Drug Trafficking in Uzbekistan

DRUG TRAFFICKING IN UZBEKISTAN MAZHAR YASİN TÜYLÜOĞLU Table of Contents Summary ..................................................................................................................................................2 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................3 Part I - History of Drug Trafficking in Uzbekistan ...................................................................................6 Part II - Drug Trafficking Routes in Uzbekistan .......................................................................................8 Part III - Narco-Terrorism (Drug-Terror Connection) ........................................................................... 12 a) The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) .......................................................................... 14 b) Other Terrorist Organizations ................................................................................................. 18 Part IV - Recent Trends and Government Efforts ................................................................................ 19 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 23 Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 26 1 Summary Each century throughout the history, brought its own conflicts and problems with it. In twenty first century‘s complex conjuncture, the main challenge is ―terrorism‖. To face this absolute threat, states are in the position to defend themselves and their citizens. Confronting terrorism means cutting all possible ties and funding resources of terrorists, denying them from their sponsors and leaving them in a situation which will eventually cause their dissolution. From U.S.A to Sri Lanka, Colombia to Somalia, whole world is dealing with terrorism in the last few decades. When we look at each region separately we see that the terrorist activities are closely related with crime and more specifically illicit drug trafficking. In this paper we are going to analyze drug trafficking in Central Asia and especially in the Republic of Uzbekistan by looking into the history firstly, and underlining the main routes secondly. Thirdly, Narco-terrorism and Drug-Terror connection are going to be explained. Fourthly, we are going to examine the growing trends and government efforts and conclude in the final part. 2 Introduction ―Central Asia has emerged as a region of strategic importance given its vast energy resources, its regional threats of narcotics production and trafficking, and its geographic location.‖1 Also, ―the rise of transnational organized crime and the interplay between weak states has come to be a growing problem in the region since the mid-1990s.‖2 The situation was similar all around the world in that period. According to Interpol, ―the drug mafia was controlling the governments of at least 12 states in 1999.‖3 ―Although the governments under control of drug mafia belong to weak states, the security of societies and strong states can be affected by drug trafficking too, in a number of ways. Firstly, through increasing levels of addiction, petty crime and drug-related epidemics (including AIDS), the drug trade affects human and societal security adversely.‖4 Indeed, Phil Williams notes that, ‗‗drug trafficking poses one of the most serious challenges to the fabric of society in the US, Western Europe and even many drug producing countries.‘‘5 ―Secondly, through its financial strength the drug trade exacerbates corruption in already weak states and infiltrates governments, thereby affecting the economic and political functioning of these states.‖6 In this sense, ―it has a negative effect on both economic and political security.‖7 Thirdly, through its linkages to violent non-state actors including ideological and secessionist movements and terrorism, the 1 Giragosia , ‘i hard; The U“ Military E gage e t i Ce tral Asia a d the “outher Cau asus: A O er ie , The Journal of Slavic Military Studies, 17,1, p.44, 2004 2 Thacuk, Kimberly; Tra s atio al Threats: Falli g Through the Cra ks? , Low Intensity Conflict and Law Enforcement 10, no. 1, p.56, 2001 3 Kudakae , Aleksa dr; Drugs, Gazeta.Ru, April 30, 1999. See http://www.gazeta.ru/society/30-04 1999_narko_Printed.htm). 4 Cor ell, “ a te E.; Nar oti s, ‘adi alis , a d Ar ed Co fli t i Ce tral Asia: The Isla i Mo e e t of Uz ekista , Terrorism and Political Violence, 17, p.620, 2005 5 Willia s, Phil; Tra s atio al Cri i al Orga izatio s a d I ter atio al “e urity, i I Athe a’s Ca p: Preparing for Conflict in the information Age, ed. John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, 329 (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1997) 6 Cor ell, “ a te E.; Nar oti s, ‘adi alis , a d Ar ed Co fli t i Ce tral Asia: The Islamic Movement of Uz ekista , Terrorism and Political Violence, 17, p. 620, 2005 7 Buza , Barry; Wae er, Ole a d de Wilde, Jaap; “e urity: A Ne Fra e ork for A alysis Boulder, CO: Ly e Rienner, 1998), pp 6–7. 3 drug trade is also an increasing threat to national, regional, and international security in a military sense.‖8 Returning to Eurasia and Uzbekistan, drug trade affects the security of the region extensively. In fact, to understand the current challenges in Eurasian security, one should not underestimate the power of drug trade which became one of the main issues in daily life in the region. The political and societal repercussions are also various. According to Olcott and Udalova; The economic necessity makes police and border guards more receptive to bribes and ordinary citizens more willing to take the risks associated with the transport or cultivation of drugs. The presence of drugs brings organized crime with it. These criminal groups are sometimes able to find potential partners among some of the region‘s opposition forces. This is especially true of anti-system groups that have little or no chance of gaining political access to political power under the current circumstances. The most extreme Islamic radical groups are thus attracted to alliances with the drug trade, as are those that seek guns and other weapons. 9 The presence of drugs in the region has also created a drug problem among the people in Central Asia. When drugs such as heroin, enter into countries either for refining or transiting, a serious volume stays in the national borders, thus causing drug abuse among local citizens. The drug problem also increases crime rates and weakens public safety, causes infectious diseases and decreases economic efficiency by multiplying costs of health care. For instance, the government of Uzbekistan spends high amounts of money to prevent drug use and drug related crimes, but according to the statics, the number of drug users is thought to be over 100.000 and drug seizures have a rising trend. (For more information, please see Table 1-2-3-4) 8 Cor ell, “ a te E.; Nar oti s, ‘adi alis , a d Ar ed Co fli t i Ce tral Asia: The Isla i Mo e e t of Uz ekista , Terrorism and Political Violence, 17, p.621 2005 9 Ol ott, M. B. a d ) art, N. U.; Drug Traffi ki g o the Great “ilk ‘oad, Worki g Paper no. 11 (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), p.4, 2000 4 Summarized Drug Seizure Statistics Uzbekistan January–October 200810 Table-1 Crimes 2008 (9 months) 2007 (9 months) Total drug related crimes 7,837 7,328 Note: increase of 6.5% Table-2 Drug Seizures 2008 2007 Total 2,973kg 1,554kg Heroin (kg) 1,151 195.4 Opium (kg) 995.4 666.1 Cannabis (kg) 630 492.7 Hashish (kg) 59.8 54 Opium Poppy Straw (kg) 137 146 Table-3 Drug Users 2007 1997 Officially Registered Users 21.700 44.000 Estimated Users 130.000 200.000 Table-4 Drug seizures made in Uzbekistan by transportation type Transportation Type Percentage Pedestrian % 61.2 Vehicular (excl. motorcycle) % 23.4 Rail % 5.8 Waterborne % 4.4 Air %4 Motorcycle % 1.2 10 U.S. Department of State 2008 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, March 2008 5 11 Part I: History of Drug Trafficking in Uzbekistan Central Asia along with Afghanistan has had a relatively long history of production and consumption of drugs.12 Production and consumption of illicit drugs paves the way to transferring them to non-producer but high consumer parts of the world. Therefore we can trace back the history of drug trafficking in Central Asia, as early as the beginning of production. ―Until the last years of communist rule, drug use in the Soviet Union was nowhere near as wide-spread as it was in the West; in fact, official propaganda portrayed 11 www.unodc.org In modern history it can be traced back to the eighteenth century, when Turkmens and Tajik-Ismailies, based in the northern part of Afghanistan, started using drugs for medical purposes. For more information please see: Mohapatra, N. K.; Politi al a d “e urity Challe ges i Ce tral Asia: The Drug Traffi ki g Di e sio , International Studies 2007; 44; p.159 12 6 addiction to drugs as a ―capitalist disease‖ that could not spread to the socialist world.‖13 This resulted to quite low rates of drug trafficking until late 1980s. After Mikhail Gorbachev‘s ―perestroika‖ and ―glasnost‖ policies, the circumstances changed and criminal activities gained momentum. Former Red Army officials in the Central Asian states, especially in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, started to involve in arms smuggling. They were mainly selling the weapons of the Red Army, to the insurgents located in different regions of the world, mostly to Taliban in Afghanistan. Involvement in illegal arms trade triggered drug trafficking in the countries bordering Afghanistan, particularly Uzbekistan.14 Hence, ―Uzbekistan does not have a long history as a drug transit country. Since independence, however, it has experienced significant penetration by trafficking networks.‖15 Although several academic researches argue that Uzbekistan is primarily a transit country, one should also underline the production in Uzbekistan. ―It is important to remember just how easy it is to conceal drug cultivation in the region‖. According to Olcott and Udalova; Uzbekistan has the right kind of terrain and climate for cultivating narcotics. ―Most poppies are cultivated in the Samarkand-Surkhandaria region on the border with Tajikistan.‖16 ―Everybody admits that cannabis production is very widespread, although no one is willing to make its eradication a priority.‖17 13 Olcott, M. B. and Zwart, N. U. – Meyer, K. a d Parssi e , T.; We s of “ oke Boulder: ‘o a & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1998) 14 Once smugglers learn how to transfer guns, rockets, bombs etc. across the borders, it became very easy to carry drugs like heroin, cannabis or opium. 15 To se d, J.; Cou try Fa tsheets, Eurasia Nar oti s, Uz ekista “ilk Road Studies, www.silkroadstudies.org 2004. 16 Ol ott, M. B. a d ) art, N. U.; Drug Traffi ki g o the Great “ilk ‘oad, Worki g Paper o. Car egie Endowment for International Peace), p.9, 2000 17 Ol ott, M. B. a d ) art, N. U.; Drug Traffi ki g o the Great “ilk ‘oad, Worki g Paper o. Car egie Endowment for International Peace), p.9 2000 7 Part II: Drug Trafficking Routes in Uzbekistan Among the five Central Asian states, Uzbekistan is a significant route for heroin bound for Russia and Europe and its 137 km border with northern Afghanistan marks this significance. Uzbekistan is the main transit country for opiates originating in Afghanistan, as well. Moreover, ―Tashkent sits along a major drug trafficking route that the BBC has referred it to as ‗heroin country‘.‖18 It was officially asserted that Uzbekistan was fast becoming a victim of an ‗opium tsunami‘ and ‗narcotics aggression‘.19 As Olcott and Udalova point out that; Geography and history make Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan attractive areas for drug traffic. These states are situated between the world‘s largest illicit opium producers and the most lucrative markets in Western Europe. The countries border or are located in close proximity to the countries of the Golden Crescent (Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran) and, via China, have access to the countries of the Golden Triangle (Burma, Laos, and Thailand), which are the world‘s largest producers of illicit opiates.20 ―There are some advantages to trafficking through Uzbekistan, due to its relatively favorable infrastructure and geography, when compared with Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.‖21 Well-established trade routes facilitate the transit of the narcotics to Russia and Europe.22 As Cornell and Swanström state; 18 BBC,http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/audio_video/programmes/panorama/transcripts/transcript_02_ 10_00.txt 19 Mohapatra, N. K.; Political and Security Challenges in Central Asia: The Drug Trafficking Dimension , International Studies 2007; 44; p.161 20 Ol ott, M. B. a d ) art, N. U.; Drug Traffi ki g o the Great “ilk ‘oad, Worki g Paper o. Car egie Endowment for International Peace), p.5, 2000 21 Townsend, J.; Country Factsheets, Eurasian Narcotics, Uzbekistan “ilk Road Studies, www.silkroadstudies.org 2004. 22 U.S. Department of State 2008 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, March 2008 8 In the late 1990s, the major transit route for drugs into Central Asia was the highway between Khorog on the Tajik-Afghan border and Osh, the largest city in the south of Kyrgyzstan, for it was the only major highway linking the Afghan border to the population centers of Central Asia. The Khorog-Osh highway was gradually brought under control of the Kyrgyz government, with assistance from the UNODC. Osh is crucial to illicit trafficking of narcotics because of its geographic location close to the Uzbek border and at the head of the only road connecting the northern and southern parts of Kyrgyzstan. 23 ―A large portion of drugs is transported via Kyrgyzstan. Initially drugs were entering Kyrgyzstan via the Osh-Khorog route and the surrounding territory that bordered the Murgab region of the Gorno-Badakhshan region. Later drug traffickers shifted to the Altyn-Mazar route, which begins at the Raushan plateau and goes through the canyons of the Transaalai mountain range until it reaches the Chon-Alai valley.‖ 24 ―This region is of particular interest to traffickers due to the mountainous character and remoteness of the region, the weakness of Kyrgyz law enforcement there, and most importantly the existence of the Vorukh and Sokh enclaves (and also additional, smaller enclaves such as the Qalacha and Khalmion areas in Kyrgyzstan administered by Uzbekistan, as well as Chorku, administered by Tajikistan).‖25 ―As a result, the enclaves became major hubs of the drug trade, as well as a storage point for heroin.‖26 If one of the two primary drug routes from Southwest Asia into Uzbekistan is via Gorno-Badakhshan (Tajikistan) through Osh (Kyrgyzistan) and on into Andijan (Uzbekistan), another one is the direct route from Afghanistan through the city of Termez (Uzbekistan). In this direct route (Afghanistan to Uzbekistan), ―drug smugglers mostly use Uzbekistan's 23 Cor ell, “ a te E. a d “ a strö , Niklas L.P.; The Eurasia Drug Trade A Challe ge to ‘egio al “e urity , Problems of Post-Communism, vol. 53, no. 4, July/August 2006, p. 20 24 UN Offi e for Drug Co trol a d Cri e Pre e tio , Briefi g Note: Drug Traffi ki g i Ce tral Asia, prepared in May 1999 25 Madi, M.; Drug Trade i Kyrgyzsta , “tru ture, I pli atio s, a d Cou ter easures, Central Asian Survey 23, no. 3–4 (2004): p.260 26 Cor ell, “ a te E.; Nar oti s, ‘adi alis , a d Ar ed Co fli t i Ce tral Asia: The Isla i Mo e e t of Uz ekista , Terrorism and Political Violence, 17, p. 630, 2005 9 southern borders, especially in Kashkadarya and Surkhandarya provinces that touch on both Tajikistan and Afghanistan, en route to Kazakhstan and thence to Russia and Europe.‖27 As Uzbekistan shares a relatively short border with Afghanistan and it has been welldefended since the Soviet era; most drug seizures take place on the 1,161 km border with Tajikistan. ―There has been a noticeable increase recently in drug trafficking as smugglers from Tajikistan use Uzbek territory to transit opium from Afghanistan to Russia and Western Europe.‖28 ―The substance enters Tajikistan primarily via Pyandzh region, where Afghan drug dealers sell it to their Tajik counterparts who in turn deliver it to Dushanbe and then send it on to Moscow. In 1998 the new so-called Batken route became popular. It includes mountain passes used to cross from Jergatal and Garm regions of Tajikistan into Batken oblast and the Kamadjan district of Osh oblast.‖29 ―In the first seven months of the 2008, law enforcement authorities confiscated over 741 kilograms of drugs (heroin, opium and psychotropic medicines).‖30 This was well above the level of almost 570 kilograms seized in the previous year. However, there exist some other trafficking routes in Central Asia. Instead of the Tajikistan route and the direct Uzbekistan route, drug traffickers started to use Turkmenistan to transport opium and heroin from Afghanistan to Russia, across the Caspian Sea, and Europe. ―It is alleged that the reopening of the Quetta-Kandahar- Herat-Ashgabat road during the Taliban regime fuelled to a great extent the trafficking of drugs through Turkmenistan.‖31 There is also another route for transporting ―Golden Crescent‖ originated illicit drugs to Europe, by-passing the Central Asian countries and Russia. The drug trade chain is named as 27 I‘IN, .iri e s.org, Tashke t fa i g drug o slaught as regio al heroi produ tio oo s , 8 September 2004 28 www.estandardsforum.org, Country Brief Uzbekistan, 10 September 2008. 29 UN Offi e for Drug Co trol a d Cri e Pre e tio , Briefi g Note: Drug Traffi ki g i Ce tral Asia, prepared in May 1999 30 www.estandardsforum.org, Country Brief Uzbekistan, 10 September 2008. 31 Mohapatra, N. K.; Political and Security Challenges in Central Asia: The Drug Trafficking Dimension , International Studies 2007; 44; p. 161 10 the Balkan-route which starts with Pakistan-Afghanistan-Iran and continues with Turkey, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania, and includes Kosovo, Raška (Serbia) and Bosnia & Herzegovina.32 ―The latest route is towards Khujand (Leninabad), which encompasses all the highways and roads in Lailak region and the neighboring parts of Uzbekistan. UNDCP reports that there are seven known trafficking routes from Tajikistan to Uzbekistan and two known routes from Turkmenistan.‖33 34 Uzbekistan‘s position sometimes serves adversely as the chemical precursors of drugs originating in Russia and in Ukraine also transit Uzbekistan on the road to Afghanistan for production. The volume of trafficking crossing Uzbekistan is thought to be growing, owing 32 Trifunovic, Darko; The Ne Terrorist Organization «LIVO» Creati g a «Isla i “tate» i the territory of Central Asian countries , Research Institute For European and American Studies (RIEAS), Research Paper No: 115, p. 7, November 2007 33 UN Offi e for Drug Co trol a d Cri e Pre e tio , Briefi g Note: Drug Traffi ki g i Ce tral Asia, prepared in May 1999 34 www.stratfor.com 11 to its location and relatively good roads.‖35 At the same time, the experts believe that; ―with poppy cultivation in Afghanistan expected to increase, drug related crimes may continue to rise, as drug dealers use impoverished people in the Central Asian countries, including children and women, to smuggle the heroin.‖36 Part III: Narco-Terrorism (Drug-Terror Connection) Narco-Terrorism is a relatively new term in international relations. In 1983, Fernando Belaùnde Terry, the former president of Peru, described the terrorist attacks against his nation‘s counter narcotic police as narco-terrorism. In late 1980‘s and early 1990‘s, narcoterrorism was characterized by Pablo Escobar and Medellin Cartel, in Colombia. After that the usage of the term broadened. RAND Corporation and especially Brian Michael Jenkins used narco-terrorism in their studies. ―In the original context, narco-terrorism is understood to mean the attempts of narcotics traffickers to influence the policies of a government or a society through violence and intimidation and to hinder the enforcement of the law and the administration of justice by the systematic threat or use of such violence.‖37 Central Asia in general and Uzbekistan in particular, suffers greatly from the involvement of the terrorist groups in narcotics trade. ―A group‘s involvement in crime, of course, changes the equation of its relationship to the state and to society. Crime enriches the group, making it possible to acquire more sophisticated arms, to employ more fighters by paying them, to corrupt state officials, and to propagate its ideology to the population.‖38 35 Money Laundering and Related Issues in Uzbekistan, GPML Central Asia Briefing No.2, 24 May 2002 I‘IN, .iri e s.org, Tashke t fa i g drug o slaught as regio al heroi produ tio oo s , 8 September 2004 37 A eyrat e, ‘u a tissa.; The Illi it Tra sfer of Nar oti Drugs y Air , Journal of Transportation Security 1, p. 231, 2008. 38 Cornell, Svante E.; Narcotics, Radicalism, and Armed Conflict in Central Asia: The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan , Terrorism and Political Violence, 17, p. 625, 2005 36 12 ―In Uzbekistan, for instance, even long before the events of 11 September 2001, the officials were warning that transnational terrorism in the region represented a serious threat to international security. At the Tenth United Nations Congress on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders (Vienna, Austria 10-17 April 2000), Uzbek officials emphasized that terrorism in the region was often connected with other criminal activities, including the smuggling of firearms and drugs, from which terrorist groups financed their operations.‖39 As we mentioned before, cutting all possible resources of terrorist groups is a must for Eurasian Security. And of course, it includes exposing the ties between the terrorists and drug trafficking in the region. ―Uzbekistan plays an important role concerning this drugterror connection since the Russian human rights observers estimate that 17.1 percent of the drugs enter the Russian Federation from Uzbekistan.‖40 ―Despite the highly negative Muslim attitude toward the use of drugs and a ban on drug consumption that Islamist organizations of this type strictly observe, the use of drug-generated money for financing jihad is justified by the need to weaken the main enemy (that is, the West).‖41 The West is also taking some serious measures regarding to the drug-terror connection in Central Asia but ―UNDCP estimates that unless they are able to seizure at least 75 percent of trafficked drugs, they will be unable to diminish the profitability of the drug trade.‖42 In 1996 the UNDCP estimated that they were seizing 5 to 10 percent of illicit drugs. However, in 2006 the number raised to 23 percent.43 39 Money Laundering and Related Issues in Uzbekistan, GPML Central Asia Briefing No.2, 24 May 2002 Interfax in English, August 4, 1999, as reported by FBIS-NES-1999-0804 41 Stepanova, Ekaterina.; Illicit Drug Trafficking and Islamic Terrorism as Threats to Russian Security, The Limits of the Linkage , PONARS Policy Memo No.393, p.167, December 2005 42 Co issio o Nar oti Drugs, Illi it Drug Traffi a d “upply, Report of the Secretariat, United Nations Economic and Social Council, March 1996 (E/CN.7/1996/9). 43 www.unodc.org 40 13 a) The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) The origins of IMU can be traced back to early 1990‘s. Juma Namangani44 a former Soviet Union soldier who fought in Afghanistan and Tahir Yoldashev, the head of the Adolat (Justice) Party and an unofficial mullah came together to implement sharia law in the city of Namangan in the eastern part of Uzbekistan, Ferghana Valley. By the late 1990s, the IMU was formed.45 The IMU is the very first terrorist organization which aims to overthrow the government in Uzbekistan by assassinating the president Islam Karimov and has close ties with al-Qa‘ida and the Taliban. Senior IMU leaders have held positions in the al-Qa‘ida hierarchy.46 The IMU used Afghanistan and Pakistan as bases for launching forays into Central Asia, as well.47 ―The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), in particular, is believed to finance terrorist activities from drug trafficking, commodity smuggling and contributions from external sources.‖48 ―Ralf Mutschke of the Criminal Intelligence Directorate of Interpol labeled the IMU ‗a hybrid organization in which criminal interests often take priority over ‗political‘ goals,‘ adding that ‗IMU leaders have a vested interest in ongoing unrest and instability in their area in order to secure the routes they use for the transportation of drugs.‘‖4950 The IMU‘s funding sources include donations from sympathizers and al-Qa‘ida as well as criminal activities like drug trafficking. 51 44 His full name is Jumaboi Ahmadzhanovich Khojayev, but he uses Namangani as he is from Namangan province in Uzbekistan. 45 http://www.ag.gov.au/agd/WWW/nationalsecurity.nsf/Page/What_Governments_are_doing_Listing_of_Terr orism_Organisations_Islamic_Movement_of_Uzbekistan 46 http://www.ag.gov.au/agd/WWW/nationalsecurity.nsf/Page/What_Governments_are_doing_Listing_of_Terr orism_Organisations_Islamic_Movement_of_Uzbekistan 47 Weitz, ‘i hard.; “tor Clouds o er Ce tral Asia: ‘e i al of the Isla i Mo e e t of Uz ekista IMU ? Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 27 (2004): pp. 465-490. 48 Money Laundering and Related Issues in Uzbekistan, GPML Central Asia Briefing No.2, 24 May 2002 49 Mutschke, Ralf.; The Threat Posed y the Co erge e of Orga ized Cri e, Drugs Traffi ki g a d Terroris , Testimony to the Subcommittee on Crime of the Judiciary Committee, U.S. House of Representatives, December 13, 2000. Also testimony to the same hearing of Donnie R. Marshall, Drug Enforcement Administration administrator, at http:==www.globalsecurity.org/security/library/congress/2000h/001213-marshall.htm 14 The IMU‘s involvement in drug trafficking is yet another problematic issue in Central Asia. In late 1990s and early 2000s the IMU was controlling the Afghanistan-Kyrgyzstan (Osh) drug route effectively. ―Drug control experts concur with the estimate that the IMU in that period, controlled up to two-thirds of the opiates entering Kyrgyzstan.‖52 Furthermore ―the organization was handling 70 percent of the heroin and opium traffic through Central Asia.‖53 ―IMU leader, Juma Namangani was actively involved in drug smuggling through Tajikistan, and used his network of IMU militants in Central Asia and his links with the Chechen militants to increase his trade. Namangani with the assistance of other drug traffickers had also set up laboratories to refine heroin largely coming from Afghanistan. It was further alleged that there was a transshipment base in Khojent, situated in the Sogd region, which was under the control of respective field commanders of IMU. Bolot Dzhanuzakov, the head of the National Security Service of Kyrgyzstan, in an interview to Slovo Kyrgyzstana alleged that IMU controlled the northern section of the drug traffic route from Afghanistan.‖5455 IMU‘s involvement in drug trade was also highlighted by Makarenko56: The only group significantly involved in trafficking Afghan opiates was the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU). However, given the organization and operations of the IMU prior to September 11, it appears that they were driven more by criminal interests than by political or 50 Cornell, “ a te E.; The Narcotics Threat in Greater Central Asia: From Crime-Terror Nexus to State Infiltration? , China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, Volume 4, No. 1 (2006) p. 60 51 http://www.ag.gov.au/agd/WWW/nationalsecurity.nsf/Page/What_Governments_are_doing_Listing_of_Terr orism_Organisations_Islamic_Movement_of_Uzbekistan 52 Makarenko, Tamara.; Cri e a d Terroris i Ce tral Asia, Ja e’s I tellige ce Re ie 12, no. 7 (July 2000): pp. 16-17 53 Burgess, Mark.; In the Spotlight: Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) , CDI Research Analyst, p.1, 25 March 2002 54 Rashid, Ahmed.; Jihad: The Rise of Militant Islam in Central Asia , New Haven, Conn., Yale University Press, 2002: p.165 55 Pravda. 2001.; Musli Fu da e talists i Ce tral Asia are to Esta lish the Ne Joi t Orga izatio , May. Available at http://english.pravda.ru/cis/2001/05/30/6301.htmls. 56 Makarenko, Tamara.; Cri e, Terror a d the Ce tral Asia Drug Trade , Caspia Brief, no. 25, http://cornellcaspian.com/publications/pdf125.0207CA_drugs.pdf. , pp 10-11, 2002 15 religious purposes. Unlike other insurgent or terrorist groups operating in Afghanistan— identified by their political motivations—the IMU is the only group that encompasses the entire range of the crime-terror nexus. It is both criminal and terrorist in nature: criminal because of its direct involvement in the drug trade, and terrorist because of its explicit (even if only rhetorical) political declarations.57 ―IMU carried out incursions in 1999–2000 to create instability and chaos in the region so that they can smoothly operate their drug trade. As efforts were made to control drug trafficking through the Osh–Khorog route, IMU militants chose the Batken route situated closely to the Uzbekistan and Tajikistan border.‖5859 IMU militants carried out incursions in August 1999 just after the harvesting of opium, keeping in view the fact that during winter the passes through which the traffickers operated their trade remained inaccessible to heavy snowfall.60 IMU suffered a setback subsequent to the 2001 US-led military operation against the Taliban and al-Qa‘ida forces in and around Afghanistan. Juma Namangani was reportedly killed during the operation. However, press reports suggested the regrouping of IMU. Russian newspaper Pravda stated that IMU changed its name to Islamic Movement of Turkestan and terrorists from Chechnya, Afghanistan, Central Asia and Xinjiang joined its ranks. The ability of the radical forces, under whichever name, to target state authorities in Central Asia became evident from the terrorist attacks in April 2004 and in Andijan in May 2005.616263 57 Mohapatra, N. K.; Political and Security Challenges in Central Asia: The Drug Trafficking Dimension , International Studies 2007; 44; p.165 58 Cornell, Svante E.; Narcotics, Radicalism, and Armed Conflict in Central Asia: The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan , Terrorism and Political Violence, vol. 17, pp. 587–88. 2005b 59 Cor ell, “ a te E. a d “pe tor, ‘egi e A.; Central Asia: More than Islamic Extremists , Washington Quarterly, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 193–206. 60 Mohapatra, N. K.; Political and Security Challenges in Central Asia: The Drug Trafficking Dimension , International Studies 2007; 44; p.165 61 McConnell, Artie.; Islamic Radicals Regroup in Central Asia , Eurasia Insight, 15 May. Available at http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav051502.shtml. (Also cited in Mohapatra) 62 Pravda, 2001. ; Musli Fu da e talists i Ce tral Asia are to Esta lish the Ne Joi t Orga izatio , May. Available at http://english.pravda.ru/cis/2001/05/30/6301.htmls. (Also cited in Mohapatra) 63 Mohapatra, N. K.; Political and Security Challenges in Central Asia: The Drug Trafficking Dimension , International Studies 2007; 44; p.165 16 According to Makarenko: Several aspects of the modalities of the IMU incursions suggest that they were in fact conditioned to a great extent by the drug trade. These include both the geographical areas targeted, the timing of the attacks, as well as the tactics used. That drugs transit Central Asia is no novel phenomenon. It has in fact been an increasing problem since the mid-1990s, as traffickers increasingly faced efforts by the Iranian government to curtail trafficking through Iran—the erstwhile chief smuggling route. As trafficking through Iran became dangerous and therefore expensive, Central Asian states—with their porous borders, newly established state authorities and corrupt climate— became a major new trafficking route.64 ―It should be noted that the IMU never lived up to the reputation of a monolithic, hierarchically structured organization. Most studies of the movement seem to indicate at least two focal points coexisting, not without friction, within the IMU: the more guerrilla-oriented and criminal part of the organization led by Namangani, and the more religious part controlled by Yoldashev.‖65 To conclude this chapter, finally we may refer to Frederick Starr. Starr has pointed out that the IMU is best understood as an ‗‗amalgam of personal vendetta, Islamism, drugs, geopolitics, and terrorism.‘‘66 Makarenko, Tamara.; Traffi kers Tur fro Balka Co duit to Norther ‘oute, Ja e’s I tellige ce Re ie 13, no. 8 (2001): pp. 27–29 65 Makarenko, Tamara.; Cri e, Terror, a d the Ce tral Asia Drug Trade, Har ard Asia Quarterly 6, o. , 2002. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/asiactr./haq/200203/0203a004.htm 66 Cornell, Svante E.; Narcotics, Radicalism, and Armed Conflict in Central Asia: The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan , Terrorism and Political Violence, 17, p.632, 2005 64 17 b) Other Terrorist Organizations There are several other terrorist groups operating in Central Asia and particularly Uzbekistan, most of them are connected directly with the drug trade in the region. Al-Qa‘ida, probably the world‘s most notorious terrorist organization correlates with narcotics trafficking. The group is involved in narco-terrorism, especially in Afghanistan and in certain parts of Pakistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. In the last few years the organization became a conflux of crime and terror. Taliban is yet another terrorist organization which is heavily involved in drug producing and trafficking in Eurasia. Its actions alarmed the governments of neighboring countries in recent years. ―Under the Taliban, Afghanistan became an extremist sanctuary and base of operations for rebel incursions into nearby states. Central Asia and the Ferghana valley in particular, became the nexus for an unsavory mix of ethnic disputes, drug trafficking and Islamist terrorism.‖67 Apart from these groups, there are two other major terrorist organizations operating in Uzbekistan: The Islamic Jihad Union and Hizb-ut Tahrir (Party of Liberation). The IJU is a splinter group of IMU. It is formed in Pakistan, in 2002. There are two founders of IJU; Najmiddin Jalolov (also known as Abu Yahya Muhammed Fath) and Suhayl Buranov (also known as Abu Huzayfa). Hizb-ut Tahrir aims to build the Islamic Caliphate and is popular among ethnic Uzbeks. Although their connection with drug trade is at low levels, it is still believed that the Hizb-ut Tahrir is involved in trafficking of illicit narcotics in the region. The United States led war against terror, however, caused dissolutions among the terrorist organizations. Especially the operation ―Enduring Freedom‖ in November 2001 67 Uzbekistan Overview, http://www.flashpoints.info/CB-Uzbekistan.htm 18 resulted with a relative success. Many members of the above mentioned terrorist groups, including Taliban, al-Qa‘ida and IMU, reportedly have been killed or captured. Part IV: Recent Trends and Government Efforts After the collapse of the Soviet Union, newly independent states have born. ―Along with the newly independent countries came new borders that had to be patrolled and new border guards who had to be trained. These new borders remained virtually transparent until new national customs services were created in 1993–1994. This was one of the reasons that international drug traffickers took a strong interest in the region.‖68 ―The Government of Uzbekistan and independent analysts have argued that the most significant threats that Uzbekistan currently faces are related to complex linkages between terrorism, trafficking in drugs and firearms and persons, and corruption, in particular where the proceeds of transnational organized crime are used to fund terrorism.‖69 The government is taking serious steps to prevent further damage to the state. It is essential to point out that, ―Uzbekistan is a signatory to most major conventions relating to drug control, including the 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotics, the 1971 UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the 1989 UN Convention on illicit traffic in Narcotic Drug and Psychotropic substances.‖70 After the independence, ―the Government of Uzbekistan has repeatedly emphasized the importance of international cooperation in the fight against drugs and transnational 68 Olcott, M. B. and Zwart, N. U.; Drug Traffi ki g o the Great “ilk ‘oad, Worki g Paper o. Car egie Endowment for International Peace), p.10, 2000 69 Money Laundering and Related Issues in Uzbekistan, GPML Central Asia Briefing No.2, 24 May 2002 70 Townsend, J.; Country Factsheets, Eurasian Narcotics, Uzbekistan “ilk Road Studies, www.silkroadstudies.org 2004. 19 organized crime, and has made efforts to integrate the country in the system of international cooperation.‖ ―Uzbekistan has signed more than 20 bilateral and multilateral agreements on cooperation in fighting illicit drug trafficking with its Central Asian neighbors, and also with Azerbaijan, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Georgia, Germany, Iran, Italy, Pakistan, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine.‖71 In 1994 Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan formed the Central Asian Economic Commission and pledged to cooperate in the battle against illegal drugs.72 Furthermore, ―a Memorandum of Understanding on Sub-Regional Drug Control Cooperation was signed in Tashkent in May 1996 by the governments of the five Central Asian republics and the UNODC.‖73 The Russian Federation and the Aga Khan Foundation joined on 16 January 1998. Later on, Azerbaijan also signed the treaty, in 2001. Meanwhile, ―at the June 1999 summit of the Central Asian Economic Community, presidents of the member states noted the necessity to combat terrorism, religious and political extremism, and illegal circulation of drugs, weapons, and explosives. President Islam Karimov of Uzbekistan has made any number of public speeches on this problem.‖74 As Mohapatra states; To curb the production and illicit transfer of drugs and other substances, the Uzbek law enforcement agency carried out an operation widely known as ‗Poppy-99‘ in 1999.75 The volume of narcotics confiscated increased from 113 kg to 1.5 tons in five years from 1994 to 1999. The lawenforcement machinery of Uzbekistan also at the same time detained over 480 drug couriers and confiscated 1,949 kg of narcotics from them during 1998–99.76 Uzbekistan informed the UN Drug 71 Money Laundering and Related Issues in Uzbekistan, GPML Central Asia Briefing No.2, 24 May 2002 Olcott, M. B. and Zwart, N. U.; Drug Traffi ki g o the Great “ilk ‘oad, Worki g Paper o. Car egie Endowment for International Peace), p.19, 2000 73 Townsend, J.; Country Factsheets, Eurasian Narcotics, Uzbekistan “ilk Road Studies, www.silkroadstudies.org 2004. 74 Olcott, M. B. and Zwart, N. U.; Drug Traffi ki g o the Great “ilk ‘oad, Worki g Paper no. 11 (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), p.21, 2000 75 Summary of World Broadcasts (SWB) SU/3451/G/3 1999a in Mohapatra. 76 SWB/SU/3665/G/2 1999b in Mohapatra. 72 20 Control Programme that during the same period drug trafficking through Uzbekistan increased to a staggering high of 600 per cent.77 ―In November 1999 Uzbekistan became the first Central Asian state to sign an agreement with China on cooperation in the area‖78 and ―in April 2000, Uzbekistan initiated and signed – with Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan – the Central Asian Agreement on the Joint Fight against Terrorism, Political and Religious Extremism, Transnational Organized Crime and Other Threats to Stability and Security of the Parties.‖79 Uzbekistan‘s efforts proceeded, in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) summit, held in Chisinau in October 2002, as the CIS adopted a document aimed at evolving a common approach in the fight against drug trafficking, organized crime, international terrorism and other manifestations of terrorism.80 The fact that all of the countries of the region are members of the CIS was an added benefit. Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan are members of the CIS Customs Union, and Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan are members of the Central Asian Economic Community. Kyrgyzstan is also a member of the World Trade Organization. Though most of these organizations are largely just de jure creations, they still make drug trafficking easier by, for example, maintaining a visafree travel regime for the citizens of the CIS countries81, as well as by having various bilateral agreements that facilitate free trade between countries.‖82 Related with this, drug trafficking in the region also has a multiethnic structure. It has been reported that 65.3 percent of the 77 Mohapatra, N. K.; Political and Security Challenges in Central Asia: The Drug Trafficking Dimension , International Studies 2007; 44; p.160 78 Olcott, M. B. and Zwart, N. U.; Drug Traffi ki g o the Great “ilk ‘oad, Worki g Paper o. Car egie Endowment for International Peace), p.26, 2000 79 Money Laundering and Related Issues in Uzbekistan, GPML Central Asia Briefing No.2, 24 May 2002 80 Patnaik, Ajay.; Central Asia and CIS Integration , Contemporary Central Asia, vol. VI, no. 3, pp. 1–13, 2002 81 In June 1999 Turkmenistan became the first CIS country to introduce visas for all foreign nationals entering its territory. 82 Olcott, M. B. and Zwart, N. U.; Drug Traffi ki g o the Great “ilk ‘oad, Worki g Paper o. Car egie Endowment for International Peace), p.11, 2000 21 region‘s drug traffickers are citizens of Tajikistan, 10.8 percent are citizens of Russia, 9.2 percent are citizens of Kyrgyzstan, and 8.2 percent are citizens of Turkmenistan.‖83 The Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) maintained a Collective Rapid Reaction Force of 1,500 military personnel deployed in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.84 Besides CIS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) in recent years has also been taking an active interest in combating threats like drug trafficking, organized crime and religious terrorism.85 The Central Asian Cooperation Organization (CACO) is yet another organization which is also taking a keen interest in meeting the challenges emanating in this region due to the proliferation of the drug trade and cross-border terrorism. In addition to multilateral regional bodies like SCO, CACO and CSTO, the Central Asian states are also involved in bilateral engagements with other external actors to combat this menace.86 ―Joint efforts to counter drug trafficking have produced some results. For example, in February 2008, law enforcement agencies of Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan launched Operation Typhoon, a joint operation targeting one of the largest drug trafficking groups in Central Asia.‖87 Again, in 2008, the Government of Uzbekistan broadcast 129 TV and 304 radio broadcasts to raise awareness about the dangers of drug use, and 232 newspaper articles were published.88 83 Chernogaev, Yuri.; ‘ussia “truggles ith Bolivian Drug Mafia on the Tajik-Afgha Border, KommersantDaily, December 17, 1999, p. 11 84 Patnaik, Ajay.; Central Asia and CIS Integration , Contemporary Central Asia, vol. VI, no. 3, pp. 1–13. 2002 85 Mohapatra, N. K.; Political and Security Challenges in Central Asia: The Drug Trafficking Dimension , International Studies 2007; 44; p.169 86 Mohapatra, N. K.; Political and Security Challenges in Central Asia: The Drug Trafficking Dimension , International Studies 2007; 44; p.169 87 E/INCB/2008/1 88 U.S. Department of State 2008 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, March 2008 22 ―In March 2008, UNODC-trained law enforcement officers intercepted a large amount of heroin being smuggled through Uzbekistan. The investigation uncovered one of the biggest drug smuggling cases in the country.‖89 As a conclusion, we must admit that ―Uzbekistan‘s main counter-narcotic efforts centers around destroying the illicit crop cultivation. The efforts are sponsored by the UNODC (United Nations Office of Drug Control and Crime Prevention). The UNODC is supporting research at Uzbekistan's Institute of Genetics on the development of a fungus capable of destroying the opium crop at its root. The fungus was first discovered at a former Soviet biological warfare plant in Uzbekistan, originally designed to destroy NATO‘s food supplies.‖90 The UNODC has an office in Tashkent, Uzbekistan for effective cooperation and joint action, as well. Conclusion In the introduction part of the article, we have mentioned about the drug trafficking and its effects on Central Asia, generally. We touched to political and societal repercussions of drug trade and addiction to drugs, by referring to several authors. Before passing on to the other part we gave place to statics concerning drugs, in Uzbekistan. In the second part, we searched through the history of drug trafficking in Central Asia and Uzbekistan. While benefiting from the historical timeline, we also underlined that Uzbekistan is not only a drug-transit country, but also a producer country, even if the production levels cannot be compared with those of Afghanistan, Pakistan etc… 89 http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/frontpage/uzbek-officers-put-unodc-training-to-good-use.html BBC,http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/audio_video/programmes/panorama/transcripts/transcript_02_ 10_00.txt 90 23 The third part is one of the two major parts of this article as it analyzes the main drug trafficking routes and their extensions. We tried to find an answer to the question: Why it is easy to smuggle drugs between some borders and why it is not in others? We concluded chapter three with an enlightening map about the drug trafficking routes in Uzbekistan. In the fourth part, also the second main part of the article, we have studied on narcoterrorism, the meaning of the term, the usage of the term and drug-terror connection. After introducing into the fourth chapter we researched the primary terrorist organization in Uzbekistan: The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (The IMU). Having said about the group‘s history, we then continued with IMU‘s involvement in drug trade, in Central Asia and Uzbekistan. We underlined the connection between IMU and the regions other significant terrorist groups like Taliban and al-Qa‘ida. We tried to point out that the most dangerous development in the region would be the evolution of the inter-regional cooperation between the terrorist groups to a more complicated one: inter-national terrorism. We concluded the chapter by mentioning other terrorist organizations operating in the region. In the fifth and the last part we touched on recent trends and especially on government efforts to stop illicit drug trafficking in Uzbekistan. Again we referred to several scholars who are experts of this topic. The main sources were Martha Brill Olcott and Natalia Udalova Zwart, Swante E. Cornell and Niklas Swanström, Tamara Makarenko, Nalin Kumar Mohapatra, Ahmed Rashid and the United Nations Office on Drug and Crime (UNODC). We also used several web sites and reports made by several institutes. As last words before conclusion, we can admit that the drug money has supported all sorts of radical movements and terrorist organizations in the past and it will support them in the future. Drug trafficking and the profit made from it is indispensable for terrorist groups in Uzbekistan, in Central Asia and in other regions of the world. It has certain political, social and economic effects and the consequences will be higher than estimated if some radical 24 decisions would not be taken. In the meantime, abolishing drug trafficking and eliminating the traffickers are difficult tasks partly because of the reactions of certain centers of power. Yet the sponsors of the extremist terrorism which cause troubles to Central Asian states are thought to be the rival states. 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