The Famous Liar and the Apostolic Truth

The Famous Liar and the Apostolic Truth ERKKI KOSKENNIEMI The words KQT}TEC; aei \\>Evmai, xaxa e^gia, yaoTEoeg dgyai in Tit 1:2 are traditionally attributed to Epimenides, and, for example, Nestle - Aland 27 (ad locum) refers to his work "de oraculis / nf.Q\. However, we can only discern a shadow of the man, a pre-Socratic philosopher, or of several men. We do not have his works, and a work JIEQ\v is never mentioned in ancient sources. Clement of Alexandria mentions Epimenides, but not his work; Jerome is the first who certainly attributes the work to Epimenides. This article proposes a new reconstruction of the history of the tradition. In the beginning was the proverb that the Cretans were famous liars, and in the second stage, this reputation was used to construct a logical paradox. In the next stage, Epimenides, the famous Cretan philosopher, was involved in the paradox. It is thus not correct to claim that Tit refers to Epimenides' work JIEQ\: Epimenides is only ahistorically involved in this paradox. Consequently, the verse does not prove that the writer knew Classical literature well. Keywords: Epistle to Titus; Liar-paradox; Epimenides; rieQl De oraculis; The Problem Many early Jewish writers eagerly quoted Greek authors in their works, either approving or rejecting their words. When all these quotations are collected and analyzed, it is possible to conclude something about their attitude to Classical culture1. The New Testament only contains a few obvious quotations from Greek literature. The genuine Pauline letters only have one, the verse quoted in 1 Cor 15:33. The Antilegomena do not add much to the evidence. However, in Tit "Paul" writes: 1 I have analyzed Philo's and Josephus's way of dealing with Classical texts in three articles: "Philo and Classical Drama", in Ancient Israel, Judaism, and Christianity in Contemporary Perspective: Essays in Memory of Karl-Johan Illman (eds. JACOB NEUSNER, ALAN J. AVERY-PECK, ANTTI LAATO, RISTO NURMELA, and KARL-GUSTAV SANDELIN) (Lanham 2006) 137-152; "Philo and Greek Poets" (JSJ, 41(2010)301-322); and "Josephus and Greek Poets", The Intertextuality of the Epistles, BRODIE; Sheffield 2006) 46-60. Philo's and Josephus' works reveal a drastically different background: Whereas Philo quotes Classical poets often and from memory, Josephus had apparently never received a formal Greek education, in which Classical poets were studied. Filologin Neotestamentaria - Vol. XXIV- 2011, pp. 59-70 Facultad de Filosofia y Lerrns - Universidad de Cbrdoba (Espana) 60 Erkki Koskenniemi "For there are many rebellious people, mere talkers and deceivers, especially those of the circumcision group. They must be silenced, because they are ruining whole households by teaching things they ought not to teach - and that for the sake of dishonest gain. Even one of their own prophets has said: KQTjTec; ae\, xaxa 6rjQia, yaoTEQEg apycti This testimony is true. Therefore, rebuke them sharply, so that they will be sound in the faith and will pay no attention to Jewish myths or to the commands of those who reject the truth. To the pure, all things are pure, but to those who are corrupted and do not believe, nothing is pure. In fact, both their minds and consciences are corrupted" (Tit 1:10-15). Scholars disagree how much this quotation tells about the attitude of the writer to Greek literature and how much he knew of it. On the one hand, Clement of Alexandria, Epiphanius and Socrates Scholasticus already used the passage to prove how well Paul knew classical authors2, and in the modern research, for example, HOLTZ takes the quotation as a sign of "missionarische Klugheit"3 and HOCK considers it meaningful4; to be true, apparently erroneously considering it a word of the Lucan Paul.5 According to HOCK, the saying ... may go back to the pre-Socratic philosopher Epimenides, reflects, in any case, the maxim habit learned at school.6 On the other hand, several scholars have claimed that the verse does not attest that "Paul" was educated. According to SCHMIDT, for example, the mocking words on the Cretans does not say anything about the educa- See below p. 124-125. G. HOLTZ Die Pastoralbriefe (Theologischer Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament 13; Berlin 1965) 213. 4 R.F. HOCK, "Paul and Greco-Roman Education", Paul in the Greco-Roman World: A Handbook (ed. J. P. SAMPLEY) (Harrisburg / London / New York 2003) 217. 5 "... as well as Luke's portrait of Paul in Athens, in which he has the apostle quote briefly from the philosopher Epimenides and the poet Aratus (Acts 17:28)" (HOCK "Paul and Greco-Roman Education", 209). To be true, Epimenides is traditionally linked with Areopagus (Diog. Laert. 1,110), and John Chrysostomus indeed makes this link (see below p. 7) but the Lucan Paul does not quote him in his speech, unless a speculative hypothesis of R. HARRIS (The Commentaries of Isho'dad of Merv, in Syriac and English [ed. and trans, by M.D. GIBSON; with an introd. by J. R. HARRIS. Cambridge, 1911, xiv) is accepted. On this hypothesis, which is mostly and justly forgotten, see W. LOCK, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles (I & II Timothy and Titus) (ICC; Edinburgh 1924) 134 and R. RENEHAN, "Classical Greek Quotations in the New Testament", FS G.V. FLOROVSKY 1973. OCA 195; Roma 1973) 36-37; DIBELIUS and KOMMEL, Paulus (Sammlung Goschen 1160; Berlin 1951) 47 sqq. 6 HocK,"Paul and Greco-Roman Education", 217. 2 3 The Famous Liar and the Apostolic Truth 61 tion of the writer.7 If we ask where the verse quoted is taken from, the state of the research is surprisingly confusing. NESTLE - ALAND27 briefly attributes the quotation to "Epimenides, de oraculis I TCEQI %QT\O\I&V". Such brief comments are perhaps allowed in a text edition. However, a first glance over the commentaries already reveals the words as being problematic. Joachim Jeremias, for his part, attributes the quotation to the work "'Theogonia' (Genealogie der Gotter)"8. According to DIBELIUS the quotation originates from the Theogony or from the Chresmoi9. A work de oraculis I jteQi XQIW&V is sometimes mentioned in modern research, but several scholars are rather skeptical10. We have all reason to investigate the verse from different angles: Who was Epimenides, from which work was the verse allegedly taken and how and why was it used? Moreover, why is Epimenides - or the author of the verse - called a prophet? Epimenides and his works The traditions of Epimenides' life and works11 were collected and critically investigated by H. DIELS and W. KRANZ in Fragmente der Vorsokratiker early on12. Because a work named KQTjtiHd which apparently has dealt with the Cretan history or their constitution13, is attributed to him, F. JACOBY included Epimenides in his famous Fragmente der Griechischen Historiker (Nr. 457), and essentially expanded the material. However, some important pieces of evidence must still be added to the material. Generally, we only know a little about the pre-Socratic philosophers, and Epimenides, the famous man from Crete, is not an exception. It is problematic to briefly refer to a work attributed to him. Our main source on the traditions on Epimenides is the passage in Diogenes Laer- 7 K.L. SCHMIDT "Paulus und die antike Welt", Vortrage der Bibliothek Warburg, Vortrage 1924-1925 (Leipzig 1927) 46. 8 J. JEREMIAS, Die Briefe an Timotheus und Titus (NTD 9; Gottingen 1981) 70. 9 M. DIBELIUS, Die Briefe des Apostels Paulus: An Timotheus I - II: An Titus (Tubingen 1913) 207 10 See below p. 123-124. 11 On Epimenides, see KERN, "Epimenides", PRE 6 (1909)173-178; R. PARKER, "Epimenides", DNP 3 (1997) 1144. 12 H. DIELS and W. KRANZ, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker 1-3. 12th ed. Dublin / Zurich 1966) 31-37. 13 Eratosthenes, (Catast. 27) writes on the work as follows: 'Em|ievi6r|c; 6 TCX KQTITIXCC icnoQcov. 62 Erkki Koskenniemi tiiis (1,109-115). The late work, written about 200 AD, has, of course, only little to do with the historical figure of Epimenides, but it collects the tales of him in the ancient tradition, and it can be completed with sporadic earlier mentions. Epimenides was allegedly born in Cnossus, Crete, and, seeking his father's lost sheep, he went to sleep in a cave for 57 years. This story is often told using different details, and especially the number of years vary (cf. Pausanias 1,14,4 [40 years]; Plutarch Mor. 784A [50 years]): The Jewish variant of this story, in which Baruch sleeps for 66 years (4 Bar. 5), is well known. According to Diogenes Laertius, Epimenides healed pestilence in Athens14 in the 46th Olympiad, i.e. 596593 BC (1,110), and Maximos of Tyrus (c. 38) also knew this tradition. Aristotle, too, knows Epimenides (Athenaion politeia 1) and dates him to the time of Alcmeonids, i.e. in the first years of the 6th century, as do Pausanias, Diogenes Laertios, Plutarch and also Cicero (de legibus 2,28). Jamblichus seems to make Epimenides a pupil of Pythagoras, or at least his follower (VP 135-136). Epimenides is often considered one of the famous seven sages15. On the other hand, Plato puts his floruit shortly before the Persian wars, i.e. about one hundred years later than Aristotle and most writers mentioned above (eXOcbv 5e JIQO tow HeQaixcov 66tcx eteaiv jiQoteQov, Leges 462d), and KERN still preferred Plato's date in his .PRE-article16. Historically, we thus only have the shadow of the man17 or perhaps of several men18. However, the tradition seems to have been well fixed later on, and Epimenides, that is, the one who was known in the See also Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 13,78. Plut. Sol 12; Clem. Alex. Str. 1,14,59. 16 KERN, "Epimenides", 173-174. On the problem, see K. LAKE, "Your Own Poets", The Beginnings of Christianity I: The Acts of the Apostles (eds. F.J. F. JACKSON and K. LAKE vol. V, 246-251; London 1933) 247-248. 17 On this point, many modern scholars fail to see the discrepancy between Plato and Aristotle. HOLTZ, Die Pastoralbriefe, 213, dates Epimenides to the time of the Persian wars, and H. MERKEL to about 500 B.C. (Die Pastoralbriefe [NTD 9/1; Gottingen 1991] 94), i.e. they follow Plato and reject most of the tradition. ID. QUINN (The Letter to Titus. [The Anchor Bible 35; New York / London / Toronto / Sydney / Auckland 1990]) 107 follows the date of the majority of the sources. L. OBERLINNER (Herdes Theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament XI/2; Die Pastoralbriefe. Dritter Folge: Kommentar zum Titusbrief. Freiburg / Basel / Wien 1996) 38 dates Epimenides to the 6lh /5th century. 18 A. C. THISELTON ("The Logical Role of the Liar Paradox in Titus 1:12,13: A Dissent from the Commentaries in the Light of Philosophical and Logical Analysis", Biblical Intepretation 2 [1994] 220) tentatively suggests that traditions of two Cretan men, a philosophical logician and a diviner had become confused in Classical antiquity. This is a good proposal, but, in my opinion, not critical enough. Although Aristotle already knew a Cretan philosopher, and Plato dated him differently, the exact information is scarce and, as usual, the ancient tradition was eager to fill in the gaps. 14 15 The Famous Liar and the Apostolic Truth 63 ancient philosophic tradition, was the man from the 6th century. As usual, Diogenes Laertius mentions the works attributed to the philosopher, none of which are preserved entirely19. A work iTeQi xQT)O|icbv, mentioned in NESTLE - ALAND, is not named at all, although Diogenes Laertius refers to several, extensive works, as to Theogony mentioned by Jeremias20. The source of the title IIeo\V is apparently Jerome, who writes dicitur autem iste versiculus in Epimenidis Cretensis poetae Oraculis reperiri ... denique ipse liber Oraculorum titulo praenotatur (Comm. in ep. ad Tit.. PL 7,606,). Obviously, Jerome had not himself seen the work, but uses an indirect source21. The only writer known to me, who mentions a Greek title, XQT]O|IOI of Epimenides, is Socrates Scholasticus ('Eftei jtoGev OQ|io6|ievoc; eXeye KQijtec; ael tyevoTai, xaxa Qyai, ei |ir] io\jg 'Ejrijievi5oD tot) KQTITOC;, av6Qoc; Xc^o^o^c;, Historia ecclesiastica 3,16 PG 67,421. DIELS and KRANZ (who do not mention Socrates Scholasticus at all) have the fragment quoted in Tit in a section 'Ejti(ievi6ov ©Eoyovia r\ An old assumption is that the verse is taken from the prologue of the work22. It is not easy to understand the reason for identifying these works, but it explains why scholars use both names23. The work HEQ\V m NESTLE - ALAND is still a mystery to me (even Jerome's words would suggest a title Oracula I XQT]O(IOL, or Liber Oraculorum, if any), because, for example, neither the Suda nor Photius mention it either24. JACOBY, for his part, assumes four works (XQT]O|ioi, ©eoyovia, KQrjtixd and IlEQl To6ou. TeA,xiviaxr) LOTOQICX), and attributes the quotation to XQr)O|j,oi. QUINN supposes that the writer of Tit has used a florilegium without any direct contact to Epimenides' work25, but it is difficult to prove even that 19 Some scholars have rejected the attribution to Epimenides, because the verse is not written in Cretan dialect (LOCK, Pastoral Epistles, 134). The observation is, of course, correct, but overlooks the fact that people writing, for example, epic used Homeric language regardless where they lived. The genre and not the native city defined the language used in Greek poetry. 20 Diogenes Laertios mentions the poetic works On the Birth of the Curetes and Corybantes, Theogony (5000 lines), On Minos and Rhadamanthus and and the epos of Argos and lason (6500 lines) and the prose works On Sacrifices and Cretan Constitution. 21 According to C. ZIMMER ("Die Liigner-Antinomic in Titus 1,12", Linguistica Biblica 59 [1987] 80), Jerome's words base "nur auf ein ungewisses Horensagen". 22 For example, KERN, "Epimenides", 1976 (with references to the older literature). 23 The argument of JACOBY to attribute the verse to "XPHZMOI (KAGAPMOI)" is the passage in Jerome (p. 390). 24 RENEHAN warned the editors in his article (1973) of the words that Nestle - Aland still uses in the latest edition: "A classical scholar would note in the apparatus criticus simply 'Epimenides, frag. 1 DIELS and KRANZ,' and this is best." 64 Erkki Koskenniemi claim. We have fragments of Epimenides since Aristotle26, but we do not know enough of Epimenides to define his works27. The Quotation We thus do not know much about Epimenides or his works, and it must be asked, why the verse is identified and attributed to him. As said above, Jerome mentions a work Liber Oraculorum or Oracula, but he was not the first Christian writer who tried to identify the verse. Clement of Alexandria28 mentions Epimenides as one among seven sages, ov |i8(ivr)Tai 6 arcoaioXog ITa'DXog ev tf) JtQog Titov ejtiOToXfi (Str. 1,14,59). It is important to observe what Clement says and what he does not. He does not say that the quotation originates from Epimenides' work: He only says that the person referred to was in his view Epimenides29. Clement does not refer to any source, whether directly or indirectly. Moreover, it is interesting that Athenagoras (Suppl. 30,3) and then Origenes (Orig. c. Cels. 3,43) do not mention Epimenides, but refer to verses from Callimachus' In Jovem, which are partly identical with the words in Tit: ZED, OE |i£v 'I6aioioiv EV OVQEOI qpctoi ZE\), <JE 8' EV 'AQXCXOITV TIOTEQOI, TioViEQ, E KQTITEC; CCEI ipeOaTai; xal yap idqpov, d) ava, OEIO KQf|T£g ETExrrjaavTo1 ai> 5' ov SdvEg, eaal ya.Q DUEL (In Jovem 6-9). John Chrysostomus mentions both Epimenides and Callimachus, but QUINN, The Letter to Titus, 108. ZIMMER is perhaps too critical in his good article (esp. "Die Liigner-Antinomie in Titus 1,12", 81). The fragments in Aristotle witness that the early tradition was aware of Epimenides' works. However, ZIMMER'S criticism against scholars, who speak freely of Epimenides' works, is undoubtedly justified. 27 G.L. HUXLEY was bold enough to first assume a tension between the historical Epimenides and Delphi and to then attribute the line to Epimenides' Delphic opponents (Greek Epic Poetry from Eumelos to Panyassis [Cambridge, Ma. 1969]), 80-84. The fantastic reconstruction does not observe how little we know about the historical man, and it is astonishing that it is uncritically accepted: G.M. LEE found it "very plausible" in his short bibliographical note ("Epimenides in the Epistle to Titus (I 12)", Novum Testamentum 22 [1980] 96) and QUINN still presents the hypothesis and seems to consider it probable (The Letter to Titus, 108). 28 QUINN considers Clement's identification early ("as early as Clement of Alexandria ... this hexameter was attributed to Epimenides of Crete ..., The Letter to Titus,l01). It is true that the comment is early within the early Christian literature; on the other hand, compared with the date of the historical Epimenides, the centuries between the two works are numerous. 29 ZIMMER, "Die Liigner-Antinomie in Titus 1,12", 80. 25 26 The Famous Liar and the Apostolic Truth 65 strangely enough does not attribute the line to Epimenides (although he claims that the words TOI) yap xai y^vog eo^iev quoted in Acts 17:28 originate from him!), but to Callimachus (In epistulam ad Titum homiliae 1-6 PG 62, 676). Callimachus' words are later used by Theodorus of Mopsuestia (2,243 Swete). Epiphanius (Panarion 2,169)30 was able to quote both the line quoted in Tit, which he attributes to Epimenides (fva TOV 'Em^ieviSriv &eitn> ctQXa^ov ovta qpiXdaoqpov xai XTIOTTIV -rot) jtaoa Korialv d8c6A,ou), and Callimachus' words. To sum up, it is very problematic to say that "Paul" quotes Epimenides' work Heo\: That the writer refers to a precise work of Epimenides only relies on later and very uncertain identifications. Moreover, as far as I know, a work named Hepi XQTIOHCOV is never mentioned in the ancient sources. Actually, although it seems probable, it is not certain that Tit 1:12 refers to Epimenides at all31. The Cretan Liars: The Tradition and the Paradox We thus know the words KQ^tec; del ipeiicrtai from "Epimenides" and Callimachus. However, the idea of Cretan liars also lived elsewhere in classical literature. Eustathius32 attributes the words to Odysseus, who was unwilling to accept the fact that Ithaca was far away (Commentarii ad Homeri Odysseam, 2,49). According to Photius, Athenodorus of Eretria reported that an outraged Medea quoted the maxim (Kor|Tec; del ojJEDaiai), when Idomeneus, acting as judge, estimated Thetis to be the more beautiful of the two (Photius, codex 190 Bekker 150,41). Antiochus (FGrHist 29.1) tells the same story, adding that Medea cursed the Cretans so that they were bound with lies for eternity. How should we thus evaluate the traditions? Cretan liars were present in Christian propaganda. John Chrysostomus (In epistulam ad Titum homiliae 1-6 PG 62, 676) presents the view that Zeus was only a mortal man, whose tomb was in Crete: He even quotes the epigram on the tomb. In this context he heavily attacks Callimachus, who called the Cretans liars and does not attribute the words to Epimenides at all: Callimachus had, according to him, tried to protect Zeus' cult. John Chrysostomus 30 According to Epiphanius, Paul's words in 1 Cor 14:18 ("I thank God that I speak in tongues more than all of you") refer to his extensive Greek education, and he quotes the hexameter as evidence for that. 31 See below, p. 128-129. 32 On Eustathius (ca 1115-1195), the monk, who wrote learned commentaries on Homer's works, see I. VASSIS, "Eustathius", DNP 4 (1998) 313. 66 Erkki Koskenniemi must elaborately explain why Paul quotes the verse and says that the testimony is true (pp. 676-677). If Epimenides receives a role in this propaganda at all, it is a positive one: Jerome calls Epimenides 'heroic'. (Epimenidis, cuius heroici hemistichium posted Callimachus usurpavit, Comm. in ep. ad Tit. PL 7,606). Apparently Jerome believed that Epimenides had attacked Zeus' cult, but Callimachus tried to protect it and modified the verse. However, the occasional attribution of the verse to Epimenides seems to be only guesswork by the Fathers33, which does not help but rather prevents us from defining the formation of the tradition. After all, it should be possible to present a better proposal. 1) The beginning of the tradition was apparently that Cretans were considered proverbial liars. The tradition seems to have been very old, because Odysseus, when conceiving his origin in the Odyssey, pretends to be a Cretan34. The reputation of the Cretans as liars was boosted, because they allegedly claimed that Zeus' tomb was on the island, which was, of course, considered the greatest of all lies. That was the reason why "Cretan liars" are mentioned so often in Greek and Latin sources (see Plutarch, Aemilius Paulus 23; Lucian, Philopseudes 3; Timon 6; Ovidius, Amores 3,10,19; Ars amatoria 1,298. Actually, HQT^TL^ELV denoted, besides deriving from Cretan dialect (Dio Chr. 11,23), mostly lying (Polyb. 8,19,5; Plut. Aem. 23,10; Plut. Lys. 20,1). The word of "Cretan liars" was thus a well-known slogan, which was used to denigrate Cretans. Apparently, the words already lived as a verse KQf|t£c; aei apeucrrai, which was later continued in different forms - that precisely Epimenides made it into a full-blown hexameter35 is only speculation. The early Christian tradition willingly adopted the tradition of Zeus' tomb as truth and tried to prove that Gentile gods were only mortal men. Christians, if not Jews already before them, knew and used the tradition to rebuke idolatry. 2) If we only read the hexameter, there is no trace of a logical problem. However, in a second stage of the tradition, the slogan was used to construct one, when the words were attributed to a man from Crete: Does a liar tell a truth or not, when calling himself a liar? The tradition of this kind of logical problem is well attested in the Greek world, however, not in the times of the historical Epimenides, but rather since Zeno of Elea (fifth century B.C.)36. His teacher Parmenides had apparently preceded Plato and others in distinguishing between the deceptive everyday reality ZIMMER, "Die Liigner-Antinomic in Titus 1,12" 82. Od. 13,256-286. 14,191. 19,165-202 (see A. J. HAFT, "Odysseus, Idomeneus and Meriones: The Cretan Lies of Odyssey 13-19", Classical Journal 79 [1984] 289-304). 35 QUINN, The Letter to Titus, 108. 36 On Zeno of Elea, see BODNAR, "Epimenides", DNP 12,2 (2002) 742-744. 33 34 The Famous Liar and the Apostolic Truth 67 and the world which really existed. Zeno tried to prove the deceptibility of perceptions by presenting logical problems. They were later common in smaller Socratic schools, which cannot be classified with certainty; at any rate Diodorus of lasus mediated the tradition to his pupil Zeno of Citium, the founder of the Stoic school37. The oldest form of the liarparadox is connected with Eubulides of Miletus (fourth century B.C.)38, and a form of it was known to Cicero39. It was famous, and, according to Seneca (Ep. 45,10), "countless works were written about it"40. The paradox was commonly known, but it had historically nothing to do with Epimenides. To connect it with a man who lived about 600 B.C. requires pushing the date of these kinds of paradoxes to a much earlier one than we otherwise know of them. 3) Later, the paradox was connected with Epimenides, and the secondary link is easily explained. Apparently, the bad reputation of Cretans preceded the paradox: Because the Cretans were known as liars, they were an ideal subject for the liar-paradox, and later the word was connected with the most famous Cretan philosopher, who was an ideal person to take the role of the famous liar, who told the truth - or did he? Traditionally, most commentators have assumed that "Paul" has used the word only to denigrate his opponents, or Cretans generally41. Quinn still claims that the writer uses the Cretan sage to characterize his countrymen42. In this interpretation, the writer was fully unaware of the logical problem involved in the line. However, THISELTON has convincingly shown that the writer recognized the logical problem: To say the maxim in the first person means a different thing than to say it in the third. To be true, the verse itself contains no paradox, but it does, when the writer attributes it to a Cretan "prophet". OBERLINNER accepts THISELTON'S interpretation and it seems to be correct: If so, the writer uses a well-known 37 See H. WEIDEMANN, "Diodoros: Logik und Common Sense", Philosophen des Altertums von der Friihzeit bis zur Klassik. Eine Einfiihrung (eds. M. ERLER and A. GRAESER. Darmstadt 2000) 182-184. 38 On Eubulides, see K. DORING, "Eubulides", DNP 4 (1998) 211 39 Haec vera an falsa sunt: 'Si te mentiri dicis idque verum dicis, mentiris?' (Ac. 2,95). 40 See Diog. Laert. 2,108; 7,196-198; the passages in M. Tulli Ciceronis Academica, the text revised and explained by IS. REID ( Hildesheim 1966) 290-291. 41 See the detailed survey of 24 commentaries in THISELTON, "The Logical Role", 208-214. O. KNOCK (1. und 2. Timotheusbrief. Titusbrief [Die Neue Echter Bibel: Kommentar zum Neuen Testament mil der Einheitsiibersetzung 14; Wurzburg 1988] 75) claims that Tit "zitiert einen Hexameter des angesehenen kretischen Dichters Epimenides (6. Jh. v. Chr.), der uber seine Landsleute ein vernichtendes Urteil fallte". This quotation would have been, according to the writer, "im Munde des Apostels Paulus undenkbar". KNOCK, as one of several commentators, is thus not at all aware that the verse contains a paradox. 42 QUINN, The Letter to Titus, 108. 68 Erkki Koskenniemi paradox skillfully and with a certain sense of humor. However, the verse is fully in line with the main message of Tit, according to which a bishop should not be an empty-talker, but he should use self-control and offer a good example for everyone43. Regardless of whether the writer was aware of the logical problem or not, the context of the quotation in the letter is very interesting. The philosopher is not named, but he is characterized with the words eiJtev tig e^ CXUTCOV JtQOcpfJTnc;. Interestingly, the entire context speaks about intra-Christian relations, not about Greeks, but rather about Christians and especially about Jewish ones. Jews were numerous in Crete44, where Titus is supposed to be living. Why did the writer not consider it problematic to use the well-known tradition, that is, to call the man a prophet and apply it to (Jewish) Christians? First of all, if we only read the passage in Tit, it is not certain that the words originate from a Gentile philosopher. Epimenides is not "mentioned", and consequently it is not certain that he is called a prophet. But who else could this tic; e^ atitwv 7tpocpT]TT]5 have been? In spite of the context, which unambiguously points to Jewish Christians, RENEHAN might be right when identifying the prophet with Epimenides45 - in truth, with an imprecise formulation46. The liar-paradox was certainly well-known, or, if one does not believe that the writer was aware of the paradox, at least the bad reputation of the Cretans was known. It is not proven that the writer used Epimenides' work, and although it is probable that Epimenides is referred to, this is not beyond reasonable doubt. Whatever the word 7ioocpT]TTic; now denotes, a Greek proverb is used to characterize sectarian Christians. But why is the author of the verse called a prophet? There are several alternatives. Firstly, the simplest answer is suggested by DIBELIUS: The words were an exact characterization, and it was reason enough to call the speaker a prophet47. This alternative is valid even if THISELTON is right and the verse is not used to label Cretans: The logical problem was good enough to make the author a prophet, whoever he was. But secondly, poets were often labeled with such epithets48, OBERLINNER, Die Pastoralbriefe, 41. On Jews in Crete, see Philo Legal. 282; Jos. Vita 76. 45 Similarly, for example DIBELIUS, Die Briefe des Apostels Paulus, 207 and OBERLINNER, Die Pastoralbriefe, 38-39. 46 According to RENEHAN, "Classical Greek Quotations in the New Testament", 36 the author of Tit "believed that he was quoting Epimenides: the reference to an iSioc; nQoep^tric; of the Cretans shows that." The word "quote" is problematic - the author may refer to a proverb. 47 DIBELIUS, Die Briefe des Apostels Paulus, 207; similarly OBERLINNER, Die Pastoralbriefe, 39. 43 44 The Famous Liar and the Apostolic Truth 69 as Martialis calls Catullus a vates (Verona docti syllabas amat vatis, Mart. 1,61,1). Whatever the line was, it is verse, and a poet is a prophet. Thirdly, if the writer - what I doubt - indeed was able to connect Epimenides with the verse, several writers attribute supernatural skills to Epimenides. Plato (Leges l,642d) and Diogenes Laertius (1,114) say that he prophesied; Aristotle said that Epimenides [xavtBiieTO, although not on future but on unclear events (Rhet. 3,17 1418; cf. Apul. Apol. 27), and Diogenes Laertius attributed to him the healing of pestilence in Athens (1,110; cf. Plutarch Mor. 820d; cf. Maximus of Tyrus, diss. 10). There was also a tradition, that Epimenides slept several decades of years, and received a gift of prophecy (Diog. Laert. 1,109; Scholia ad Lucianum 25,6). According to Pausanias (2,21,3) the Spartans killed him because he refused to prophecy. If that is the correct explanation, the word "prophet" does prove that the writer knew the tradition. However, such a positive evaluation of a Gentile diviner is not likely, although Clemens already interpreted the verse so (Str. 1,14,59). Conclusion Apparently the quotation is proverbial and the writer - well aware of the logical problem - considers the content of the verse to be excellent though deeper conclusions are hazardous. To connect it with the historical Epimenides requires a lot of credulity, and we have no reason to believe that the writer ever saw the alleged work XQT^O^IOI of Epimenides. Consequently, although this quotation may reveal a missionary skill, it does not prove that the writer was well aware of the Classical literary tradition. Erkki KOSKENNIEMI (Abo Akademi University, Turku) Ristakalliontie 20 SF 38100 Sastamala FINLAND [email protected] 48 HOLTZ, Die Pastoralbriefe, 213; MERKEL, Die Pastoralbriefe, 94.