Workplace Bullying and Ethical Issues

CHAPTER 8 Workplace Bullying and Ethical Issues 8.1 IntroductIon Workplace bullying, despite being an effective management control strategy in the short run, is bad for the physical and emotional health of the employee. Workplace bullying has been effectively linked with psychosomatic symptoms such as headaches and frequent illness, depression, and anxiety, lower levels and poor quality of work productivity, interference with personal life and families, and even suicide (Edmondson & Zelonka, 2019; Hoel & Einarsen, 2010). In the long run, workplace bullying is harmful to the employees and the organization as well, regardless of the types of services provided or the products manufactured. The hidden and indirect costs of workplace bullying are tremendous ranging from turnover, increased sick leave, workers compensation and disability insurance, and so on (Hoel & Einarsen, 2010). This chapter considers the ethical implications of workplace bullying and whether its advantages as a control mechanism are worth pursuing by the managers and the corporation. This chapter is divided into six sections. Section 8.2 covers health-related physical problems and psychological disorders which bullied employees might experience having to work with constant verbal abuse and hurtful behavioral actions (Namie & Namie, 2009). Section 8.3 revolves around the impacts of workplace bullying on the family and personal lives of the employees who work in working environments seeped with abuse and humiliation. Section 8.4 integrates empirical data from the four case studies to support the literature discussed in the earlier sections within this © The Author(s) 2020 D. Akella, Understanding Workplace Bullying, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46168-3_8 169 170 D. AKELLA chapter that workplace bullying causes employee stress resulting in serious ethical implications. Section 8.5 considers all the negative outcomes of workplace bullying and strongly advocates for the need to reconsider the role of workplace bullying as a management aide in controlling employees within organizations. Section 8.6 concludes with the need for legal protections across the world to regulate and control workplace bullying in corporations. 8.2 PhysIcal and Mental health IMPacts and WorkPlace BullyIng Physical health means possessing good health, having no health issues or conditions, or rather showing symptoms of poor health conditions. Workplace bullying automatically increases the stress levels of employees, which alter the normal biological functioning of one’s human system (Cicchetti & Tucker, 1994), causing adverse impacts on one’s neuroendocrine, nervous, and immune systems. The victim experiences changes in his/her biochemical language (e.g., hormones, cytokines, and neurotransmitters), increasing inflammatory responses, making the individual vulnerable to heart attacks and strokes and other minor illnesses such as muscle and joint pains, and so on (Kendall-Tackett, 2009). Muscle pain and headaches are other stress responses as body prepares itself to combat external stressors. Prolonged bullying also causes changes to the bowel patterns, nausea, and abdominal pain. Gradual slowdown in digestion, nausea and lack of appetite results in significant weight loss and sickness. Literature (Hansen, Hogh, Garde, & Persson, 2014; Hogh, Hoel, & Carneiro, 2011; MacIntosh, 2012; Takaki, Taniguchi, & Hirokawa, 2013; Vignoli, Guglielmi, Balducci, & Bonfiglioli, 2015) has related workplace bullying to different types of physical health problems which could be experienced by bullied employees. Employees who have faced bullying in their organizations may experience symptoms of physical pain in the form of musculoskeletal disorders (MSD) or injuries. Workplace bullying results in occupational stress (Vignoli et al., 2015) which causes an increase in the occurrence of MSD. Employees might experience upper back pain, lower back pain and neck pain. They may experience sleeping difficulties or sleep disturbances (Hansen et al., 2014). Others may face health related issues such as fibromyalgia and cardiovascular symptoms. In some employees it might lead to gastrointestinal complains, hypertension, chest pain, 8 WORKPLACE BULLYING AND ETHICAL ISSUES 171 palpitations, headaches, weight loss, worsening of existing illnesses and even suicide (Saastamoinen, Laaksonen, Leino-Arjas, & Lahelma, 2009). There have been few studies which have empirically analyzed the linkage between workplace bullying and the physical health of victims. For instance, Hoel and Cooper (2000) and Cooper, Hoel, and Faragher (2004) from Great Britain relate workplace bullying to the health of the victims. However, according to Vartia (2001), victims of workplace bullying tend to consume more sleep-inducing drugs and sedatives as compared to those who have not been bullied. Sá and Fleming (2008) report that bullied victims experience insomnia and somatic symptoms. Another study undertaken in France suggests that all victims of workplace bullying experience sleep disturbances (Niedhammer, Davis, Degioanni, Drummond, & Phillip, 2009). Another longitudinal study in Australia explored the effect of workplace bullying on police officers and cardiovascular health problems (Tuckey, Dollard, Saebel, & Berry, 2010). Similarly, a study in India on ITES-BPO employees showed the relationship between workplace bullying and physical health problems such as gastrointestinal problems, influenza, and sleep disruptions (D’Cruz, 2010). Another study in India on IT professionals reported that bullied employees suffer from depression, sleep disturbances, and headaches (Ciby & Raya, 2014). Bonde et al. (2016)’s longitudinal study in Denmark associated bullying with poor self-related health. There is also evidence that workplace bullying generates negative emotions within employees (Ayoko, Callan, & Härtel, 2003; Brotheridge & Lee, 2010; Sá & Fleming, 2008; Tracy, Lutgen-Sandvik, & Alberts, 2006; Vie, Glasø, & Einarsen, 2012; Zapf, 1999). Employees who have been bullied experienced negative emotions such as anger, sadness, frustration, and mood changes, which culminated into sleep disturbances, headaches, and physical health deterioration (Ciby & Raya, 2014). Vie, Glaso, and Einarsen (2012) explored the role between emotions, workplace bullying, and musculoskeletal complaints. The studies of Casimir, McCormack, Djurkovic, and Nsubuga-Kyobe (2012) investigated the role of negative emotions among teachers who have been bullied and their physical symptoms of ill-health in Australia and Uganda. With regards to mental health impacts, workplace bullying, to reiterate, results in employees experiencing stress, which biologically impairs the functions of his/her prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for goaldirected behavior and the ability of an individual to respond emotionally to external events. An individual who has been bullied faces an inability to 172 D. AKELLA respond to outside situations, regulate his/her attention, and properly assess different scenarios (Arnsten, Raskind, Taylor, & Connor, 2015). The individual as a result experiences increased irritability, lack of proper judgment and insights, and impaired decision-making (Arnsten et al., 2015). Studies on workplace bullying (Agervold & Mikkelsen, 2004; Bonde et al., 2016; Cooper, Hoel, & Faragher, 2004; Hansen et al., 2014; Hoel & Cooper, 2000; Matthiesen & Einarsen, 2004; Mikkelsen & Einarsen, 2002; Sá & Fleming, 2008; Tehrani, 2004; Vartia, 2001; Yıldırım, 2009; Zapf, 1999) have linked up workplace bullying with mental health problems and other psychological and psychosomatic health issues. Employees who have been bullied may also face heightened anxiety with lower ability levels to cope with stress (Laschinger & Nosko, 2015; Olsen, Overland, Reme, & Lovvik, 2015). Employees could face lower self-confidence, dissatisfaction with life, intake of drugs and other substance abuse disorders. Some may also display posttraumatic stress disorders (Gullander et al., 2014) and depression. Some of the symptoms of posttraumatic stress include social withdrawal, angry behavior, mumbling to oneself, and inability to concentrate (Balducci et al., 2010). Usually all bullying victims experience depression within a time period of six months to two years. In fact, physical intimidation could also drive victims to suicidal thoughts or acts (Nielsen, Einarsen, & Nielsen, 2016); for some, it is immediate, and for others it takes place within two to five years. There is also an ability to self-manage leading to psychological distress (Einarsen, Matthiesen, & Skogstad, 1998). Usually these individuals lack the ability to adapt and lose their achievement and initiative drives (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001). For instance, Einarsen et al. (1998) demonstrated how bullied nurses tend to experience higher levels of job burnout and lower levels of psychological well-being. Wienke Totura, Karver, and Gesten (2014) demonstrate the relation between workplace bullying and psychological distress. Another study by Nielsen and Einarsen (2012) establishes a correlation between exposure to workplace bullying and lowered mental health among Norwegian workers in some 20 organizations. A study by Lahelma, Lallukka, Laaksonen, Saastamoinen, and Rahkonen (2012) looks at elevated risks of mental disorders among a group of Finnish victims of workplace bullying. 8 WORKPLACE BULLYING AND ETHICAL ISSUES 173 The next section summarizes the negative consequences of workplace bullying, in addition to the abovementioned physical and mental health problems faced by the employees raising serious ethical concerns for the managers. 8.3 WorkPlace BullyIng and QualIty of eMPloyees’ lIfe Physical and mental illnesses result in an increase in employees’ absenteeism from work, more sick leaves, and greater rates of unemployment and employee turnover. It also impacts the quality of work produced by the employee and his/her career advancements, job performance, and satisfaction levels. The management must replace and train new employees and deal with lower levels of organizational commitment (Hogh et al., 2011), translating into lower profits and revenues for the organization (MacIntosh, 2012). In other words, workplace bullying causes financial issues for the workers, organizations, and the nation’s economy (Schat & Frone, 2011). For the employee, stress at work leads to not only minor or major physical and mental health issues but also work family conflicts in the form of family problems such as divorce and so on, thereby further aggravating the whole situation. Work family conflict refers to a situation where the pressures and expectation at work spill over into the family domain, causing a rift between the professional and personal roles and responsibilities. Negative experiences at work, experience of negative emotions, and interference with an employee’s family and personal activities, critical for the emotional and psychological well-being of an employee, get transmitted onto the family members, relationships and family time. Stress and healthrelated problems are now experienced by the entire immediate family of the employee along with him/her (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). The bullied employee or the victim becomes engrossed in dealing with verbal abuse and hurtful behavior at work, and withdraws from his/her partner and children, which damages his/her personal lives. The victim trying to grapple with his/her anxiety, fears, and tensions at work is unable to react normally toward his/her spouse and family. Constant criticism, feeling pulled down, being ignored, and receiving threats about job security take a toll on his/her normal behavior. And instead of sharing his/her feelings with his/her family, the victim becomes quiet and preoccupied. Bullying in the workplace thus becomes a distressing and isolating experience which 174 D. AKELLA impacts the health and well-being of the entire family (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Bullying at workplace can thus have severe long-term effects on both the employee and his/her family. To summarize, workplace bullying does possess disastrous consequences and its harmful effects outrun its positive advantages as a management control mechanism, demonstrating its capacity to turn out to be a catastrophe if continued to be used in contemporary organizations. The next section integrates these arguments with empirical evidence from the four case studies undertaken in this research study. 8.4 WorkPlace BullyIng and eMPloyees’ PaIn and sufferIng The author conducted empirical work in the form of qualitative interviews with nurses, employees working at a motel, academics in a college, and employees working in a nonprofit organization. All employees interviewed, regardless of being employed in a hospital, a nonprofit organization, college, or a motel, had experienced bullying in different forms and its negative consequences in the form of stress, tension, and not being able to do work properly with problems back at home (Akella, 2016). Some had left their jobs unable to cope with the stress and pain, others had sought self-care techniques, while some were more tough and had been able to withstand it. This was well explained by a nurse who participated in the empirical interviews: Stress is a very personal thing people deal with adversity in different ways some people handle stress while others don’t know how. In these situations, there would probably be more stress as it’s occurring, but it depends on what you are planning to take home with you from work. (Nurse 7) For instance, a nurse working at a hospital explained how she had not been able to cope with the stress of being bullied. She had been unable to shrug off the feeling of being treated like an outcast, as an inferior, from her mind. This had impacted her work, the quality of care she provided to her patients, and her mental health, till she reached the point where she left the job. Her exact words were: I was taking it home every day I was not feeling good on top of stress was taking care of 25–27 patients for 12 hours. 13–14 hours how long I had to 8 WORKPLACE BULLYING AND ETHICAL ISSUES 175 stay there so as a nurse you can’t leave when your time clocks out after you finish your job so you feel like you being targeted you are being pitted on you are being outcasted, avoided it got to the point it was not good for me. (Nurse 9) And again, another individual explained how bullying resulted in employee turnover, which also caused employees stress because now they were left with no jobs. for the employees who lost the job that is stressful. (Faculty 9) Others were more philosophical about stress at their workplaces and mentioned the coping strategies used by them. Like a faculty member during his interview mentioned: I had high levels of stress I decided to meditate more to absolve the stress …. So you have a lot of exciting social life I used to have a lot of friends we used to go out and during the weekends I switched off I turned off my cell and even afterwards I switch off and go and do all sorts of social events. It was tolerable because of good social life. (Faculty 3) In the above interview account, the participant depended on his friends and their social support to forget hurtful incidents back at the office. He also meditated to absolve himself of his stress. Another interviewee mentioned that he exercised to get rid of his negative feelings; he did a lot of jogging, smiled a lot, and tried to keep himself positive. He said: stress was of course something definitely was hypertension and I started taking feelings for that it was deciding that I needed to jog little more, so I jog more run more and smile a lot (laughs). With all that going in terms of stress the issues which cause stress I look and say I will live forever I smile and keep going. Despite all that is negative (laughs). (Faculty 8) While some were more tough and managed to leave the office and its problems back at work, thereby avoiding work–office conflict. As remarked: no stress only for the 8 hours…. But once I walked out, I left it at the door. I leave it at the job. (Faculty 13) I don’t bother or let it bother me (regarding stress). (Nurse 6) 176 D. AKELLA The above interview quotes mention employee stress as a daily commonplace feature of the participants’ working lives. For some, it escalated beyond their ability to handle, resulting in them leaving their jobs; some tried to handle it through exercise and social support, while others were able to cope with it. The next section brings together all the issues raised in the earlier two sections, integrating the empirical evidence to debate whether it is worthwhile engaging in workplace bullying, from an ethical perspective. 8.5 WorkPlace BullyIng: a Moral dIleMMa Bullying harms the individual, emotionally, psychologically, and behaviorally. It is the responsibility of the management to regulate the stress which an employee can face while at work. Not only does excessive stress while at work result in lower rates of productivity, but from a moral perspective it is unethical to expose an individual to the risk of physical and mental health problems. Managers now face a moral dilemma as to whether it is appropriate to control employees via such a type of bullying strategy. This moral dilemma facing the managers can be resolved using the five principles drawn from the normative model, consisting of utilitarian, moral rights, distributive justice, care ethics, and virtue ethics (Schumann, 2000). According to the utilitarian principle, “an action must do the most good and the least harm to be considered ethical” (Schumann, 2000, p. 97). And in case of workplace bullying, all targets can be “liken themselves to vulnerable children, slaves, prisoners, animals and heartbroken lovers” (Tracy et al., 2006, p. 148). Workplace bullying results in direct costs such as workers’ compensation claims and indirect costs such as high staff turnover and so on, all of which harm the organization and individual financially and medically. In other words, workplace bullying leads to more harm than good. It can therefore be considered as an inappropriate business-oriented decision. In terms of basic rights, all employees are entitled to “certain basic, important, inalienable entitlements that should be respected and protected in very single action” (Crane & Matten, 2004, p. 173). It is wrong to look upon human beings as objects, as a means to accomplish an end (Kant, 1981), that is, as labor which manufactures products or provides services to customers. All employees have the right—certain moral rights regarding their “working conditions, economic exigencies, cultural biases, religious prohibitions and so on” (Werhane, Radin, & Bowie, 2004, 8 WORKPLACE BULLYING AND ETHICAL ISSUES 177 p. 29). In fact, ironically the rights of workers and the duties of employers are all intertwined. The right to safety at the workplace and overall wellbeing in terms of physical and mental health and quality of life all result in happy employees and happy customers and a financially sound company. Further, workplace bullying poses a threat to the safety and health of the workers and can be classified as workplace violence (Hoel, Faragher, & Cooper, 2004; Leymann & Gustafsson, 1996), and could place the corporation and its reputation in a precarious position. Distributive justice argues that all actions which produce fair distribution of benefits and costs for all stakeholders can be considered appropriate. Freeman (1994) argues that organizations should take into consideration the interest of all stakeholders including the employees. Workplace bullying violates the basic rights of the employees’ and diminishes the overall productivity and financial returns of all other stakeholders (Zucker, 2000). This renders workplace bullying as an interference to the basic concepts of distributive justice, thereby relegating it as inappropriate. In the next principle, care ethics humans are emotional beings with actual feelings, and therefore all instrumental and economic relationships should sustain caring and respectful interactions at work (Held, 1993; Herr, 2003). These feelings of care are the rights and responsibilities of the management (Werhane et al., 2004). This lack of caring is openly visible in all bullying incidents and therefore out of order. Virtue ethics, the last principle, focuses on what makes a person good and how all virtuous agents should be able to distinguish between good and bad actions, should act on good actions and be consistent, reliable, and dependable (Halwani, 2003). Managers, who are in-between agents, should behave as virtuous agents, and they, by bullying their subordinates, are engaging in untoward behavior (Halwani, 2003). To summarize, workplace bullying is hurtful, humiliating, and degrading, and also causes financial suffering to the management and all stakeholders. Employers suffer from pain and mental and physical health problems, their personal lives are affected, and they face financial problems. The organization experiences employee turnover, higher health insurance costs, profit reduction, and lower customer satisfaction. Overall, workplace bullying appears to be more harmful than beneficial for the organization and its stakeholders. So not only from a humane perspective, even from a business and financial perspective, workplace bullying appears to be more disadvantageous than beneficial. 178 D. AKELLA 8.6 conclusIon Workplace bullying is an organizational phenomenon with dire consequences, inclusive of all its ethical implications, for all stakeholders, even though the foremost and direct victims appear to be the employees. It is also undeniable based on the arguments raised in this chapter that workplace bullying fails to encompass Schumann’s five moral principles, thereby violating corporate ethics and basic human values. However, it continues to flourish in contemporary organizations due to lack of specific legal remedies, laws, or company policies. 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