MiniReview Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India

International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 (2012) MiniReview Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India Das, A. J. and *Deka, S. C. Department of Food Processing Technology, Tezpur University, Napaam, Sonitpur, Assam-784028, India Abstract: North East India is characterized by a diverse population of people with different ethnic background. Most of the people of this region are tribal and bear their own methods of fermenting food materials for the purpose of preservation and taste enhancement and they have been carrying these from time immemorial. All the fermented products are region specific and have their own unique substrates and preparation methods. Materials such as soybeans, bamboo shoots and locally available vegetables are commonly fermented by most of the tribes. The fermented alcoholic beverages prepared in this region are unique from the rest of the world in several aspects and bears deep attachment with the socio-cultural lives of the people. The starter cultures used and the utilization of indigenous microbes reflect the expertise of these people in customary microbiology. Microbes such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida sp., Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and Bacillus sp. have been found to be abundant of common occurrence in these products. These products also serve as a source of economy to many of the rural people, who prepares them at home and market locally. Detailed studies on the nutritive and medicinal value of these products can provide valuable information would prove beneficial in the use of these products on a wider scale. Formulation of new techniques to increase their shelf life would help in the commercialization of these products. Keywords: Fermented food, beverages, North-East India, tribes, microorganisms Introduction The term fermentation is derived from the Latin word fervere meaning “to boil”. It basically describes the appearance of the action of yeast on extracts of fruit or malted grain during the production of alcoholic beverages. It may be defined as any process for the production of a product by the mass culture of microorganism (Stanbury, 1999). Indigenous people have been using microbes unknowingly for various purposes (Sekar and Mariappan, 2007). Fermentation is one of the oldest and most economic methods of preserving the quality and safety of foods. Moreover, fermented foods have further benefits of providing bio-nutrients and minerals and enhancement of flavour and aroma. The process also increases digestibility and exert health promoting benefits (Jeyaram et al., 2009). Fermentation may assist in the destruction or detoxification of certain undesirable compounds which may be present in raw foods. These are compounds such as phytates, polyphenols and tannins (Sharma and Kapoor, 1996). Fermented foods are encountered worldwide and their origin is due to their prolonged shelf life, reduced volume, shorter cooking times and superior nutritive value as compared to the non-fermented ingredients. The traditional way of carrying out fermentation at the household-scale is still followed using relatively *Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] Fax: +913712-267005/267006 simple processing facilities. These products often contain mixed microbial populations because of the lack of sterility and the use of natural fermentation (Nout and Sarkar, 1999). In the Indian subcontinent, fermented food and beverages, prepared using local food crops and other biological resources have been going on since time immemorial and is a common practice even today (Roy et al., 2004). The North-Eastern region of India is comprised of the cluster of eight states namely Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Nagaland, Tripura, Manipur and Sikkim. The region can be physiographically categorized into the Eastern Himalayas, Northeast hills (Patkai-Naga Hills and Lushai Hills) and the Brahmaputra and Barak Valley plains. Approximately 225 tribes out of the 450 tribes of India reside in this region (Chatterjee et al., 2006). The people of these states have a very rich reserve of traditional knowledge owing to their livelihood in the hilly terrains. This area is inhabited largely by tribal people who make up 75% of the population of the region (Agrahar-Murungkar and Subbulakshmi, 2006). These people possess great knowledge of the environment and depend on the forests, plants and plant products for food and other purposes (Jaiswal, 2010). Learning about edible plants and processing and conservation of foods for consumption and medicinal purposes has been in the large part due to © All Rights Reserved 378 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C. incremental and cumulative learning among these societies living in close connection with nature (Singh et al., 2007). A variety of region specific fermented foods and beverages are traditionally produced and consumed, and even locally marketed in North-East India. Different types of substrates and fermenting organisms are being employed for the production of these ethnic products and the process employed also varies from place to place. A summary of the different microbes involved in the fermentation of the various products is given in Table 1.This paper focuses on some of the practices followed by the different groups of indigenous tribal people of North-East India in the production of their respective fermented product. Fermented vegetables Many different forms of vegetables are fermented and preserved by the tribal people of this region. Similar products are like sauerkraut (Europe), kimchi (Korea), oncom (Indonesia), tsukemono (Japan), suan cai (China) and atchara (Phillipines) (Lee, 2009). Some common fermented vegetable products oh this region are being described here. Gundruk Gundruk is a fermented vegetable product indigenous to the Nepali people of the Himalayan region. Table 1. Microbes associated with the fermentation of different traditional fermented food products of North-East India SI No Fermented Product Microbes associated Reference 1 Kinema Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecium, Candida parapsilosis, Geotrichum candidum 2 Hawaijar Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, B. cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, S. sciuri, Alkaligenes sp. Providencia rettger Jeyaram et al., 2008a 3 Tungrumbai Sohliya et al., 2009; Sarkar et al., 1994 4 5 Bekang Peruyyan 6 Soibum Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus faecium, Candida parapsilosis, Saccharomyces bayanus, Saccharomycopsis fibuligera, Geotrichum candidum Bacillus subtilis, other Bacillus sp. Lactic acid bacteria, Bacillus subtilis, other Bacillus sp. Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, L. coryniformis, L. delbrueckii, L lactis, Leuconostoc falllax, , Leuc. mesentroides, Enterococcus durans, Streptococcus lactis, Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, B. coagulans, Candida sp., Saccharomyces sp., Torulopsis sp. 7 Soidon Lactobacillus brevis, Leuconostoc fallax, Leuc. lactis Tamang et al., 2008 8 Mesu Tamang and Sarkar, 1996 9 Ekung Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, L. pentosaceus, L. pentosaceus L. brevis, L. plantarum Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, L. casei, Tetragenococcus halophilus 10 Hirring Lactobacillus plantarum, L. lactis Tamang and Tamang, 2009 b 11 Ngari Thapa et al., 2004 12 Hentak Lactococcus plantarum, L. plantarum, Bacillus subtilis, B. pumilus, Miocrococcus sp., Candida sp. Lactobacillus fructosus, L. amylophilus, Enterococcus faecium, Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecium, Candida sp. 13 Tungtap Thapa et al., 2004 14 Gnuchi 15 Gundruk 16 17 Sinki Ziang-sang 18 Goyang 19 Khalpi Lactobacillus coriniformis, L. lactis, L. fructosus, B. cereus, B. subtilis, Candida sp., Saccharomycopsis sp. Enterococcus faecium, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus sp Lactobacillus brevis, L. plantarum, L. paracasei, Leuconostoc fallax, Pediococcus pentosaceus, P. acidilactici Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, L. fermentum Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, Pediococcus acidilactici Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, Lactococcus lactis, Enterococcus faecium, Pediococcus pentosaceus Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, Lecuonostoc fallax Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hanseniaspora sp, Kloeckera sp, Pischia sp., Candida sp Lactobacillus plantarum, Pediococcus pentosaceus Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia anomala, Trichosporon sp., Candida tropicalis, P. guilliermondi, C. parapsilosis, Torulaspora delbrueckii, C. Montana, P. fabianii Tanti et al., 2010 20 Ipoh 21 Atingba 22 Kodo ko Jaanr Mucor cicinelloides, Rhizopus chinensis, Rhizopus stolonifer var. lyococcus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. bayanus, Hansenula anomala, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Lactobacillus sp., Candida glabrata, Saccharomycopsis capsularis, Saccharomycopsis fibuligera, Pichia burtonii Pichia anomala, Cryptococcus sp., Trichosporon sp., Debaryomyces sp., Kluyveromyces sp., Myxozyma sp., Bullera sp., Rhodotorula sp., Tremella sp. 23 Zutho Saccharomyces cerevisiae International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 Sarkar et al., 1994 Tamang et al., 2009 Tamang et al., 2009 Tamang and Tamang, 2009a ; Tamang et al., 2008 Tamang and Tamang, 2009a Thapa et al., 2004 Thapa et al., 2006 Tamang et al., 2005 Tamang and Sarkar, 1993 Tamang et al., 2005 Tamang and Tamang, 2007 Tamang, 2009 Tamang et al., 2007 ; Jeyaram et al., 2008 Tamang and Sarkar, 1995; Tsuyoshi et al., 2005; Tiwari et al., 2007; Sekar and Mariappan, 2007 Teramoto et al., 2002 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India It is commonly prepared during winter i.e, October to December, when perishable leafy vegetables are plenty. These vegetables are mainly leaves of mustard (Brasicca juncea), rayo-sag (Brasicca rapa), cauliflowers (Brasicca oleracea), radish (Raphanus sativus) and some other locally grown vegetables (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). The microorganism predominantly occurring in gundruk have been identified as Lactobacillus brevis, L. plantarum, L. paracasei, Pediococcus pentosaceus, P. acidilactici and Leuconostoc fallax (Tamang et al., 2005). For its fermentation, fresh leaves of the selected vegetables are first wilted and shredded using a sickle or knife. These are then crushed mildly and pressed into an earthen pot. The container is then made air tight and left to ferment naturally at room temperature for about 7 to 10 days. After the incubation period the leaves takes a mild acidic taste which indicates the completion of fermentation. The gundruk is then removed and sun dried for 3 to 4 days, which helps in storage. Gundruk is sold in all the local markets of Darjeeling hills and Sikkim by the Nepali women. It is eaten as a soup or pickle. The soup which is prepared after mixing gundruk with certain ingredients serves as a good appetizer (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Sinki This is a form of fermented radish (Raphanus sativus L.) tap root and is consumed by the Nepalis in Darjeeling, Sikkim and Nepal. It is prepared during the months of winter when weather is least humid and there is ample supply of this vegetable (Tamang and Sarkar, 1993; Sekar and Mariappan, 2007).The microbes associated with its fermentation have been identified as Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis and L. fermentum (Tamang and Sarkar, 1993). Fresh tap roots of radish are cleaned by washing, wilted by sun-drying for 1-2 days until they become soft. They are then shredded, dipped in lukewarm water, squeezed and placed tightly into an earthen jar with the help of a heavy wooden pestle. The jar is sealed with an earthen lid and is covered with radish leaves. It is then kept in a warm and dry place for 1530 days (Tamang and Sarkar, 1993). Alternatively, a pit of about 1 metre depth and diameter is dug in a dry place. This is cleaned, and dried by lighting a fire. The ashes are removed and the sides are plastered with mud while still hot. It is then covered on all sides with dried leaves of bamboo, banana or radish. The shredded roots are pressed tightly into this pit, then covered with dried leaves and weighed with heavy stones or wooden planks. The top is then plastered with mud or cow dung and left to ferment for a period of 30-40 days. After this the fermented mass is taken 379 out, cut into small pieces and sundried for 3-5 days. This product can be kept for 2 years or more at room temperature by exposing to sunlight periodically (Tamang and Sarkar, 1993; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Sinki has a pH of 4.4, and a protein and fat content 14.6 g and 2.5 g respectively on dry weight basis. It has a highly acidic flavour, and is used as a base for soup and pickle. It is said to be a good appetizer, and is used as a remedy for indigestion (Tamang and Sarkar, 1993). Ziang-sang/ Ziang-dui This is a fermented leafy vegetable product which is common to both the states of Manipur and Nagaland. It is produced dominantly by the Naga women and sold in the local markets (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). The microbes associated have been identified as Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis and Pediococcus acidilactici (Tamang et al., 2005). Ziang-sang is prepared during the winter season. 2 to 3 days old withered leaves of hangam (Brassica sp.) are crushed using traditional wooden mortar and pestle and soaked in warm water. They are then squeezed to remove the excess water and put inside air tight container and allowed to go for semisolid fermentation for a period of 7-10 days at ambient temperature (20 - 30 0 C). From the fermented product, the juice is extracted by squeezing with hands and the paste is sundried for 4 to 5 days, which can then be stored for more than a year. This is called ziang-sang. The liquid part is concentrated by boiling and can be stored in traditional bamboo containers for more than a year. This part is called ziang-dui. Ziang-sang is consumed as a soup with boiled rice and ziang-dui is used as condiment with meals (Jeyaram et al., 2009; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Goyang The Sherpa tribe belonging to the state of Sikkim and hills of Darjeeling prepare this fermented product from leaves of the wild plant maganesaag (Cardamine macrophylla Willd.) (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Samples have been found to contain the species Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, Lactococcus lactis, Enterococcus faecium and Pediococcus pentosaceus (Tamang and Tamang, 2007). During the rainy season the leaves of the plant magane-saag are found in plenty. They are collected, washed, chopped into pieces and squeezed to remove the excess water. The leaves are tightly pressed into a bamboo basket lined with 2-3 layers of fig (Ficus carica) leaves. The top of the basket is also International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 380 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C. covered with fig leaves and is left to ferment at room temperature (15–250C) for a period of 1 month. After this the goyang may be transferred to an air tight container where it can be stored for a period of 2-3 months. The product may also be made into balls and sundried which increases its shelf life. Locally, goyang is boiled with beef or yak meat and noodles and made into a thick soup like dish called thupka (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Khalpi Khalpi is a cucumber product of the state of Sikkim and Darjeeling hills. It is generally prepared for home consumption by the Nepali Brahmins belonging to the Bahun and Chettri castes. Microbes associated with its fermentation have been identified as Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis and Lecuonostoc fallax. For preparation of khalpi, mature and ripened cucumbers are cut into definite sizes and sundried for 2 days. They are then put into bamboo vessels called dhungroo and sealed. Fermentation is allowed to take place for 4 to 7 days at room temperature. The product can be stored for about a week in an air tight container. It is taken as a pickle after mixing with mustard oil, chillies and salt (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Anishi Native to the state of Nagaland, this product is prepared mainly by the Ao tribe. For its preparation leaves of edible yam (Colocasia sp.) are used. The fresh mature green leaves are collected and washed properly. They are then piled one upon another and finally wrapped with a banana leaf. They are then left for about 6 to 7 days till the leaves turn yellow. The yellow leaves are then mixed with salt, chilli and ginger and grounded into a paste. This paste is then made into cakes and kept over the fireplace in the kitchen. After 2 to 3 days of drying they become ready for consumption. It is used as a condiment and is usually cooked with dry meat, especially pork (Mao and Odyuo, 2007). Fermented Bamboo shoot This is another fermented product which is extensively used in the states of North-East India and bears resemblance to jiang-sun (Chen et al., 2010) and kardi in Orissa, India. It is mainly used as a taste enhancer and flavour provider. Many varieties of bamboo are used separately by the different tribes using their own traditional techniques. Soibum/ Soidon These are fermented bamboo shoot products and are indigenous foods of the state of Manipur. They are consumed as an indispensible part of the Manipuri diet and are familiar with the social customs of the people. Soibum is produced exclusively from succulent bamboo shoots of the species Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, D. sikkimensis, D. giganteus, Melocana bambusoide, Bambusa tulda and B. balcona. The process of fermentation is carried out from the months of June to September when bamboo shoots sprout. The sites known for the production of soibum in Manipur are located mostly in the hills and are subjected to the availability and abundance of the raw material (Jeyaram et al., 2009; Bhatt et al., 2003). The organisms found to be associated with the fermentation of soibum have been identified as Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis, L. coryniformis, L. delbrueckii, , L. lactis, Leuconostoc falllax, L. mesentroides, Enterococcus durans, Streptococcus lactis, Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, B. coagulans, and the yeasts Candida sp., Saccharomyces sp., Torulopsis sp.(Tamang and Tamang, 2009a ; Tamang et al., 2008). Two types of fermentation procedures are followed for soibum preparation, namely noney/ kwatha type and andro type. In both the methods, the outer inedible and hard casings of succulent bamboo sprouts are peeled off and the soft portions are chopped and pressed tightly into wooden or earthen pots and left to ferment for 6-12 months. The noney/ kwatha type is the more preferred one which is batch type fermentation that results more acidic product with more acidic taste and is carried out in traditionally designed bamboo chamber which is covered with leaves of wild plants or polythene sheet. Slices of succulent and soft bamboo shoots are packed tightly into this bamboo chamber. After being filled to the full of its capacity the upper opening of the basket is sealed with polythene sheet and weights laid upon it to make the sealing intact. The bottom of this basket is perforated in order to allow seepage of the acidic juices produced during fermentation. The setup is left in this manner for 6-12 months for proper solid stage fermentation to take place. The product after completion of fermentation can be stored for more than a year. Andro type of fermentation is practiced only in Andro village of Manipur. In this process fed batch type of fermentation is carried out in bulky roasted earthen pots. A portion of the pot is first filled with bamboo shoot slices and fermentation is allowed to occur. After the mash volume gets reduced due to fermentation, additional slices of bamboo shoot are added and pressure is applied from International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India above to compact the mass. This process is continued until the pot is filled to the top and then it is kept for a period of 6-12 months. Here the juices are not allowed to drain out (Jeyaram et al., 2008a). The product is whitish in colour with faint aroma and sour taste. The prepared soibum is commonly sold in local vegetable markets exclusively by Maitei women. It is generally consumed with steamed rice as a side dish. It is also cooked with Colocasia sp corms, green peas, pumpkins, potatoes, etc in different recipes like chutney. Some people also fry it with fishes (Jeyaram et al., 2009; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). When the apical meristems of succulent bamboo shoots are fermented, the product is known as soidon. The species used are Teinostachyum wightii, Bambusa tulda Roxb., Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro, Melocana bambusoide Trin. (Jeyaram et al., 2009; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Species of Lactobacillus brevis, Leuconostoc fallax and L. lactis have been found to be associated with its fermentation (Tamang et al., 2008). For preparing soidon, the tips of mature bamboo shoots are collected and the succulent tender meristems are taken out by removing the outer castings and the lower portions. The tips are then cut transversely into pieces and submerged in water in an earthen pot. Milky fermented sour liquid (soijim) of previous batch is added in 1:1 dilution to this mixture as a starter culture. Leaves of the locally available plant named heibung (Garcinia pedunculata) may be added to the fermentation mixture as an acidifier and also to enhance the flavour. Rice washed water called chenghi may sometimes be added in 1:10 dilution to improve the colour. The pot is covered and fermentation is allowed to take place for a period of 3-7 days. After this period the soidon is ready to be consumed. It can be kept for a period of up to one year if stored in plastic containers at room temperature (Jeyaram et al., 2009; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Soidon is consumed as a as well as pickle. The liquid part of it may also be used as a condiment to supply the sour taste in curry (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Lung-seij This ethnic fermented bamboo shoot product belongs to the state of Meghalaya and is produced mainly by the Khasi women. It is prepared from Dendrocalamus hamiltonii species of bamboo available locally in Meghalaya. To prepare lung-seij, tender bamboo shoots of about 0.5 meters in length are selected and cut from the bamboo grooves. The bracts and sheaths are removed and then they are washed thoroughly with water, cleaned and the shoots are sliced into small pieces. These are then pressed 381 either into bamboo cylinders or glass bottles. Lactic acid bacteria have been found to be present in the fermented product (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). The bamboo cylinders used for fermentation are made by cutting one side open and the other side closed with the node. They are filled with the sliced shoots to the full capacity and the open side is closed with dried leaves and sealed by tying the rim with thread or grass. Care is taken to prevent the accidental seepage of water into the cylinder which makes the product black and unfit for consumption. These cylinders are then immersed in streams for a period of 1-2 months for fermentation to take place. The water in which the cylinders are kept should be cold; otherwise it is thought proper fermentation does not take place. This process is preferred more by the farmers and the rural people. This product can be stored up to 1 to 2 months. In case when glass bottles are used, the sliced bamboo shoots are filled inside the bottle and water is added till all the shoots are submerged. The bottle is then capped and kept at room temperature or near the fire place for fermentation. The shoots in the bottle can be kept up to 1 year. This process is preferred more by the urban people. The protein content of the fermented product has been found to be 8.5 gm% which is more than unfermented bamboo shoots. It is consumed as a curry by mixing with meat or fish (Agrahar-Murungkar and Subbulakshmi, 2006; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Mesu Mesu is a fermented bamboo shoot product indigenous to the people of Himalayan regions of Darjeeling hills and Sikkim. It is prepared only during the months of June to September when Bamboo shoots sprout. The species of bamboo used are the locally available choya bans (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees and Arnott), bhalu bans (D. sikkimensis Gamble) and karati bans (Bambusa tulda Roxb). Its chief producers are the Limboo women belonging to Nepali community (Tamang and Sarkar, 1996; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a; Sekar and Mariappan, 2007). Microbial analysis of young bamboo shoots demonstrated the presence of Lactobacillus plantarum, L. brevis and L. pentosaceus. It was found that L. pentosaceus was the initiator of fermentation, followed by L. brevis and finally dominated by L. plantarum (Tamang and Sarkar, 1996). In order to carry out the fermentation of mesu, young edible shoots of the bamboo plant are defoliated, chopped finely and pressed tightly into green hollow bamboo stem. The opening of this bamboo is covered tightly with leaves of bamboo or other wild plants. This is then left to ferment at room temperature (20- International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 382 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C. water is then poured upon the mixture and the brew that drips at the end is collected. The first draw is called tokti which is the strongest and the subsequent blackish brew is called ennog (Tiwari and Mahanta, 2007). Atingba The people of the state of Manipur prepare this alcoholic beverage called atingba from glutinous rice. The starter culture used for the preparation of atingba is called hamei. The recipes for their preparation are being kept secret and passed on from generation to generation (Jeyaram et al., 2008b). To prepare hamei raw rice is crushed with powder of barks of the plant yangli (Albizia myriophylla) (0.25 kg per kg of rice) along with water to form a dough like mass. To this is added powdered hamei of previous batch and mixed well. This is then made into flat cakes of approximately 2-7 cm in diameter and 0.6-1.5 cm thickness. They are then kept over rice husks in the floor or bamboo baskets for 2 to 3 days at room temperature. After fermentation the cakes swells, produces alcoholic flavour and yellowish coloration. They can be dried and stored for up to a year (Tamang et al., 2007; Jeyaram et al., 2008b; Jeyaram et al., 2009). The lactic acid bacteria isolated from samples of hamei have been identified as Lactobacillus plantarum and Pediococcus pentosaceus (Tamang and Nikkuni, 1998). The fungal agents associated with fermentation have been found to be Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia anomala, P. guilliermondi, P. fabianii, Candida tropicalis, C. parapsilosis, C. montana Torulaspora delbrueckii and Trichosporon sp. (Jeyaram et al., 2008b). For the production of atingba, glutinous rice is first cooked, cooled and mixed with crushed hamei (5 cakes for 10 kgs). The mixture is the fermented in solid state in mud pots covered with ‘hangla’ (Alocasia sp.) leaves for 3-4 days during summer and 6-7 days in winter. This is followed by 2-3 days of submerged fermentation in earthen pots. The beverage which is obtained after filtration of the fermented product is called atingba (Jeyaram et al., 2009). Kiad Kiad is popular local liquor prepared by the Jaintia tribe (also known as Pnar or Synteng) of the Jaintia hills of the state of Meghalaya. It plays an important role in Jaintia socio-cultural life and accompanies every religious festival and ceremony. The preparation of kiad is carried out in two stages; first the preparation of natural yeast called thiat and second is the brewing of the liquor kiad (Jaiswal 2010; Samati and Begum, 2007). For preparation of thiat, a handful of washed and cleaned leaves of the locally available plant khawiang (Amomum aromaticum Roxb.) are sun dried and grounded into powder in a wooden mortar pestle called as thlong-surai. 1-2 kgs of a local variety of rice called kho-so is soaked and then grounded to powder in a thlong-surai. These two powders are then mixed in a cone shaped basket caked khire and spring water is added to make a sticky paste. Small round cakes of about 4-5 cm in diameter and about 1 cm in thickness are made of the paste. These are kept in a round basket called malieng and covered by banana leaves. The malieng is hanged on a rectangular frame made of bamboo called la-er and exposed to sunlight or held above the fire place. After drying the cakes gets hardened and they are known as thiat and used as the yeast inoculum. For brewing kiad, 4-5 kgs of kho-so is mixed with spring water and cooked in a metallic vessel with continuous stirring. The cooked rice is then spread on a malieng for cooling and drying. Then to this 2-3 cakes if finely crushed thiat are mixed. The mixture is then put in a cone shaped basket called shang. The whole basket is covered with a cloth and left for 2-3 days. The fermented mash known as jyndem is distilled in a set of apparatus called shetkiad which is made by piling different sized vessels one above another. The distillate is known as kiad (Jaiswal, 2010; Samati and Begum, 2007). Kiad production serves as a source of income to the local people and its minimum consumption is considered to be good for health and acts as a remedy for various ailments (Samati and Begum, 2007). Sujen Sujen is a form of rice beer which is popular among the Deori tribe of Assam. It is also considered to be pure and used as a holy water by the Deori priests during various festivals and ceremonies. Sujen is prepared in two stages, first is the preparation of the natural starter called mod pitha and then the brewing of sujen (Deori et al., 2007). For preparation of mod pitha a variety of plant species (about 32 in number) are used. Some of these are Artocarpus heterophyllus, Cinnamomum bejolghota, Costus speciosus, Desmodium pulchellum, Coffea bengalenses, Cyperus sp., Equisetum sp., Lygodium flexuosum and Melastoma malabathricum. A handful of each of the plant’s cleaned leaves, fronds, barks, roots and bulbs are put in a round bamboo mesh called saloni and sun-dried for a day. Then 3 to 5 kgs of saol (rice) is soaked in water for about 2 hrs and mixed with the dried plant materials in a grounded in a wooden grinder called dheki along with 2 to 3 mod pithas. The grounded powder is sieved in a saloni and the fine powder obtained is taken in a metallic International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India 250C) for a period of 7-15 days. The completion of fermentation is indicated by the emission of a particular flavour. Fresh mesu has a shelf life of only about a week. However mesu is commonly used as a pickle by mixing it with salt, chilli and mustard oil, which can be stored for more than a year without refrigeration. Mesu is also used for preparing curry by frying and mixing with cooked meat (Tamang and Sarkar, 1996; Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Bas-tenga Bas-tenga which means “sour bamboo” is the fermented form of bamboo shoots and produced by the Nagas of Nagaland. The fermentation process is carried out during the months of May to June when the new shoots are formed. The young and tender bamboo shoots of locally available bamboo are collected and the sheaths are removed. They are then sliced or pounded to into small pieces. A conical bamboo basket is taken and a hole is made at the bottom (tapered end) and a pointed bamboo stick which is a little longer than the length of the basket is inserted into the hole passing through the centre. The inner wall of this basket is lined with bamboo leaves. The sliced bamboo shoots are then put in this basket which is tied to a post and the upper portion is covered with banana leaves and stones placed above them as weights. The bamboo stick helps in the seepage of the juices/sap, which is twisted and turned from time to time in order to allow proper drainage of the juices. The juices are collected at the bottom in a container. The fermentation of the shoots and the juices takes place separately within a week (Mao and Odyuo, 2007). The shoots can be stored in hollow internodes of bamboo with the open end plugged with leaves or wooden vat and the whole thing covered by banana leaves. The juice may also be stored in jar made of gourd which is used by the Nagas. The fermented shoots may also be dried in the sun which gives a different aroma and longer shelf life. All the above products are used in the preparation of meat, fish or other vegetable dishes. The juice also has a preservative property similar to vinegar and dishes cooked with it have longer shelf life (Mao and Odyuo, 2007). Ekung/ Hirring This is an ethnic fermented bamboo shoot product of the state of Arunachal Pradesh. It is called as ekung by the Nyishing tribe and hirring by the Apatani tribe of Arunachal Pradesh. It is prepared from mid April to early September when young bamboo shoots sprout. The species of bamboo used are Dendrocalamus 383 hamiltonii Nees. et Arn. ex Munro, D. giganteus Munro, Bambusa balcooa Roxb., B. tulda Roxb and Phyllostachys assamica Gamble ex Brandis (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a; Tamang and Tamang, 2009b). The microbes associated with its fermentation have been found to be Lactobacillus plantarum, L. lactis, L. brevis, L. casei and Tetragenococcus halophilus (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a; Tamang and Tamang, 2009b). The young and tender shoots of bamboo plant are collected and the outer sheaths removed and the edible part is chopped into very small pieces. A pit is dug in the ground and a bamboo basket is laid on it and lined with leaves. The basket is filled with chopped shoots, covered with leaves and then sealed. Heavy stones are laid upon the basket to drain off the excess water. They are then fermented for 1-3 months. The product can be stored for a year in air tight containers. It is consumed raw or cooked with meat, fish or vegetables. Sometimes this product is again cut into small pieces and dried in the sun for 5-10 days until the colour changes from whitish to chocolate brown. This can be stored up to 2 years at ambient temperature (Tamang and Tamang, 2009a). Miya mikhri It is produced by the Dimasa tribe of Assam. For its preparation, the bamboo shoots are collected, cleaned and cut into small pieces. They are then wrapped in banana leaf and kept inside an earthen pot. This pot is then left at room temperature for 4-5 days at room temperature. After the emission of smell, the shoots are shifted to a glass container. This can be stored for about a year. Miya mikhri can be taken as a pickle or even mixed with curry (Chakrabarty et al., 2009). Fermented fish Many tribes of North-East India prepare fermented fish, generally from the locally available small species of freshwater fish. Other products of this kind are nampha of Thailand, patis of Philippines and kaomi and ounago of Japan (Crisan and Sands, 1975).These products with their exquisite taste and smell serve as a source of protein in the diets of the people. Some of them are mentioned here. Ngari The fermented fish product ngari forms an intrinsic part of the diet of the Manipuri people in Manipur. The methods of preservation are traditionally used with cultural identity and these household arts are handed down through generations. The fish species International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 384 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C. used for its preparation is Puntius sophore and they are used in the sun dried form called as phoubu (Jeyaram et al., 2009). Lactic acid bacteria are the chief fermenting organism found in samples of ngari. The species identified are Lactococcus plantarum and Lactobacillus plantarum. Bacillus subtilis, B. pumilus and Miocrococcus sp. have also been isolated from ngari. The fungal isolates have been identified as that of Candida sp. (Thapa et al., 2004). The preparation of ngari is mostly confined to small-households in the villages. The fishes are incurred directly from the local fish ponds or imported from the Brahmaputra valley. Moreover, it is practised more frequently in the fishing seasons i.e. October to January when Puntius fish are easily available. The fishes as a whole are washed and intact ones are selected. They are then dried in the sunlight for 3-4 days. When the fishes become semi-dried, they are rubbed with some amount of essential oils like mustard oil or fish oil and little amount of salt is added to help absorb the oils into the fish body. The dried fishes are then used for fermentation directly or stored in gunny bags for further use. When stored fishes are used for fermentation, they are first washed with water in a porous bamboo basket and the water is allowed to drain for one night. The fishes are then placed in gunny bags and pressed in order to remove the excess water and break the head and bones. The fishes are then put in earthen pots called chaphus previously maintained by smearing mustard oil. For new pots 8-10 times oil coating are required at an interval of 7-8 days whereas in old pots only one coating is required. The oil coating may be to create an anaerobic condition inside the pot. After packing the fish tightly in the pots, they are sealed with polyethene sheet, fish scales, oil smear, mud and cow dung slurry. The mouths of the chaphus are filled with cover paste and finally overlaid with cover leaf. The pots are then kept in the dark at room temperature for about 4-6 months. At this time the fermented fished becomes ready for consumption and are also locally known as chaphu kaiba. It has a characteristic smell and has a shelf life of 12-18 months (Jeyaram et al., 2009; Singh et al., 2010). Most strains of LAB isolated from ngari had a high degree of hydrophobicity, indicating their probiotic characters (Thapa et al., 2004). It is used for preparing different delicacies like eromba where it is added either after frying or steaming. It is also consumed as a side dish with rice (Singh et al., 2010). Hentak It is another fermented fish product prepared in the state of Manipur. It comes in the form of paste (Jeyaram et al., 2009). The microorganisms associated with hentak have been identified as Lactobacillus fructosus, L. amylophilus, Enterococcus faecium, Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecium along with fungus of Candida sp (Thapa et al., 2004). For the preparing of hentak, fishes of the species Esomus danricus are first dried in the sun. They are then crushed to powder in a mortar-pestle. On the other hand, petioles of the aroid plant (Alocasia macrorhiza) are cut into small pieces, washed with water and exposed in the sunlight for about an hour. Now equal weights of both the fish powder and the plant material are mixed and crushed together in order to make a paste. These are then made into small balls and transferred into earthen pots. These pots are left at room temperature for fermentation to take place. The process takes about two weeks after which the product becomes ready to be eaten. These balls become hardened on being stored for a few months, which can then be propounded to paste with a little water and stored as balls for reserved food (Jeyaram et al., 2009). Hentak is consumed as a curry as well as a supplement with boiled rice. Sometimes it is given to women in the final stages of their pregnancy (confinement) or patients recovering from sickness or injury (Sarojnalini and Singh, 1988). Tungtap This is indigenous to the Khasi tribe of Meghalaya. It is made at the household and village level and is sold throughout the district mostly at the weekly markets (Sekar and Mariappan, 2007; AgraharMurungkar and Subbulakshmi, 2006). The microbes found in tungtap have been identified as Lactobacillus coriniformis, L. lactis, L. fructosus, Bacillus cereus, B. subtilis, Candida sp., and Saccharomycopsis sp. (Thapa et al., 2004). Fishes of the species Puntius sophore are used for the preparation of tungtap. The fishes are washed, scaled and degutted initially followed by application of salt throughout the body, on the inside as well on the outside. They are then transferred to a clay pot which is subsequently filled with a mixture of salt and fish/ pork fat. The pot is then covered with banana leaf and tied tightly around the rim using a jute cord. The pot is then stored at room temperature for a period of 6-7 months. At the end of incubation period, the cord is untied and the fish is taken out, the extra salt and fat is removed with the help of a sharp knife (AgraharMurungkar and Subbulakshmi, 2006). The protein and fat content of tungtap is 40.6% International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India and 19.6 g% respectively on a dry weight basis. The process of fermentation enhances the palatability of the small fishes, basically by softening the bones and improving the flavour and texture of the meat. The final product has a soft spongy texture and is commonly used in the form of chutney with green leaves, onions, and chillies (Agrahar-Murungkar and Subbulakshmi, 2006). Tungtap is also taken as a side-dish in the form of pickle (Sekar and Mariappan, 2007). Gnuchi Gnuchi is a smoked and dried fish product commonly eaten by the Lepcha community of Sikkim. The word gnuchi means smoked fish in the Lepcha language. It serves as an important source of protein in the local diet and is prepared using indigenous knowledge of the rural people. The fished used for its preparation are Schizothorax richardsonii Gray, Labeo dero Hamilton, Acrossocheilus spp., Channa sp., etc. The microorganisms associated with gnuchi fermentation have been identified as Enterococcus faecium, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Bacillus subtilis and Micrococcus sp. (Thapa et al., 2006). For its preparation, the fishes are first kept on a big bamboo tray called sarhang to drain off the water, degutted and mixed with salt and turmeric powder. They are then hung one after the other in a bamboo stripe above the earthen-oven and smoked for 7–10 days. It is then ready to be consumed. It can be kept at room temperature for 2-3 months. It is made into curry with vegetables and eaten with boiled rice. It has a protein content of 21.3 g% on dry weigh basis (Thapa et al., 2006). Fermented beans Fermented foods made from legumes constitute an important part of the human diet in many developing countries, including India (Sandhu and Soni, 1989). Fermented soybean products have been reported to be used extensively in almost all the states of North-East India and bears resemblance to tou-shi, hamanatto, chiang-yu, shi-tche, chiang and tofu of China, tempe kedele, kecap and taoco of Indonesia, shoyu and miso of Japan (Wang and Fang, 1986; Nout, 1995). The whole grains contain flavinoids, terpenoids and other natural antioxidants like carotene, ascorbic acid and tocipherol. An increase in the content of crude protein and a decrease in fat content have been observed in some traditionally fermented bean product. Also, a significant decrease in crude fibre content has been observed (Gupta and Nagar, 2010). The high crude protein content may be attributed to the microflora 385 developed during the fermentation process (Gupta et al., 2007). Kinema Kinema is a soybean based fermented food. The soybean (Glycine max) is locally known as bhatmas and the varieties used are “yellow cultivar” and “dark brown cultivar”. It is produced individually or on household level and sold in the local markets. It is extensively prepared by the Nepalis belonging to the Limboo and Rai castes of Sikkim. The produce is sticky in nature and has an ammonical flavour. The skill of production of this delicacy has been protected as a hereditary right and passed from one generation to another (Tamang et al., 2009). It is produced by the natural fermentation of bacterial species namely Bacillus subtilis and Enterococcus faecium. The fungal species Candida parapsilosis and Geotrichum candidum have also isolated from commercially available kinema (Sarkar et al., 1994). For preparation of kinema, soybeans are soaked overnight followed by boiling to soften them. The excess water is drained off and the cotyledons are split open by grinding lightly in a wooden mortar (okhli) and pestle (muslo). This is done to increase the surface area for speedy fermentation. Then about 1 % of firewood ash is added in order to maintain an alkaline condition. Soybean grits are then placed on a bamboo basket lined with fresh fern (Glaphylopteriolopsis erubescens). The basket is then covered with a jute bag and left to ferment naturally at ambient temperature (which is about 20–350C in Sikkim). The whole thing is placed over an earthen oven and left for 1-2 days after which the completion of fermentation is indicated by the appearance of white viscous mass upon the soybeans and the release of ammonical odour. Its shelf life is 2-3 days in summer and 5-7 days in winter (Tamang et al., 2009). The indigenous knowledge of microbiology is correlated by the practice of not cleaning up the mortar and pestle to preserve and supplement the microorganisms for spontaneous fermentation without the use of starter cultures (Tamang, 2003). Water soluble nitrogen, formal nitrogen to total nitrogen and ammonia (upto 200 mg/100 gm) concentration of kinema rises rapidly during fermentation as a result of the high proteolytic activity of Bacillus subtilis. This leads to the release of free amino acids followed by de-amination. The final pH of the produce may be as high as 8.6 (Tamang and Nikkuni, 1998; Sarkar et al., 1993; Sekar and Mariappan, 2007). It serves as a major source of protein in the diet of the people of this region. Kinema contains about 48% (dry weight basis) of crude protein International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 386 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C. and the free amino acids accounts to approximately 26 % of total amino acid content (Sarkar et al., 1997; Sarkar et al., 1994). Kinema is eaten as a curry with boiled rice. The curry is prepared by frying the kinema in vegetable oil followed by mixing with chopped onions, tomatoes and turmeric powder. They are then fried for about 2 minutes. Then salt and sliced green chillies are added and fried for 3-5 minutes. A little water is added to make thick gravy, and cooked for 5-7 minutes (Tamang et al., 2009). Hawaijar Produced in the state of Manipur, Hawaijar is a sticky fermented soybean product. Its name is derived from “hawai” meaning pulses and “jar” which is shortened form of achar, meaning pickle (Jeyaram et al., 2009; Premarani and Chhetry, 2010). It constitutes an important part of the diet of Meitei people since several last decades. The Brahmin community of Manipur is believed to have started the production and consumption of this delicacy. In Manipur soybean is known as nung hawai (nung = stone, hawai= legumes/ pulses) and two varieties, viz. the local variety with small seeds and the bigger, round seeded variety are used for the preparation on Hawaijar. The produce is brown in colour and covered with a white slimy substance (Jeyaram et al., 2009). The species Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, B. cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, S. sciuri, Alkaligenes sp. and Providencia rettger have been found to be predominantly present in the fermented hawaijar (Jeyaram et al., 2008a). For its preparation, soybean seeds are soaked overnight after which they are washed thoroughly with water and boiled till the seeds become soft. They are then washed with hot water and packed tightly in a small bamboo basket (lubak) with a lid. The base of the basket is layered with the leaves of fig plant (Ficus hispida) or banana plant (Musa sp.) leaves. The basket is then wrapped with a jute cloth and kept in the sun or near to stove or buried in paddy. This helps in maintaining the optimal temperature (> 400C) required for fermentation to take place. The fermented product becomes ready for consumption after 3-5 days. The final product is brown in colour, has a sticky texture and emits ammonia like odour. The fermented product is then wrapped with banana leaves for storage (Jeyaram et al., 2009; Premarani and Chhetry, 2010; Tamang et al., 2009). Hawaijar has a very short shelf-life of 3-4 days. Hence, the product is sometimes dried in the sun for long-term storage. Hawaijar is known for its unique organoleptic properties. A special delicacy of the Manipuris called chagempomba is prepared using hawaijar, rice and other vegetables. It is also eaten as a paste with chilli and salt and is known as ametpa. A fermented fish product called ngari is sometimes added to ametpa to enhance the flavour. Hawaijar is also added while cooking other vegetables (Premarani and Chhetry, 2010). Tungrumbai The Khasi tribe of Meghalaya prepares tungrumbai, which is also a soybean (Glycine max L.Merril) based fermented food and is very common. It is sticky in nature and serves as a cheap source of protein in the diet of the masses. The bacterial species found to be associated with tungrumbai fermentation are Bacillus subtilis and Enterococcus faecium. The fungal strains have been identified as Candida parapsilosis, Saccharomyces bayanus, Saccharomycopsis fibuligera and Geotrichum candidum (Sohliya et al., 2009; Sarkar et al., 1994). Its production is still a traditional art carried out by local Khasis at the household level and various centres in the state (Agrahar-Murungkar and Subbulakshmi, 2006). For preparing tungrumbai the soybean seeds are cleaned, washed and soaked in double the quantity of water for about 4-6 hours. The outer skins of the beans are then removed by rubbing them in between the palms. The soaked beans are then cooked in the same water for about 1 hour till all the water is absorbed. The cooked beans which can now be pressed easily are allowed to cool. They are then placed on a bamboo basket the inner surface of which is lined with leaves of Clinogyne dichotoma locally known as lamet. The whole basket is then covered with lamet leaves or jute bags in order to prevent contact with air. They are then left to ferment either in the ambient temperature (25 –400C) or near the fire place in order to provide the necessary temperature for fermentation to take place. The incubation time is usually 3-4 days after which the fermented product is obtained as a brown mass with a characteristic odour (Agrahar-Murungkar and Subbulakshmi, 2006; Sohliya et al., 2009; Tamang et al., 2009). The fermenting organisms i.e. LAB and yeast have been found to be supplied by the water source. Also some of the bacteria have been found to be present in the raw soybeans and the lamet leaves (Sohliya et al., 2009). The protein content in tungrumbai has been found to be 45.9 g % on a dry weight basis. Whereas, fat, fibre and ash have been found to be 30.2, 12.8 and 5.5 g % respectively (Agrahar-Murungkar and Subbulakshmi, 2006). Tungrumbai is usually taken as a side dish with rice. For preparation of curry, tungrumbai is put into a container with water and International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India boiled till water evaporates and stirred continuously. It is mixed with fried, ginger, garlic, chilli, grinded black sesame and salt (Tamang et al., 2009). Aakhone/ Bekang / Peruyyan These are all fermented soybean products and known by different names among different tribes. They are prepared from soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merril). Lactic acid bacteria, Bacillus subtilis and other Bacillus species have been found in these samples. For preparation, the beans are first soaked in water, washed and boiled until they become soft. The excess water is then drained out. The cooked beans are then wrapped in leaves of either banana (Musa sp.) or Phrynium pubinerve Blume or Macaranga indica Wight or Calliparpa aroria, and kept over the fire place in order to provide the optimum temperature. The whole process of fermentation takes about a week. They are then ready to be taken. It is known as aaknone in Nagaland, bekang in Mizoram and peruyyan among the Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh. For long term storage they can be kept above the fireplace by moulding into pastes or in the form of cakes. Sometimes individual beans are separated, dried in the sun and stored in containers. The fermented product with its characteristic odour can be used in the preparation of chutney along with chilli, tomato and salt. It can also be cooked along with meat to give flavour and taste to the dish (Mao and Odyuo, 2007; Tamang et al., 2009). Fermented alcoholic beverages Fermented alcoholic beverages of different forms have been reported to be consumed by the tribal people of North-East India since time immemorial. These products are similar to shaosingiju and laochao of China, sake of Japan, chongju and takju of Korea, brem bali and tape-ketan of Indonesia, tapuy of Indonesia, khaomak of Thailand and tapai pulul of Malaysia (Lee, 2009). This practice has its roots in many cultural and religious practices of the people of this region and practically has no ill effect upon the health of the hard working population. Some of them are mentioned here. Apong Apong is an alcoholic beverage prepared in the state of Arunachal Pradesh and is familiar to almost all the tribes of the state. It is also prepared by the Mishings of Assam. It bears a very important place in the tradition of the people of this region. The starter culture used for its preparation is called ipoh which contains the yeast to carry out the fermentation 387 (Tiwari and Mahanta, 2007). The yeasts associated are Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Hanseniaspora sp, Kloeckera sp, Pischia sp. and Candida sp., with S. cerevisiae being the dominant one (Tanti et al., 2010). For preparation of ipoh rice is first dried and grinded into fine powder. This is then mixed with powder of seeds and barks of the locally available plants Veronia cinerea Less and Clerodendron viscosum Vent. This mixture is taken into a vessel called Dekchi and made into a paste using water of previously prepared apong. This paste is poured and spread on bamboo mats and made into disc shaped small cakes. They are then carefully dried over the fireplace or left in a cool place for 3 to 4 days. After drying they can be stored for up to a year (Tiwari and Mahanta, 2007). For preparing apong, rice is first washed and boiled in a large aluminium vessel with a wide bottom. Care should be taken not to overcook the rice such that it becomes soggy. The ipoh is then thoroughly mixed with the rice in proper quantity. This is then transferred to another vessel with a lid and a little amount of water is added to it. It is then left to ferment at room temperature for a period of 3 to 5 days after which is emits a strong alcoholic smell. The stock is diluted with water before consumption (Tiwari and Mahanta, 2007). Ennog/ Sai Mod It is a form of black rice beer which is prepared and consumed by the tribal people of Arunachal Pradesh and the Mishings of Assam (Tiwari and Mahanta, 2007). Rice is first boiled and spread on a bamboo mat to cool. Simultaneously, paddy husk is filled into a large tin sheet or drum and allowed to burn slowly and evenly till they become black. The burnt husk, while still hot is mixed with the boiled rice and allowed to cool. After cooling, the mixture is again mixed with crumbled ipoh cakes. They are then transferred to a conical bamboo basket lined with leaves of ekkam (Phryium capitulum Wild). The whole basket is then covered with leaves and left to ferment for a period of 3 days when strong alcoholic smell is emitted. Now, the mixture is transferred to another U-shaped bamboo basket called perop lined with ekkam leaves. The basket is covered with more leaves and a piece of wood is placed on its top and a stone upon it for proper sealing. Fermentation is allowed to take place for a period of 10 days after which the beer becomes ready for filtration. For filtration, about 2 kilograms of the mixture is loaded into a cylindrical bamboo tube called petok which is fitted with a small opening at one end. Boiling hot International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 388 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C. utensil. To this water id added and a paste is made by mixing. This is again made into small round cakes which are kept on clean and dry paddy straws called kher spread on a round bamboo utensil called kula and again covered with kher. The kula is then kept on a rectangular frame made of bamboo called dhuasang above the fireplace. Upon drying the mod pithas become hard and they can be stored for 2 to 3 months. For brewing sujen, 4 to 5 kgs of saol is mixed with rice husk called tuh and water and cooked with stirring. Cooked saol is poured on a round bamboo utensil called dola covered with clean banana leaves. 2 to 3 powdered mod pithas are added to the warm saol and mixed thoroughly. The mixture is gathered into a round mount and on top of it three jalokias (chillies) and three pieces of burning koila (charcoal) are kept. Fronds of Pteridium aquilinum called bihlongoni are spread over the mount and covered with “kolpat” (banana leaves) above which a dola is placed. A big earthen pot called koloh is sterilized by washing with ashes and the drying above a smoking fireplace. The mixture is transferred to this pot and the mouth of the pot is sealed with bihlongoni and kolpat and wrapped tightly with a cloth. This is left to ferment for 3 to 4 days in summer and 7 days in winter. After fermentation the mass is filtered and sujen is obtained as the filtrate. This can be stored for a month in winter and 2-3 weeks in summer. It can be further diluted according to need (Deori et al., 2007). Kodo ko Jaanr The tribal people of Sikkim prepare kodo ko jaanr from dry seeds of finger millet (Eleusine coracana), locally called kodo. It constitutes an integral part of dietary culture and religious beliefs among the ethnic people in the Sikkim (Tamang et al., 1996; Sekar and Mariappan, 2007). A traditionally prepared mixed inocula or starter called murcha is used for its preparation. The microbes associated with murcha and kodo ko jaanr has been identified as Mucor cicinelloides, Rhizopus chinensis, R. stolonifer var. lyococcus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. bayanus, Hansenula anomala, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Lactobacillus sp., Candida glabrata, Saccharomycopsis capsularis, S. fibuligera, Pichia burtonii, P. anomala, Cryptococcus sp., Trichosporon sp., Debaryomyces sp., Kluyveromyces sp., Myxozyma sp., Bullera sp., Rhodotorula sp. and Tremella sp. (Tamang and Sarkar,1995; Tsuyoshi et al., 2005; Tiwari et al., 2007; Sekar and Mariappan, 2007). For preparing murcha, glutinous rice is soaked in water for 6 to 8 hours and pounded on a foot-driven heavy wooden mortar and pestle. To 1 kg of the grinded rice, is added roots of Plumbago zeylanica L.(2.5 g), leaves of Buddleja asiatica Lour (1.2 g) flowers of Vernonia cinere Less (1.2 g), Gingiber officinale (5.0 g), red dry chilli (1.2 g) and previously prepared marcha (10.0 g).The mixture is kneaded into flat cakes placed on a bamboo mat lined with fresh fronds of ferns [Glaphylopteriolopsis erubescens (Wall ex Hook.) Ching] and covered with dry ferns and jute bags. This is placed above the kitchen and allowed to ferment for 1 to 3 days. These are then sundried for 2 to 3 days. The product is called murcha and can be stored in a dry place for more than a year (Tsuyoshi et al., 2005). For preparing kodo ko jaanr, seeds of finger millet are cleaned, washed and cooked for about 30 min. Excess water is drained off and cooked millets are spread on a bamboo-mat called mandro for cooling. About 1 to 2% of powdered marcha is sprinkled over cooked seeds, mixed thoroughly and packed in a bamboo basket lined with fresh fern (Thelypteris erubescens), locally called thadre unioon or banana leaves, then covered with jute clothes, and kept for 2-4 days at room temperature. After this, the mass is transferred into an earthen pot or into specially made bamboo basked called septu and made air-tight. This is then fermented for 3 to 4 days during summer and 5 to 7 days in winter at room temperature. About 200500 g of the fermented mass is put into a vessel called toongbaa and lukewarm water is added up to the edge of it. After about 10 to15 minutes, milky white extract of jaanr is sipped through a narrow bamboo straw called pipsing having a hole in a side near the bottom to avoid passing of grits. Water can be added 2-3 times after sipping up the extract (Singh and Jain, 1995; Tamang et al., 1996). Xaj - pani The Ahoms of Assam prepare a kind of rice beer which they locally call as xaj-pani. It is the most important beverage which is used frequently in religious rites and rituals practised among the Ahoms. They also use it during the Bihu festivals as a refreshing drink and also taken after hard labour. For preparing xaj pani, the starter culture called vekur pitha first needs to be prepared (Saikia et al., 2007). For preparing vekur pitha, leaves of Lygodium flaxuosum Linn., Leucas aspera Spreng, Cissampelos Pereira, Scoparia dulsis Linn., Cinamommum glanduliferum Meissn. and Piper betle Linn. are collected and dried in the sunlight for 1-2 days. These are then grounded to powder and mixed with powdered rice in a vessel with some amount of water. To this powder of previously prepared pitha called ghai pitha is added which serves as a source of yeast. The mixture is then made into disc shaped cakes International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 Fermented foods and beverages of the North-East India and wrapped with banana leaves (Musa paradisiaca Linn.) and kept in air locked condition above the fire heart for 4 to 5 days. After getting dried, the cakes are known as vekur pitha which serves as the source of Saccharomyces cerevisae and can be stored for future use. For preparation of rice beer the main variety of rice used by the Ahoms is Bora rice belonging to Sali variety. The rice is first cooked and spread on a plain plate and is left open for about an hour. The cooled and dried rice is then mixed with vekur pitha. This mixture is then transferred to an earthen pot called kalah which is kept at a dark place on a corner of the house for a period of 4-5 days in air locked condition. After this period, the concentrated alcoholic juice is collected from the kalah by filtration process. This is done by placing a vessel of appropriate size on the mouth of the pot to act as a lid or by placing rice straw to prevent the exit of semi solid rice. The filtrate is known as xaj pani which is highly aromatic, alcoholic and has a sweet taste (Saikia et al., 2007). Zutho Zutho is rice beer produced from sprouted rice grain by the Angami tribe belonging to Nagaland. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the dominant microflora in the fermentation of zutho (Teramoto et al., 2002; Sekar and Mariappan, 2007). For preparing zutho, un-hulled glutinous rice grains are soaked in water for 3 days, then the water is drained off and the rice is allowed to germinate for 3-4 days in summer and 7 days in winter. The sprouted rice grains along with the hulls are then pounded in a wooden mortar and pestle to produce the grist. Along with polished glutinous rice grains are soaked in water. After drainage of the water, they are pounded in a wooden mortar pestle. To this rice powder is added boiling water (5 litres to 3 kgs) bit by bit with agitation. This soft rice porridge is allowed to cool and mixed with one handful of the grist in summer and two handfuls in winter. Fermentation of the mash is allowed to proceed in a wooden vessel for 2 to 3 days in summer and 7 days in winter. Then a portion of water is added to the fermented mash and strained through a bamboo basket. The filtrate is known as jutho. It is off-white slurry with alcohol content, pH and acidity of 5.0%, 3.6 and 5.1, respectively (Teramoto et al., 2002). The Zeme Naga tribe of North Cachar Hills of Assam also prepares their local beverage in a similar manner and their product is called by the name of dekuijao (Chakrabarty et al., 2009). Judima Another type of rice beer prepared by the Dimasa tribe of Assam is judima. The starter culture needed 389 for its preparation is known as humao. For preparing humao, brown rice is soaked in water for 10-12 hours at room temperature. It is then crushed with the barks of Glycyrrhiza glabra L. The mixture is then made into am paste by adding water and flat cakes are made out of it. These cakes are sundried and are known as humao (Chakrabarty et al., 2009). For preparing judima, rice is first cleaned and washed. This is then cooked and dewatered. After cooling it is mixed properly with humao in appropriate quantity. This mixture is then spread on a banana leaf for overnight and then transferred to an earthen pot and made partially air tight. Fermentation is allowed to take place at ambient temperature for 3-4 days during summer and 6-7 days during summer. The resultant juices are known as judima (Chakrabarty et al., 2009). Others Kharoli This is a kind of fermented mustard (Brassica juncea or B. nigra) seeds chutney and is prepared in the state of Assam. The mustard seeds are washed properly. After proper drying they are grinded and sieved. The powder is then placed over the dorsal side of a banana (Musa sp.) leaf which heated over the fire in order to soften it. A little salt is added and the mass is kneaded for about 15 minutes by adding kolakhar (indigenous soda water) little at a time. This is made into flattened balls and wrapped with the leaf which is again tied with a string. This parcel is kept in a warm place for about 3 days after which the kharoli gets ready. It is a sour favourite among the people of Assam and is eaten as chutney with rice (Hughes et al., 2001). Saphak/ Sathu It is a form of fermented pork fat and is called as saphak and sathu by the Hrangkol the Vaipei tribes respectively, residing in the north Cachar Hills District of Assam. The fats of pork is first washed and cut into small pieces. These are half boiled in water for about 15 to 20 minutes. The Hrangkol tribe keep these fats in air tight containers for 10 to 15 days after which they are consumed. The Vaipei tribe carry out the fermentation process inside containers made dried gourd cover called as sathu-um, by capping the mouth of the container air tight. The gourd is kept near the fire place for a period of 4 to 5 days. The fermented product can be stored for up to a year. These are consumed as pickle or as complement with other cuisine (Chakrabarty et al., 2009). International Food Research Journal 19(2): 377-392 390 Das, A. J. and Deka, S. C. Conclusion References The North-Eastern states are mostly agrarian with almost two-thirds of the population engaged in agriculture and allied activities. Majority of the land in these states is covered with forests which are rich source natural resources. The fermentation technologies practices by the ethnic people reveal a strong correlation of these people with nature and the assessment of microbial benefits. The rich microbial diversity in various sources of fermented foods and beverages reflects that the indigenous people have been harnessing indigenous microbiota for spontaneous fermentation. Climatic conditions also play major role in the type of fermented foods produced in the temperate, sub-tropical and tropical climates of this region. Besides the food items mentioned here, other products like. Modern science and technological knowledge should be united to produce beneficial results. Development of value added products by selecting productive microbial strains, genetic improvement, process improvement, raw material improvement, improving process control, the use of immobilised systems and/or enzymes, study of probiotic activity and use of genetically modified organisms will lead to industrialization of these food products. Multi-institutional collaborative research will lead to standardization of the fermented food products and increase their shelf life. At present these products are produced only for local consumption. A commercial unit of the traditional fermented foods of the North-Eastern states should be developed which would in turn help in proper marketing of the products in packed form. This would contributes to subsistence of regional economy and prove as a boost to the livelihood of the rural people. Up gradation of the technologies involved can be brought about without damaging the existing form of product. Different kind of neutraceuticals and novel compounds may be produced from fermented foods if proper research is meted out. A database can be developed listing all the fermented foods available in the region, along with their place of origin and production, raw materials used, microorganisms involved, nutritional value and the cost involved. 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