o When we may ask for something or ask somebody to do something in a polite or formal way we make a request to him or her. Requests can be expressed by using will you? or would you? o A spoken or written request to somebody to do something or to go somewhere is an invitation, which can be expressed in the following ways the use of by, will you? would you? or would you? o In English usage there are many ways to put forward an idea or a (plan i.e. suggest for other people to think about, The most common construction is to use the word suggest with ‘ing’ form. 10.4 KEY WORDS: English language: English originated in England. It is the first language for most people in the Anglophone Caribbean, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It is used extensively as a second language and as an official language throughout the world. Spread of English language: More than 375 million people speak English as their first language, as of 2007. English today is probably the third largest language by number of native speakers, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish. However, when combining native and non-native speakers it is probably the most commonly spoken language in the world, though possibly second to a combination of the Chinese Languages. BMC-103 166 English language in India: India has the most such speakers ('Indian English') and it is claimed that, combining native and non-native speakers, India now has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world. Following India is the People's Republic of China. Modern English language: Modern English is sometimes described as the first global lingua franca. English is the dominant international language in communications, science, business, aviation, entertainment, radio and diplomacy. The influence of the British Empire is the primary reason for the initial spread of the language far beyond the British Isles. Commands: An order given to a person (or animal) is a command. It can be expressed in many ways. Here are a few examples: The teacher said, “Stop talking, boys”. The teacher told the boys to stop talking. Requests: When we may ask for something or ask somebody to do something in a polite or formal way we make a request to him or her. Requests can be expressed by using will you? or would you? Invitations: A spoken or written request to somebody to do something or to go somewhere is an invitation, which can be expressed in the following ways the use of by, will you? would you? or would you? Suggestions: In English usage there are many ways to put forward an idea or a (plan i.e. suggest for other people to think about, The most common construction is to use the word suggest with ‘ing’ form. 10.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS (SAQs): 1. Write a note on common usages of English. 2. What is a command in English usage? Discuss with examples. 3. What is a invitation in English usage? Discuss with examples. 4. What is a suggestion in English usage? Discuss with examples. BMC-103 167 5. What is a request in English usage? Discuss with examples. BMC-103 168 10.6 REFERENCES / SUGGESTED READING: o New Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2000) o Correct English Usage; W. Mc. Mordie; Taraporewala & Sons o A Practical English Grammar; A. J. Thomson & A. V. Martinet; ELBSLow Price Edition o English Grammar, Composition & Usage: J.C. Nesfield; Revised by N.K. Agarwal o English Grammar- An Outline of General Phonetics; R.K. Bansal; OUP: 1971 o Spoken English for India; R.K. Bansal and J.B. Harrison; Longman o Everyman’s English Pronouncing Dictionary; Daniel Jones; E.L.B.S (13th Editions) BMC-103 169