World Squid Fisheries

This art icle was downloaded by: [ Universit y of Kiel] On: 25 June 2015, At : 03: 24 Publisher: Taylor & Francis I nform a Lt d Regist ered in England and Wales Regist ered Num ber: 1072954 Regist ered office: Mort im er House, 37- 41 Mort im er St reet , London W1T 3JH, UK Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture Publicat ion det ails, including inst ruct ions f or aut hors and subscript ion inf ormat ion: ht t p: / / www. t andf online. com/ loi/ brf s21 World Squid Fisheries a b cd e Alexander I. Arkhipkin , Paul G. K. Rodhouse , Graham J. Pierce , Warwick Sauer , Mit suo f g h i h j Sakai , Louise Allcock , Juan Arguelles , John R. Bower , Gladis Cast illo , Luca Ceriola , k l m e n Chih-Shin Chen , Xinj un Chen , Mariana Diaz-Sant ana , Nicola Downey , Angel F. González , o p n q Jasmin Granados Amores , Corey P. Green , Angel Guerra , Lisa C. Hendrickson , Christ ian r s t f u v Ibáñez , Kingo It o , Pat rizia Jereb , Yoshiki Kat o , Oleg N. Kat ugin , Mit suhisa Kawano , w u x d Hideaki Kidokoro , Vladimir V. Kulik , Vladimir V. Lapt ikhovsky , Marek R. Lipinski , Bilin l h h h y z Liu , Luis Mariát egui , Wilbert Marin , Ana Medina , Kat suhiro Miki , Kazut aka Miyahara , aa ab ac ad Nat alie Molt schaniwskyj , Hassan Moust ahf id , Jaruwat Nabhit abhat a , Nobuaki Nanj o , ae Click for updates af ag ah Chingis M. Nigmat ullin , Tet suya Oht ani , Gret t a Pecl , J. Angel A. Perez , Uwe ai aj al am o ak w Piat kowski , Pirochana Saikliang , Cesar A. Salinas-Zavala , Michael St eer , Yongj un Tian , Yukio Uet a , Dharmamony Vij ai h Yamashiro , Norio Yamashit a ap an ao , Toshie Wakabayashi , Tadanori Yamaguchi , Carmen aq & Louis D. Zeidberg a Fisheries Depart ment , St anley, Falkland Islands b Brit ish Ant arct ic Survey, Nat ural Environment al Research Council, Cambridge, UK c Oceanlab, Universit y of Aberdeen, Newburgh, UK d CESAM & Depart ament o de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Port ugal e Depart ment of Icht hyology and Fisheries Science, Rhodes Universit y, Grahamst own, Sout h Af rica f Tohoku Nat ional Fisheries Research Inst it ut e, Fisheries Research Agency, Hachinohe-shi, Aomori, Japan g School of Biological Sciences, Queen's Universit y, Belf ast , Belf ast , UK h Inst it ut o del Mar del Perú (IMARPE), Callao, Perú i Facult y of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido Universit y, Hakodat e, Hokkaido, Japan j FAO MedSudMed, Rome, It aly k Inst it ut e of Marine Af f airs and Resource Management , Nat ional Taiwan Ocean Universit y, Keelung, Taiwan l College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean Universit y, Shanghai, China m Cent ro Int erdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas-IPN, La Paz, BCS, México n Inst it ut o de Invest igaciones Marinas (CSIC), Vigo, Spain o Cent ro de Invest igaciones Biológicas del Noroest e SC, La Paz, BCS, México p Depart ment of Environment and Primary Indust ries, Fisheries Vict oria, Queensclif f , Vict oria, Aust ralia q Nort heast Fisheries Science Cent er, U. S. Nat ional Marine Fisheries Service, Woods Hole, Massachuset t s, USA r Depart ament o de Ciencias Ecológicas, Facult ad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Sant iago, Chile s Fisheries Research Inst it ut e, Aomori Pref ect ural Indust rial Technology Research Cent er, Aomori, Japan t ISPRA, Rome, It aly u Pacif ic Research Fisheries Cent re (TINRO-Cent re), Vladivost ok, Russia v Yamaguchi Pref ect ural Fisheries Research Cent er, Nagat o, Yamaguchi, Japan w Japan Sea Nat ional Fisheries Research Inst it ut e, Fisheries Research Agency, Niigat a, Japan x Fisheries Division, CEFAS, Lowest of t , Suf f olk, UK y Nat ional Research Inst it ut e of Fisheries Science, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan z Hyogo Fisheries Technology Inst it ut e, Fut ami, Akashi, Hyogo, Japan aa School of Environment al and Lif e Sciences, Universit y of Newcast le, Ourimbah, New Sout h Wales, Aust ralia ab Nat ional Oceanic and At mospheric Administ rat ion (NOAA), Unit ed St at es Int egrat ed Ocean Observing Syst em (US IOOS), Operat ions Division, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA ac Excellence Cent re f or Biodiversit y of Peninsular Thailand (CBIPT), Facult y of Science, Prince of Songkla Universit y, Hat yai, Songkhla, Thailand ad Fisheries Research Inst it ut e, Toyama Pref ect ural Agricult ural, Forest ry and Fisheries Research Cent er, Namerikawa, Toyama, Japan ae At lant ic Research Inst it ut e of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (At lant NIRO), Kaliningrad, Russia af Taj ima Fisheries Technology Inst it ut e, Hyogo Pref ect ural Technology Cent er f or Agricult ure, Forest ry and Fisheries, Kasumi, Kami, Mikat a, Hyogo, Japan ag Inst it ut e f or Marine and Ant arct ic St udies, Universit y of Tasmania, Hobart , Tasmania, Aust ralia Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 ah Cent ro de Ciências Tecnológicas da Terra e do Mar (CTTMar), Universidade do Vale do It aj aí (UNIVALI), It aj aí, SC, Brazil ai Leibniz-Inst it ut e of Marine Sciences IFM-GEOMAR, Kiel, Germany aj Bureau of Fisheries Expert , Depart ment of Fisheries, Kaset Klang, Chat uchak, Bangkok, Thailand ak Sout h Aust ralian Research and Development Inst it ut e (Aquat ic Sciences), Henley Beach, Sout h Aust ralia, Aust ralia al Tokushima Agricult ure, Forest ry and Fishery Technology and Support Cent er, Fisheries Research Inst it ut e, Tokushima, Japan am Graduat e School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido Universit y, Hakodat e, Hokkaido, Japan an Nat ional Fisheries Universit y, Shimonoseki, Japan ao Saga Pref ect ural Genkai Fisheries Research and Development Cent er, Karat su, Saga, Japan ap Hokkaido Nat ional Fisheries Research Inst it ut e, Fisheries Research Agency, Kat surakoi, Kushiro, Hokkaido, Japan aq Calif ornia Depart ment of Fish and Wildlif e, Marine Region, Mont erey, Calif ornia, USA Published online: 09 Jun 2015. To cite this article: Alexander I. Arkhipkin, Paul G. K. Rodhouse, Graham J. Pierce, Warwick Sauer, Mit suo Sakai, Louise Allcock, Juan Arguelles, John R. Bower, Gladis Cast illo, Luca Ceriola, Chih-Shin Chen, Xinj un Chen, Mariana Diaz-Sant ana, Nicola Downey, Angel F. González, Jasmin Granados Amores, Corey P. Green, Angel Guerra, Lisa C. Hendrickson, Christ ian Ibáñez, Kingo It o, Pat rizia Jereb, Yoshiki Kat o, Oleg N. Kat ugin, Mit suhisa Kawano, Hideaki Kidokoro, Vladimir V. Kulik, Vladimir V. Lapt ikhovsky, Marek R. Lipinski, Bilin Liu, Luis Mariát egui, Wilbert Marin, Ana Medina, Kat suhiro Miki, Kazut aka Miyahara, Nat alie Molt schaniwskyj , Hassan Moust ahf id, Jaruwat Nabhit abhat a, Nobuaki Nanj o, Chingis M. Nigmat ullin, Tet suya Oht ani, Gret t a Pecl, J. Angel A. Perez, Uwe Piat kowski, Pirochana Saikliang, Cesar A. Salinas-Zavala, Michael St eer, Yongj un Tian, Yukio Uet a, Dharmamony Vij ai, Toshie Wakabayashi, Tadanori Yamaguchi, Carmen Yamashiro, Norio Yamashit a & Louis D. Zeidberg (2015) World Squid Fisheries, Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquacult ure, 23: 2, 92-252, DOI: 10. 1080/ 23308249. 2015. 1026226 To link to this article: ht t p: / / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 23308249. 2015. 1026226 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTI CLE Taylor & Francis m akes every effort t o ensure t he accuracy of all t he inform at ion ( t he “ Cont ent ” ) cont ained in t he publicat ions on our plat form . Taylor & Francis, our agent s, and our licensors m ake no represent at ions or warrant ies what soever as t o t he accuracy, com plet eness, or suit abilit y for any purpose of t he Cont ent . 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Term s & Condit ions of access and use can be found at ht t p: / / www.t andfonline.com / page/ t erm s- and- condit ions Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 I t is e sse n t ia l t h a t you ch e ck t h e lice n se st a t u s of a n y give n Ope n a n d Ope n Se le ct a r t icle t o con fir m con dit ion s of a cce ss a n d u se . Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture, 23:92–252, 2015 Published with license by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN: 2330-8249 print / 2330-8257 online DOI: 10.1080/23308249.2015.1026226 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 World Squid Fisheries ALEXANDER I. ARKHIPKIN*,1 PAUL G. K. RODHOUSE,2 GRAHAM J. PIERCE,3,4 WARWICK SAUER,5 MITSUO SAKAI,6 LOUISE ALLCOCK,7 JUAN ARGUELLES,8 JOHN R. BOWER,9 GLADIS CASTILLO,8 LUCA CERIOLA,10 CHIH-SHIN CHEN,11 XINJUN CHEN,12 MARIANA DIAZ-SANTANA,13 NICOLA DOWNEY,5 14
ANGEL F. GONZALEZ, JASMIN GRANADOS AMORES,15 COREY P. GREEN,16 14 18
NEZ, e ANGEL GUERRA, LISA C. HENDRICKSON,17 CHRISTIAN IBA KINGO ITO,19 20 6 21 PATRIZIA JEREB, YOSHIKI KATO, OLEG N. KATUGIN, MITSUHISA KAWANO,22 HIDEAKI KIDOKORO,23 VLADIMIR V. KULIK,21 VLADIMIR V. LAPTIKHOVSKY,24 8
MAREK R. LIPINSKI,4 BILIN LIU,12 LUIS MARIATEGUI, WILBERT MARIN,8 8 25 ANA MEDINA, KATSUHIRO MIKI, KAZUTAKA MIYAHARA,26 NATALIE MOLTSCHANIWSKYJ,27 HASSAN MOUSTAHFID,28 JARUWAT NABHITABHATA,29 NOBUAKI NANJO,30 CHINGIS M. NIGMATULLIN,31 TETSUYA OHTANI,32 GRETTA PECL,33 J. ANGEL A. PEREZ,34 UWE PIATKOWSKI,35 PIROCHANA SAIKLIANG,36 CESAR A. SALINAS-ZAVALA,15 MICHAEL STEER,37 YONGJUN TIAN,23 YUKIO UETA,38 DHARMAMONY VIJAI,39 TOSHIE WAKABAYASHI,40 TADANORI YAMAGUCHI,41 CARMEN YAMASHIRO,8 NORIO YAMASHITA,42 and LOUIS D. ZEIDBERG43 1 Fisheries Department, Stanley, Falkland Islands British Antarctic Survey, Natural Environmental Research Council, Cambridge, UK 3 Oceanlab, University of Aberdeen, Newburgh, UK 4 CESAM & Departamento de Biologia, Universidade de Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal 5 Department of Ichthyology and Fisheries Science, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa 6 Tohoku National Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research Agency, Hachinohe-shi, Aomori, Japan 7 School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University, Belfast, Belfast, UK 8 u (IMARPE), Callao, Per
u Instituto del Mar del Per
9 Faculty of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate, Hokkaido, Japan 10 FAO MedSudMed, Rome, Italy 11 Institute of Marine Affairs and Resource Management, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan 12 College of Marine Sciences, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China 13 Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas-IPN, La Paz, BCS, M
exico 14 Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas (CSIC), Vigo, Spain 15 Centro de Investigaciones Biol
ogicas del Noroeste SC, La Paz, BCS, M
exico 16 Department of Environment and Primary Industries, Fisheries Victoria, Queenscliff, Victoria, Australia 17 Northeast Fisheries Science Center, U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, USA 18 Departamento de Ciencias Ecol
ogicas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile 19 Fisheries Research Institute, Aomori Prefectural Industrial Technology Research Center, Aomori, Japan 20 ISPRA, Rome, Italy 2 Ó Alexander I. Arkhipkin, Paul G. K. Rodhouse, Graham J. Pierce, Warwick Sauer, Mitsuo Sakai, Louise Allcock, Juan Arguelles, John R. Bower, Gladis Castillo, Luca Ceriola, Chih-Shin Chen, Xinjun Chen, Mariana Diaz-Santana, Nicola Downey, Angel F. Gonz
alez, Jasmin Granados-Amores, Corey P. Green, Angel Guerra, Lisa C. Hendrickson, Christian Ib
a~nez, Kingo Ito, Patrizia Jereb, Yoshiki Kato, Oleg N. Katugin, Mitsuhisa Kawano, Hideaki Kidokoro, Vladimir V. Kulik, Vladimir V. Laptikhovsky, Marek R. Lipinski, Bilin Liu, Luis Mari
ategui, Wilbert Marin, Ana Medina, Katsuhiro Miki, Kazutaka Miyahara, Natalie Moltschaniwskyj, Hassan Moustahfid, Jaruwat Nabhitabhata, Nobuaki Nanjo, Chingis M. Nigmatullin, Tetsuya Ohtani, Gretta Pecl, J. Angel A. Perez, Uwe Piatkowski, Pirochana Saikliang, Cesar A. Salinas-Zavala, Michael Steer, Yongjun Tian, Yukio Ueta, Dharmamony Vijai, Toshie Wakabayashi, Tadanori Yamaguchi, Carmen Yamashiro, Norio Yamashita, and Louis D. Zeidberg *Address correspondence to Alexander I. Arkhipkin, Fisheries Department, Bypass Road, Stanley, FIQQ 1ZZ, Falkland Islands. E-mail: [email protected] This is an Open Access article. Non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly attributed, cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way, is permitted. The moral rights of the named author(s) have been asserted. 92 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 93 21 Pacific Research Fisheries Centre (TINRO-Centre), Vladivostok, Russia Yamaguchi Prefectural Fisheries Research Center, Nagato, Yamaguchi, Japan 23 Japan Sea National Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research Agency, Niigata, Japan 24 Fisheries Division, CEFAS, Lowestoft, Suffolk, UK 25 National Research Institute of Fisheries Science, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan 26 Hyogo Fisheries Technology Institute, Futami, Akashi, Hyogo, Japan 27 School of Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Newcastle, Ourimbah, New South Wales, Australia 28 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), United States Integrated Ocean Observing System (US IOOS), Operations Division, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA 29 Excellence Centre for Biodiversity of Peninsular Thailand (CBIPT), Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hatyai, Songkhla, Thailand 30 Fisheries Research Institute, Toyama Prefectural Agricultural, Forestry and Fisheries Research Center, Namerikawa, Toyama, Japan 31 Atlantic Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography (AtlantNIRO), Kaliningrad, Russia 32 Tajima Fisheries Technology Institute, Hyogo Prefectural Technology Center for Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Kasumi, Kami, Mikata, Hyogo, Japan 33 Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia 34 Centro de Ci^encias Tecnol
ogicas da Terra e do Mar (CTTMar), Universidade do Vale do Itaja
ı (UNIVALI), Itaja
ı, SC, Brazil 35 Leibniz-Institute of Marine Sciences IFM-GEOMAR, Kiel, Germany 36 Bureau of Fisheries Expert, Department of Fisheries, Kaset Klang, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand 37 South Australian Research and Development Institute (Aquatic Sciences), Henley Beach, South Australia, Australia 38 Tokushima Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery Technology and Support Center, Fisheries Research Institute, Tokushima, Japan 39 Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, Hakodate, Hokkaido, Japan 40 National Fisheries University, Shimonoseki, Japan 41 Saga Prefectural Genkai Fisheries Research and Development Center, Karatsu, Saga, Japan 42 Hokkaido National Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research Agency, Katsurakoi, Kushiro, Hokkaido, Japan 43 California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Marine Region, Monterey, California, USA Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 22 Some 290 species of squids comprise the order Teuthida that belongs to the molluscan Class Cephalopoda. Of these, about 30–40 squid species have substantial commercial importance around the world. Squid fisheries make a rather small contribution to world landings from capture fisheries relative to that of fish, but the proportion has increased steadily over the last decade, with some signs of recent leveling off. The present overview describes all substantial squid fisheries around the globe. The main ecological and biological features of exploited stocks, and key aspects of fisheries management are presented for each commercial species of squid worldwide. The history and fishing methods used in squid fisheries are also described. Special attention has been paid to interactions between squid fisheries and marine ecosystems including the effects of fishing gear, the role of squid in ecosystem change induced by overfishing on groundfish, and ecosystem-based fishery management. Keywords catch, Cephalopoda, fisheries, lifecycle, squid 1. INTRODUCTION Interactions between human societies and fish stocks have played an important part in our history. Regrettably, it is now recognized that the humankind has failed in many instances to conserve marine species and obtain the optimal social and economic benefits from the marine environment. However, scientists and managers involved in cephalopod fisheries arguably find themselves in a better position than those responsible for finfish. Although the total world catch from marine and freshwater fish stocks appears to have peaked and may be declining (Hilborn et al., 2003), the catch of cephalopods has continued to increase as fishers concentrate efforts away from more traditional finfish resources. This is not a modern phenomenon, May et al. (1979) highlighted a shift toward harvesting “unconventional” stocks of marine organisms, which typically occupy lower trophic levels. Over the last four decades, cephalopod catches have increased from approximately 1 million t in 1970 to over 4.3 million t in 2007 (Jereb and Roper, 2010). However, we cannot assume that cephalopod catches will continue to rise and there is some evidence of landings leveling off recently. After the peak of 4.3 million t in 2007, world cephalopod landings fell sharply to under 3.5 million t in 2009, although they had recovered to just over 4 million t again in 2012. The fall in landings since 2007 was almost entirely attributable to a temporary Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 94 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. collapse of the Argentine shortfin squid Illex argentinus landings (notably by Argentina, Taiwan, China, and Korea); the recovery since 2009 was mainly driven by increased landings of Humboldt squid Dosidicus gigas by Peru, Chile, and (especially) China (FAO, 2012) and recovery of the Argentine shortfin squid since 2011 (Falkland Islands Government, 2012). These figures remind us that a significant component of world cephalopod landings relies on a very small number of oceanic squid species. There are about 800 living cephalopod species belonging to three main groups represented by different orders. Squids belong to the Order Teuthoidea. They are characterized by the presence of a remnant of the molluscan shell which has been retained in the form of the gladius, a stiff chitinous structure that lies inside the dorsal surface of the mantle muscle. The molluscan foot has evolved into the eight arms and two tentacles (the latter absent in some groups of squids), and these are armed with suckers and in some cases hooks which are modified suckers. Squid swim using the fins and by jet propulsion, using the mantle to expel water explosively from the mantle cavity through the funnel. There are some 290 species of squids and about 30–40 species have substantial commercial importance (Table 1). The other main cephalopod groups exploited for food are the cuttlefish and octopus, plus to a much lesser extent the sepiolids. Table 1. Squid species and unidentified groupings of squid published by FAO ftp://ftp.fao.org/fi/CDrom/CD_yearbook_2010/root/capture/b57.pdf. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Family Ommastrephidae Species Distribution Fishing method Todarodes pacificus Northwest Pacific 20
–60
N Shelf and upper slope Todarodes sagittatus Nototodarus sloanii Eastern Atlantic 70
N–10
S New Zealand south of the Subtropical Convergence Southwest Atlantic 22
–54
S Neritic/Oceanic Neritic/Oceanic Northwest Atlantic 25
–65
S Western Atlantic 5
–40
N and eastern Atlantic 20
S–60
N Circumglobal, bisubtropical 30
–60
N and 20
–50
S Eastern Pacific 50
N–50
S Shelf and upper slope Shelf and upper clope Largely jigging with lights; some bottom trawling and purse seine Bycatch in trawls Jigging with lights and trawling Largely jigging with lights; some bottom trawling Jigging and bottom trawling Bycatch in trawls Oceanic Jigging with lights Largely oceanic but extends over the narrow shelf of the western seaboard of the Americas Oceanic and over continental slope Jigging with lights Illex argentinus Illex illecebrosus Illex coindetii Ommastrephes bartramii Dosidicus gigas Martialia hyadesi Loliginidae Habitat Doryteuthis (Loligo) gahi Doryteuthis (Loligo) opalescens Doryteuthis (Loligo) pealeii Loligo reynaudii Loligo forbesii Sepioteuthis lessoniana Onychoteuthidae Onykia (Moroteuthis) ingens Gonatidae Berryteuthis magister Circumpolar, Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone north to Patagonian Shelf and New Zealand South America, Gulf of Guayaquil to northern Patagonian Shelf Western North and Central America, southern Alaska to Baja California Eastern Americas, Newfoundl and to Gulf of Venezuela Southern Africa Eastern Atlantic, 20
–60
N and Mediterranean Indo-West Pacific, Japan to Northern Australia and New Zealand and to northern Red Sea and Mozambique/ Madagascar, Hawaii Circumpolar sub-Antarctic north to Patagonian Shelf, central Chile, southern Australia, and North Island New Zealand North Pacific from Sea of Japan to Southern California via Aleutians Shelf and upper slope Jigging with lights Shelf Bottom trawls Shelf drum seine; purse seine; brail net Shelf Bottom trawls and trap nets Shelf Shelf Jigs Trawls and around Madeira and Azores caught on jigs Trawls, traps, seines, jigs, hooks, spears, etc. Shelf Benthic/pelagic Demersal on continental slope and mesopelagic Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Trawl Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES There are a number of characteristics of squid that, although not unique, set them apart from many other commercially exploited marine species (although not necessarily from other cephalopods). They are short-lived, semelparous and fast growing, with high feeding rates and conversion efficiencies. They also have high reproductive rates, although loliginid squids usually produce fewer eggs than do ommastrephids. These features have adapted them to be ecological opportunists that can rapidly exploit favorable environmental conditions, but equally their abundance responds rapidly to poor conditions, so recruitment and abundance may be highly variable on annual time scales (Rodhouse et al., 2014). There is evidence that squid populations have benefited from ecological change driven by overexploitation of groundfish in some regions (Caddy and Rodhouse, 1998). A recent extensive expansion of the geographical range of the jumbo flying squid D. gigas has occurred on the west coast of the Americas following the 1997/98 El Ni~ no Southern Oscillation and there has been debate whether this was caused by physical drivers or ecosystem change associated with fishing (Watters et al., 2008; Zeidberg and Robison, 2008). This highlights the challenge of discriminating between the effects of climate variability and change, and the effects of fishing, on squid populations. Squid fisheries make a relatively small contribution to world landings from capture fisheries, but the proportion has increased steadily over recent decades, although as noted above landings have apparently leveled off recently. Although squid fishery production is small relative to that of fish, a large proportion of the world squid catch is composed of a small number of species. The fisheries for those species remove substantial biomass from local marine ecosystems. Squids are important prey for large numbers of vertebrate predators including many fish species, toothed whales, pinnipeds, and seabirds (Clarke, 2006; Jereb and Roper, 2010). Estimates of global squid consumption by predators suggest that they consume a greater mass of squid than the total world catch of all marine species combined (Voss, 1973; Clarke, 1983). Squid are also predators themselves that make long migrations over their lifecycle, are responsible for spatial transfer of substantial biomass (Arkhipkin, 2013) and may be keystone species (Gasalla et al., 2010). There are therefore important relationships between squid fisheries and marine ecosystems and this is especially relevant in the context of ecosystem-based fishery management (EBFM). Squid fisheries themselves need to be managed with regard to their impact on the ecosystem but it is also important that squid stocks should be considered as a key element in many ecosystems in the context of the management of other fisheries. The natural ability of squid stocks to recover from low biomass levels following a period of unfavorable environmental conditions might make them less susceptible to long-term reduction in numbers due to overfishing. Conversely heavy fishing pressure coinciding with poor environmental conditions might generate a critical tipping point for populations. The biological characteristics of squid 95 raise interesting questions about the response of populations to future climate change. It can be argued that in some situations opportunism in a changing environment might enable populations to expand (Rodhouse, 2013). In order for squid species to be suitable for commercial exploitation they must be of suitable size (medium/large) and have an acceptable flavor and texture. Only the muscular, negatively buoyant, species meet all these criteria. The more neutrally buoyant squids store light ammonium ions in vacuoles in the muscle tissues, or in the case of the cranchiids, in the coelomic fluid (Clarke et al., 1979). As a result of these adaptations the flesh has an ammoniacal flavor and flaccid texture which humans find unacceptable. Nevertheless, predators are not deterred from consuming ammoniacal squids which may predominate in the diet of some species (Lipinski and Jackson, 1989). It has been proposed that chemical processing of the flesh of ammoniacal squids could result is a palatable product for human consumption (Pierce and Portela, 2014). Fisheries need to target aggregations of squid near the surface to be commercially viable so those species that do not aggregate for at least part of their lifecycle are generally of little interest other than as bycatch in other fisheries. Detailed accounts of the lifecycle and biology of the most important exploited species of squids are given in Rosa et al. (2013a and b). The bulk of the global squid catch comprises species from two families, the Ommastrephidae and Loliginidae. The species for which capture production data are published by FAO are listed in Table 2 together with details of the distribution, habitat, and fishing method. The FAO data provide the only information on global fisheries but they are unavoidably incomplete because of both non-reporting and lack of identification (or misidentification) of species. Views differ as to how much can be inferred from the data (Pauly et al., 2013) and they should be used with some caution. Nevertheless, it is clear that members of the family Ommastrephidae dominate in terms of biomass with five main commercial species. Four of these—Todarodes pacificus, Nototodarus sloanii, I. argentinus, and I. illecebrosus—inhabit high velocity western boundary current systems of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. The fifth species, D. gigas, inhabits the low-velocity eastern boundary current systems of the eastern Pacific which are characterized by coastal upwelling. Another neritic/oceanic species, Nototodarus gouldi, is not reported by FAO but is caught off the southern part of Australia and around North Island, New Zealand. Larger numbers of loliginid species are also caught and at least some of these will have been included in the “Loliginidae” and “various squids” categories in Table 1. The main species targeted include Doryteuthis gahi, D. pealeii, L. bleekeri, and L. reynaudii. Twenty species of loliginid other than those identified in Table 1 were reported by Jereb et al. (2010) to be of fisheries interest. Apart from the ommastrephids and loliginids there are also targeted fisheries for members of the families Enoploteuthidae, Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 96 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Table 2. Capture production (tonnes) in the major squid fisheries reported by FAO 2001–2010 ftp://ftp.fao.org/fi/CDrom/CD_yearbook_2010/root/capture/b57. pdf. Todarodes pacificus Todarodes sagittatus Nototodarus sloanii Illex argentinus Illex illecebrosus Illex coindetii Ommastrephes bartramii Dosidicus gigas Martialia hyadesi Doryteuthis (Loligo) gahi Doryteuthis (Loligo) opalescens Doryteuthis (Loligo) pealeii Loligo reynaudii Loligo forbesii Loligo vulgaris Sepioteuthis lessoniana Loliginids Onykia (Moroteuthis) ingens Moroteuthis robusta Berryteuthis magister Various squid (Loliginidae, Ommastrephidae, other families) Total 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 528,523 1,915 44,862 750,452 5,699 2,596 23,870 244,955 117 76,865 85,829 14,211 3,373 70 2 5,574 198,893 504,438 3,163 63,096 540,414 5,527 2,559 14,947 412,431 2 36,411 72,879 16,684 7,406 140 2 5,826 218,551 487,576 954 57,383 503,625 10,583 2,006 18,964 402,045 37 76,746 39,330 11,929 7,616 536 2 6,333 261,907 447,820 594 108,437 178,974 28,103 2,264 11,478 834,754 59 42,180 39,596 13,537 7,306 261 1 5,500 209,894 357,590 973 33,413 189,967 20,660 3,889 16,800 815,978 0 71,838 129,936 6,689 10,068 554 22 4,526 236,499 36 317,097 1,132 303,241 429,162 1,112 73,921 955,044 10,479 4,132 22,156 688,423 4 59,405 49,447 12,327 9,948 721 7 3,646 206,861 68 6 48,981 337,574 408,188 980 47,018 261,227 22,912 4,349 36,000 642,855 4 48,027 92,376 9,293 10,107 455 6 4,523 216,658 87 281,935 388,087 526 89,403 703,804 21,619 4,650 9,401 871,359 0 52,532 49,205 15,899 6,777 472 5 3,584 202,616 22 13 1,084 316,989 403,722 774 56,986 837,935 20,090 4,573 24,400 895,365 0 58,545 36,599 11,400 8,329 664 7 4,528 208,218 34 230,214 411,644 574 96,398 287,590 13,837 5,533 14,430 779,680 3 70,721 55,732 16,967 10,362 272 3 3,811 209,110 109 5 1,068 327,225 54,868 356,864 60,639 372,825 59,306 430,416 2,218,020 2,186,411 2,204,699 2,235,131 2,435,074 2,746,047 2,913,424 2,938,860 2,238,529 2,389,160 Gonatidae, Onychoteuthidae, and Thysanoteuthidae (Jereb and Roper, 2010). There are a number of ommastrephid species that are probably underexploited including Sthenoteuthis pteropus, Ommastrephes bartramii, Martialia hyadesi, Todarodes sagittatus, Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis, Nototodarus philippinensis, and Todarodes filippovae (Jereb and Roper, 2010). Dosidicus gigas was earlier included in this list but since 2004, global landings have risen to almost 1 million t annually (FAO, Fishstat J). Other species that apparently have fisheries potential are Gonatus fabricii (Gonatidae) and Thysanoteuthis rhombus (Thysanoteuthidae). These are all large and medium size squids found in offshore habitats. Annual capture production for the decade 2001–2010 for each species published by FAO is given in Table 2. The total world capture production of cephalopods (squid, octopus, and cuttlefish) in 2010 was 3.65 million t. This was 15% less than the maximum for the 10 years up to 2010, which reached 4.31 million t in 2007. In 2010, 2.98 million t of the total cephalopods was squids, of which 48% was ommastrephids, 30% was loliginids and 2% was gonatids. The remaining 20% of squids were not identified. The data for the major fisheries show large interannual variations over the decade, by up to a factor of 5 in the case of I. argentinus, with no clear trends within or between species. While the inter-annual variations can be expected to reflect underlying changes in stock size the capture production data may be influenced by variable reporting and by changes in fishing effort which in turn may be driven by management restrictions, market conditions, fuel prices, etc. Hunsicker et al. (2010) have assessed the contribution of cephalopods to global marine fisheries both as a commodity and in terms of a supportive ecosystem services provider (as food for other commercially exploited species). A variety of ecosystems, including continental shelves, major currents and upwelling zones, gulfs, seas, and open oceans were evaluated. In each ecosystem, data for the top 25 taxonomic groups contributing to fishery landings were analyzed. The contribution of cephalopods, in terms of their supportive service, is substantial in many marine systems. For example, on the Patagonian Shelf, the contribution (commodity and supportive) of cephalopods to total fishery landings and landed values (US$) reached 55% and 70%, respectively. Across all the ecosystems studied, average estimates of commodity and supportive contributions by cephalopods to total fishery landings and revenue were 15% and 20%, respectively. The study also compared the importance of cephalopods as a commodity versus a supportive service. In 8 of 28 ecosystems evaluated, cephalopod contribution as direct landings was greater than their contribution to predator landings. However, the reverse was true for another eight ecosystems evaluated. Generally, the contribution of cephalopods as a commodity was greatest in the coastal ecosystems, whereas their contribution as a supportive service was greatest in open ocean systems. In terms of landed values, the average price per tonne of cephalopods was greater than or near the average price per tonne of the predator species in many of the ecosystems. Hunsicker et al. (2010) point out that the expansion of fisheries to lower trophic level species, such as squids, is not necessarily the equivalent of an expansion to lesser value species as further discussed by Pauly et al. (1998). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES When considering the expansion of cephalopod fisheries Hunsicker et al. (2010) suggest that within ecosystems where cephalopods are both valuable as a commodity as well as in a supportive capacity, further scrutiny of the trade-offs is required. In future, recognition by managers of the interconnectedness of commercial cephalopods and commercial predatory fishes could contribute to sustainable management of fisheries in ecosystems under current and increased levels of exploitation. This issue has not been addressed yet in scientific publications. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 2. BRIEF HISTORY OF SQUID FISHERIES FROM ANCIENT TIMES TO THE 19TH CENTURY Very little is known about ancient fisheries, and even for the 18th and 19th centuries information is scarce. According to Erlandson and Rick (2010), the earliest marine fisheries may date back as far as 160,000 years on the South African coast. Ancient communities here seem to have had a substantial impact on the marine ecosystem, frequently reducing the size of exploited populations. However, in contrast to what is often seen in terrestrial habitats (especially on islands) this probably did not result in extinctions. Cephalopods were not specifically mentioned in their study, but it is likely that this prehistoric coastal community and others like it exploited littoral octopods, and probably used squid which stranded on beaches as bait, fertilizer, and fodder for domestic animals, as well as for human consumption. As with primitive communities today, squid have probably been spearfished and caught using jigs (similar to modern jigs made from wood such as amaiki and kusaiki in Japan). There is no technical information about fishing nets used in ancient times. Nevertheless, the octopus culture of the middle to late Minoan period on Crete in the eastern Mediterranean, in which images of octopuses appear on items from earthenware pots to coffins, is clear evidence that these ancient people were, at least, thoroughly familiar with cephalopods. We find information about cephalopod biology and fisheries in ancient Greek literature, reviewed by Diogenes Laertios (1925) (Lives of Eminent Philosophers, compiled in the 3rd century AD). Two philosophers, Aristotle and his disciple Theophrastus, wrote about cephalopod biology but unfortunately only the botanical volumes of Theophrastus survived; 12 volumes about animals (among them animals which change color) have been lost. Aristotle (1970, 1991), in his History of Animals (books 4–10 which survive to this day), describes T. sagittatus (D teuthos) and Loligo vulgaris (D teuthis). He described the morphology, anatomy, behavior and parts of the life history of these squids. He did not explicitly mention fisheries but his observations point to the fact that squid were fairly easily accessible live and in good condition. There is evidence in what he wrote that he had close contact with fishermen. The only systematic source of information about cephalopods in ancient Roman literature is in Pliny the Elder; other authors 97 like Claudius Aelianus, Galen and Athenaeus, mentioned cephalopods only in passing. However, Pliny did not mention fisheries for cephalopods specifically; instead he focused on anecdotes about octopus stealing fish from fish farms. It is Oppian of Anazarbus (or Corycus) who wrote the first major treatise on sea fishing, the Halieutica or Halieutika, composed between 177 and 180 AD. The treatise, written to honor the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus, includes descriptions of mating and predation of various marine animals and descriptions of fishermen, fishing tools, and fishing techniques. These include the use of nets cast from boats, scoop nets held open by hoops, spears and tridents, and various traps, and the treatise specifically mentions cephalopods many times. For instance, the following description about squid (L. vulgaris) fishing is given: “Against the calamaries a man should devise a rod fashioned after the manner of a spindle. About it let him fasten close to one another many hooks with recurving barbs, and on these let him impale the striped body of a rainbow-wrasse to hide the bent teeth of bronze, and in the green depths of the sea let him trail such snare upon a cord. The Calamary when it sees it, darts up and grasps it in the embrace of its moist tentacles and becomes impaled upon the tips of bronze, and no more can it leave them for all its endeavor but is hauled against its will, having of itself entangled its body.” Perhaps not surprisingly, there are also records of cephalopod fisheries in ancient Japan. Judging from the present-day artisanal fisheries in the Mediterranean (similar to the descriptions of Oppianus) and present-day artisanal fisheries in the Far East, methods and experiences were similar. The developmental history of squid fishing in Japan was described by Ogura (2002): squid were presented to the Imperial Court, according to an ancient legal code called “Engishiki” during the Heian period (794–1185); however, no clear description exists on fishing methods. In 1458, a prototype of modern squid jigging gear was invented for a small scale fishery for the Japanese flying squid T. pacificus in Sado Island, Sea of Japan. This was a hand-held, jointed, squid-jig with several hooks along its axis and a weighted sinker. The squid jig was developed independently in Japan, no later than in the Mediterranean Basin. Traditional methods of jigging are described by Yoshikawa (1978). Squids and other cephalopods appear again much later in the western Mediterranean literature, in the work of Conrad Gesner (Historiae animalium, 1551–1558), Guillaume Rondelet (Libri de piscibus marinis, 1556), and Ulysse Aldrovandi (De reliquis animalibus exanguibus libri quarto, 1606). What might be called modern literature on squid biology starts with Lamarck (1815–1822) and Cuvier (1817), and was continued by Verrill (1879–1882) and Tryon (1879). However, all accounts up to the beginning of the 20th century lack information about fishery landings. Tryon (1879) reported large scale fishing for Illex illecebrosus in the Newfoundland area, mainly for bait, but statistics relating to catches are not given. The same author reported on fishing for T. pacificus in Japan, Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 98 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. near Hakodate. Squid were caught by small boats at night using lights, and dried for human consumption (surume-ika). For this fishery, he provides some quantitative information: “During the quarter ending June 1872 imports from Japan to the three Chinese ports of Kinkiang, Shanghai and Ningpo, totalled 4198 picals (D 265 t).” Elsewhere during the 19th century statistics for squid fisheries, if collected at all, were mostly descriptive and anecdotal. Modern squid fisheries started to develop in the early part of the 20th century with the appearance of motorized fishing vessels and the development of specific trawling and jigging gear. It was only after World War II, with the development of ocean going fishing vessels, that catches of cephalopods in general and squids in particular started to reach hundreds of thousands of t and later millions of t annually. At this point, they started making a substantial contribution to the total of marine products caught for human consumption. The fishing history of each abundant and commercially important species of squid is presented in the species accounts below. 3. SQUID STOCK EXPLOITATION AND MANAGEMENT 3.1. Fishing Methods Cephalopods in general and squids in particular possess ecological and behavioral features that are quite similar to those of fishes. In fact, Packard (1972) has pointed out that functionally cephalopods are fish and Pauly (1988) develops this theme further. Many nektonic squids migrate in dense schools similar to those of pelagic fishes and fishing methods are common to both groups. Squid fishing methods are described in detail by Boyle and Rodhouse (2005). Here, we briefly introduce the main fishing methods leaving specifics to the species accounts. 3.1.1. Nets Various types of fishing gear based on nets have been used for catching squids since the early days of exploitation. These include the various trap nets, set nets, and purse seines that have mainly been used in artisanal fisheries. Currently, seine nets are used in conjunction with lights in the Californian Doryteuthis opalescens fishery and pumps are sometimes used to remove the squid from the net. Set nets are used in fisheries for I. illecebrosus, Doryteuthis pealeii, and Watasenia scintillans with the variety of traps used for a large number of different squid species especially in east Asian countries. The advent of motorized vessels in the early 20th century created opportunities for targeting large schools of pelagic and near bottom squids as well as fish. Trawlers use various types of the trawling gear (pelagic, semi-pelagic, and bottom) which are deployed during daytime to exploit the natural behavior of squids over the continental shelf as they aggregate near the seabed during daylight. The trawling gear used is essentially the same as that used for finfish. Pelagic trawls are used to catch I. argentinus near the bottom in the Southwest Atlantic and semipelagic nets are employed to catch T. sagittatus and Todarodes angolensis in the north and south east Atlantic. Bottom trawls are used mainly to catch near-bottom aggregations of loliginid squids such as D. gahi around the Falkland Islands (Figure 1A). The commercial otter trawl has two hydrovanes, known as otter boards or doors, one on each side of the net to spread the trawl horizontally. Special cables called bridles and sweeps Figure 1. Vessels for squid fishing: (A) factory trawler; (B) large oceanic jigger; (C) jigger light fishing at night; and (D) drift netter. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES connect the doors to the trawl wings. The movement of the cables through the water creates disturbance that is sensed by the fish lateral line, herding the fish close to the midline of the net. Unlike fish, squid use mainly vision for their orientation in the water column, and disturbance of water by the door cables has a lesser effect on their behavior in front of the trawl. In order to concentrate squid schools from a wide area into the wings of the trawl, polyvalent oval shaped doors are used. These scrape the seabed, creating clouds of silt that the squids attempt to avoid and so concentrate close to the midline of the net. This method has a negative impact on the sea floor as the trawl doors effectively plough the seabed and damage benthic communities (e.g., Jones, 1992, and many others). Increasingly bottom trawling is prohibited on environmental grounds. Trawlers use acoustic target-finding technology to locate aggregations of squids. However, squids provide weak acoustic targets because they lack a swim bladder so the technology has limited use where squid targets are mixed with fish possessing swim bladders. Squid targets can be also confused with aggregations of similar sized fish that do not have a swim bladder, such as the rock cod Patagonotothen ramsayi. In the Falkland Islands fishery, the target shape and strength of this species are so similar to those of the squid D. gahi that the catch cannot be identified until it is hauled onboard (Falkland Islands Government, 2012). As trawls catch most individuals that are larger than the mesh size of the net, the total catch is very often mixed with the target species. The texture of squid skin is more delicate than that of fish, which is usually covered with scales, so in a mixed catch it becomes damaged and is sometimes completely removed from the body as a result of contact with knots in the mesh of the net and with other elements of the catch. Squid with damaged skin have less value than those with intact skin, so the total value of a trawled catch can be considerably reduced depending on the type of bycatch. Another common problem occurs when squid in the net are mixed with small fish as these tend to penetrate the squid’s mantle when the catch accumulates in the codend of the trawl. It takes time to remove the fish from the mantle by hand, and the quality of the catch is again reduced. Silt or sand can get into the mantle of squid if the trawl ground rope is too heavy and stirs up the bottom. In general then, squid from trawlers is of inferior quality compared with the catch using methods such as jigging or trapping. However, where trawlers target squid, a “clean” catch can be obtained. In the Moray Firth (UK), targeted squid-fishing operations yield fairly clean hauls, with few fish by-caught in large numbers. Only whiting are caught occasionally in large amounts (up to 25% of the catch; Hastie et al., 2009). 3.1.2. Jigging Jigging for squid is less damaging to the marine environment and produces a more valuable product. This technology exploits the natural behavior of the squid which moves up in 99 the water column toward the surface at night where they can then be attracted using lights toward the fishing vessel and the jigs. Many large scale fisheries for both ommastrephid and loliginid squids employ jigging with lights. This method results in a higher value product where the squid can be sold whole because the process causes little or no damage to the skin. Although squid jigging vessels remain stationary in the water there is little or no saving on energy costs because the fuel used to generate the electricity to power the fishing lights is broadly equivalent to that consumed by trawling. Commercial squid jigging was developed on Sado Island during the Meiji era in the 19th century and jigs were first demonstrated in a fisheries exhibition held in 1883 (Igarashi, 1978). At that time hand jigging gear deployed two rods with the line connected to both and the method was used to catch squid from the surface to 100 m depth. The increasing engine power of fishing vessels later enabled the development of squid jigging gear using one line per jig in the northern part of Hokkaido (Igarashi, 1978). The design of jigging gear currently used, in which multiple jigs are attached to one line in series, was developed in 1951. Simultaneously, barbless hooks for use on jigs were developed to facilitate release of captured squid on board. From the late 1950s hand-wound drums with a line of 10–40 jigs were used in artisanal fisheries. In the mid1960s electrically powered, automatic jigging machines were introduced and these drastically increased squid catches. Hand drums could only be used close to the surface whereas electric machines had enough power to catch squid in much deeper water (50–200 m) (Inada and Ogura, 1988). Modern squid jigging vessels have three elements: (1) a large parachute drogue deployed as a sea anchor to hold the vessel still in the water; (2) an array of incandescent lights to attract the squid at night when the squid naturally migrate upward to feed; and (3) jigging machines which lower and raise the weighted lines to which are attached a series of colored or luminescent jigs—each of which is armed with an array of barbless hooks. Some vessels operate one or two submarine lights of 2–5 kW each. They are lowered on cables and then slowly hauled to the surface to concentrate the squid and lure them upward toward the vessel (Figure 1B). Fishing operations are automatic or semiautomatic and under centralized control which reduces the labor required and aids optimal use of the gear (Inada, 1999). Intermediate size vessels over 30 GRT and large vessels over 100 GRT are equipped with 10–50 automatic jigging machines, respectively (Mikami, 2003). The jigs are deployed on 100 or more lines, each carrying some 25 jigs. A large squid jigger will operate 150 or more metal halide lamps which are usually 2 kW each (but can be 1–3 kW). The lamps are mostly white but a smaller number of green lamps are sometimes included (Inada and Ogura, 1988) (Figure 1C). Small artisanal jigging boats less than 10 GRT are the most labor efficient as only two fishermen can do all the work, operating the jigging machines and packing the catch, etc. (Mikami, 2003). In spite of a high level of automatization of fishing operations on large jigging vessels, Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 100 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 2. Changes in locations of Japanese jigging and driftnet fisheries. Modified from Araya (1987) and Murata (1990). sorting the catch and packing the squid is still done by the crew. Operating a sea-anchor on a large vessel, controlling the fishing lines and preventing them from tangling are also relatively labor intensive. 3.1.3. Driftnets The Japanese squid driftnet fishery for neon flying squid, O. bartramii, was developed in the northwestern Pacific to compensate for reduced catches of T. pacificus when the stock decreased sharply in the 1970s (Figure 1D). From 1974 to 1978, the driftnet fishery operated off the Pacific coast of Japan west of 150
E (Figure 2) but it conflicted with the jig fishery (Yatsu et al., 1993). In response, the Japanese government adopted a limited entry licensing system in 1981 and regulated the season and area where the driftnet fishery could operate (Figure 2). The Japanese squid drift netters were converted from, or were also engaged in, other fisheries such as salmon driftnet fisheries, tuna fisheries, the Pacific saury fishery, squid jigging fisheries, distant water trawl fisheries, the North pacific longline, and gillnet fishery (Nakata, 1987). Some 400–500 driftnet vessels, ranging from 59.5 to 499.9 GRT were used between 1981 and 1990. Japanese squid driftnets were made of nylon monofilament with a diameter of about 0.5 mm. The corkline length of a panel (“tan”) ranged from 45 to 50 m. Panel depth when deployed was usually 7– 10 m. A stretched mesh size of 110–120 mm was specified by the regulations. A single driftnet section could have 70– 200 tans connected together, and would be deployed before sunset and retrieved 2–3 hr before sunrise. Several sections were usually set and would be separated by distances of 2–3 nautical miles. The soak time for an operation varied from 5 hr to more than 15 hr. From 1982 to 1986, the average number of tans used per day increased from 663 to 1000 (Yatsu et al., 1993). In the early 1980s, the Republic of Korea driftnet fishery also developed (Araya, 1987). There were 99 Korean driftnet vessels in 1984 and 150 by 1989. They operated from coastal waters off northwest Japan to 150
W (Gong et al., 1993a, b). In the autumn and early winter, the Korean fishery concentrated from 142
E to 160
E where the Japanese jigging fleet was operating (Figure 3). Vessels ranged from 100 to 500 GRT, but were mostly from 200 to 300 GRT. A progressive increase of catch of O. bartramii by driftnets occurred, rising from 37,000 t in 1983 to 124,000 t in 1990. Taiwanese driftnetting for O. bartramii in the North Pacific emerged in the late 1970s. From the early 1980s, escalation of oil prices accelerated the replacement of squid jiggers (which had been introduced in the early 1970s) by driftnetters (Yeh and Tung, 1993). The driftnet fishery for O. bartramii coexisted with the jig fishery until 1983, but thereafter driftnets replaced jigging. From 1985 to 1988, the Taiwanese driftnet catch was concentrated between 155
E and 165
E. From 1983 to 1990, 94–179 vessels were operating for 6,000–18,000 days per year. Annual catch ranged from 10,000 to 30,000 t. The principle fish bycatch was Pacific pomfret (Brama japonica) but blue shark, albacore, pelagic armorhead, and skipjack catches were also high. Large numbers of seabirds, especially dark shearwaters, marine mammals, and turtles were also taken as bycatch (Nakata, 1987; Yatsu et al., 1993). Because of the excessive bycatch and because lost or discarded nets can continue “ghost fishing” at unquantifiable levels for an indefinite period they were banned worldwide by a UN moratorium in 1991. The O. bartramii fishery has now switched to jigging with lights. 3.2. Processing In many fisheries, the squid are frozen whole on board the fishing vessel, often after grading according to size. Otherwise, the only processing normally carried out on board is that the viscera are removed and the “tubes” and “tentacles” (mantles and brachial crowns) are frozen. This is mainly done in the larger ommastrephids. In the Falkland Islands fishery over 92% of I. argentinus and over 98% of D. gahi is frozen whole (Laptikhovsky et al., 2006). In processing factories ashore, the squid are eviscerated and separated into the edible “wings” (fins),” tubes” (mantles), and “tentacles” (brachial crown) either by hand or using machines. The tubes are often sectioned to produce “squid rings” and usually frozen. Squid meat from the tubes and tentacles is also processed in a variety of other ways including canning, drying, and smoking. In most cases, the viscera and trimmings are discarded but a specialized product is made in Japan by fermenting the digestive gland (Yoshikawa, 1978). Recently, the nutraceutical industry has begun to utilize squid for essential omega-3 fatty acids that are increasingly being used as supplements in human diet. Crude oil is extracted from the viscera and trimmings, mainly from the large oil-filled digestive gland of ommastrephids, and is then purified by distillation and refining for bottling or encapsulation. The oil is rich in eicosapentaenoic acid and especially docosahexaenoic acid. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 101 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Figure 3. Monthly distribution of Korean driftnet fishery for neon flying squid in 1989. Dots indicate relative CPUE (kg/net) by 1
square. 3.3. Assessment of Squid Stocks Assessments of squid stocks have been carried out before, during and after the fishing season (Pierce and Guerra, 1994). Methods that have been successfully applied include: (1) depletion methods (Rosenberg et al., 1990), which have cost and other advantages because they use data from the commercial fishery (as they are normally operated in real-time, they require significant man-power, on-board and on land, to collect and process catch, effort, and biological data); (2) swept area methods (using nets) (Cadrin and Hatfield, 1999); and (3) acoustics (Starr and Thorne, 1998; Goss et al., 1998, 2001). An “ecological approach” has also been used to set a precautionary catch for a potential new fishery for Martialia hyadesi in the CCAMLR (Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources) area (Rodhouse, 1997). This used estimated total consumption by predators (seabirds, seals, and toothed whales) to set a TAC (total allowable catch) that was sufficiently low to have a negligible effect on dependent predator populations and was consistent with the ecosystem-based approach to fishery management adopted by CCAMLR. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 102 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. A number of other assessment methods have been attempted or proposed for squid stocks (Rodhouse et al., 2014). Surveys of paralarval numbers prior to recruitment have been carried out (e.g., Okutani and Watanabe, 1983) but were found to have little practical application. Stock-recruitment relationships have been tested (Okutani and Watanabe, 1983) but with inconsistent results, as the relationship between stock and recruitment is weak in squid stocks. The surplus production method has also been tried, sometimes unsuccessfully (perhaps for the same reason) but with some success in Saharan Bank fisheries (possibly because cephalopod stocks rapidly adjust to effects of exploitation, so that equilibrium can be achieved) (Pierce and Guerra, 1994). Cohort analysis has been attempted several times but is often impractical because of the difficulties associated with sectioning and reading large numbers of statoliths (to collect age data) in the short fishing season operating in most squid fisheries. However, a successful application to Loligo in the English Channel was reported by Royer et al. (2002). The mark-recapture method, which has been used widely in population ecology, has potential utility for assessment of squid stocks. The method involves sampling the population, tagging a subsample, and releasing them back into the population. The population is then resampled and population size estimated based on the proportion of tagged individuals recaptured (Krebs, 1999). Although large scale tagging of squid has been successfully carried out (Nagasawa et al., 1993; Sauer et al., 2000), these have been for research on distribution and migration but no stock assessment has yet been done by mark-recapture. Squid are fragile so the potential for tagging related mortality biasing the results would be a consideration. 3.4. Management of Squid Fisheries The short life span of squids (approximately 1 year in the case of most commercially exploited species) requires a different management approach to that taken for most finfish fisheries. There are usually only one or two cohorts per year depending on the number of seasonal spawning groups present in the population. The members of these cohorts spawn, sometimes in more than one batch and die soon afterward. This means that there is usually a period in the year when adults are largely absent and the population is represented by eggs, paralarvae, and prerecruits. Following recruitment, there is generally a relatively short fishing season during which growth and individual biomass increases rapidly. The annual lifecycle means that managers have very little information on the potential size of the exploitable stock until shortly before recruitment. Prerecruit surveys may provide some information (Roa-Ureta and Arkhipkin, 2007) but it is only when the squid are large enough to be susceptible to the fishing gear that reliable estimates of stock size can be made. Given the challenges of managing squid fisheries Caddy (1983) proposed that management should be based on effort limitation, with the possibility of short-term adjustment of effort, and with the objective of allowing a maximum proportion (40%) of the catchable biomass to be removed each year. The approach was adopted and refined in the Falkland Islands fishery for I. argentinus and D. gahi (Beddington et al., 1990; Rosenberg et al., 1990; Beddington et al., 1990; Rodhouse et al., 2013). Stock assessment is carried out in-season using a modified Lesley–Delury depletion method. Target escapement in I. argentinus was initially based on allowing a proportion of the preseason numbers of squid to escape but this was later changed to a precautionary minimum spawning biomass, estimated on the basis of experience, needed to generate adequate recruitment (Basson et al. 1996). The approach has been considered elsewhere for management of fisheries for D. pealeii (Brodziak and Rosenberg, 1999) and Loligo reynaudii (Augustyn et al., 1992) but it has not been widely adopted. Management of the Japanese T. pacificus fishery has been described by Okutani (1977), Caddy (1983), Okutani (1983), Murata (1989, 1990), and Suzuki (1990). Management has been concerned with balancing market demand and price as well as ensuring the stock is fished sustainably (Boyle and Rodhouse, 2005). Maintaining price by limiting the catch, and hence market availability, will tend to have the effect of limiting overfishing unless the stock drops to a low level when price increases, resulting in pressure on stocks in the absence of restrictions. Fisheries for D. gigas take place off the west coast of the Americas from Chile to California, though the species range now extends northward to Alaska. Fisheries are pursued off Peru, Chile and in Baja California (BC), Mexico, and their management has been recently reviewed by Rosa et al. (2013c). The Peruvian fishery is managed by setting quotas based on data from acoustic surveys and data from the fishery. In Mexico, the fishery is managed on the basis of allowing at least 40% escapement of the stock to spawn. In practice, a higher proportion of the stock survives to spawn and the fishery is considered by managers to be underexploited. In Chile, the fishery is managed by restricting access and limiting use of product for human consumption. TAC is flexible and based on a combination of historical catch and in-season catch rates. Other management approaches adopted elsewhere have been outlined by Boyle and Rodhouse (2005). These include spatial and seasonal restrictions, mesh size restrictions and the introduction of individual transferable quotas, which eliminates “competitive” fishing. In the future, marine protected areas (MPAs) will undoubtedly play their part in the management of squid fisheries. It is worth noting that small-scale squid fisheries exist in many parts of the world, for example, in coastal waters of southern Europe. These are often essentially unregulated (except for minimum landing sizes (MLSs) in some areas). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES If further management is introduced, approaches used in large-scale fisheries are unlikely to be suitable. Regionally and locally based measures, involving comanagement have been proposed for small-scale octopus fisheries and such an approach may be suitable for small-scale squid fisheries. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 4. NORTHWEST ATLANTIC The Northwest Atlantic region includes the coastal, shelf and oceanic waters off the eastern coasts of Canada and the United States of America (USA). The continental shelf broadens in a northward direction and lies primarily within the jurisdiction of these two countries, but the Flemish Cap and the Nose and Tail of the Grand Bank are located in international waters. Regional oceanographic conditions are mainly driven by the cold, relatively fresh Labrador Current which flows southwestward and a warmer, saltier western boundary current, the Gulf Stream, which flows northeastward (Loder et al., 1998). Two species of squids are subject to commercial exploitation in the region: I. illecebrosus (Northern shortfin squid) is an oceanic squid species that is fished in USA, Canadian and international waters and D. pealeii (longfin inshore squid) is a neritic squid species that is fished on the USA shelf. Both species have been exploited since the late 1800s, originally mostly as bait, but fishing pressure increased rapidly in the region and was highest during the 1970s when large factory trawlers from Japan, the former USSR, and Western Europe targeted both species for food. 4.1. Illex illecebrosus (Northern Shortfin Squid) 4.1.1. Geographic Range and Distribution Northern shortfin squid, I. illecebrosus, are distributed across a broad latitudinal range in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean, in continental shelf, slope, and oceanic waters located off the east coast of Florida (26
–29
N) to 66
N, including southern Greenland, Baffin Island, and Iceland (Roper et al., 2010). Distribution is highly influenced by water temperatures and water masses, and on the eastern USA shelf, temperature preferences during the fall are size-specific (Brodziak and Hendrickson, 1999). The species is associated with bottom water temperatures greater than 6
C on the Scotian Shelf (Rowell et al., 1985a) and greater than 5
C on the Newfoundland shelf (Mercer, 1973a). On the USA shelf, shortfin squid are most abundant at bottom temperatures of 8–13
C during fall and 10–14
C during spring (Hendrickson and Holmes, 2004). Although common in nearshore waters north of the Gulf of Maine during summer and fall, the species is uncommon in shallow waters (<18 m) on the USA shelf (Hendrickson and Holmes, 2004). The timing of migrations into the fishing areas varies interannually (Fedulov and Amaratunga, 1981) and begins earliest in the southern portion of the species’ range. During March 103 and April, on-shelf migration occurs simultaneously along the USA shelf/slope edge, from South Carolina to Browns Bank on the southern Scotian Shelf, and squid densities are highest in the southernmost and deepest survey strata as well as on Browns Bank (Hendrickson, 2004). Migration onto the Scotian Shelf also begins by April (Fedulov and Amaratunga, 1981; Black et al., 1987), but migration onto the Grand Banks generally occurs later, during May and June (Squires, 1957), and densities are highest along the Bank edge in Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) Divisions 3O and 3N (Figure 4; Black et al., 1987; Hendrickson, 2006). During late May, both juveniles with a modal mantle length (ML) of 40 mm and adults were caught near the USA shelf edge (Hendrickson, 2004). By July, the species is broadly distributed across the USA shelf, Scotian Shelf and Gulf of St. Lawrence (Hendrickson, 2004, Black et al., 1987) and has migrated to the inshore fishing grounds off Newfoundland (Dawe, 1981). Fall offshore migrations also begin earliest in the southern portion of the species’ range. During September and October, squid remain distributed throughout the USA shelf but density and squid body size increase with depth for individuals greater than 100 mm ML (Brodziak and Hendrickson, 1999), indicating an off-shelf migration along the entire length of the USA shelf (Hendrickson, 2004). However, migration from the Newfoundland inshore fishing grounds occurs later, generally during November (Dawe, 1981). I. illecebrosus concurrently inhabits the continental shelf, slope and oceanic waters during portions of the year. However, sampling beyond the depth limit of USA and CA spring and fall bottom trawl surveys (about 366 m) is limited. Small quantities of shortfin squid have been caught in Northeast Fisheries Science Center (NEFSC) bottom trawl surveys (Azarovitz, 1981) on the upper slope between the Gulf of Maine and Cape Hatteras in April (381–460 m depths). Concurrent with the USA fishery on the continental shelf, shortfin squid were also caught offshore in July near the Bear Seamount, with the maximum catch at 2510 m depth (NEFSC, 2003), and during late fall, catch rates declined with depth and bottom temperature at depths ranging from 384 to 1,038 m, between Georges Bank and Cape Canaveral, Florida (Rathjen, 1981). Concurrent with the July inshore jig fishery off Newfoundland, shortfin squid were consistently caught offshore in Division 3M (Figure 4) bottom trawl surveys of the Flemish Cap (i.e., 20–5,143 t during 2003–2012), at depths up to 1460 m (Hendrickson and Showell, 2013). 4.1.2. Stock Identification The I. illecebrosus population is considered to constitute a single stock throughout its range in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean (Dawe and Hendrickson, 1998). Based on an allozyme polymorphism analysis, there is no significant genetic heterogeneity of I. illecebrosus populations located off Newfoundland and Cape Cod (Mart
ınez et al., 2005a,b). The stock was managed as single unit during 1974–1976 Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 104 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 4. Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) reporting areas, Subareas 3–6 and associated Divisions, for fisheries that occur in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean. (Amaratunga, 1981a) by NAFO; formerly the International Commission for Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF). However, since the 1977 implementation of the 200-mile fishing limits for the USA and Canada, this transboundary species has been managed as two separate stock components. The northern stock component consists of squid from Canadian and international waters and is managed by NAFO. The northern stock component (NAFO Subareas 3C4) includes squid from Subarea 3, which includes the Grand Banks, Flemish Cap, and inshore Newfoundland waters, and Subarea 4, which includes the Scotian Shelf, Bay of Fundy, and southern Gulf of St. Lawrence (Figure 4). The southern stock component (NAFO Subareas 5C6) consists of squid from USA waters, between the Gulf of Maine and the east coast of Florida, and is managed in the USA by the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council. 4.1.3. Life History Shortfin squid utilize continental shelf, slope, and oceanic habitats during their lifecycle and adults undergo long-distance migrations among boreal, temperate, and subtropical waters. Similar to several other ommastrephids, the lifecycle of Northern shortfin squid is associated with a western-boundary current system (Coelho, 1985; Hatanaka et al., 1985a), the Gulf Stream, which has been hypothesized as the primary transport mechanism for egg “balloons,” paralarvae, and small juveniles northeastward toward the Grand Banks (Trites, 1983). The neutrally buoyant egg “balloons” have not been found in nature (O’Dor and Dawe, 1998), but laboratory studies indicate that normal embryonic development occurs at a minimum temperature of 12.5
C with hatching in sixteen days (O’Dor et al., 1982), and at a maximum temperature of about 26
C, hatching occurs in 6 days (Balch et al., 1985). The ML of I. illecebrosus hatchlings is approximately 1.1 mm (Durward et al., 1980). Illex sp. paralarvae have been captured during most of the year in the warm, nutrient-rich waters of the Gulf Stream/Slope Water Convergence Zone, between central Florida and south of Newfoundland (Dawe and Beck, 1985), but were most abundant during February and March, above the thermocline, at temperatures greater than 13
C (Dawe and Beck, 1985; Hatanaka et al., 1985b). During spring, epipelagic juveniles migrate from the Convergence Zone to cooler, more productive, neritic waters where individual growth rates are more rapid (Perez and O’Dor, 1998). During late May, juveniles (34–68 mm ML) have been collected near the USA shelf edge along the southeast flank of Georges Bank, at depths of 140–260 m, where surface and bottom temperatures were 10.6 and 9.9
C, respectively (Hendrickson, 2004). Bakun and Csirke (1998) suggested that the southwestwardflowing Slope Water Countercurrent may aid the species during its fall migration to an inferred winter spawning area located south of Cape Hatteras (Trites, 1983; Rowell and Trites, 1985). The fall, off-shelf migration from all fishing areas and southwest migration patterns of several individuals tagged on the northern fishing grounds (Amaratunga, 1981b; Dawe et al., 1981) lend support to the lifecycle hypothesis of Rowell and Trites (1985). However, unlike males, females are not yet mature when they emigrate from inshore Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Newfoundland waters during late fall (Squires, 1967; Mercer, 1973b). In addition, the Illex sp. hatchlings which have been collected south of Cape Hatteras during winter were not identified to the species level, despite the fact that I. illecebrosus is sympatric with I. oxygonius and I. coindetii south of New Jersey and Virginia, respectively (Roper and Lu, 1979; Roper et al., 2010). Thus, the winter spawning area remains unknown, as do the migration patterns between the northern and southern stock components (refer to Section 4.1.4), and the autumn spawning migration route (Hendrickson and Holmes, 2004). The only confirmed spawning area is located along the USA shelf edge, in the Mid-Atlantic Bight (between 39
10´ N and 35
50´ N), where the winter cohort was found spawning during late May at depths of 113–377 m and surface and bottom temperatures ranging from 13.4–20.1
C and 11.4–20.3
C, respectively (Hendrickson, 2004). Mature and spawning individuals have also been caught in the USA directed bottom trawl fishery during June-September (Hendrickson and Hart, 2006). Thus, the Mid-Atlantic Bight is the primary spawning area during at least May–September, but some spawning may also occur in the Gulf Stream/Slope Water frontal zone where paralarvae and juveniles have been collected during most winter months (Hatanaka et al., 1985b). The presence of spawners during May–September, combined with the documentation of November–June hatch dates (Dawe and Beck, 1997; Hendrickson, 2004), indicate that spawning occurs year-round. The maximum ML and weight recorded for the species are 350 mm and 700 g and females achieve larger sizes than males (O’Dor and Dawe, 1998). The lifespan of mated females from the winter cohort inhabiting the USA shelf was 115– 215 days (Hendrickson, 2004) whereas a maximum age of 250 days was documented for females caught in the Newfoundland jig fishery and which were not mature (Dawe and Beck, 1997). The species exhibits latitudinal clines in growth rate and size-at-maturity such that individuals inhabiting warmer waters of the Mid-Atlantic Bight exhibit faster growth and maturation rates, and possibly have a shorter lifespan, than squid from the colder waters off Newfoundland (Hendrickson, 2004). 105 by the Gulf Stream along with enhanced survival of paralarvae and juveniles from the winter spawning period (Dawe et al., 2007). Coelho and O’Dor (1993) and O’Dor and Coelho (1993) hypothesized that squid abundance in the northernmost fishing area, off Newfoundland, is highest when the winter cohort is predominant. The winter cohort (i.e., squid hatched primarily during December and January), which is predominant on the USA shelf during May, provides recruitment to the USA fishery during the early part of the fishing season (Hendrickson, 2004). However, squid from the winter cohort were not predominant in the Newfoundland jig fishery catches during July–November. Instead, squid caught in the jig fishery during July– September were predominately hatched during March (Dawe and Beck, 1997), which corresponds to the March-hatched juveniles present on the northern USA shelf during May (Hendrickson, 2004). During October–November, the Newfoundland jig fishery catches were dominated by squid hatched during April–May, which corresponds to the hatching period of the progeny of the spawning squid that were present on the USA shelf during May. 4.1.5. Fisheries The onset and duration of the directed fisheries generally reflect the timing of squid migrations through each fishing area and can vary interannually. Since 1996, the duration of the USA bottom trawl fishery in Subareas 5C6 (Figure 5A) has also been affected by fishery closures which occur when a 4.1.4. Recruitment Recruitment is highly variable, particularly at the northern limit of the species’ range, primarily due to the effects of variability in water temperatures and broad-scale oceanographic conditions. Dawe et al. (2007) found that variation in atmospheric forcing, as well as the latitudinal position of the ShelfSlope Front (SSF), were closely related to oceanographic processes that exert opposing effects on the distribution and abundance of I. illecebrosus and D. pealeii, which are sympatric on the USA shelf during summer and fall. For I. illecebrosus, southward displacement of the SSF and north wall of the Gulf Stream were related to a warm oceanographic regime off Newfoundland and improved efficiency of northeasterly transport Figure 5. Gear types used in the Illex illecebrosus fisheries. (A) The squid catch of a USA bottom trawler (a freezer vessel) is pushed from the “pen” area, shown here, to a conveyor belt for sorting on deck prior to packing and freezing the catch in the hold. (B) A fisherman manually operates a jig reel while fishing for squid near the Newfoundland coast. (C) A view from the dock of jig reels used in the small-boat (4–14 m in length) squid fishery off Newfoundland and a day’s catch. (D) Fishermen jigging for squid in a Newfoundland embayment. Photograph credits: (A) Lisa C. Hendrickson; (B) downhomelife.com. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 106 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. percentage of the annual quota is landed (i.e., 80% in 1996 and 95% during 1997–2014) and which triggers a shortfin squid trip limit of 45,359 kg (the regulatory definition of a directed trip). The seasonal peak of landings for each fishing area also varies interannually depending on fishing effort, squid availability, and abundance. Since 1992, the Subarea 4 and 5C6 fisheries have occurred mainly during June-October, with a landings peak in July or August, and the Subarea 3 inshore fishery has generally occurred about one month later, during July–October or November, with a peak in September (Hendrickson et al., 2002). In Subarea 3, a majority of the landings have been taken in a jig fishery that occurs in small, open boats in the nearshore waters (depths < 20 m) of Newfoundland (Mercer, 1973c; Hendrickson and Showell, 2013) (Figure 5B–D). During 1970–1980, international midwater and bottom trawlers and jig vessels fished offshore in Subareas 3 and 4 (Dawe, 1981; Hatanaka and Sato, 1980). During 1963–1969, small amounts (65–433 t) of I. illecebrosus were landed from Subarea 4 during a June–November inshore trap fishery (Amaratunga et al., 1978). 4.1.6. Total Catches Since 1963, total landings (nominal catches) from Subareas 3–6 have varied considerably and have consisted of three distinct levels of magnitude. The period of highest landings (1976–1981), which occurred when international fishing fleets were active in all fishing areas, was bracketed by periods of substantially lower landings (Hendrickson and Showell, 2013; (Figure 6). Total landings were primarily from the northernmost fishing area (Subarea 3 inshore jig fishery) during 1963–1967 (average D 7,354 t) and from the southernmost area (international fishery in Subareas 5C6) during 1968–1974 (average D 13,470 t). Following a sustained period of record high landings in Subareas 3C4 during 1976–1981 (average D 100,300 t), these northern fisheries collapsed; declining from 162,092 t in 1979 to 426 t in 1983. However, landings from Subareas 5C6 remained stable during the same period and did Figure 6. Landings of Illex illecebrosus and TACs (000’s t) in Subareas 3C4, during 1953–2012, and in Subareas 5C6 during 1963–2012. not exceed 25,000 t, in part, due to effort restrictions. Since 1987, total landings have been mainly from the USA fishery in Subareas 5C6. 4.1.6.1. Subareas 3C4. The Subarea 3 inshore jig fishery has occurred since the late 1800s, but landings have only been quantified since 1911 and totalled less than 1,000 t during most years between 1911 and 1952 (Dawe, 1981). During 1920–1952, landings from Subarea 4 averaged 269 t with a peak of 1990 t in 1926 (Mercer, 1973c). Landings from Subareas 3C4 were predominately from the Subarea 3 inshore jig fishery during 1953–1969 (average D 4,647 t) due to increased export market demand and the use of mechanized jiggers beginning in 1965 (Dawe, 1981). The inshore jig fishery has repeatedly been defined as “passive” and entirely driven by squid availability (e.g., Mercer, 1973c). However, the lack of fishing effort data for the jig fishery prior to 1990 (Dawe and Hendrickson, 1998) and lack of inshore abundance and distribution data do not allow one to discern whether landings fluctuations were attributable to resource availability or changes in fishing effort and/or abundance. During the 1970s, landings from Subareas 3C4 increased rapidly with the development of offshore international fleets, from 1,485 t in 1970 to a peak of 162,092 t in 1979 (Hendrickson and Showell, 2013; Figure 6). During 1970–1978, landings from Subareas 3C4 were predominately from the Subarea 4 international fleets (average D 18,659 t). During this same period, Subarea 3 landings were predominately from the inshore jig fishery (average D 10,172 t). Landings by the offshore international fleets in Subarea 3 occurred primarily during 1975–1979 and were much lower, with a peak of only 5,700 t in 1978 (Dawe, 1981). Due to a strong export market demand, revenues from the jig fishery landings increased rapidly from $4,100 in 1976 to nearly $9 million in 1978 (Hurley, 1980). Landings in Subareas 3C4 were highest during 1976–1981 and averaged 80,645 t (Figure 6). Following a landings peak in 1979 (162,092 t), the fishery in Subareas 3C4 collapsed; landings declined to 426 t in 1983 and remained low thereafter with the exception of a few years (Figure 6). During 1987–1999, landings were primarily from an international fishery in Subarea 4 for Merluccius bilinearis, I. illecebrosus, and Argentina sp. (Hendrickson et al., 2002), but since 2000, landings have been primarily from the Subarea 3 inshore jig fishery (Hendrickson and Showell, 2013). The amounts of shortfin squid discards in the Subareas 3C4 trawl fisheries are unknown. 4.1.6.2. Subareas 5C6. Landings of squids (I. illecebrosus and D. pealeii combined) off the eastern USA coast have been recorded since 1887, and during 1928–1963, averaged 1,232 t and 700 t from New England (ME to CT) and Mid-Atlantic (NY to NC) waters, respectively (Lange and Sissenwine, 1983). Prior to 1982, USA landings of I. illecebrosus were mainly from a nearshore trap fishery, for bait, off the Maine coast and incidental in bottom trawl fisheries during summer and fall (Lange, 1978). Landings from Subareas 5C6 are Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 107 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 7. Landings of Illex illecebrosus and TACs (000’s t), for Subareas 5C6, during 1963–2012. characterized by two distinct periods (1968–1986 and 1987– 2012). During 1968–1982, landings were predominately taken by international fleets and averaged 15,086 t with a peak of 24,936 t in 1976; the second highest level (Hendrickson and Showell, 2013; Figure 7). Most of the landings were taken by Spain (33%), Japan (17%), Russia (16%), Italy (12%), and Poland (13%, Figure 8). After 1976, landings gradually declined to 1958 t in 1988. The decline was due to restrictions on effort and catch allocations for international vessels, the latter which were further reduced during 1982–1986 in order to develop a domestic squid fishery which initially consisted of joint ventures between foreign “processor” vessels and American “catcher” vessels (Lange and Sissenwine, 1983). During 1987–2002, USA fishery landings averaged 11,728 t. Following an increase to 23,568 t in 1998 (which led to an August fishery closure) landings declined to 2,750 t in 2002; the lowest level since the 1987 inception of the domestic fishery. Landings reached a record high in 2004 (26,097 t), resulting in a September fishery closure, then declined again and averaged 14,453 t during 2005–2012. Discards of shortfin squid are low in the directed fishery and due to their lower value primarily occur in the D. pealeii fishery. Total discards in both fisheries Figure 8. Landings (000’s t) of Illex illecebrosus in Subareas 5C6, by major country, during 1963–1987. Landings by fleets from eight additional countries, not shown in the figure, ranged between 7 t and 1566 t during the same time period. Figure 9. Fleet size (A) and percent of annual Illex illecebrosus landings (B), by tonnage class (gross registered tonnage, GRT), for the USA directed bottom trawl fishery during 1996–2012. comprised 0.5–6.0% of the directed fishery landings during 1995–2004 (NEFSC, 2006). 4.1.6.2.1. Fishing fleets. International fleets fishing in Subareas 5C6 consisted of 95 jiggers, bottom trawlers, and midwater trawlers that ranged in size from 34–87 m (298–3,697 GRT), during 1977, and which fished mainly during the day at depths of 165–200 m (Kolator and Long, 1979). The USA bottom trawl fleet consists of fewer and smaller vessels, totaling about 30 vessels, during highly productive years (e.g., 2004), but only 10–20 vessels during most years (Figure 9A). During 1996–2012, the USA fleet totalled 9–37 vessels. However, during most years, most of the landings (56–89%) were taken by 6–15 vessels in the 151–215 GRT size class (Figure 9A and B). The USA fleet fishes during the day, and during 1996– 2012, vessel logbook data indicated that 95% of the landings occurred at depths of 128–238 m (mode D 183 m) with most (69%) occurring at 146–201 m. Fishing effort by the USA fleet is affected by on-shelf availability of squid, abundance, vessel type, and ex-vessel price. Vessel types include freezer trawlers, on which catches are frozen at sea, and trawlers on which catches are stored either on ice or in refrigerated seawater (NEFSC, 2003). Freezer trawlers can fish for up to about 14 days and ice/refrigerated seawater trawlers generally fish less than 4 days. Freezer trawlers harvest a majority of the landings except during years when the landings are exceptionally high (NEFSC, 2006). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 108 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 10. Landings (000’s t) and average price (2012 $/t, adjusted for inflation using the Producer Price Index), of Illex illecebrosus in the USA directed fishery during 1982–2012. 4.1.6.2.2. Economic importance. A portion of the landings by the USA fleet are sold domestically as bait, but a majority is exported as food. Ex-vessel price is highly influenced by the global squid market, in particular, the amount of I. argentinus available from the Falklands (NEFSC, 1999). The average price of I. illecebrosus (in 2012 $/t, adjusted for inflation using the USA Producer Price Index (PPI)) nearly doubled during development of the domestic fishery, from $511/t in 1982 to $1,013/t in 1991, but then gradually declined to $627/t in 2000 (Figure 10). During the 1990–1999 and 2000–2009, mean prices averaged $877/t and $723/t, respectively. Average price peaked at $1,017/t in 2011 and was $908/t in 2012. During 1982–2012, trends in gross revenues (in 2012 $ adjusted using the PPI) were similar to the landings trends (Figure 10) and ranged from $1.1 million in 1983 to a peak of $23.1 million in 2004. Gross revenues were above the 1982–2011 average ($9.0 million) during 1990–1998, 2004–2006, and 2009–2012. 4.1.7. Fishery Management and Stock Assessment 4.1.7.1. Subareas 3C4. Total allowable catches (TACs) of I. illecebrosus for Subareas 3C4 have been established annually by ICNAF/NAFO since 1976, and during 1976 and 1977, the TACs of 25,000 t were exceeded by 167% and 343%, respectively (Figure 6) due to fishery reporting problems (Lange and Sissenwine, 1983). As landings continued to increase during 1978–1980, the respective TACs also increased to 100,000 t, 120,000 t, and 150,000 t, respectively, and were based on applying a target exploitation rate of 0.40 to the prior year’s biomass estimate (Lange and Sissenwine, 1983). The 1979 TAC was exceeded by 135% (Figure 6). International fleets were also subject to effort controls which consisted of delayed fishery opening dates of June 15 and July 1 during 1978 and 1979, respectively (Roberge and Amaratunga, 1980). Beginning in 1977, small-mesh (minimum codend mesh size D 130 mm) international bottom trawlers were required to fish seaward of a “Small Mesh Gear Line” (located near the 200 m isobath in Divisions 4W and 4X) during April 15-November 15, to reduce bycatch (Waldron, 1978). The northern stock component was assessed annually during 1974–2002 and every third year since then, with brief monitoring reports during interim years. The assessment is data-poor, and since 1998, has been based on trends in relative biomass and body size indices derived from the July bottom trawl surveys of the Scotian Shelf. Two general levels of productivity have been identified for the northern stock component. A period of high productivity occurred during 1976– 1981, between two low productivity periods, 1970–1975 and 1982–2012 (Hendrickson and Showell, 2013). A TAC of 34,000 t, an estimate of the potential yield sustainable under low productivity conditions (Rivard et al., 1998), has been in effect since 2000 but landings have been well below this level since 1982 (Hendrickson and Showell, 2013). 4.1.7.2. Subareas 5C6. An initial TAC of 71,000 t (for I. illecebrosus and D. pealeii combined) was established by ICNAF in 1974–1975, for Subarea 5C6, as a preemptive measure to limit expansion of the international squid fisheries (Lange and Sissenwine, 1983). ICNAF also set I. illecebrosus TACs for Subareas 5C6 during 1976–1977 and the 1977 TAC was adopted by the USA as part of a preliminary Fishery Management Plan that was implemented following the USA withdrawal from NAFO (Figure 7). The TAC was 30,000 t during 1976–1995 and ranged between 19,000 t and 24,000 t during 1996–2012. Fishery closures occurred during 1998 and 2004 when the TACs of 19,000 t and 24,000 t, respectively, were attained and exceeded (Figure 7). Beginning in March of 1977, international bottom trawl fleets targeting either squid species were subject to weekly catch reports, hiring USA fishery observers, effort restrictions and mesh size limitations. Minimum codend mesh sizes of 40 and 60 mm (inside stretched mesh measurements) were required in 1977 and 1978, respectively, and fishing was limited to specific months within five offshore “fishing windows” (depth range of 90–200 m), with a requirement of pelagic trawls (minimum codend mesh size of 45 mm) in some areas and months, in order to reduce gear conflicts with lobster pots and reduce bycatch (Kolator and Long, 1979). Since 1996, the USA I. illecebrosus fleet has been limited to fishing seaward of 91 m, during June-September, to avoid D. pealeii bycatch. Unlike the D. pealeii fishery minimum mesh size requirements (i.e., 48 mm codend and 114 mm strengthener during 1996fall of 2010; 54 mm codend and 127 mm strengthener since then, inside stretched mesh), the USA I. illecebrosus fishery has no minimum mesh size requirements. Vessel logbook data during 2010–2012 indicated that 42% of the I. illecebrosus fishery landings were taken with 48–53 mm diamond mesh codends (inside stretched mesh), and the remainder were primarily taken with 28 mm (28%), 38 mm (10%), and 61– 64 mm (16%) mesh. Partial and full recruitment to the USA fishery occurs at 110 and 180 mm ML, respectively (Lange and Sissenwine, 1980; NEFSC, 2003). The stock assessments of shortfin squid are data-poor and are not conducted annually. Several models have been used to Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES compute biomass, fishing mortality rates, and MSY-based biological reference points (BRPs), or proxies thereof (e.g., F40%), as required by the stock’s Fishery Management Plan. The most recent assessment consisted of a weekly, age-based model for an unfished cohort that was used to estimate the maturation and natural mortality rates of non-spawners and spawners and which also incorporated aging error (Hendrickson and Hart, 2006). Output from the maturation-natural mortality model was then incorporated into a weekly, per-recruit model to estimate BRPs and biomass and fishing mortality rates were estimated from a weekly-based, DeLury-type model that utilized tow-based biological and fishery data (NEFSC, 2006). Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 4.2. Doryteuthis pealeii (Longfin Inshore Squid) 4.2.1. Geographic Range and Distribution Longfin inshore squid inhabits the continental shelf and upper slope waters between southern Newfoundland and the Gulf of Venezuela, including the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea (Jereb et al., 2010). In the Northwest Atlantic Ocean, D. pealeii is most abundant between Georges Bank and Cape Hatteras, North Carolina (Figure 4) where a commercial fishery occurs (Serchuk and Rathjen, 1974). North of Georges Bank, the species is seasonally abundant in the Gulf of Maine during summer through fall, primarily at depths <90 m (NEFSC, 2011), but is seldom found further north. However, during several years, longfin squid have been found as far north as southern Newfoundland when northern water temperatures were warmer than normal (Dawe et al., 2007). The southern limit of distribution in east coast USA waters is unknown because D. pealeii is sympatric with D. plei, mainly south of Cape Hatteras, and the two species cannot be visually distinguished between based on gross morphology (Cohen, 1976). North of Cape Hatteras, longfin squid exhibit seasonal north-south and inshore-offshore migrations which are strongly influenced by water temperatures. Distribution patterns are known from spring and fall bottom trawl surveys conducted between the Gulf of Maine and Cape Hatteras by the NEFSC (Azarovitz, 1981). The species migrates southward and to the edge of the continental shelf, as far north as Georges Bank, during late fall then migrates inshore to embayments and sounds during spring where squid remain through fall (Summers, 1983; Black et al., 1987; NEFSC, 2011). Inshore migrations begin earlier at southern latitudes (Whitaker, 1978) as inshore waters gradually warm in spring (Black et al., 1987). Longfin squid prefer warmer water temperatures than I. illecebrosus (Brodziak and Hendrickson, 1999). Catch rates of longfin squid during NEFSC spring bottom trawl surveys were highest at depths of 111–185 m and bottom temperatures of 10–12
C, but catch rates were greatly reduced at bottom temperatures less than 8
C during spring and fall surveys 109 (Serchuk and Rathjen, 1974). During NEFSC fall bottom trawl surveys, longfin squid preferred depths of 37–75 m and bottom temperatures of 11–15
C (Brodziak and Hendrickson, 1999). 4.2.2. Stock Identification The D. pealeii population inhabiting the waters between the Gulf of Maine and Cape Hatteras is managed as a single stock (NEFSC, 2011) based on the results of genetics studies and the consistency of seasonal migrations to the inshore spawning grounds (Black et al. 1987). Genetics studies by Herke and Foltz (2002) and Shaw et al. (2010) found no evidence of genetically distinct subpopulations between the Gulf of Maine and the east coast of Florida. Buresch et al. (2006) found population differentiation at some of their sampling sites. However, in a follow-up genetics analysis to address comments in Shaw et al. (2012), they found that population differentiation was not temporally stable (Gerlach et al., 2012). Most studies of genetic structuring in Loliginid squid populations have suggested widespread genetic uniformity (Shaw et al., 2010). 4.2.3. Life History The longfin inshore squid has a lifespan of less than 1 year (Macy, 1995) and spawning occurs year-round (Brodziak and Macy, 1996; Macy and Brodziak, 2001). Spawning occurs inshore during late spring through fall where egg masses have been found at depths <50 m from the Gulf of Maine to Delaware Bay (Bigelow, 1924; Haefner, 1964; Summers, 1969). Although several offshore winter spawning areas have been suggested by fishermen (Hatfield and Cadrin, 2002), the location of the main winter spawning area remains unknown. The paralarval distribution of longfin squid cannot be used to determine whether spawning occurs south of Cape Hatteras because chromatophore patterns cannot be used to distinguish between D. pealeii and D. plei paralarvae (Vecchione, 1988). Egg masses of longfin squid are attached to the substrate, macroalgae, and fixed objects at temperatures ranging from 10 to 23
C, and salinities of 30–32 ppt (McMahon and Summers, 1971). The rate of embryonic development is temperature dependent, such that hatching occurs in 27 days at 12.0– 18.0
C, in 19 days at 15.5–21.3
C, and in 11 days at 21.5– 23.0
C (McMahon and Summers, 1971). Individuals are 1.8 mm ML at hatching (McMahon and Summers, 1971). Paralarvae are planktonic and both paralarvae and individuals as large as 15 mm ML have been collected near the surface in coastal waters of the Mid-Atlantic Bight, but only between May and early November, at salinities ranging between 31.5 and 34.0 ppt and water temperatures of 10– 25
C (Vecchione, 1981). Individuals as small as 10 mm ML are frequently caught at shallow depths during NEFSC fall bottom trawl surveys, and to a lesser extent during spring surveys, which suggests that the onset of diel vertical migration commences at a size less than 10 mm ML. Longfin squid undergo an ontogenetic shift in depth distribution whereby large squid occupy deeper water than smaller Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 110 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. squid during spring and fall bottom trawl surveys (Summers, 1969; Serchuk and Rathjen, 1974; Brodziak and Hendrickson, 1999). During NEFSC fall bottom trawl surveys, catches of squid larger than 80 mm ML were highest at depths of 111– 185 m and bottom temperatures of 11–16
C while catches of smaller squid were highest at depths of 27–55 m and peaked where bottom temperatures were greater than 16
C (Brodziak and Hendrickson, 1999). During NEFSC spring surveys, a majority of the individuals larger than 80 mm ML were caught at depths of 101–160 m and bottom temperatures of 8–14
C while smaller squid exhibited a bimodal depth distribution (modes at 101–140 and 21–30 m) and most were caught at bottom temperatures of 7–13
C with the highest catches at 11–13
C (Jacobson, 2005). Longfin squid rest on the seabed (Stevenson, 1934) and forage in demersal habitats during the daytime and disperse into the upper water column at night (Summers, 1969; Sissenwine and Bowman, 1978). Diel vertical migration is more pronounced in juveniles ( 80 mm ML) than in adults (Brodziak, 1998; Brodziak and Hendrickson, 1999). Squid  80 mm ML dominated daytime survey catches, averaging 75% and 78%, respectively, of the NEFSC spring and fall survey abundance indices during 1976–2008 (NEFSC, 2011). Diel vertical migrations may be influenced by the seasonal stratification of the water column because diel effects on catch rates were more pronounced during the fall when the water column is thermally stratified, than during spring and winter when the water column is well mixed (Hatfield and Cadrin, 2002; NEFSC, 2011). Water temperatures have a major influence on longfin squid growth rates and the effect of an increase in water temperature on growth rate is most pronounced during the first three months of life (Hatfield et al., 2001). Size compositions of longfin squid are highly heterogeneous due to year-round spawning and the presence of multiple cohorts growing at different rates (Macy and Brodziak, 2001). Squid comprising the summer cohort (squid hatched during May–October) have faster growth rates than squid from the winter cohort (hatched during November–April, Brodziak and Macy, 1996; Macy and Brodziak, 2001). Males grow faster and attain larger sizes than females (Brodziak and Macy, 1996). The maximum size recorded in the NEFSC fishery and survey databases is 510 mm ML, but most individuals were <300 mm ML. 4.2.4. Recruitment Recruitment to the fishery occurs throughout the year with seasonal peaks in overlapping “microcohorts” that have rapid and variable growth rates (Brodziak and Macy, 1996; Macy and Brodziak, 2001). Squid hatched during November–April provide recruitment to the inshore fishery (May–October) and vice versa for recruitment to the winter offshore fishery (Macy and Brodziak, 2001). Recruitment is driven primarily by environmental factors (Dawe et al., 2007). During August–September of 2000, an unusually high abundance of longfin squid which occurred off southern Newfoundland was associated Figure 11. Fishermen harvesting Doryteuthis pealeii from a weir located in shallow water off the southern coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Poles are driven into the seabed in a heart-shaped configuration to which small-mesh is attached. A mesh “leader” is installed perpendicular to the shoreline to direct squid and finfish into the “bowl” shown here. After hauling in the floor of the “bowl” to concentrate the catch in a small area, the catch is “brailed” from the “bowl” using a special dip net and loaded into the boat. Photograph credits: Lisa C. Hendrickson. with both warm local water temperatures and an unusual eastward displacement of the atmospheric features associated with the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO; Dawe et al., 2007). Recruitment may also be negatively affected by the impacts of increasing ocean acidification on the paralarval stage (Kaplan et al., 2013). 4.2.5. Fisheries Fisheries for longfin squid have solely occurred in NAFO Subareas 5C6 (Figure 4). USA landings of squid (I. illecebrosus and D. pealeii combined) have been recorded since 1887, and during 1928–1963, averaged 1,232 t and 700 t for the New England (Maine through Connecticut) and Mid-Atlantic (New York through North Carolina) regions, respectively (Lange and Sissenwine, 1983). Squid were landed for bait from incidental catches in summer bottom trawl fisheries and catches in nearshore weirs/traps located off Massachusetts (Figure 11). During 1887–1963, squid landings from the Mid-Atlantic and New England regions were assumed to be primarily D. pealeii and I. illecebrosus, respectively (Lange and Sissenwine, 1983). Beginning in 1964, incidental catches of squid by Russian factory trawlers were reported, and shortly thereafter, landings increased rapidly as international fleets began targeting both squid species. Landings of longfin squid were mainly from the international offshore fishery during 1967–1984 and from the USA bottom trawl fishery thereafter (Figure 12). Landings from the traditional inshore weir/trap fishery reached a record low level in 2012 (47 t), a 97% decline from 1,656 t in 1988. Since 1989, most of the weir/trap landings have occurred in Massachusetts where the decline in landings was associated with a decline in fishing effort (Figure 13). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 111 Figure 12. Landings, discards, and catches (000’s t) of Doryteuthis pealeii, and TACs (000’s t), in NAFO Subareas 5C6 during 1963–2012. Figure 14. Landings (000’s t) of Doryteuthis pealeii in NAFO Subareas 5C6, by country, during 1963–1987. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 4.2.6. Catches During 1964–2012, catches averaged 16,674 t with a peak of 38,892 t in 1973 when international fleets were fishing off the eastern US coast (Figure 12). During 1987–2012, catches were solely from a domestic fishery and averaged 16,327 t with a peak of 24,566 t in 1994. The discarded portion of the longfin squid catches is low, due to the species’ high value, and primarily occurs in other small-mesh (<63 mm codend mesh size) bottom trawl fisheries (NEFSC, 2011). 4.2.7. Landings During 1967–2012, trends in total landings of longfin squid consisted of four distinct periods. With the development of an international fishery for squid, total landings increased rapidly from 1677 t in 1967 to a time series peak of 37,613 t in 1973 and were predominately (>90% during 1969–1975) from the international fleets (Figure 14). Japan, Spain, Romania, and Bulgaria began reporting squid landings by species in 1973, which accounted for most of the total longfin squid landings (Lange and Sissenwine, 1980). After 1973, total landings declined rapidly to 10,831 t in 1978, concurrent with a decline in catch per day fished for the two major offshore fleets, Japan Figure 13. Doryteuthis pealeii catch (t) and fishing effort data (numbers of weir lifts and permits) for the coastal Massachusetts (MA) weir/trap fishery and total D. pealeii catches in weir/trap fisheries for all states during 1982– 2012. and Spain, during 1972–1976 (Lange and Sissenwine, 1980). In addition to Japan and Spain, Russian, and Italian trawler fleets also targeted longfin squid at various times during 1967– 1986 (Figure 14). The Russian squid fishery occurred yearround beginning in 1974, but a ban on bottom trawl fishing off Virginia and country-specific quotas which began in 1976 led to gradual declines in fishing effort thereafter (Chuksin, 2006). During 1967–1978, total landings averaged 19,914 t. Prior to 1977, Japanese and Italian trawlers fished longfin squid along the edge of the continental shelf during October–March (Lange and Sissenwine, 1980). The Japanese fishery targeted Atlantic butterfish, Peprilus triacanthus, and longfin squid during the night and day, respectively (Lange and Waring, 1992). Spain’s squid fishery resulted in substantial amounts of butterfish and Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus) bycatch (up to 65% during March and April); most of which was discarded (Lange and Sissenwine, 1980). Beginning in 1977, when the USA began managing the squid fisheries within their 200-mile territorial waters, international fleets were subject to catch and bycatch allocations, gear limitations, and time-area restrictions. During 1977, the international squid fleets consisted of 95 factory vessels (jiggers, bottom trawlers, and off-bottom trawlers) that ranged in size from 34 to 87 m and from 298 to 3697 GRT (Kolator and Long, 1979). During 1978–1999, total landings exhibited two rise-and-fall periods. During the first period (1978–1986) landings during most years were from the international fleets, averaging 18,217 t, and during the second period (1987–1999) most of the landings were from the domestic fishery (Figure 12). Total landings averaged 18,217 t during 1978–1986, and after reaching a peak of 23,746 t in 1980, declined to 13,448 t in 1985 along with reductions in squid quota allocations for the international fleets. International allocations were reduced in order to develop a domestic offshore fishery which began during the early 1980s (Figure 12). During the fall of 1985, closure of a portion of the international longfin squid fishery also occurred when Spain exceeded its butterfish bycatch quota (Lange and Waring, 1992). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 112 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 4.2.8. USA Fisheries A small-vessel (<50 GRT), bottom trawl fishery for longfin squid initially developed inshore during 1973–1976; a period of time when catch-per-unit-effort increased from 1.3 to 5.9 t per day fished, respectively (Lange and Sissenwine, 1980). During 1970–1976, most of the USA landings occurred on the inshore spawning grounds where 58% and 25% of the landings were taken during May and June, respectively, with the remainder taken incidentally in other bottom trawl fisheries during the rest of the year. USA landings averaged 336 t during 1970–1976 and 4,043 t during 1977–1986. Since 1987, total landings have essentially been taken by the USA bottom trawl fishery. During 1987–1999, landings averaged 18,453 t and reached a peak of 23,738 t in 1989. Landings of longfin squid from joint-ventures between international “processor” vessels and USA “catcher” vessels occurred during 1981– 1991. The USA fishery occurs year-round primarily between sunrise and sunset. The modal tow duration is 3.0 hr (range D 1.0–5.2 hr) and the modal towing speed is 5.6 km/hr (Hendrickson, 2011). The depth range and duration of the fisheries reflect the species’ annual migration patterns. An inshore fishery occurs on a portion of the spawning grounds, between western Long Island and the east coast of Cape Cod (NEFSC, 2011), at depths less than 50 m (mode D 20 m) during May– August (Figure 15). During September–November, the fishery follows the species’ southward and offshore migration which results in a spatial overlap at depths of 140–220 m with the I. illecebrosus fishery (Figure 15). The offshore longfin squid fishery occurs near the shelf edge, primarily between Georges Bank and Maryland (41
–38
N), but some fishing also occurs as far south as 36
N (NEFSC, 2011) during November-April at depths of 110–200 m (mode D 150 m). During 2000–2012, in-season longfin squid quotas were attained at least once per year, with the exception of 2010, resulting in inshore and offshore fishery closures. Landings gradually declined between 2000 and 2010, from 17,540 t to 6,913 t, respectively (Figure 12). Landings during 2012 (13,236 t) were slightly above the 2000–2011 average of 13,206 t. Since 2000, the distribution of monthly landings has been affected by in-season longfin squid quotas, and since 2011, by trimester-based butterfish catch quotas which, with the exception of 2010, have led to one or more directed fishery closures per year. Monthly landings were the least variable during 1987–1995, with no peak and a low of 6% during August, but reporting of landings was not mandatory until 1996. The 1996–1999 landings trend resembled the trend for 2001–2006 (the period of quarterly-based quotas) and generally declined from a peak in February through June then increased through October (Figure 16). During the current management regime of trimester-based squid quotas (2007–2012), the landings peak shifted to July and October, and landings totaled 36%, 37%, and 28% during Trimesters 1–3 (T1-T3), respectively (Figure 16). The 2007–2012 quota allocations for T1–T3 were Figure 15. Landings (% by time period) of Doryteuthis pealeii (year-round fishery) and Illex illecebrosus (generally June–October fishery) in the directed fisheries (i.e., landings of I. illecebrosus and D. pealeii > 45,359 kg and 1134 kg per trip, respectively), by depth (m), during 1997–2004. The inshore regulatory depth limit of the I. illecebrosus fishery is 91 m. Figure 16. Landings (%) of Doryteuthis pealeii in the directed fishery, by month, during four fishery management periods: annual quotas without (1987– 1995) and with (1996–1999) mandatory landings reporting; quarterly quotas (2001–2006); and trimester quotas (2000 and 2007–2012). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 113 and 114 mm (strengthener) were required. However, during 2011–2012 (when minimum mesh sizes of the codend and strengthener increased to 54 and 127 mm, respectively), an apparent modal size increase occured (to 130 mm ML), the proportion of squid larger than 160 mm ML doubled, and the proportion of squid smaller than 100 mm ML, most of which are discarded (Hendrickson, 2011), was reduced (Figure 18). Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 17. Landings (% by weight) per trip of Doryteuthis pealeii as a cumulative percentage of the annual landings during a period of annual quotas (1996–1999) versus a period of in-season quotas (2000–2009). set at 43%, 17%, and 40%, respectively, but as of 2010, allowed for a T2 quota increase of up to 150% when a comparable underage of the T1 quota exists. Since the implementation of in-season quotas, fishery directivity has also changed. In-season fishery closures, which trigger a trip possession limit of 1,134 kg (i.e., the regulatory definition of a directed trip), resulted in increased directivity (i.e., the percentage of the landed trip weight composed of longfin squid). Most (90%) of the longfin squid landings prior to the in-season quota period (1996–1999) were from trips where longfin squid comprised 31–40% of the total trip weight (Figure 17). However, most (90%) of the longfin squid landings during the in-season quota period (2000–2009) were from trips where longfin squid comprised 51–60% of the total trip weight. Fishery selectivity of longfin squid likely varies by season due to differential growth rates (Hendrickson, 2011). Landings length compositions were similar (modal size D 120 mm ML) during periods of annual (1996–1999) and in-season (2000– 2010) quotas when minimum mesh sizes of 48 mm (codend) Figure 18. Length compositions of Doryteuthis pealeii landings in the directed bottom trawl fishery during three fishery management periods: 1996– 1999 (annual quotas); 2000–2010 (in-season quotas; minimum mesh sizes of codend and strengthener D 48 and 114 mm, respectively, during both time periods); and 2011–2012 (minimum mesh sizes of codend and strengthener D 54 and 127 mm, respectively). 4.2.8.1. USA fishing fleets. The USA bottom trawl fleet consists of single- or multi-day trip vessels, onboard which squid are retained in refrigerated sea water or on ice, and larger, multi-day trip vessels onboard which squid catches are frozen (NEFSC, 2011). During 1997–2000, the numbers of vessels involved in the May–October inshore fishery (trips with longfin squid landings >1134 kg) were much higher (149–190 vessels) than during the 2001–2012 period of in-season quota management (72–120 vessels). Fleet size declined from a peak of 190 vessels in 2000 to 72 vessels in 2005 then increased again and ranged between 95 and 120 vessels during 2006– 2012 (Figure 19A). Most of the inshore fleet consisted of vessels within the 51–104 GRT class, which declined in size during 1999–2005 then increased through 2012 (Figure 19B). During 1996–1999, the numbers of vessels involved in the November–April offshore fishery were also higher than during 2000–2012. The fleet size of the offshore fishery peaked at 197 vessels in 1998 then rapidly declined to 46 vessels in 2012 (Figure 19A) due to a rapid decline in the numbers of vessels within the three largest GRT classes (Figure 19C). During 1996–2007, landings were predominately from the offshore fishery (72%) then reached equal proportions during 2008, but were predominately from the inshore fishery (59%) during 2009–2012. A small recreational jig fishery for longfin squid also occurs at night aboard party and charter boats, primarily during late April–June. Vessel logbooks indicated that the average numbers of trips and catches of longfin squid tripled between 1994–2003 and 2004–2012, from 15 trips and 2 t to 42 trips and 6 t, respectively. During 2012, the number of people jigging longfin squid from piers was unusually high in Massachusetts, but catches from shore are not recorded. 4.2.8.2. Economic importance. Fishing effort in the USA longfin squid fishery is affected by squid availability, abundance, and ex-vessel price. Most of the landings are sold domestically for food and the remainder is exported. Ex-vessel price is influenced by the global squid market (e.g., frozen D. gahi from the Falkland Islands and D. opalescens from the western USA coast), but to a lesser extent than I. illecebrosus prices, because a smaller percentage of longfin squid landings (averaging 6% and 17% during 1991–2005 and 2006–2012, respectively) are exported (NMFS, 2013). Foreign trade statistics for the New England and the Mid-Atlantic Customs Districts combined indicate that D. pealeii products were primarily exported to Italy (29%), China (19%), Spain (16%), Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 114 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 20. Landings (000’s t) and average price (2,012 $/t, adjusted for inflation using the USA Producer Price Index), of Doryteuthis pealeii in the USA directed fishery during 1982–2012. The average inflation-adjusted price of US landings of Illex illecebrosus is also shown for comparison. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 were similar to the landings trends and ranged from $3.7 million in 1982 to $53.6 million in 1994 with an average of $30.5 million. 4.2.9. Fishery Management and Stock Assessment Figure 19. Numbers of vessels, by fishery (A) and by gross registered tonnage class during the May–October (B) and November–April (C) Doryteuthis pealeii fisheries (trips with longfin squid landings >1134 kg) during 1996– 2012. Greece (6%), and Japan (4%) during 1991–2012 (NMFS, 2013). The average annual prices (in 2012 $ per t) and gross revenues (in 2012 $) for D. pealeii and I. illecebrosus were adjusted for inflation using the USA Producer Price Index. The average price of D. pealeii generally increased with the development of a domestic offshore fishery, from $1,070/t in 1984 to a time series peak of $2,769/t in 1998, but then declined by $600/t between 1999 and 2000 (Figure 20). Despite a general decline in landings, the average price remained fairly stable, between $2,147/t and $2,422/t, during 2000–2009 and the mean of $2,308/t was similar to the mean of $2,235/t during 1990–1999 (Figure 20). The price stability from 2000 onward coincides with the management change from annual to in-season quotas but is not the only determinant of average price. During 1982–2012, trends in gross revenues An initial TAC of 71,000 t (for I. illecebrosus and D. pealeii combined) was established for Subareas 5C6, by ICNAF during 1974–1975, as a preemptive measure to limit expansion of the international squid fisheries (Lange and Sissenwine, 1983). ICNAF established a separate TAC of 44,000 t for D. pealeii in 1976 which was then adopted by the USA as part of a preliminary Fishery Management Plan implemented in March of 1977. Since 1978, the stock has been managed by the Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council, in conjunction with the Fishery Management Plan for the Squid Fishery of the Northwest Atlantic Ocean, during 1978–1982, and the Atlantic Mackerel, Squid, and Butterfish Fishery Management Plan thereafter. The D. pealeii TAC was 44,000 t during 1976–1994, then was gradually reduced to 17,000 t during 2001–2008 and was about 19,000 t during 2009–2012 (Figure 12). The annual TAC was only exceeded during 2000. Beginning in March of 1977, international bottom trawl fleets targeting either I. illecebrosus or D. pealeii were subject to the management requirements described above in the I. illecebrosus Section 4.1.7.2. As a result of the co-occurrence of longfin squid and butterfish, international squid fleets were also subject to butterfish bycatch allocations equivalent to 6% of their individual longfin squid quota allocations (Lange and Waring, 1992). During 1996–2012, the primary management measures for the longfin squid resource included: TACs; mandatory reporting of landings purchased by federally permitted dealers; mandatory reporting of fishing effort, location, and estimated catch data by fishermen with federal longfin squid/butterfish permits; time-area closures; minimum codend and mesh sizes; and an incidental catch cap on a co-occurring finfish species. During 2000–2012, trimester-based quotas (2000 and 2007–2012) and quarterly quotas (2001–2006) were established to permit inseason adjustment of the harvest rate in order to maintain adequate levels of spawning stock biomass on a seasonal basis. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES The longfin squid stock assessments are data-poor and are not conducted annually. A variety of assessment models have been used to compute stock biomass, fishing mortality rates, and MSY-based BRPs, or proxies thereof (e.g., F40%), as required by law and in accordance with a Fishery Management Plan. The stock was most recently assessed based on catchability-adjusted, swept-area biomass estimates for the fall and spring cohorts which were derived using daytime catches from NEFSC spring and fall bottom trawl surveys, respectively (NEFSC, 2011). Fishing mortality was evaluated using seasonal exploitation indices. Preliminary estimates of the minimum consumption of the two longfin squid cohorts were estimated as the longfin squid biomass consumed during each half-year period by the species’ primary finfish predators based on food habits data from NEFSC spring and fall bottom trawl surveys. During most years (1987–2009), longfin squid consumption estimates were higher than the catches for the same half-year period (NEFSC, 2011). 5. CENTRAL-WEST ATLANTIC At least seven species of the family Loliginidae are known to occur in neritic waters of the Central-West Atlantic from western Venezuela to Southern Brazil: Lolliguncula brevis (Blainville, 1823), Sepioteuthis sepioidea (Blainville, 1823), Pickfordiateuthis pulchella Voss, 1953, D. pealeii (Lesueur, 1821), Doryteuthis surinamensis (Voss, 1974), Doryteuthis sanpaulensis (Brakoniecki, 1984) and Doryteuthis plei (Blainville, 1823) (Haimovici and Perez, 1991a; Haimovici et al., 2009; Jereb and Roper, 2010). L. brevis and all Doryteuthis spp. have been commonly recorded in commercial catches throughout the area, but D. plei has been the only one regarded as economically important, sustaining local directed fisheries and comprising the bulk of regional squid landings in both Venezuela and Brazil (Juanic
o, 1980; Arocha, 1989; Costa and Haimovici, 1990; Perez, 2002a). This review focuses on southeastern and southern Brazil, at the southern extreme of the species’ latitudinal distribution range, where fishing for this coastal squid has become both socially and economically relevant, and where a significant amount of information on the species’ life history, ecology, and fisheries has been produced in the last decade. 5.1. Doryteuthis plei (Slender Inshore Squid) 5.1.1. Stock Identification No stocks have been formally identified in the main fishing areas of the Central-West Atlantic. Juanic
o (1972), exploring data produced by trawl surveys covering a wide latitudinal range off Brazil (23
–30
S), showed that concentrations in the northern and southern extremes of this range differed in size-at-maturity patterns and could comprise different 115 geographic populations. Later studies, mostly based on commercial catches of squid, found further seasonal and smaller spatial scale variations in size-at-maturity (Perez et al., 2001a; Rodrigues and Gasalla, 2008.). Such variation may simply indicate plasticity, with maturation patterns reflecting local conditions. The existence of genetically isolated stocks remains an open question yet to be addressed. 5.1.2. Distribution and Lifecycle This is a Western Atlantic species that occurs on the continental shelf and upper slope from Cape Hatteras (36
N) to southern Brazil (34
S), occasionally being reported beyond these limits (New England and northern Argentina) (Jereb and Roper, 2010). It is a warm-water species also commonly found in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Off Venezuela, it is reported down to 185 m but most abundant on the inner continental shelf, between 20 and 55 m depths (Arocha, 1989; Arocha et al., 1991). In the Southeastern Brazil Bight (SBB, 22–28
S, sensu Matsuura, 1995), the species occurs over the continental shelf down to 250 m (Haimovici et al., 2009) but dense concentrations are common during the austral summer months on the inner shelf (10–40 m depths). These concentrations are often associated with the subsurface shoreward intrusion of oceanic South Atlantic Central Waters (SACW) that seasonally enhances productivity and therefore the availability of food to pelagic and benthopelagic populations (Costa and Fernandes, 1993; Rodrigues and Gasalla, 2008; Martins et al., 2004). South of 28
S, D. plei occurs offshore, during warm months, and under the influence of the Brazil Current that flows over the shelf break and slope (Haimovici and Perez, 1991a and b). Jackson and Forsythe (2002), based on statolith ageing methods, estimated that D. plei may mature in the Gulf of Mexico after 100 days of life and live no longer than six months. Jackson (2004) included the species among “tropical loliginids with short lifespans (under 200 days)”, rapid population turnover and year-round spawning. Off southern Brazil the species was found to live longer, reaching maturity after 200 days of life and probably living up to 300–350 days (Perez et al., 2006; Perez, unpublished data). It appears that the lifecycle may show considerable flexibility, for example, near the southern extreme of its distribution range the species approximates Jackson’s (2004) “moderate” lifespan (200 days–1 year) group exhibited by temperate or cool-temperate species (Perez et al., 2006). Squid caught by commercial fisheries in the SBB tend to show a pronounced size-dimorphism with both sexes concentrating around a modal size of 100–130 mm ML, but with variable proportions of large males reaching 250–350 mm ML (Perez et al., 2001a; Rodrigues and Gasalla, 2008). These large males, in general, exhibit a characteristic striped color pattern on the ventral mantle and are relatively more frequently caught during the summer and by inshore hand jigging and fish traps (Martins and Perez, 2007). Both females and Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 116 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. males in advanced maturation stages are common in commercial catches all year round, suggesting that breeding and spawning occur throughout the year. However, a major reproductive event seems to take place during the summer months on the inner continental shelf (20–40 m depth) and in shallow waters around coastal islands (Perez et al., 2001a; Martins and Perez, 2007; Rodrigues and Gasalla, 2008). All evidence to date supports post-spawning mortality for the species. Precise spawning grounds off Brazil are still unknown but egg capsules and newly hatched paralarvae have been recorded on 6- to 20-m-deep muddy bottoms around S~ao Sebasti~ao Island where there seems to be a large potential for paralarval retention during most of the year (Gasalla et al., 2011; Martins et al., 2014). Around Santa Catarina Island, newly hatched paralarvae were also recorded from plankton samples but their origin remains unclear (Martins and Perez, 2006). There is consistent evidence that young immature squid tend to concentrate offshore (100–200 m depths) all year round, and several hypotheses have been put forward regarding their connection with the coastal spawning concentrations (Haimovici and Perez, 1991b; Haimovici et al., 2008; Rodrigues and Gasalla, 2008). For example, (a) offshore juveniles may hatch in coastal areas and migrate throughout the year to the outer shelf where they remain until the onset of maturity and then return to near-shore spawning grounds, or (b) they may originate from spawning events that occur in winter and spring in deeper areas and remain offshore throughout their lifecycle. These animals would likely experience less favorable conditions and mature at smaller sizes than those recruited in shallower areas (Haimovici et al., 2008). The plasticity of life history patterns, the temporal and spatial variability of growth, and survival conditions on the SBB and the high mobility of the D. plei may contribute to the occurrence of a variety of possible lifecycles in the area, including: short versus long (6–10 months), migratory versus resident, spawning early in life at small sizes versus spawning late in life at large sizes. It is noticeable, however, that despite such variability, squid fishing has been mostly linked to those lifecycles that contribute to the formation of a large summer spawning event in the coastal areas of the SBB. 5.1.3. Fishing Grounds and Seasons D. plei has been historically fished in inshore and offshore areas of the SBB. In inshore waters, fishing grounds comprise a series of discrete shallow bays (5–15 m deep) distributed along the coastline and around near shore islands, most noticeably, S~ao Sebasti~ao and Santa Catarina. Squid aggregate on these grounds during the summer months and become vulnerable to day and night hand jigging conducted by artisanal fisherman from coastal communities (Perez et al., 1999; Perez, 2002a; Martins et al., 2004; Gasalla, 2005; Postuma and Gasalla, 2010). D. plei is also a catch component of fish traps set during most of the year in the shallow sectors of these bays. Around Santa Catarina Island, trap catches were shown to “trigger” the onset of the hand jigging fishing season in different bays (Perez et al., 1999; Martins and Perez, 2008). Directed fisheries with dip nets and beach seines (“ganchos”) also take place during summer in the northern coast of Rio de Janeiro state and in association with Cabo Frio SACW upwelling events (Costa and Haimovici, 1990). Offshore D. plei is mostly caught by trawling operations that take place on the continental shelf from Esp
ırito Santo (22
S) to southern Santa Catarina (29
S) (Perez et al., 2005). These operations have historically aimed at penaeid shrimps and sciaenid fish but, in the last few decades, a variety of valuable finfish and shellfish species has been both systematically retained or targeted in different areas and/or seasons (Perez and Pezzuto, 1998). At least since the early 1990’s, trawlers have directed their effort during the summer months on a limited area in the center of the SBB (»25–26
S), between the 14 and 45 m isobaths, to take advantage of profitable concentrations of mature/spawning D. plei (Perez, 2002a; Perez et al., 2005). D. plei catches are highly seasonal. At the two main ports of the SBB, Itaja
ı and Santos, 87–92% of the biomass captured by trawlers between 1998 and 2012 was landed from early December and to late March. During the rest of the year catches are reduced, scattered and mixed with D. sanpaulensis, which tends to be more abundant at both extremes of the SBB (south of 29
S and north of 23
S) (Costa and Fernandes, 1993; Perez and Pezzuto, 1998). Squid fishing in inshore areas is also conducted during summer between December and March (Perez, 2002a; Postuma and Gasalla, 2010). Around Santa Catarina Island most hand jigging catches are taken in pulses of 2– 3 weeks that tend to occur in different bays at different times (Perez et al., 1999). It is suggested that such spatial and temporal patterns of catches reflect the foraging displacement of schools of D. plei around the island’s coastline and intermittent SACW upwelling events that concentrate small pelagic fish prey in different bays where these schools become available for local artisanal fishing (Martins et al., 2004). 5.1.4. Economic and Social Importance Squid fishing by artisanal fishermen has been regarded as socially relevant, and one amongst several activities that sustain traditional fishing communities spread along Rio de Janeiro, S~ao Paulo and Santa Catarina coastlines. These activities include a variety of near shore fishing practices, mussel culture and agriculture among others (Diegues, 1983; Medeiros et al., 1997). Fishing villages around Santa Catarina Island may rely on fish trap catches as their main source of income throughout the year (Medeiros, 2001); in the summer, cutlass fish (Trichiurus lepturus) and D. plei comprise over 80% of the traps catches (Martins and Perez, 2008). On the other hand, jigging may only take place during short periods within the season, when schools “invade” and stay in the shallow bays feeding on small clupeids (Perez et al., 1999; Martins et al., 2004). Because D. plei is valuable, income per squid Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES fishing day (»US$ 30.00) tends to be high in comparison with income from fishing other local resources. However the contribution of squid to each fisherman’s overall income is usually low and sporadic (Medeiros, 2001). In some fishing villages in Santa Catarina fishermen conduct 1- to 3-day fishing trips following schools around the islands. Income estimates are not available but catch rates per day of these fishermen are significantly higher than those obtained by fishermen that only fish for squid when they approach the village’s nearshore area (Perez et al., 1998). Medeiros (2001), analyzing the fishing dynamics of “P^antano do Sul” bay, Santa Catarina Island, found that the D. plei hand jigging fishery is more socially than economically important. In fact, when it is established during the summer season, many people of the community are involved, even the ones who do not fish throughout the year. A similar situation was reported along the coast of S~ao Paulo and southern Rio de Janeiro, where most of the families of fishermen, particularly women and children, are recruited during summer to hand jig for D. plei. An increase in the family income seems to occur during this season because catches can be sold directly, and at high prices, to summer tourists who concentrate in the coastal towns (Gasalla, 2005). Offshore, D. plei has been by-caught by trawlers that operate in the SBB for nearly 60 years. Because traditional targets, such as the pink shrimp and sciaenid fish, have shown important biomass reductions at least since the 1980s (Haimovici et al., 2006), marketing of (previously) nontarget species has become increasingly valued by fishermen as a strategy to increase overall income (Perez et al., 2001b). That process involved the development of particular spatial and seasonal strategies that have diversified catches and taken advantage of valuable finfish and shellfish concentrations. The species taken included flatfishes (Paralichthys spp.), scallops (Euvola ziczac), octopus (Octopus vulgaris), scampi (Metanephrops rubellus), slipper lobster (Scyllarides deceptor), loliginid squids (mostly D. plei) and, more recently, the argentine shortfin squid (I. argentinus) (Perez and Pezzuto, 1998; Perez and 117 Pezzuto, 2006). Because they are generally short-lived and semelparous, squids become abundantly available to bottom trawling in limited areas and seasons and therefore have stimulated seasonal directed fisheries both in the inner shelf (D. plei) and on the slope (I. argentinus) waters. Therefore, apart from contributing to the general income of trawlers operating in the SBB throughout the year, squid species can have a seasonally variable but critical importance. Beninc
a (2013) measured the contribution of an array of catch components to the monthly landings and incomes of a large group of trawlers based in Santa Catarina during three consecutive years (2008–2010). Overall D. plei ranked 10th among catch components contributing to the total income of pink shrimp trawlers that stored their catch on crushed ice and 2nd of those that stored the catch in freezers. Squid prices varied between US$ 0.86 and 2.40/kg, less than 1/5 of prices attained by the pink shrimp. Despite this, for these trawlers D. plei were consistently the main target between December and March, a period when shrimp catch rates tend to be low. During this season, the relative contributions of squid to the landed biomass and the total income increased by 2–4 times and 2–6 times, respectively, varying widely between years (Figure 21). In 2010, when a catch peak was reported (following a trough in 2008, Figure 22), squid attained a maximum of 44.2% and 50.3% of the biomass landed and the income, respectively, for the “freezer” fleet (Figure 21). 5.1.5. Fishing Fleet Hand jigging in near shore waters often takes place from canoes or from small motor boats (8–11 m long, 16–30 HP) generally used for sea-bob shrimp (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri) trawling. Fishing is conducted both during the day and at night, when a light source is used for attraction (Perez et al., 1999; Gasalla, 2005). Quantitative data describing this activity in the region are fragmented. In fishing communities along the S~ao Paulo State coastline, where there has been consistent monitoring since 2009, 11–156 boats have been recorded Figure 21. Relative contribution (%) of squid in the landed biomass (positive values) and income (negative values) of double-rig trawlers that store catches in ice (A) and freezers (B) in 2008, 2009, and 2010. Total annual values (dark bars) are contrasted with values calculated only for the summer squid fishing seasons (December–March) (empty bars). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 118 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 22. Squid catches landed in the fishing ports of Santa Catarina (dark bars) and S~ao Paulo (empty bars) states. The latter are only available from 2000 onward. The number of double-rig trawlers reporting squid catches during the summer months in Santa Catarina are shown (dashed line) as a measure of effort. Sources: “Instituto de Pesca/ APTA/ SAA/ SP” (www.pesca.sp.gov. br) and “Grupo de Estudos Pesqueiros/ Universidade do Vale do Itaja
ı” (www. univali.br/gep). fishing for squid each month of the squid season (Instituto de Pesca, 2013). Their squid catches have been significant in the state, reaching 10–40% of the biomass reported by trawlers in the port of Santos. Similar data obtained in Santa Catarina between 1991 and 1995, recorded 41–96 boats from 5 to 8 villages reporting squid jigging catches each season (Table 3) (IBAMA, unpublished data). In the same period squid landings were also recorded from 9 to 21 fish traps from different fishing villages along the coastline (Table 3). Hand-jigging and fish traps were jointly responsible for the bulk of artisanal D. plei catches every summer, reaching from 7% to 15% of total squid catches reported by trawlers in the ports of Santa Catarina. D. plei is caught in the continental shelf area of the SBB mostly by double rig, stern, and pair trawlers. These are approximately 10- to 25-m-long vessels made of wood or steel and powered by 100–500 HP engines (Perez et al., 2007; Tom
as et al., 2007; Castro et al., 2007). Squid landings are concentrated in the harbor towns of Itajai (Santa Catarina State) and Santos (S~ao Paulo State), where the relative contribution of different types of trawlers to total squid catches has changed over the years. In S~ao Paulo state, reports of squid in the bycatch of shrimp and fish trawlers date back to 1959 (Gasalla et al., 2005a). Throughout the 1990s, and until now, over 80% of summer squid landings have been produced by double-rig shrimp trawlers (Tom
as et al., 2007; Instituto de Pesca, 2013). In Santa Catarina, between 30 and 60 trawlers operated during the squid fishing seasons in the 1990s, most of them geared with double rigs and originally built to fish for shrimps. Pair trawlers were also common in that period, producing a large proportion of the total squid catches each season (Perez, 2002a). In the 2000s, the pair trawler fleet was greatly reduced, whereas the number of double-rig trawlers targeting squid during the summer seasons nearly doubled (Table 3) and produced 50% to 90% of the landed biomass. 5.1.6. Catch and Effort Data Catch statistics in southeastern and southern Brazil do not discriminate D. plei from D. sanpaulensis. However, because nearly 90% of the squid landings occur in the summer season when D. plei is highly dominant (approximately 90% of the landed biomass), total numbers tend to be little affected by D. sanpaulensis catches (Gasalla et al., 2005b). Such an assumption is probably not valid for landings in Rio Grande do Sul and Rio de Janeiro states, where the latter species predominates (Juanic
o, 1981; Costa and Fernandes, 1993). Inshore and offshore catches reported in S~ao Paulo and Santa Catarina states between 1979 and 1998 fluctuated between 100 and 1200 t annually (Perez et al., 2005). In general, catches increased after 1986, remaining mostly above 600 t per year. However, records of total annual squid catches after that period are underestimates, because artisanal landings in Santa Catarina state have not been monitored since 2000 (Figure 22). Between 2000 and 2012, these estimates varied from 230 t in 2008 to a peak of 1702 t in 2002 (Figure 22). The evolution of fishing effort directed at D. plei was investigated between 1990 and 1997, considering only the trawl fleets that operated during the summer months from the ports of Santa Catarina (Perez, 2002a and b). It was shown that Table 3. Summary of Doryteuthis spp. fishing activity in the South Brazil Bight (SBB). Data presented were recorded in Santa Catarina State, southern Brazil, in two periods, 1990–1997 and 2000–1912. They correspond to mean, maximum and minimum number of boats, number of landings, and landed biomass reported by different gears per month during the summer fishing season (December–March). Although catch statistics do not discriminate species, more than 90% of catches during this season refer to D. plei (see text). 1990–1997 Number of boats Number of landings Landed biomass (t) 2000–2012 Number of boats Number of landings Landed biomass (t) Double-rig trawl Stern trawl Pair trawl Hand jigging Fish trap 32 (15–46) 48 (18–90) 131.8 (54.7–278.6) 0 0 0 16 (5–32) 49 (7–108) 244.0 (28.8–512.0) 79 (42–96) 377 (150–559) 22.8 (7.9–37.9) 18 (9–21) 126 (66–183) 25.0 (11.6–38.5) 65 (35–97) 110 (48–197) 405.2 (95.0–833.2) 6 (4–19) 15 (3–28) 110.4 (0–613.4) 9 (2–15) 12 (6–31) 57.1 (6.5–205.7) – – – – – – Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES standardized fishing effort (measured as “fishing trips”) increased until 1995 and decreased in the two following years when (less numerous) pair trawlers prevailed (Table 3). Landings were highest in 1993, reaching 718 t and decreased to 453 t in 1993 (Perez, 2002b). Between 1998 and 2000, catches reached very low levels, increasing again in the following years as double rig trawler effort increased in the summer fishing grounds and the pair trawl fleet shrunk (Table 3). Catches produced by trawlers operating from Santa Catarina after 2000 fluctuated according to the number of double rig trawlers and their landings during the fishing seasons (Figure 22). These findings suggest that the summer D. plei fishing in the SBB is opportunistic and related to the relative success of fishermen operating double rig trawlers in profiting with other valuable targets (Perez and Pezzuto, 1998). Assessments of effort in the inshore fisheries are unavailable in the region. However Postuma and Gasalla (2010) described an increase in numbers of boats and of days dedicated to hand jig fisheries around S~ao Sebasti~ao Island between 2005 and 2009, in association with a sharp decrease in catches (21 to 9 t per season). 5.1.7. Stock Assessment and Management Biomass assessments have been attempted on a nonregular basis by both fishery-dependent and independent methods and in different areas. Perez (2002a) analyzed standardized trawl catch per unit effort (CPUE) and showed that the summer fishing season is generally enclosed within a 17-week period during which squid biomass builds up gradually, peaking between the 6th and 14th week, and decreases sharply thereafter due to postspawning mortality. Using an extended Leslie depletion model, Perez (2002a) estimated the D. plei biomass available at the week of biomass peak during five fishing seasons, which varied between 210.5 and 1583.3 t, and the escapement rate, which varied between 20% and 69% of the biomass depending on the amount of effort directed by different trawlers each season. Interseasonal abundance variation in the SBB was studied using Generalized Linear Model applied to a trawl CPUE series available in Santa Catarina from 1990 to 1997 (Perez, 2002b). Biomass was shown to oscillate apparently on 4-year cycles. Biomass peaks revealed by the model were poorly correlated to the catch peaks previously described, which suggested that the trawl fleet may not necessarily identify seasons with particularly favorable concentrations of squid (Perez et al., 2005). A similar analysis was carried out for the hand jigging fishery off S~ao Paulo by Postuma and Gasalla (2010), who showed that abundance index (CPUE) correlated positively with surface temperatures and chlorophyll-a. Haimovici et al. (2008), estimated a total biomass of 1,442 t (§49%) and 9,474 t (§66%), respectively during two trawl surveys covering outer shelf and upper slope areas off southeastern and southern Brazil in winter-spring 2001 and summer-autumn 2002. D. plei was caught in an area of 119 approximately 108,000 km2, along the entire latitudinal range surveyed (34
40´S–23
S) between 100 and 200 m. Because the species concentrates along the inner shelf during the summer months, these values are probably underestimates of actual biomass. However it is important to note that nearly 53% of estimated biomass concentrated between latitudes 28
and 24
S where most summer squid fishing takes place. There are three types of trawl fishing permits available in Brazil, as defined by their main fishing targets: the pink shrimp (Farfantepenaeus spp.), the sea-bob shrimp (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri) and “demersal fish” (M. furnieri, Umbrina canosai, C. guatucupa, M. atricauda, Paralichthys spp., Urophycis spp., and Prionotus spp.). These permits also define an array of species that can be captured and landed as “predictable bycatch,” although with no quotas or maximum proportions of the total catch formally determined. In practice, because loliginid squids are included in this predictable bycatch list, a large trawl fleet (over 300 units) is authorized to catch D. plei with no specific controls, and with only a few, mostly shrimp-oriented, management measures in place (e.g., annual fishing closure between April and June, valid for pink and sea-bob shrimps permits only). Along the coast of S~ao Paulo and Santa Catarina, MPAs have been established (e.g., Arvoredo Biological Reserve, “Litoral Norte” Environmental Protection Area) which tend to limit fishing and other human activities in the coastal spawning grounds of D. plei. 5.1.8. Conservation Measures, Biological Reference Points The current demersal fishing management model in Brazil fails to recognize the importance or protect a variety of target species that were gradually incorporated into the former shrimp and sciaenid fish trawl fisheries. These have been shown to represent a significant part of the total income of most trawlers’ owners (Beninc
a, 2013) but are still regarded as bycatch and therefore remain without any specifically oriented conservation measures. D. plei is one of these components whose importance seems critical in an eventual reform of the current management model (Perez et al., 2001b), not only because it sustains dedicated and uncontrolled effort in a relatively limited area during the summer, but also because it is an important component of the neritic food webs in the SBB, upon which several economically important predator fishes seem to rely (Gasalla et al., 2010). To date, no specific conservation measures or reference points have been established for D. plei off Brazil. Nevertheless, most of the above-mentioned studies proposed management recommendations whose fundamental concepts can be summarized as follows. D. plei currently constitutes both a bycatch component and a major target in the SBB. In that sense the species should be subject to both (a) more stringent multi-species management strategies (Rodrigues and Gasalla, 2008) and (b) a single target-species management regime applied to trawlers that Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 120 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. operate specifically during the summer fishing grounds (Perez, 2002a). Fishing mortality exerted on D. plei off Brazil is largely concentrated in population groups that spawn along the inner shelf of the SBB between December and March. Because the species is semelparous, defining escapement thresholds during this season should be of major value in the process of building reference points for the species (Perez et al., 2005). In shallow coastal areas, “MPAs” can be critical for protection of localized spawning grounds. Abundance tends to vary widely from season to season, partly associated with oceanographic fluctuations. Sustainable catch limits are therefore uncertain and recruitment-dependent. Any management action aiming at squid should prioritize conservation during low productivity years (Perez et al., 2005; Postuma and Gasalla, 2010). D. plei has been characterized as a keystone species in the food webs of the SBB ecosystem, and therefore should figure prominently in any ecosystem-based management (EBM) actions in the area (Gasalla et al., 2010). 6. SOUTHWEST ATLANTIC In their comparison of the relative importance of cephalopods in fisheries of large marine ecosystems around the world during 1990–2004, Hunsicker et al. (2010) noted that the relative (direct) contribution of cephalopods to landings varied widely between areas, being highest on the Patagonian shelf (around 40% of landings). In 1999, according to FAO figures (FAO, 2011), cephalopod landings from the Southwest Atlantic reached 1.2 million t, a figure only ever exceeded in the Northwest Pacific. However, it was only at the end of the 1970s, when landings of I. argentinus first exceeded 10,000 t, that squid fisheries assumed major importance in this area and annual landings then steadily increased until their 1999 peak. Argentina is the most important fishing nation in the region (taking almost 25% of cephalopod landings between 1950 and 2010). Other important fishing nations include Taiwan, Korea, Japan, China, Poland, Spain, and (since the establishment of conservation zones around the islands in the mid-1980s) the Falkland Islands (Malvinas). Squid catches in the region are dominated by the Argentine shortfin squid I. argentinus (84.5% of cephalopod landings from the region between 1950 and 2010), although landings fell by almost an order of magnitude between 1999 and 2004. The fishery has experienced a further boom and bust cycle since then, with overfishing almost certainly to blame, reflecting a lack of international collaboration in the region (Pierce and Portela, 2014). The only other significant catch identified to species level in the FAO data is that of the Patagonian squid Doryteuthis (formerly Loligo) gahi (8.9%) Two additional squid species are identified in catches, albeit in small amounts: the sevenstar flying squid (Martialia hyadesi) (0.34%) and greater clubhook squid (Onykia ingens) (0.002%). These, and squid landings not identified to species, make up 99.75% of cephalopod landings from the area, the remainder being octopuses. Other squid species of potential commercial value occurring in the region include O. bartramii, for which exploratory surveys have been performed (Brunetti and Ivanovic, 2004). The high squid biomass in the region is reflected in the high importance of these species in energy and nutrient transfer. As such, overfishing could have catastrophic effects. As noted by Arkhipkin (2013), the variable nature of squid populations increases their vulnerability to overfishing and environmental change. Failure of these critical biological pathways, for whatever reason, could result in irreversible long-term consequences for biodiversity and resource abundance. 6.1. Illex argentinus (Argentine Shortfin Squid) 6.1.1. Distribution The Argentine short-finned squid, I. argentinus is the most abundant commercial species of squid in the Southwest Atlantic. This squid is a widespread neritic species occurring in waters off Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, and the Falkland Islands (Nesis, 1987). It is associated mainly with temperate waters of the Patagonian Shelf. Its distribution extends over the shelf and individuals have also been caught in the open ocean as far east as the Antarctic Polar Front (Anderson and Rodhouse, 2001; Rodhouse, 1991). The highest concentrations of this squid are observed on the shelf to the north-west of the Falkland Islands and on the shelf and shelf edge at 45–47
S (Haimovici et al., 1998). 6.1.2. Population Structure and Life History It has been assumed that the species consist of two populations with different spawning seasons and sites: an abundant winter spawning population (more than 95% of the total stock) and a small summer spawning population (Hatanaka, 1988). Brunetti (1988) subdivided the winter spawning squid into two stocks (groups), the Bonaerensis North Patagonian stock and the more abundant South Patagonian Stock, distinguished by their feeding grounds (north and south of 46
S, respectively) and size of adults (medium and large, respectively). The taxonomic status of these groups remains unclear. Analyses of length frequency compositions showed that the lifecycle of all I. argentinus populations was approximately 1 year (Hatanaka, 1986). This was later confirmed by statolith ageing studies (Arkhipkin, 1990; Rodhouse and Hatfield, 1990). The winter-spawned South Patagonian stock has the longest ontogenetic migrations. The postlarval period takes place in the open ocean and above the continental slope of Brazil and Uruguay in August and September (Leta, 1987; Santos and Haimovici, 1997). Then, juveniles migrate to the shelf off Uruguay and Argentina in September–December (Brunetti, 1988; Parfeniuk et al., 1992), and continue their feeding migrations Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES on the Patagonian Shelf in January–April (Brunetti, 1988; Hatanaka, 1988). During the feeding period, the stock structure is quite stable. During each 10 day period, four to five monthly age classes (microcohorts) are usually observed (Uozumi and Shiba, 1993). The relative importance of different monthly age classes changes gradually, from mainly Junehatched squid in February to mainly July-hatched squid in March–April. After their maturation in April-May, prespawning schools of squid descend to deep water (600–800 m) over the continental slope to the north of the Falkland Islands and migrate along the slope off Argentina and Uruguay in May– July (Arkhipkin, 1993; Hatanaka, 1986, 1988). Spawning takes place on the shelf and slope off northern Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil in July–August (Brunetti, 1988; Santos and Haimovici, 1997). The South Patagonian Stock has been further subdivided into two groups, the “matured at medium sizes shelf group” and the “matured at large sizes slope group” (Arkhipkin, 1993). The shelf group of I. argentinus has a neritic type of lifecycle, characterized by spawning in warm shelf waters of the northern part of the species range (27–36
S), southward feeding migrations of juveniles <100–150 mm ML over the Patagonian shelf, medium maximum sizes of mature squid (males of 180–260 mm ML, females of 220–320 mm ML) and northward pre-spawning migrations along the shelf. The slope group of I. argentinus has an oceanic slope type of lifecycle characterized by spawning on the slope in the northern part of the species range (27
–36
S), southward feeding migrations of juveniles <100–150 mm ML in the open part of the Argentine Basin, large maximum sizes of mature squid (240–340 mm ML, females up to 280–400 mm ML) and northward pre spawning migrations along the slope. 6.1.3. Fishing Fleets, Seasons, and Catches Argentinean trawlers regularly had “calamar” as a bycatch in hake fishery since the 1930s. After the description of the species by Castellanos (1960), I. argentinus appeared separately in FAO catch statistics. The first large annual catch of this squid was taken by the Soviet trawl fleet that worked in the then just-established Argentine EEZ in 1967 (12,000– 15,000 t; Prosvirov and Vasiliev, 1969; Vovk and Nigmatullin, 1972). After 1967, the Soviet fleet did not take any more licenses to fish within EEZ, and I. argentinus were mainly taken as minor bycatch by Argentinean and Uruguayan hake trawlers in the northern part of the Patagonian Shelf (1,000– 8,000 t per annum) (Brunetti, 1990). At the end of 1970s, several fishing companies started to target aggregations of I. argentinus on the Argentinean and Patagonian Shelves, achieving annual catches of 73,000 t in 1978 and 122,000 t in 1979 (Csirke, 1987). In 1979, a Japanese research vessel, “Shinkai Maru,” carried out a major trawl survey of the Patagonian Shelf and estimated a minimum standing biomass of 0.9 million t of the winter-spawning (South Patagonian) stock 121 Figure 23. Total annual catches of Illex argentinus by trawlers and jiggers combined in the Argentinean EEZ (SagPaya, 2013). of I. argentinus prior to their pre-spawning northward migrations to the continental slope (Sato and Hatanaka, 1983). The development of the macroscale international fishery for I. argentinus took place between 1980 and 1986, especially in so-called “high seas areas” outside the Argentinean EEZ (between 41
and 47
S and further south around the Falkland Islands) at depths ranging from 105 m to 850 m. In total, from 40 to 90 large factory trawlers and 50–120 jigging vessels, belonging to 10–14 countries, operated annually in these areas (Sato and Hatanaka, 1983; Csirke, 1987). Japanese catches gradually increased from 6,900 t in 1978 to 73,700 t in 1986 (Sato and Hatanaka, 1983; Brunetti, 1990). Catches by the Polish fleet (trawlers and combi-vessels) rapidly increased from 4,300 t in 1978 to 113,400 t in 1984, but then decreased to 28,300 t in 1986. One of the important innovations of Polish fishermen was to equip the trawlers with jigging machines that enabled them to fish effectively throughout the day, trawling during daylight hours and jigging at night (Karnicki et al., 1989). Large Soviet factory trawlers (2,000–4,000 GRT) took from 17,000 t in 1982 to 73,700 t in 1984 (Nigmatullin et al., 1995). The fleets followed the ontogenetic migrations of squid on the Patagonian shelf. In January to early March, feeding aggregations were targeted on the shelf at 130–160 m depth, mainly during daytime when squid schools were near the bottom. In April–June, prespawning aggregations were fished at 600–650 m over the continental slope, initially at 47
–48
S, then at 45
–47
S, and then further north at 42
S at depths 700–750 m. As squid concentrations were well above the bottom, trawlers fished with large pelagic trawls with the ground gear almost touching the bottom and with a vertical opening of 40–50 m. Inside the Argentinean EEZ, I. argentinus was fished as bycatch during the hake fishery and also in February–July by a specialized fishery with total annual catches up to 300,000 t (Brunetti, 1990; Figure 23). A substantial change in the I. argentinus fishery occurred in 1986, when the Falkland Islands Interim Fishery Conservation and Management Zone (FICZ) was established, extending to 150 nm around the Falkland Islands. Before that, Polish, Japanese, and Soviet trawlers fished for the squid close to the islands without any restrictions. The establishment of a Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 122 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. 50 350,000 Total catch of I.argentinus 45 Mean jigger CPUE 300,000 Total catch, t 35 30 200,000 25 150,000 20 15 100,000 10 Mean daily catch of jigger, t 40 250,000 50,000 5 0 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 0 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 24. Total annual catch (t) and mean daily CPUE (t per night) in Illex argentinus jigging fishery within Falkland Conservation Zones. regulated fishery in the FICZ has drastically changed the participants in the fishery. Licenses were taken mainly by Asian jigging fleets (up to 170 per year) with 100–120 jigging vessels fishing for squid between February and June. The total annual catch of I. argentinus in the FICZ fluctuated between 102,000 t and 224,000 t between 1987 and 1992 (Falkland Islands Government, 2012; Figure 24). The collapse of the Soviet Union and Eastern socialist block heavily impacted on far seas squid fisheries, ultimately reducing the trawler fleet in the Southwest Atlantic to a few dozen vessels by 2000. Since then, mainly Spanish and Korean trawlers have caught I. argentinus in shallow waters (130–160 m) as an important bycatch of the hake fishery. The trawl fishery in deep water no longer exists. In 1993, the Argentinean Government facilitated access for foreign vessels to fish in the Argentinean EEZ together with establishment of the domestic jigging fleet. From 1993 to 2000, this fleet increased from 40 to 90 vessels. In 1993, a fishing ban was introduced to prevent fishing on squid to the north of 44
S between 1 February and 30 April, and to the south of 44
S from 1 July to 31 January. These regulatory measures enabled an increase in the Argentinean catch of squid to 203,200 t in 1993 and 432,000 t in 1999 (Brunetti et al., 2000). Since then, catches have ranged from 73,400 t to 270,000 t (Secretaria de Pesca, 1993–2013). In 1998–2013, catches of squid around the Falkland Islands varied widely from a mere 44 t in 2009 to 161,000 t in 2007. Each year, licenses were issued to 43–125 vessels (mean 80 vessels). Jigging vessels belonging to 15–20 countries fished for squid, mainly from Taiwan and South Korea, but also Japan (until 2004) and China (until 2007) (FIFD, 2012; Figure 24). On the high seas (41
–47
S), a large international fleet of about 30–40 trawlers (mainly from Spain and Korea) and 120–150 jigging vessels (mainly from Taiwan, South Korea and China) worked for the whole period from January to June, taking at least 200,000 t of squid per annum (Nigmatullin, 2007). Uruguayan fishermen also took from 1600 t to 20,800 t of squid from their waters (FAO, 2010). A local fishery for I. argentinus (several thousand t per annum) is also being developed in the southern parts of Brazil (Perez and Pezzuto, 2006; Perez et al., 2009). The Japanese fishery for I. argentinus began as a trawl fishery in the late 1970s. In the 1980s, the trawlers operated Figure 25. Catches of Illex argentinus by the Japanese trawl and jigging fisheries (based on Sakai, 2002). extensively in the High Seas area, and the catches increased. Squid jigging began in 1985 and expanded in 1987 and 1988, when the annual catches reached nearly 200,000 t (Figure 25). Around that time, Japanese fishers were prohibited from entering Argentine Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The main fishing grounds were between 43
and 47
S on the continental shelf and offshore, and near the Falkland Islands. In 1993, fishers were allowed access to the Argentinean EEZ through “a formal charter system,” and the main fishing grounds moved into the EEZ (Japan Large Squid Jigging Boats Association, 2008). In 2002, a bareboat charter contract system, which imposed strict restrictions on foreign squid jigging vessels in the EEZ, was initiated. During 1985–2006, maximum of 117 Japanese vessels were fished in 1987. Then, jigging fleet remained stable (around 50 vessels) in 1990s but further decreased from 2002 onward. In 2006, only 4 vessels worked in the region, which was the final year of the Japanese jigging fishery for I. argentinus (Figure 26). After 2007, the Japanese jigging fleet witrhdrew completely from the Argentine waters due to the Argentine policy of the development of their own jigging fishery (Japan Large Squid Jigging Boats Association, 2008). The mean CPUE of the Japanese squid jigging vessels was around 10–15 t per day with some annual variations (Figure 27). In 2000, mean CPUE was 26.8 t per day, the highest in history, but then dropped steeply to 5.9 t per day in 2004, the lowest since 1985. In 2005 and 2006, CPUE increased, and it was considered that the resource had recovered. Figure 26. Number of Japanese squid jigging vessels in the Illex argentinus fishery in the Southwest Atlantic (based on Sakai and Wakabayashi, 2010). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 123 The Chinese jigging fishery began exploiting I. argentinus for the first time in 1997, both on the high seas and later in the Argentinean EEZ. In 1999, more squid fishing vessels entered into this area, and the annual output reached 60,000 t (Wang and Chen, 2005). In 2001, the catch increased to 99,000 t, with an average catch of 1,044 t per vessel. In 2004, as its recruitment fell, the squid production decreased dramatically, and the total Chinese catch was only 13,400 t. After 2005, the catch greatly increased to 184,000 t in 2007 and 197,000 t in 2008, respectively. However, the annual catch fell sharply to 12,000 t in 2011 (Figure 28). Taiwanese jigging vessels mainly fish on the high seas around 45
–46
S and north of the Falkland Islands between December and June. Some fishing vessels operate within the Argentinean EEZ and FICZ under local licenses. When low squid production occurred, such as in 2004 and 2009, fishing fleets left as early as May and moved to the Southeast Pacific to fish for D. gigas, or to the Northwest Pacific for Pacific saury (Cololabis saira). The annual production of I. argentinus by Taiwanese jiggers varied from 9,000 (2004) to 284,000 t (2007) between 1986 and 2011, with an annual average production of about 120,000 t, which accounted for 20»30% of the global production of I. argentinus. The annual number of vessels ranged from 8 to 132 and with an annual average around 80 vessels in recent years (Figure 29). Altogether, despite substantial fluctuations in abundance, the total catch of I. argentinus in the Southwest Atlantic was high between 1987 and 2003 (410,117–1,153,300 t), although catches had declined every year since 1999. In 2004–2005, the 250000 3000 2500 150000 2000 100000 1500 1000 50000 Catch per fishing vessel (t) 4000 catch catch per fishing vessel 3500 200000 Catch (t) Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 27. Catches and the mean daily CPUE for the year of Illex argentinus by Japanese squid jigging vessels during 1985–2006 (adapted from Sakai and Wakabayashi, 2010). 500 0 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year Figure 28. Total catch and catch per fishing vessel of Illex argentinus for Chinese squid jigging fleets in the southwest Atlantic. Figure 29. Production of Illex argentinus and number of vessels for Taiwanese distant-water squid fishery in the Southwest Atlantic between 1983 and 2011. total catch dropped sharply to 178,900–287,600 t, probably due to low abundance triggered by overfishing and/or unfavorable environmental conditions. After a return to high abundance in 2006–2008 (total catch of 703,800–955,000 t), there was another drop in abundance in 2009–2011 (190,000–261,200 t). In 2012–2013, another recovery of I. argentinus populations was observed with total catch approaching »500,000 t. 6.1.4. Stock Assessment The Argentine short-finned squid is a typical “straddling” or transboundary stock that, during its ontogenesis, migrates through the EEZs of several countries including Brazil, Uruguay, Argentina, as well as Falkland Conservation Zones. It also occurs in the unregulated High Seas fishing area around 42
S and 45
–47
S. Stock assessment of this squid is challenging because it requires the data from several fishing zones under different (or no) jurisdiction in the Southwest Atlantic. Before the start of large-scale commercial exploitation, several biomass surveys were carried out on the entire Patagonian Shelf by R/V Walter Herwig (1978), Shinkai Maru (1978/79) and Dr Holmberg (1981/82). The biomass estimated by the swept-area method varied between 635,968 t (Otero et al., 1981) and 2,605,000 t (Sato and Hatanaka, 1983). In 1990, a bilateral South Atlantic Fisheries Commission (SAFC) was established that included Argentina and the United Kingdom. One of the main aims was to exchange data on I. argentinus catches and locations with further recommendations on stock conservation. The SAFC organized joint trawl surveys to estimate the recruitment of the winter spawning stock on the Patagonian Shelf before the start of the fishing season in February. Abundance and biomass were estimated by swept-area method using Argentinean research vessels. During the fishing season, stock abundance was estimated using a modified DeLury model (Beddington et al., 1990; Rosenberg et al., 1990) under the assumption that in March– April squid remain in the same area (Southern Patagonian Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 124 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Shelf) with no substantial immigration or emigration. Later, Basson et al. (1996) improved the depletion model by considering the progressive (i.e., asynchronous) immigration of squid to the fishing ground after the season starts. It was established that if the Spawning Stock Biomass fell below the threshold limit of 40,000 t for the Southwest Atlantic, the SAFC should recommend early closure of the Illex fisheries both in Argentina and the Falkland Islands. Such early closures were implemented in a number of years. Unfortunately, since 2005, the SAFC has been inactive because the Argentine Government reduced cooperation, declined to attend meetings and suspended joint scientific activities. Currently, the Southwest Atlantic region suffers from lack of any effective regional management and conservation of straddling I. argentinus stocks because there is no regional fisheries management organization (RFMO). An RFMO should include all or the majority of countries whose fleets are exploiting those stocks. To date no such organization exists, making the Southwest Atlantic unique in having no comprehensive fisheries management programme. Countries with fishing waters in which I. argentinus occurs now impose conservation measures separately. This situation has undoubtedly increased the vulnerability of I. argentinus stocks. Since 2000, I. argentinus abundance has become more variable (Falkland Islands Government, 2012), probably reflecting both climatic variation and overexploitation. 6.2. Doryteuthis gahi (Patagonian Squid) 6.2.1. Distribution The Patagonian squid D. gahi (Orbigny, 1835) inhabits the continental shelves of South America from southern Peru and Chile in the Pacific to southern Argentina and the Falkland Islands in the Atlantic (Jereb and Roper, 2010). It is a relatively small squid, typically attaining 130–170 mm ML. Doryteuthis gahi is the coldest water species among loliginids that lives in waters of Sub-Antarctic origin mixed with shelf waters. In the Pacific, the squid is distributed as far north as 4
S on the shelf of northern Peru, in shallow waters derived from the Humboldt Current (Villegas, 2001). The abundance of squid in Peruvian waters was quite low, with the total annual catch not exceeding several thousand t per year along the whole Peruvian coast. In Chilean waters, D. gahi is encountered from Valparaiso in the north to Cape Horn in the south (Arancibia and Robotham, 1984) in very low abundance, probably too low to support any specialized fishery. It is assumed that the populations off Peru and Chile are connected by squid that occur in the northern part of Chile (Jereb and Roper, 2010). However, there are no records of D. gahi’s occurrence in the region between 20
and 34
S. In the Southwest Atlantic, D. gahi is widely distributed on the whole Patagonian Shelf, and found within waters of the Falkland (Malvinas) Current up to 38
–40
S on the Argentinean Shelf. The squid is most abundant to the south, southeast and north-east of the Falkland Islands, where it is the subject of a specialized bottom trawl fishery (Patterson, 1988; Hatfield et al., 1990). Its distribution and abundance on the Falkland Shelf are closely associated with the “Transient Zone” representing the mixing of Shelf Waters with the subAntarctic Superficial Water Mass of the Falkland Current (Arkhipkin et al., 2004b). 6.2.2. Population Structure and Life History Two main seasonal cohorts of unclear taxonomic status, namely, a spring-spawning cohort and an autumn-spawning cohort, were identified around the Falkland Islands (Patterson, 1988). Recruitment of the autumn-spawning cohort occurs in the feeding grounds from October until January, that of the spring-spawning cohort in March and April. Squid of both cohorts have an annual lifecycle (Patterson, 1988; Hatfield, 1991) but, because of difference in spawning and hatch dates (Arkhipkin et al., 2004a), their similar ontogenetic phases occur at different times of the year and are subject to different environmental conditions. The squid that hatched in summer (at higher temperatures) were significantly larger than squid of the same age but hatched in winter (Hatfield, 2000). Ontogenetic growth in D. gahi is characterized by two-stage growth patterns with positive acceleration of growth during the juvenile period and negative acceleration of growth during the adult period. The inflection point of the Shnute growth curve was observed at the same age as the inflection point of the maturity ogive in males, but much earlier in females (Arkhipkin and Roa, 2005). Genetic studies of D. gahi using allozyme markers found no evidence of genetic differentiation among samples collected monthly over 1 year, suggesting that all seasonal cohorts of D. gahi belonged to one single interbreeding population (Carvalho and Loney 1989; Carvalho and Pitcher 1989). Subsequent studies on the D. gahi population occurring around the Falkland Islands revealed no significant genetic differentiation among subpopulations (Shaw et al., 2004). This suggests extensive genetic interchange between spawning cohorts and geographical areas, that is, that there is interbreeding between the cohorts (Patterson, 1988; Agnew et al., 1998; Arkhipkin and Middleton, 2003). Squid of both cohorts occur in the warmest water available in near-bottom layers of the Transient Zone between shelf waters and the Falkland Current (Arkhipkin et al., 2004b). The extent of the distribution of D. gahi aggregations on their feeding grounds may be predicted by determining the location of the Transient Zone on the shelf (Arkhipkin et al., 2004b). These areas comprise their feeding grounds on the Falkland Shelf. In summer, immature squid of the autumn spawning component are found in the warmer waters of the inshore boundary of the Transient Zone, moving to shallow Shelf Waters as soon as they start to mature. In autumn, emigration of the autumn-spawning cohort from their feeding grounds ends and these squid are replaced by immature squid of the spring-spawning cohort, which are just arriving on the shared Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 6.2.3. Composition and Numbers of the Fishing Fleet The fishery for D. gahi around the Falkland Islands started in the beginning of 1980s, when both Polish and Spanish trawlers discovered dense aggregations of squid on the shelf near the Beauch^ene Island. The fishery has been carried out exclusively by trawlers operating bottom nets with small mesh liners. The fishery by several dozen factory trawlers was totally unregulated with the declared annual catch around 40,000 t (Csirke, 1987). The establishment of the 150-nm FICZ around the Falkland Islands in 1986 introduced a management regime for all commercial resources within the Zone. Since then all trawlers had to fish for D. gahi under licenses issued by the Falkland Islands Fisheries Department. In 1988–1990, up to 46 trawlers belonging to ten countries (mainly Spanish, 50–70%) were licensed to fish for Patagonian squid. The numbers of licenses gradually decreased to 21 in 1998, with the composition of fishing fleet changing to mainly Falkland flagged vessels (70– 80%). Since 2000, the fleet has consisted of 16 factory trawlers (almost exclusively Falkland flagged vessels). 6.2.4. Fishing Grounds, Duration of Fishing Period The D. gahi fishery is restricted spatially, limiting the trawling fleet to an area to the east and south of the Falkland 40 120,000 Total catch of D. gahi 35 Mean catch of trawler 30 80,000 25 20 60,000 15 40,000 10 20,000 Mean daily catch of trawler, t 100,000 Total catch, t 5 0 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 0 1991 feeding grounds. Late autumn homogeneity in temperatures from inshore to 200 m depths enables the spring-spawning squid to penetrate deeper into the Transient Zone. Winter cooling of the Shelf Waters and formation of the warm water layer between 150 and 250 m depths in the Transient Zone restricts squid almost exclusively to this zone, their movement being limited by colder waters situated both shallower and deeper. Thus, the whole spring-spawning cohort stays in the deepwater feeding grounds in winter, and continuous growth and maturation is evident in biological sampling. As soon as the spring warming starts at the end of October, the spring-spawning squid begin to move to shallow water to spawn, disappearing first from the deeper parts of the Transient Zone. The squid spawn in shallow waters with egg masses occurring in kelp beds (Arkhipkin et al., 2000). The first (autumnspawning) and second (spring-spawning) cohorts of D. gahi differ in the duration of embryonic development. Squid of the autumn-spawning cohort have their peak spawning in May– June (austral autumn) (Hatfield and des Clers, 1998), their egg masses develop slowly throughout the winter, and their hatchlings appear in early spring. Squid of the spring-spawning cohort spawn in the austral spring (October–November), their egg masses develop rapidly in warmer water conditions, and their hatchlings appear in early summer. Thus, the 5–6 month difference in spawning time between the two cohorts diminishes to only 2–4 months difference in hatching time (Arkhipkin and Middleton, 2003). This strategy enables recruits of both cohorts to target the pronounced spring-early summer zooplankton bloom in the Southwest Atlantic (Boltovskoy, 1999), presumably enhancing their survival. 125 Figure 30. Total annual catch (t) and mean daily CPUE (t per day) in Doryteuthis gahi fishery within Falkland Conservation Zones in the Southwest Atlantic. Islands. The so called “Loligo box” extends about 10,000 square nautical miles on the shelf and shelf edge between 100 and 350 m depths. Two fishing seasons were established, the first running from February to May, and the second running from August to October. Since 2003, the seasons were shortened for conservation reasons. Currently, the first season is scheduled for 50 calendar days of fishing from February 24 to April 14, and the second season is scheduled for 78 calendar days of fishing from July 15 to September 30. During the first season, the squid exploited mainly belong to the first, autumnspawning cohort, whereas during the second season the squid exploited mainly belong to the second, spring-spawning cohort. 6.2.5. Amounts and Dynamics of Catches Over the last two decades, total annual catches of D. gahi in the Falkland Islands have ranged from 24,000 to 98,000 t (Figure 30) with a mean of 51,000 t (Arkhipkin et al., 2013). CPUE has also been variable, with a negative interannual trend observed in the 1990s and a positive trend observed since 2000 onward (Figure 30). Occasionally, catches of D. gahi are also taken in the high seas at 46
–47
S outside the Argentinean EEZ in August–September, but they usually do not exceed 5,000 t per annum. 6.2.6. Stock Assessment There is a rare opportunity in the Falkland Islands to use a depletion model for stock estimations of D. gahi as all ontogenetic stages of squid occur in one management area. A modified standard Leslie–Delury method is focused on the use of catch and effort data from the commercial fishery (Rosenberg et al., 1990). Instead of the usual assumption of negligible mortality, a fixed mortality rate was introduced, together with an extension to consider multiple fleets instead of a single catch-effort series. Assessments are carried out over the period following a peak in CPUE (where catch is expressed in numbers of squid). In practice, assessments using this method (Rosenberg et al., 1990) did not work in all fishing seasons, primarily because the time series of weekly CPUE deviated in some years from the assumed pattern of a continuous decline following an initial peak (Agnew et al., 1998). This has been a Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 126 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 particular problem in the first season where recruitment of the second cohort often masks the depletion of the first cohort. Deviations from the assumed pattern of CPUE may also arise for other reasons including spatial structuring of the population on the fishery grounds (Arkhipkin and Middleton, 2002). The combined modeling of D. gahi stocks employs a stochastic biomass projection model for preseason and postseason assessment, and a stock depletion model (SDM) that assesses the stock during the fishing season period (Roa-Ureta and Arkhipkin, 2007). Additionally, it was shown that the spatio-temporal dynamics of the fleet was a useful component of the stock assessment of the D. gahi stock by the SDM. This is because more than one depletion episode, some of them quite shortlived, may occur in a given season, either in distant regions within the fishing grounds (as in the second seasons of 2004 and 2005) or even at short distances within the same region (the first season of 2005) (Roa-Ureta and Arkhipkin, 2007). 6.2.7. Management The fishery management of D. gahi is based on the strict control of fishing effort rather than the more common policy of limiting catches (TAC). The choice of effort limitation as the primary management tool was made taking into account an annual lifecycle and high variability in abundance from year to year. With a very weak stock-recruitment relationship the management target has been to maintain spawner escapement biomass above a level that appreciably decreases the probability of poor recruitment (currently 10,000 t for each cohort). As the numbers of recruits cannot generally be estimated until the fishery is actually underway, Beddington et al (1990) argued that management should aim for constant proportional escapement via a constant harvest rate. In-season monitoring remains important to allow the possibility of reducing effort in years when a low recruitment implies that a constant harvest rate will not be sufficiently conservative. The aim of a constant proportional escapement has been implemented via the setting of allowable fishing effort, estimating the catchability coefficients and likely time spent fishing of groups of vessels, and thereafter issuing appropriate numbers of licenses (Beddington et al., 1990). The issuing of licenses, which are based on predetermined estimates of a vessel’s fishing power and do not restrict the actual catch taken, has the advantage of reducing the incentive to mis-report catch (Beddington et al., 1990), which can be a serious problem in catch-limited fisheries. Several management measures are currently in force to conserve the D. gahi stocks (Arkhipkin et al., 2008). Temporal restrictions (in the form of the early closure of the fishery season) may be used in cases when in-season estimations of stock size show that the stock is approaching a minimum escapement level. Spatial restrictions (in the form of areas temporally or permanently closed for fishing) may be used to prevent the fishing of dense schools of small juvenile squid during their offshore feeding migrations. The locations and timings of closed areas may vary interannually depending on environmental conditions, which determine the distribution of young squid. Reductions in fishing effort could be used in case of predicted poor recruitment of D. gahi for a given fishing season, though predictive ability is limited at present. If assessments indicate that minimum spawning stock biomass targets were not met then effort may be reduced in following seasons to take account both of the fact that recruitment may have been reduced and that fleet performance may have been underestimated. The current management practice, in the form of fishing effort regulation by restrictions in number of licenses, together with in-season spatial and temporal restrictions of the fishery, is flexible enough to conserve the stocks of short-lived D. gahi around the Falkland Islands at a sustainable level. 7. NORTHEAST ATLANTIC The ICES divides the Northeast Atlantic, FAO area 27, into 14 fishery areas (Figure 31). Within this area, most catches of cephalopods arise from areas IV to IX, on the Continental shelf. Cephalopod fisheries remain relatively unimportant in the northeast Atlantic, a fact highlighted in reviews by Caddy and Rodhouse (1998) and Hunsicker et al. (2010). Indeed, according to Caddy and Rodhouse (1998), the only region of the world covered by their study where total cephalopod landings had not increased significantly over the previous 25 years was the Northeast Atlantic1. This area is only the 11th most important FAO fishing area for total cephalopod catches since 1950; with peak annual landings of just over 60,000 t compared to a peak of almost 1.5 million t for the Northwest Pacific (FAO, 2011). The continuing pressure on finfish stocks has led several authors to propose that cephalopods, especially squid, would become increasingly important as a fishery resource (e.g., Boyle and Pierce, 1994). However, except for a brief period during 1980–1985, when T. sagittatus supported an important fishery in Norway, squid have remained less important than octopus and cuttlefish in this region; and the general upward trend in cephalopod landings since 1979 (peaking in 2004 at just over 60,000 t) has been driven by increasing landings of cuttlefish. In the northern Northeast Atlantic, expansion of cephalopod fishing has probably been held back by the limited local consumption of cephalopods. For example, most squid landed in Scotland is exported to southern Europe (e.g., Pierce et al., 2010). Nevertheless, there has been intermittent interest in directed squid fishing in UK waters over the years and directed fishing on squid occurs on Rockall Bank and in the Moray Firth (see Hamabe et al., 1982; Pierce et al., 1994a; Young et al., 2006a; Hastie et al 2009a; Smith, 2011). 1 Note, however, that the time window selected affects the trends seen in the Northeast Atlantic. Total cephalopod landings increased from 1950 to 1970 but fell sharply to a low in 1979, trends driven by the rise and fall of Spanish octopus landings. The general increase seen since 1979 (at least until 2004) mainly reflects an increase in French cuttlefish landings, aside from the short-lived Todarodes fishery in Norway (see FAO, 2011 and Pierce and Portela, 2014). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 127 Figure 31. The division of the Northeast Atlantic, FAO area 27, into 14 fishery areas by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). From the English Channel southward, cephalopods assume much greater importance as resource species, with commercial and artisanal fishing for cuttlefish, octopus and, to a lesser extent, squid. However, it is only very recently that there appears to have been more widespread commercial targeting of squid, for example, by Spanish trawlers in the Bay of Biscay, reflecting the poor state of the hake stock (ICES, 2013). In the northern Northeast Atlantic, the most important cephalopod fishery resource is currently the loliginid squid Loligo forbesii. From the English Channel southward, other cephalopods, notably the cuttlefish Sepia officinalis and the octopus Octopus vulgaris, are more important in terms of both weight and value of catches, and L. forbesii is increasingly replaced in catches by L. vulgaris. There is some evidence that L. forbesii abundance declined markedly in the south of its range in the early 1990s, leading to increased dominance of L. vulgaris (Chen et al., 2006). The English Channel cuttlefish fishery is currently the most valuable Northeast Atlantic cephalopod fishery (ICES, 2012; Pierce et al., 2010). Two other loliginid species, namely Alloteuthis subulata and A. media, are of minor fishery importance in the Northeast Atlantic. These species are landed and marketed as a secondary target or bycatch in Spain and Portugal; however, they are not distinguished from each other and are also likely sometimes landed with Loligo catches (Moreno, 1995; Garc
ıa Tasende et al., 2005; Jereb et al., in press). Unlike in many parts of the world, the most important squid resources in the Northeast Atlantic are loliginids although, as mentioned above, historically, the ommastrephid T. sagittatus supported an important, if short-lived, fishery, in Norway (FAO, 2011). Two other ommastrephids, Todaropsis eblanae and Illex coindetii, are landed in small amounts as bycatch in the northern NE Atlantic, occasionally along with third species, O. bartramii (Pierce et al., 2010; ICES, 2012; Jereb et al., in press). Clarke (1963) proposed that ommastrephid squids could provide an important future fishery resource in the eastern North Atlantic, for human consumption, animal feed, and fertilizer. He cited the seasonal exploitation of Todarodes sagitattus, Stenoteuthis pteropus and S. caroli (the latter now recognized as a synonym of O. bartramii) in Madeira. The Arctic and sub-Arctic gonatid squid Gonatus fabricii is Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 128 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. considered to have some fishery potential (Bjørke and Gjøsæter, 1998). It is caught for use as bait in Greenland and has been the subject of unsuccessful experimental fisheries (Frandsen and Wieland, 2004). As Clarke (1963) observed, ommastrephids are generally considered less palatable than loliginid squid, but it remains possible that economically important fisheries for various oceanic squid species could be developed in the future. Nevertheless, the evidence for the existence of a high biomass of these species, that is, their importance in oceanic food webs, is also a reason to take a precautionary approach since uncontrolled exploitation could have important and unpredictable consequences for oceanic ecosystems. Most information on abundance of the commercially exploited species arises from fishery landings and, in some cases, trawling surveys. Usually, at best these provide an indication of relative abundance; even where swept area estimates have been derived (as for L. forbesii, Pierce et al., 1998), they are essentially minimum estimates due to uncertainty about gear selectivity. In the last two decades, some model-based estimates have been derived (e.g., Young et al., 2004), although these also suffer from uncertainty about natural mortality. What is evident is that there are wide interannual fluctuations in abundance, generally thought to be environmentally driven although effects of fishing cannot always be ruled out. 7.1. The Loliginid Squids: Loligo and Alloteuthis The so-called long-finned (loliginid) squid in this region comprise four species, Loligo forbesii (veined squid) and L. vulgaris (European squid) and A. subulata (European common squid) and A. media (midsize squid). Fishing focuses mainly on the former genus. 7.1.1. Biology, Ecology, and Stock Structure 7.1.1.1 Loligo forbesii. The range of L. forbesii extends along the eastern Atlantic continental shelf from Norway to north Africa; it is absent from the Baltic Sea and the southern boundary of its range in the Atlantic is poorly defined. It also occurs around the Azores and the Canary Islands groups, and throughout the Mediterranean (Jereb et al., in press). It appears to be most abundant in the northern part of its range, particularly around the United Kingdom (see Chen et al. 2006). L. forbesii is a temperate and subtropical neritic species, usually found in continental shelf waters at temperatures exceeding 8.5
C and with a vertical range from 50 to over 700 m along the mainland coast, although apparently generally found in deeper waters than L. vulgaris in areas where the two species co-occur. In the Azores, where deep waters are found close to the shore it can be found at depths up to 1000 m. Males reach much larger sizes and weights than females, although females are usually heavier at any given length (e.g., Pierce et al., 1994c). Males can reach over 900 mm in length while maximum female size is around 460 mm, with the most common adult sizes being in the range 200–300 mm. Size at maturity is very variable; two or more size modes of maturity can exist in both sexes, but these separate modes are more pronounced in males (Collins et al., 1999). In Portuguese waters the smallest mature male measured 80 mm ML, and the smallest mature female 103 mm. However, on the mainland coast, most males start to mature at a minimum size around 150 mm ML and females around 170 mm ML. In the Azores, minimum sizes at maturity are larger, at 240 and 200 mm ML for males and females respectively (Jereb et al., 2010). The lifecycle is annual, as indicated by generally consistent seasonal peaks of reproduction and recruitment, although statolith readings suggest that individuals can live up to around 16 months and there has been speculation the lifecycle could sometimes take two years (e.g., Boyle et al., 1995). In Scotland, the species is typically winter-spawning, with young animals recruiting to the fishery mainly in summer and autumn (Boyle and Ngoile, 1993a; Pierce et al., 1994b; Boyle et al., 1995; Rocha and Guerra, 1999; Jereb et al., in press). However, some spawning may occur all year round and the seasonal peaks differ between areas; secondary spawning peaks may also occur, for example, in the summer in the English Channel (Holme, 1974). Following the classification of Rocha et al. (2001) the species is an intermittent terminal spawner. It shows an onshore-offshore ontogenetic migration, typical of loliginids, moving from the shelf edge (at 100–200 m) in summer toward inshore waters to spawn in the winter. In some years a West-East migration apparently occurs in autumn in Scottish waters (Waluda and Pierce, 1998). In the Moray Firth, Scotland, the smallest individuals are caught close inshore in summer and there seems to be a subsequent ontogenetic migration away from the coast and a later return of mature animals into coastal waters to spawn (e.g., Viana et al., 2009). Several studies in Scotland have reported two main recruitment periods, in April and November, with small numbers of recruits present throughout most of the year, despite there apparently being a single main breeding season (Lum-Kong et al., 1992; Boyle and Pierce, 1994; Pierce et al., 1994b; Boyle et al., 1995; Collins et al., 1997, 1999). The phenology of lifecycle events appears to be very variable, both between years, apparently reflecting sensitivity to varying environmental conditions (see Sims et al., 2001; Pierce and Boyle, 2003; Pierce et al., 2005) and also within years, since between two to four microcohorts may be identifiable in landings at any one time (Collins et al., 1999). It is generally unclear whether variability in life history characteristics is environmentally driven, genetic, or a mixture, but it has given rise to suggestions that more than one stock may be present (see below). Several studies on squid landings in Scotland have identified an apparently predictable seasonal pattern, with highest landings from coastal waters usually occurring in autumn, as might be expected from the predominant seasonality of recruitment and growth. However, examining data over several decades, it becomes evident that the seasonal pattern of landings has Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES actually varied considerably over the years, possibly reflecting a shift in relative dominance of winter and summer breeding populations (Pierce et al., 2005). Thus while peak landings in the 1990s were usually in October and November, in 2012 and 2013 the peaks occurred in August and September, respectively (Wangvoralak, 2011). Further research is needed on this topic, preferably underpinned by routine monitoring of monthto-month evolution of size distributions, as indeed would be needed for any formal stock assessment. Fishery landings and survey catch data suggest wide fluctuations in abundance of this species (e.g., Pierce et al., 1994b; 1998), a conclusion also supported by the few (project-based) attempts to carry out a formal stock assessment (e.g., Young et al., 2004). Many studies have demonstrated links between cephalopod abundance and environmental conditions, often related to sea temperature and/or large scale indices such as the NAO Index, as is the case for L. forbesii (e.g., Pierce and Boyle, 2003); there are many hypotheses about mechanisms but most authors propose effects on food availability, metabolism, growth and survival, especially during early life stages (see Pierce et al., 2008 for a review). Environmental drivers may also have strong influences on distribution and (as mentioned above) lifecycle phenology. Results from spectral analysis of Scottish Loligo landings data suggested an underlying cyclic pattern of abundance with a periodicity of around 15 years (Pierce et al., 1994a). However, in recent years the peaks have been closer together. This, coupled with increased landings in recent years (see Section 7.1.2), suggests that the boom-bust cycle may be at least partly fishery driven. L. forbesii is an active predator, older animals being largely piscivorous; seasonal shifts in the diet are consistent with opportunistic feeding (Pierce et al., 1994c; Collins and Pierce, 1996; Wangvoralak et al., 2011). It is itself eaten by a variety of marine predators, including fish, seabirds, seals and cetaceans (see Daly et al., 2001; Jereb et al., in press). Given that most squid species are highly mobile and undertake sometimes extensive ontogenetic migrations, it is not expected that the distribution range of L. forbesii would be divided into very many separate stocks. However, various studies of life history and morphometric variation in L. forbesii have indicated the existence of different forms, sometimes occurring sympatrically. Thomas (1973) proposed that the variable patterns of squid availability, particularly the difference between coastal waters and the offshore Rockall area (ICES subdivision VIb), were consistent with the existence of at least two stocks with different migratory patterns. Further evidence of differences between animals from Rockall and coastal waters arises from results on the phenology of maturation (Rockall animals apparently mature earlier in the year) and on morphometric characters (Boyle and Ngoile, 1993b, Pierce et al., 1994 d,e). As previously mentioned, Holme (1974) identified winter and summer breeding populations of this species in the English Channel, which gives rise to the suggestion that Rockall animals are summer breeders, as opposed to the more usual winter breeding modality (see also Pierce et al., 129 1994a, b, 2005). Another phenomenon that has led to suggestions of alternative lifecycles is the existence of (at least) two distinct modes of male maturity (Boyle et al., 1995), although this seems to be linked to selection for alternative mating strategies (mate guarders vs. sneakers; c.f. Hanlon and Messenger (1996)), rather than implying the existence of reproductively isolated stocks. Genetic evidence of stock differentiation within continental shelf waters of the European Atlantic remains inconclusive: a study based on allozyme data indicated no differences (Brierley et al., 1995), while Shaw et al. (1999) reported no significant differences between samples from different coastal areas but some genetic differences between inshore and offshore (Rockall and Faroe Islands) animals. One geographically isolated and genetically distinct stock of L. forbesii certainly exists; that in the Azores. Its distinct morphometric, allozyme, and genetic characteristics indicate that these animals comprise a highly isolated population, based on a founder event occurring up to 1 million yr ago (Shaw et al., 1999). Brierley et al. (1995) suggested that the Azorean population should be regarded as a separate subspecies. 7.1.1.2. Loligo vulgaris. The geographical distribution of L. vulgaris extends from 20
S, off the south-western coast of Africa, to approximately 55
N, extending into the North Sea, the Skagerrak, the Kattegat and the western Baltic Sea— although currently it is rarely recorded north of the English Channel. It occurs off the Canary Islands and Madeira but is absent from the Azores (Jereb et al., in press). On the continental shelf, ontogenetic migrations are thought to occur. Animals which overwinter in deeper waters of the French coast and in the Bay of Biscay apparently migrate northward in summer to spawn in shallow waters of the North Sea and English Channel respectively. Southward migrations take place in the autumn. Loligo vulgaris typically lives up to 12 months of age (Rocha and Guerra, 1999), although a shorter lifespan (9 months) has been suggested in southern Portuguese waters. As is the case for L. forbesii, its lifecycle appears to be annual and it shows similar variability and sexual dimorphism in growth and maturation. No major changes in the general morphology occur with sexual maturity; males attain larger sizes and weights and mature earlier than females, but females generally exhibit higher weights than males at any given length. Size at maturity is variable. Two modes in size at maturity are reported for males from most Atlantic areas. Spawning extends all year round in most of its distributional range, usually with two seasonal peaks that occur earlier in southern waters; it is mainly a winter breeder in the north of its range (Guerra and Rocha, 1994; Arkhipkin, 1995; Jereb et al., in press). Following the classification of Rocha et al. (2001) the species is an intermittent terminal spawner. Using microsatellite data, Garoia et al. (2004) showed that Atlantic specimens of L. vulgaris differed consistently from Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 130 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Eastern and Western Mediterranean samples, which also differed from each other. Like L. forbesii, L. vulgaris shows an ontogenetic shift in feeding habits, from a diet dominated by small crustaceans to a mainly piscivorous diet (Rocha et al., 1994). Most published records of predation on loliginid squid refer to fish and cetacean predators; because identification is often based on examination of beaks, the squid are often identified only to genus level (Jereb et al., in press). 7.1.1.3. Alloteuthis subulata and A. media. The ranges of the two Alloteuthis species differ from those of Loligo in that they do not extend so far from the coast; in addition, both are absent from the Canary Islands and the Azores, while the occurrence of A. media further north than the Irish Sea and southern North Sea is doubtful (see Jereb et al., in press). Alloteuthis spp. have a maximum age of around 12 months (Rodhouse et al., 1988; Moreno et al., 2007). The lifecycle lasts between 6 and 12 months; there may be several spawning seasons (Rodhouse et al., 1988; Moreno, 1990, 1995; Arkhipkin and Nekludova, 1993; Hastie et al., 2009b; Oesterwind et al., 2010). Like Loligo spp., A. subulata show an ontogenetic shift in feeding habits, from a diet dominated by small crustaceans to a mainly piscivorous diet. The diet of A. media is less well documented. In terms of their role as prey, most published records of predation on these loliginid species refer to fish and cetacean predators; because identification is often based on examination of beaks, the squid are often identified only to genus level (Jereb et al., in press). There is currently no information on the existence of different stocks in the Alloteuthis species; however, larger taxonomic issues remain unresolved for this genus, specifically the number and identity of extant species and their relationship to the recognized “A. subulata” and “A. media” morphotypes (see Anderson et al., 2008; Jereb et al., in press). 7.1.2. Fisheries Loliginid squid are fished throughout shelf waters of the Northeast Atlantic as well as around offshore banks (e.g., Rockall) and islands (e.g., the Azores), usually all year round although with seasonal peaks reflecting the timing of the lifecycle. Across the region, much of the catch of loliginids is taken as a bycatch by demersal trawling, although some artisanal fishing does occur, especially in the south. Squid tend to be caught year round, with clear seasonal peaks for some species, and represent an important source of income for fishers in the region. Official fishery landings data normally identify squid only to family level. Information on the proportion of different species present may to some extent be inferred from the known distributions of the species and the size of squid landed (hence loliginid squid landed in Scotland are normally L. forbesii and larger loliginid squid landed in the Iberian Peninsula are mainly L. vulgaris) although some additional information on the proportions of different species is available from project-based studies and regional fishery monitoring programmes (e.g., fishery monitoring by the Galician government in Northwest Spain). Data on total landings of loliginids from the Northeast Atlantic are available from the ICES WGCEPH (see reports from 1995 to 2013 available at www.ices.dk), but must be viewed as approximate due to gaps in reporting by various countries, and indeed the frequent revision of the figures. Between 1988 and 2012, reported annual landings of loliginid squid ranged from 7,124 t to 12,464 t. The underlying trend since 1990 is downward. Currently, the southern part of the region (ICES areas VIII and IX) is more important for squid fisheries than the northern region: in 2012, around 5,550 t out of 9000 t declared landings of long-finned squid from the European ICES region came from areas VIII and IX (ICES, 2013). However, a decade previously, landings from these areas made up only around 1/3 of a total of approx. 9,800 t. The increased importance of the southern areas for squid landings in recent years is driven mainly by increased catches in the Bay of Biscay reported by France and Spain (ICES, 2013). 7.1.2.1. Loligo forbesii. Loligo forbesii is fished all year round, currently mainly as a bycatch in demersal trawl fisheries in UK waters, with seasonal peaks in landings related to the lifecycle (see Section 7.1.1). United Kingdom landings of Loligo spp. (probably dominated by L. forbesii) ranged from around 1,500 t to 3,500 t in the period 2000–2012 while French landings in the same period ranged from approximately 2,800–6,400 t (ICES, 2012, 2013). The importance of directed fishing may be limited by the wide fluctuations in abundance reported (Young et al., 2004; 2006a) but in fact L. forbesii has been targeted in various locations over the last 70 years. Loligo forbesii supported a directed fishery by Denmark and Sweden in the North Sea and Skagerrak in 1948–1953, while targeted fishing from small boats emerged in the English Channel in the mid-1970s (Arnold, 1979). In his review of the economic status of European squid fisheries, Shaw (1994) described fisheries in UK waters for L. forbesii, noting that directed fishing occurred off southwest England from late summer to autumn. The most important British port for squid landings was usually Brixham in Devon, from which as many as 45 boats with crews of two or three undertook day-trips to trawl for squid within 20 miles of the coast. In addition, 8 to 10 boats with crews of three or four sailed from Newlyn or Mevagissey in Cornwall. Elsewhere, vessels targeted squid if there were reports that they were available in substantial numbers. A directed trawling fishery for L. forbesii developed at Rockall, 480 km west of mainland Scotland, during the 1980s, involving boats that usually targeted haddock and other whitefish (Shaw, 1994) but which switched to squid when this was abundant. Catches of L. forbesii at Rockall occurred mainly in July and August (Pierce et al., 1994a), a time when only the smallest recruits are normally caught in coastal waters, thus supporting the idea that this was a different stock. The Rockall squid fishery yielded high landings in 1986, 1987, and 1989 Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 3500 3000 Landings, Scotland, (tonnes) but subsequently almost disappeared (Pierce et al., 1994a, 2005), although since 2008 there has been something of a resurgence, with 700 t landed in 2011 (ICES, 2012). A small directed trawl fishery for squid now exists close inshore in the Moray Firth (North Sea, Scotland). This fishery is strongly seasonal (mainly September–November) and initially involved around 20 trawlers of between 10 and 17 m in length. In the mid-2000s, the number of boats taking part in the fishery increased dramatically (from around 20 boats in 2000 to as many as 65 in 2003; Young et al., 2006a). However, high catches were not sustained and interest subsequently decreased again (Smith, 2011). Stroud (1978) reported that squid were caught in UK waters mainly as a bycatch of trawling or seining for white fish, as also shown by more recent analyses (e.g., Pierce et al., 1994a). He further noted that, since squid tend to swim off the bottom, the best catches were obtained with midwater trawls or high headline bottom trawls, and that a high proportion of the smaller squid could readily escape through the meshes of a typical trawl. Boyle and Pierce (1994) described specially designed squid trawls used in Scotland, which had small mesh cod-ends and higher head ropes than those normally used to catch fish. In the Moray Firth, vessels change to small mesh gear in late summer when the squid become abundant (Young et al., 2006a). Use of jigs to catch squid in UK waters was advocated by Hamabe et al. (1982) but various unsuccessful trials of commercial jigging machines in the UK in the 1970s and 1980s appear to have discouraged further use of this gear (see Pierce et al., 1994a). Loliginid squid are caught throughout UK waters, notably in the English Channel, Celtic Sea, and in the Moray Firth, although the spatial distribution of catches varies from year to year. In some years, there are high catches on the offshore Rockall Bank while, historically, the species was caught on Faroe Bank and in the Bay of Biscay by UK vessels. Within this area, Scottish landings can be assumed to be mainly L. forbesii but further south L vulgaris is increasingly important and squid landed in England, Wales, and France likely normally comprise a mixture of both Loligo species. Market sampling of French landings has been used to estimate the proportion of the two Loligo species present in catches, results suggesting that these species have different seasonal cycles (Robin and Boucaud, 1995). In Scotland, available landing records for squid (as mentioned above, presumed to be mainly L. forbesii; Figure 32) go back to at least 1904 (Thomas, 1969), although the fishery only became significant in the mid-1950s, perhaps facilitated by the advent of deep-freeze facilities (although most squid caught in Scottish waters continue to be landed fresh, on ice) and exports to continental Europe. To some extent, landings will reflect abundance: this is plausible for a valuable nontarget species for which there is no quota (Pierce et al, 1994a). However, even though fresh undamaged squid fetch a good price they are not always landed since, as noted previously, they are often damaged when caught in a trawl along with fish 131 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year Figure 32. Landings of loliginid squid in Scotland (1904–2013). and, in addition they cannot be kept on ice for many days (not withstanding the somewhat optimistic appraisal of the condition of squid after a week on ice by Stroud (1978)). Furthermore, fishing effort has undoubtedly increased since the early 1900s, and other human factors such as two world wars have clearly had an effect on squid landings. Nevertheless, it can be suggested that abundance trends are characterized by recurrent peaks and troughs. Major peaks in Scottish loliginid landings broadly correspond to those in total loliginid landings for the region (ICES 2013) although in Scotland the trend since 1990 has been upward, opposite to that for the whole region. This could suggest that L. forbesii has become more abundant while L. vulgaris has been declining. L. forbesii is also caught in waters of the mainland coast of the Iberian Peninsula, both by trawling and artisanal fisheries, but, as elsewhere, is not normally distinguished from L. vulgaris in official landings data. Previous studies and recent observations by the authors and colleagues suggest that it forms only a small proportion of long-finned squid landings in the area. In the Azores islands, L. forbesii is fished exclusively by an artisanal fleet equipped with hand-lines and home-made jigs (Martins, 1982; Porteiro, 1994). It is also fished in Madeira, where it is used both for human consumption and as bait. 7.1.2.2. Loligo vulgaris and Alloteuthis spp. Loligo vulgaris is fished all year round throughout its distributional range. It is caught together with L. forbesii as a bycatch of French trawlers operating in ICES areas VIII and VII; the species are not separated in official landing statistics. During 2001–2010, the average annual French landings of long-finned squid were 5705.5 t (range 4690–6292 t). In southern Europe, while loliginids (mainly L. vulgaris but also L. forbesii and sometimes Alloteuthis spp.) are caught by trawling, there are also important small-scale fisheries, using jigs and hand-lines, beach seines, gill nets or trammel nets, which target loliginid squid when they enter coastal waters in autumn and winter to spawn (e.g., Cunha and Moreno, 1994; Guerra et al., 1994). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 132 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. In Galicia (NW Spain), official annual total landings of L. vulgaris were on average 418.9 t (range 292–560 t) for the period 2004–2012. Trawler landings accounted for approximately 95.5% of the total and the remainder were caught by small-scale fisheries, using artisanal gears such as hand-jigs and beach seines, mainly during the summer; beach seining is permitted during July and August. The sale price at auction of this species in Galician ports varied from 5.67 to 19.70 € per kilo during the period 2001–2013. The beach seine fishery takes squid below the legal minimum size (100 mm ML), along with Alloteuthis spp. European squid is mainly sold fresh and reaches a high market value. In the coastal r
ıas of southern Galicia (northwestern Spain), L. vulgaris is targeted during July–September using boat seines (“boliche”) and makes up around half of the catch; Alloteuthis spp. are a secondary target in this fishery and are also taken using trawls and purse-seines in grounds outside the r
ıas (Tasende et al., 2005). In the Gulf of Cadiz (SW, Spain), L. vulgaris is mainly caught by the multi-species bottom trawl fishery. Bottom trawl catches from 1994 to 2010 ranged from 300 to 575 t (average 497 t), which represent 99% of the total landings in the Gulf of Cadiz. This squid fishery shows a clear seasonal pattern, with higher landings occurring in October and November. Both Alloteuthis spp. are also caught as a bycatch of the bottom trawl fleet in this area, with recorded annual landings of between 55 and 290 t during 1996–2006 (Pierce et al., 2010). The catches of long-finned squid in Portugal potentially combine three different species, which are not distinguished in the markets: L. vulgaris, L. forbesii, and A. subulata although most are probably L. vulgaris. There is a MLS for L. vulgaris of 100 mm ML, which effectively covers the three species. In the 1990s, only L. vulgaris entered the market because L. forbesii was not available in significant numbers, and A. subulata is a small species that is almost always under the MLS. For the period 2001–2010, the Portuguese official landings for this category were 514 t per year on average. On the west coast, off Aveiro (Central Portugal), large trawlers which mainly target horse mackerel also have well-defined fishing strategies for taking cephalopods. They catch common octopus (O. vulgaris) and L. vulgaris, switching between these species seasonally and year to year depending on abundance (and hence ultimately depending on the interannual recruitment variation of these species) (Fonseca et al., 2008). 7.1.3. Stock Assessment There is presently no routine stock assessment for European cephalopods and (in consequence) there is no routine market sampling of biological characteristics and few directed surveys for this species in the northern Northeast Atlantic. Nevertheless, several research projects and the ICES WGCEPH have carried out exploratory assessments (Robin and Denis, 1999; Denis et al., 2002; Royer et al., 2002; Young et al., 2004; Challier et al., 2005; ICES, 2010, 2011, 2012). Various characteristics of species such as L. forbesii make it difficult to apply traditional stock assessment approaches; these include the short lifespan, the fact that age determination is difficult and time-consuming, variable growth rates (resulting in weak length-age relationships, the lack of synchronization of lifecycle events (reflected in the presence multiple microcohorts) and year-to-year differences in the timing of lifecycle events, reflecting high sensitivity to variation in environmental conditions (Boyle and Pierce, 1994; Pierce and Guerra, 1994; Young et al., 2004; Pierce et al., 2008). The lack of stock-recruitment relationships, reflecting short lifecycles and high environmental sensitivity means that postseason assessments have limited predictive value. In fact, the difficulty of predicting abundance is a fundamental issue for managers in all cephalopod fisheries (Rodhouse, 2001). Options for stock assessment in squid include forecasting, surveys for recruits, in-season assessment (e.g., using depletion models), and postseason assessment (e.g., using production models or models more explicitly based on population dynamics) (Pierce and Guerra, 1994). The existence of relationships between abundance and environmental conditions suggest the possibility of forecasting abundance (Rodhouse, 2001), although the predictive power of such relationships may be weak (e.g., Pierce and Boyle, 2003). In the Northeast Atlantic, only Portugal has routinely carried out trawling surveys directed at cephalopods (see Pereira et al., 1998). Data collected from standard trawling surveys for fish can generate abundance indices, the value of which is supported by the positive correlation between indices of abundance derived from trawling surveys and annual fishery landings (Pierce et al., 1998). It may also be possible to provide absolute abundance estimates by applying to trawl survey data a swept area method. However, both relative and absolute abundance estimates are presently difficult to achieve. The timing of many such surveys (directed at fish) is inappropriate to allow recruitment strength to be predicted; in any case the timing of loliginid lifecycles is known to vary both within and between years (e.g., Pierce et al., 2005). Gear selectivity needs to be understood so that an appropriate mesh size can be chosen. Furthermore, bearing in mind the apparently highly patchy distribution of the species, important concentrations may easily be missed by surveys, or indeed suffer high additional mortality due to research trawling (see Hastie, 1996; Pierce et al., 1998). There is also the issue of the difficulty of distinguishing small Loligo from adult Alloteuthis. Royer et al. (2002) applied depletion methods and monthly cohort analysis to both Loligo species in the English Channel. With the depletion method, assuming a natural mortality value of 0.2, initial population size (recruitment) ranged from 3.7 to 19 million for L. forbesii and from 2.1 to 10 million for L. vulgaris. Cohort analysis gave figures of 2.4 to 14 million for L. vulgaris and 6.3 to 22.3 million for L. forbesii. For both Loligo species, exploitation levels in the English Channel were above the optimum. Assessments can be improved by Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 introducing age data and accounting for variability in individual growth rates (Challier et al., 2006), although the necessary data collection is labor intensive. Young et al. (2004) estimated abundance of L. forbesii in Scottish waters in the 1990s using a depletion method, obtaining figures that varied from a maximum of around 6 million (in the 1990–1991 season) down to a few thousands in 1995– 1996. In addition, an approach to estimating fishing effort and landings from interview surveys of fishermen has been attempted for Loligo fisheries in Scotland (Young et al., 2006b). Key challenges include obtaining standardized CPUE indices, estimating the ratio of the two Loligo species in areas of overlap, estimating recruitment strength, and linking length to age. 7.1.4. Fishery Management for Loliginid Fisheries Management of cephalopod fishing in Europe is largely limited to MLS regulations in southern Europe. In Spain and Portugal, the MLS for Loligo spp. is 100 mm (Fonseca et al., 2008). In Galicia, there is a MLS (60 mm) for Alloteuthis (Tasende et al., 2005). Collins et al. (1997) proposed that a directed fishery for L. forbesii could be managed by a combination of controlled opening, to prevent growth overfishing, and curtailment of fishing during spawning, to prevent recruitment overfishing. However, the authors recognized that this would leave a fairly narrow window within which fishing could take place. The need for management is indicated by analyses that suggest exploitation levels are above optimum, and the occurrence of boom and bust dynamics in landings. In addition, loss of eggs either due to trawling over spawning grounds or egg laying on fixed gear may be important and there has been evidence of growth overfishing (high catches of very small squid followed by lower catches later in the season) in the Moray Firth. Large numbers of eggs are laid on fixed gear (e.g., trammel nets) off western Portugal and this may represent a significant cause of mortality (A. Moreno, pers. comm). Perhaps the most realistic approach, considering the continued dominance of landings from bycatch fisheries, is for management to focus on protection of essential habitat such as spawning areas rather than on generic catch or effort limitations. Recent modeling work has attempted to define habitat and movements of L. forbesii in Scottish waters (Viana et al., 2009; Smith et al., 2013) but the main spawning areas of this species remain to be identified. Many records exist of Loligo spp. eggs on traps, pots and creel lines (Holme, 1974; Lum-Kong et al., 1992; Porteiro and Martins, 1992; Martins, 1997; Craig, 2001; Pham et al., 2009; Smith, 2011). Lordan and Casey (1999) argue that L. forbesii probably spawn mainly over rocky bottoms where opportunities to attach eggs to the substrate are more numerous and, indeed, damage by bottom trawling is less likely. In the case of L. vulgaris, some spawning 133 grounds have been identified, for example, off southwest Portugal (Villa et al., 1997). Habitats of English Channel fish, cephalopod and macrocrustacean communities, including a subcommunity demarcated by the two Loligo species, were described by Vaz et al (2007). 7.2. The Ommastrephid Squids 7.2.1. Biology, Ecology, and Stock Structure Three ommastrephid species are caught regularly by commercial fisheries in the Northeast Atlantic, if rarely as target species, namely the European flying squid T. sagittatus, the lesser flying squid T. eblanae and the broadtail shortfin squid I. coindetii. Several other species of this family may be caught occasionally. All three species show apparently wide fluctuations in abundance, with sporadic occurrences of very high abundance; further details appear in Section 7.2.2. 7.2.1.1. Todarodes sagittatus. The European flying squid, T. sagittatus, occurs in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean from Iceland, the Barents and Kara Seas southward to Guinea, and westward to the mid-Atlantic Ridge as well as throughout the Mediterranean. It is a nerito-oceanic species, inhabiting not only mostly slope waters from the surface down to >1000 m, but also occurs on the shelf and in the open ocean. As has been the case for many other squid species, the availability of age data from statoliths led to a downward revision of the lifespan, and the conclusion that it is basically an annual species. The maximum recorded age is around 14 months (assuming that growth increments on statoliths are daily; Lordan et al., 2001). Off West Africa, spawning was recorded all year round but with a winter peak (Arkhipkin et al., 1999), while Lordan et al. (2001) found evidence of summer and winter breeding peaks. The European flying squid takes a wide range of prey species but is mainly piscivorous, with small mesopelagic fishes (e.g., pearlsides and lanternfishes) making up a high proportion of the diet. It is in turn eaten by a range of fish and cetaceans, as well as seabirds and seals (Breiby and Jobling, 1985; Piatkowski et al., 1998; Lordan et al., 2001; Jereb et al., in press). Within the species range there are at least three populations—a migratory Northeast Atlantic population that reproduces at the mid-Atlantic Ridge and forages as far north as off Iceland and Norway, and resident Mediterranean and Northwest African populations (Dunning and Wormuth, 1998; Nigmatullin et al., 2002; Vecchione et al., 2010). Status of these stocks is unclear as genetic comparisons between them have not been researched. No specific management measures are presently applied to the species. 7.2.1.2. Illex coindetii. The broadtail shortfin squid has a widespread and disjunct geographic distribution. In the eastern Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 134 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Atlantic, it occurs from the Norwegian coast at around 60
N to Namibian waters (20
S). Unlike T. sagittatus, it is restricted to shelf waters, and is absent from waters around Iceland (Jereb et al., in press). It also occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea. In the western Atlantic, the northernmost records are from off the Virginia coast (37
N). The southern limit of its western Atlantic distribution is unknown but it occurs in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea and has also been reported from French Guiana. This species is a demersal, neritic species of the continental shelf and upper slope, occurring from the surface down to over 1000 m, with maximum concentrations between 150 and 300 m in the eastern Atlantic. The lifecycle is probably approximately annual, with a maximum age around 15 months (Gonz
alez et al., 1996). Breeding occurs all year round, albeit with seasonal peaks which vary between areas (Jereb et al., in press). It is mainly piscivorous, although smaller animals take more crustaceans, and takes a wide range of fish species, both pelagic and demersal (Rasero et al., 1996). Predators include fish and cetaceans, as well as seabirds and other cephalopods (Jereb et al., in press). There appears to be only a single stock of I. coindetii in the northeast Atlantic region (Mart
ınez et al., 2005a, b). 7.2.1.3. Todaropsis eblanae. The lesser flying squid exhibits a very wide distribution, occurring in shelf waters of the Eastern Atlantic Ocean from 61
N to 36
S, as well as the Baltic Sea and the entire Mediterranean Sea. Its range extends as far north as that of T. sagittatus, beyond the north of Norway (Golikov et al., 2013). However, it also occurs in the western Indian Ocean, western Pacific Ocean, South China Sea and Australian waters, the Timor Sea, along the western and eastern Australian coasts, to Tasmania on the eastern side. The lesser flying squid is a medium-sized demersal species usually associated with sandy and muddy bottoms, within a temperature range from 9 to 18
C in depths between about 20 and 850 m. Typically, it is associated with the shelf break zone where boundary currents and associated mesoscale oceanographic events such as downwelling eddies and upwelling cells promote rich food supplies. No clear evidence exists of seasonal migrations or any other type of major migration. It is probably the least mobile of the ommastrephid squids in terms of migratory habits (see Jereb et al., 2005). The sex ratio is usually 1:1 in the populations studied to date. There is sexual dimorphism in body size with females growing larger than males (a maximum of 290 mm ML in females and 220 mm in males) and maturing at slightly larger sizes. The smallest mature females measure around 120 mm ML compared to 100 mm ML in males. In addition, maturing and mature males have bractae (leaf-like plates) on both ventral arms (see Sabirov et al., 2012). The lifecycle is probably approximately annual although the maximum recorded age in T. eblanae is only 255 days (Robin et al., 2002). Breeding occurs all year round, albeit with seasonal peaks which vary between areas. In Atlantic waters south of 44
N, hatching extends all year round but with peaks at the end of the summer and the beginning of autumn. (Gonz
alez et al., 1994; Hastie et al., 1994; Robin et al., 2002; Zumholz and Piatkowski, 2005; Jereb et al., in press). Like I. coindetii, it is mainly piscivorous, opportunistically on fishes, crustaceans and other cephalopods, in decreasing order of importance; cannibalism also occurs (Rasero et al., 1996). Predators include fish and cetaceans, as well as seabirds and other cephalopods (Jereb et al., in press). Although there are three stocks of T. eblanae in the eastern Atlantic, only one occurs in the Northeast Atlantic (Dillane et al., 2005). 7.2.2. Fisheries Abundance of T. sagittatus is highly variable and presumably depends on a range of oceanographic factors influencing the recruitment strength. Explosions of the North Atlantic population when the squid invaded Norwegian and Barents Seas— the world’s largest fishery grounds for this species—occurred in 1885, 1891, 1930–1931, 1937–1938, 1949, 1958, 1962, and 1965 (Zuev and Nesis, 2003). Wiborg (1978) commented that “during the years 1949–1971, it came to the¢Norwegian coast nearly every autumn, failing only in 1951, 1952, 1956, and 1961,” also noting that much of this catch was used as bait for long-line fisheries. The next period of very high squid abundance occurred in 1980–1985 and led to the development of a large scale, though short-lived, fishery for this species (Sundet, 1985). This followed the similar event on the other side of the Atlantic, where another ephemeral large-scale fishery for an ommastrephid squid, in this case I. illecebrosus (also previously a bait species) bloomed in the late 1970s. Both events followed a decline in Japanese domestic squid catches, and so led to the development of a huge market for frozen whole and dried squid (O’Dor and Dawe, 2013). Currently, T. sagittatus is taken as bycatch throughout its range, though it has periodically occurred in Norway in sufficiently large numbers to support a moderate target fishery (Pierce et al., 2010). The lesser flying squid and I. coindetii are landed as bycatch throughout the year, mainly from trawling. These species are normally not distinguished from each other (or other ommastrephids) in official landings data. However, in Galicia, NW Spain, market sampling has been used to derive separate figures for both species; both are landed in substantial amounts, albeit with different spatial and seasonal patterns (Gonz
alez et al., 1994; Bruno et al., 2009). Both species are usually caught in waters 100–400 m deep (Hastie et al., 2009a; Jereb et al., in press), T. eblanae mainly in waters of around 200 m depth according to Robin et al. (2002). However, in some years in Scotland T. eblanae has been caught adjacent to the coast (Hastie et al., 1994). Illex coindetii is generally more important in French and northern Spanish landings than T. eblanae (Robin et al., 2002; Bruno and Rasero, 2008). Nigmatullin (1989, 2004) comments that consistently Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES occurring concentrations of O. bartramii have not been found in the North Atlantic; there are no data on landings of this species. A fourth species, O. bartramii, whose distribution extends throughout the Mediterranean and Northeast Atlantic as far north as Iceland, may represent a very small proportion of ommastrephid landings. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 7.2.3. Fishing Methods Fishing methods used to catch T. sagittatus depend on the area, and were often originally designed to catch something else. In Norway, the main fishing method, used when the squid enter the fjords, is the use of jigging machines (Wiborg and Beck, 1984; Sundet, 1985). In 1984, as many as 1800 vessels participated in this fishery (Sundet, 1985). Across Europe as a whole, however, the most important fishing method is bottom trawling, in which this species is taken as a small bycatch from Greece to Scotland, Norway and Iceland (Wiborg and Beck, 1984; Joy, 1990; Jonsson, 1998; Roper et al., 2010). This squid is also recorded in catches from pelagic trawls and purse seines off Norway, gillnets off France and northern Spain, purse-seines and Scottish fly-seines off the United Kingdom, gill-nets and trammel nets off Portugal, hand-jigs in the Canary Islands and Italy, and hand-jigs, purse-seines and trammel nets in Greece (Wiborg and Beck, 1984; Pierce et al., 2010; Esc
anez P
erez et al., 2012). There have been several attempts to develop specialized fisheries for the species. In the 1980s T. sagittatus was caught as bycatch during the commercial purse seine fishery for pollock, mackerel and herring off Norway and in the northern North Sea. Amounts caught varied from several kilograms to 50 t per day. However, an experimental target fishery in Norway in October–November 1981 was a failure. Squid were located by echosounder and concentrated with lights mounted on a small anchored skiff. Unfortunately, they were attracted in low numbers, and the maximum catch was »200 kg (Wiborg et al., 1982). The traditional method of squid jigging proved to be more successful. In autumn 1981, a prawn trawler was equipped with five jigging machines with double line drums. During six weeks of fishing the maximum daily catch was 3.3 t, whereas another trawler equipped with eight singleline drum jigging machines caught 100 t of squid during one month with maximum catches of 10–12 t per day (Wiborg et al., 1982). An experimental jigger fishery in Soviet waters of the Barents Sea in autumn 1981 resulted in 1–10 t of squid per night (PINRO, 2011). Attempts to use Japanese drift nets for the squid fishery in Norway, as used for the O. bartramii fishery in the North Pacific, were not successful (Wiborg et al., 1982; Wiborg and Beck, 1983). In April–May 1982, the Soviet trawlers fishing for blue whiting took up to 4 t of squid per week as bycatch, but attempts to launch a specialized trawl fishery either in Norway or in Soviet waters in the 1980s failed due to low catches (Wiborg and Beck, 1983, PINRO, 2011). It appears pelagic nets do not concentrate T. sagittatus into the trawl path as they 135 do with Illex and Loligo (PINRO, 2011). Most of the squid (210–470 mm ML) in catches of research hauls by a semipelagic commercial blue whiting trawl, were found in meshes of the wings of the trawl, and very few in the codend (Wiborg and Beck, 1983). The same situation occurred during Russian research surveys off Northwest Africa when a semi-pelagic net (vertical opening »30 m, horizontal opening 40–50 m, mesh size 10–34 mm) was used. Squid size in catches was mostly 120–240 mm ML, and most of the catch was stuck in the wings. Off Northwest Africa, T. sagittatus was occasionally fished as an important bycatch of Russian trawl fisheries for pelagic and demersal fish (chub mackerel, horse mackerel, hake, and others) from Cap Blanc to 23
N–23
30 N. Normally catches peaked at 300–500 kg/d in June–July, though in years of high abundance some vessels could achieve 2–6 t/d and even 10–15 t/d. The best catches were obtained on the bottom between 10.00 and 17.00 hr. Because fish predominated in catches, particularly horse mackerel, commercial freezing of whole squid was often hampered by intensive skin damage. Production of canned pieces of mantle and arms turned out to be an optimum solution to the problem. In 1992, Russia recognized Moroccan jurisdiction of these waters, and the sporadic squid fishery was stopped (Nigmatullin et al., 1998). The species was also taken occasionally by the Russian fleet in Mauritania before 1983, when the country introduced a prohibition on cephalopod bycatch. The lesser flying squid (T. eblanae) is mainly landed by trawlers but is also caught using gill nets and trammel nets, long lines, and jigs. The broadtail shortfin squid (I. coindetii) is taken by bottom and pelagic trawls, and, to a lesser extent, by gill nets, trammel nets, and hooks (Jereb et al., in press). 7.2.4. Catches As is the case with the loliginids, reported landings of shortfinned squid are often not identified to species and there are doubts as to the veracity of the landings data submitted to ICES and FAO, although national data may be more reliable. Thus, according to ICES data, total landings of these species for the European ICES area ranged between around 970 and 5600 t annually during 2000–2012 (ICES, 2012, 2013). For the same period, FAO data indicate annual landings into Europe from Area 27 ranging between 835 and 10270 t (FAO, 2014). Although both sources agree that Spain has the majority of European landings for this group, otherwise correspondence between the two datasets is poor, with the minima occurring in 2007 in the ICES data and in 2004 in the FAO data. In addition, although the FAO database distinguishes between the different ommastrephid species caught in the northeast Atlantic, it indicates that by far the largest proportion of the landings in Spain are of northern shortfin squid, in other words I. illecebrosus, a species which does not occur in the northeast Atlantic! Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. There were just two cases of a target fishery for T. sagittatus in periods of its high abundance. One of them was in waters off Northwest Africa in 1974 and another in 1981– 1985 in Norway. In 1974, Russian trawlers took around 18,000 t around Cape Blanc (21
–23
N). Aggregations of immature squid of 140–200 mm ML (70–150 g BM) appeared in May of that year and peaked in June–July; occurring between 100 and 300 m depth. This situation was likely related to a sudden explosion of T. sagittatus abundance as a particular generation entered the shelf for foraging. Intensive surveys by the Russian R/V “AtlantNIRO” in 1995–1998 carried out between 18 and 32
N demonstrated that squid of this size occur mostly between 400 and 800 m, whereas waters shallower than 300 m are occupied by different ommastrephids: I. coindetii and T. eblanae. The T. sagittatus fishery in Norwegian and Barents seas in 1980–1985 developed gradually. From 1977, when 1683 t were taken, the squid T. sagittatus invaded the Norwegian coast and adjacent areas every year with increasing intensity. The introduction of the squid into the Norwegian food market was successful, and there was an increasing demand. The squid were generally large, with their size in inshore waters increasing during the fishing season from ca. 280–350 mm ML in October to 390– 450 mm ML in March (Wiborg, 1978; Wiborg et al., 1982; Wiborg, 1987). In oceanic and bank waters, squid were 20– 30 mm smaller (Wiborg et al., 1982). The fishery used a variety of gears, but in coastal and bank waters jigging appeared to be the best fishing method for T. sagittatus. The fishery was based on immature squid with females representing 92–100% of catches. The abundance of males was slightly higher in oceanic waters (sometimes up to 20–25%), and on Viking Bank at the border between the Norwegian and North Seas, they represented >80% of the total catch in March–April 1982 (Wiborg et al., 1982). The maximum catches, of 18,385 and 18,025 t, were taken in 1982–1983. Catches gradually declined with intensive interannual fluctuations until the disappearance of this species in 1986. This was followed by a short-term return of scarce commercial aggregations in 1987–1988 (total catch of 3,936 and 1,183 t, respectively). Nowadays, the species is taken only as a valuable bycatch. In the Northeast Atlantic in recent years most catches have been reported by Spain (around 2,500 t in 1997, declining to 373 t in 2004, since then amounts have increased again slightly). The United Kingdom has also reported landings of this species, falling from 293 t in 1998 to only 6 t in 2010 (FAO, 2011). Landings of T. sagittatus are variable throughout the species’ range and, historically, peak catches generally lasted just a few years followed by long periods of low squid abundance. During the last 60 years, reported catches varied from nil to »20,000 t (Figure 33), mean 2,934 t for a period 1950–2009. The maximum reported catch in Norwegian waters was » 18,000 t in 1982–1983, and after 1988 commercial aggregations disappeared from the area (FAO, 2011). 20000 18000 Landings (tonnes) 136 16000 Norway 14000 NEAtlanƟc 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year Figure 33. Landings of Todarodes sagittatus landings by Norway and in total for the Northeast Atlantic (adapted from FAO (2011)). I. coindetii and T. eblanae are caught by the French, Spanish, and Portuguese trawling fleet as bycatch in fisheries targeting teleosts (e.g., hake, moonfish, etc.) and crustaceans (e.g., Norway lobster). Fishing occurs year round. Landings, however, only reflect retained catches and discards are unknown and can depend on the market price and the amount of target species that have been caught. In Spain, the average price of these two species from 2002 to 2012 was 1.5 €/kg, which represents a total first sale income of around 6–8 million euros per year. The Spanish bottom trawl and pair trawl fleet was composed in 2012 of around 85 industrial vessels and an unknown number of boats engaged in small-scale fishing with hooks and trammel nets. The monthly mean percentage by weight of I. coindetii in ommastrephid squid landings from Spanish bottom trawlers in the last 10 years varied between 56% and 88%, as compared to 12–44% for T. eblanae. For pair trawlers, the relative importance of the two species was reversed: I. coindetii represented 11–28% of landings, and T. eblanae 72–89%. It seems these differences can be mainly attributed to fishing fleet behavior, although differences in species biology and oceanographic conditions may contribute. French catches of I. coindetii represent around 8–10% of the total catch, mainly caught in the ICES Divisions VIII a, b, and c. Spanish catches represent 76–80% of the total catch, and Portuguese catches from ICES division IXa represent 12–14%. Within the Spanish catch, Galician ports receive around 78% of short-finned squid caught in the ICES Divisions VIIIc West and IXa North. Of these, 75% are caught by the bottom trawl fleet, 22% by pair trawl, and 3% by hooks and gillnets. For the Bay of Biscay (ICES Division VIIIc East), bottom trawling provides 49% of ommastrephid squid landings, pair trawls 37%, and 14% arise from hooks and gillnets. Landings of I. coindetii in Spain show a high interannual variation, but a seasonal pattern can be observed for most years, mainly due to the seasonal trend in landings along the Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Galician coast, with higher mean annual values in spring (30%) and autumn (26%), and lowest values in summer (19%). A seasonal pattern in the monthly body weight distribution of I. coindetii was observed in landings from the Spanish bottom trawl fleet. Larger specimens (average of 90– 100 g; subadult and adult individuals) are more abundant in winter and spring than in the summer and autumn (average 50 g, new recruits and juveniles). I. coindetii from pair trawl landings are generally bigger than those from Spanish bottom trawl; in pair trawl landings I. coindetii  120 g represented 42% of the total number, as compared to only 24% for bottom trawl. Although the seasonal trend in monthly body weight distribution of T. eblanae is not very clear in most years, the data show increases in recruitment in the period January–May (this period includes 75% of individuals with a body weight of less than 50 g). 7.2.5. Stock Assessment and Management There is currently no stock assessment of any of the ommastrephid species in European waters and no regulation of fishing on these species. This reflects the usual issues with cephalopod stocks (as described above for the loliginids), exacerbated in the case of the ommastrephid squids by the sporadic nature of the catches and the fact that they are generally less appreciated than loliginids by consumers. In addition, the data available to carry out assessments are limited. Aside from issues with landings data already mentioned (including the unknown proportion of discards), since there is little or no directed fishing, fishing effort data for these species are not available. Lastly, they are not included among the species for which there is routine market sampling (except at regional level; as seen above good data are available for Galicia, e.g., Bruno, 2008; Bruno and Rasero, 2008; Bruno et al., 2009). 8. MEDITERRANEAN SEA Though sometimes considered as part of the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea constitutes a distinct and separate entity due to its geographical, ecological, historical, social and economic peculiarities. Almost completely enclosed by land, a characteristic which determines distinct environmental parameters and events, which, in turn, affect fishery resources biology, with about 46,000 km of coastlines, the Mediterranean Sea offered the best and most suitable environment for fisheries activities to coastal populations since the colonization of Mediterranean lands. The exploitation of marine living resources started several thousands years ago and since remote antiquity the Mediterranean Sea has been the object of studies and descriptions in which “marine activities and fishing hold a paramount place” (Margalef, 1989, in Farrugio et al., 1993). Interest in Mediterranean cephalopods is well documented since the studies of 137 Aristotle (about 23 centuries ago) and continued in old Greek and Roman times (see Section 2 of this review). The Mediterranean Sea became a core area in cephalopod research at the beginning of the 20th century till recent years (see Boletzky, 2004 for a review), due to the Zoological Station at Naples, Italy, the Laboratoire Arago, at Banyuls-sur-Mer, France and other important institutions subsequently. Along with excellent working facilities, Neaples offered two main series of publications: the “Publications of the Zoological Station at Neaples” and the monographs of the “Fauna and Flora of the Gulf of Neaples.” Among the monographs, Giuseppe Jatta’s one on the cephalopod fauna of Neaples (Jatta, 1986), represents a milestone in cephalopods study and some of the superb illustrations by Merculiano included in that book are still used in modern publications (e.g., Orsi Relini et al., 2009). The Swiss zoologist Adolf Naef visited Neaples in the early 1900s, completed his PhD Thesis there and remained to continue Jatta’s work. Naef’s monograph (1921/23) created the basis for modern systematic studies on cephalopods and still represents the most comprehensive systematic presentation of Mediterranean cephalopods and squids. As for Mediterranean squids biology, the monograph of Katharina Mangold-Wirz (1963), “Biologie des Cephalopodes bentiques et nectoniques de la Mer Catalane,” still constitutes a fundamental reference for main Mediterranean squid species such as L. vulgaris, I. coindetii and T. eblanae, but also T. sagittatus and A. media. Squids appear depicted in several fisheries scenes in Mediterranean mosaics from the first centuries after Christ, such as those preserved in the archeological Museum of Sousse (Tunisia) (Figure 34A,B; Donati and Pasini, 1997). Also, a beautiful squid image, clearly a Loligo, is portrayed in an apsis mosaic illustrating the god Ocean and its main creatures (Figure 34C; Donati and Pasini, 1997), indicating that squids were considered an important component of marine coastal life. Squids, especially L. vulgaris, still constitute an important component of Mediterranean populations diet, particularly in Spain, Italy, and Greece, and play an important role in the local fish markets, both for their specific value (L. vulgaris) and their abundance (I. coindetii and T. eblanae) (Jereb and Roper, 2010). Although only a few targeted fisheries for these species exist in the Mediterranean, squids are fished throughout the Mediterranean basin, both by small-scale and artisanal coastal fisheries as well as by larger multi-species trawl fishing boats. Results of the detailed monitoring of major landings in southern Sicily (the Italian region contributing the highest percentage to total Italian cephalopod landings; Jereb and Agnesi 2009) in the late 1980s, indicated that cephalopods can contribute up to 37% of total estimated landings for the region, and squids (mainly Illex and Todaropsis) up to >30% of total cephalopods landings in some Sicilian ports (Andreoli et al., 1995). Squids make up for about 1/4 of the Mediterranean recent capture production as documented by FAO database (FAO, 2011–2013). These include the long-finned squids L. vulgaris Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 138 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 34. (A, B) Coastal fishery scenes. (C) The Ocean and its creatures Mosaic; Donati and Pasini, 1997. and L. forbesii, along with A. media and A. subulata, and the ommastrephid squids I. coindetii, T. eblanae, and T. sagittatus. O. bartramii captures also occur, but, even though this species has been acknowledged to be more common in the Mediterannean Sea than originally thought (see Orsi Relini, 1990; Ragonese and Jereb, 1990a; Bello, 2007), it is rarely caught and seldom targeted by artisanal or sport fishers (e.g., Eolian Island, southern Tyrrhenian Sea; Potoschi and Longo, 2009). 8.1 Biological Information on Main Squid Species 8.1.1. Loligo vulgaris The European squid L. vulgaris is distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the western and central Mediterranean waters, the whole Adriatic Sea, the Ionian Sea, the Aegean Sea and the Levant Basin (Jereb et al., in press). This species has also been recorded in the Sea of Marmara (Katagan € et al., 1993; Unsal et al., 1999). It is most likely an annual species, as indicted by growth studies using statolith analysis on Mediterranean specimens (Natsukari and Komine, 1992), even though both longer (Rocha and Guerra, 1999; Arkhipkin, 1995) and shorter (Bettencourt et al., 1996; Raya et al., 1999) lifecycles have been reported from outside the Mediterranean, with a maximum age of 15 months for both sexes (Moreno et al., 2007). In the Mediterranean Sea spawning seasons of varying length have been observed. In the western Mediterranean and the Central Adriatic Sea, the presence of mature animals all year round indicates that spawning may occur throughout the year. However, spawning concentrations from (February) March to July (August) (Mangold-Wirz, 1963; Worms, 1980), with recruitment peaks in late summer (Lloret and Lleonart, 2002) have been observed in the western Mediterranean and peaks between January and May were recorded in the Adriatic  Sea (Krstulovi
c Sifner and Vrgoc, 2004). Recent studies confirmed spawning activities all year-round with peaks in spring in the Balearic Islands (Cabanellas-Reboredo, 2014a, b). More restricted spawning seasons were reported for the eastern Mediterranean, where data from the Thracian Sea (Lefkaditou et al., 1998) indicate a spawning concentration from February to May and additional data from Greek seas indicate a spawning season from November until April–May (Moreno et al., 2007). Males grow larger than females, and maximum sizes up to 640 mm ML for males and 485 mm ML for females have been recorded off the West African coasts (Raya, 2001). In the Mediterranean Sea, maximum sizes of 540 mm ML for males and 340 mm for females were recorded in the Gulf of Lion (western Mediterranean; Worms, 1979), and specimens larger than 300–400 mm ML are not infrequent throughout the species distributional range. Usually more abundant in waters shallower than 100 m, L. vulgaris is found from the coast to the limits of the upper slope (200–550 m) (Jereb et al., in press), the deepest record in the Mediterranean being at 545 m, in the eastern Ionian Sea  (Krstulovi
c Sifner et al., 2005). Where its distribution overlaps with that of L. forbesii, L. vulgaris tends to be found in shallower waters, the switch from dominance of one species to the other being placed at around 70–80 m (Ragonese and Jereb, 1986; Ria et al., 2005). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES In the Mediterranean Sea L. vulgaris migrations are mainly related to sexual maturation and spawning, and thus are generally limited to on-shore/off-shore movements as mature adults reach shallow coastal waters in late winter-early spring and young individuals move back to deeper waters in fall (Mangold Wirz, 1963; Worms, 1980; Sanchez and Guerra, 1994; Valavanis et al., 2002). Vertical migrations to surface waters at night, related to feeding, also occurs. This behavior is well known and is used by commercial and recreational fishermen who concentrate on shallow water fishing grounds at night and sunset, targeting squid using line jigging (e.g., CabanellasReboredo et al., 2012a). Like most fast-growing, active swimming squids, L. vulgaris is an opportunistic predator, feeding mainly not only on fish, but also on crustaceans and cephalopods, with seasonal variations in diet resulting from changes in prey abundance and changes of fishing grounds. In turn, it is preyed upon by several pelagic and demersal fish, sharks, and marine mammals (Jereb et al., in press). In the Mediterranean Sea L. vulgaris is mainly a bycatch of the multi-species bottom trawl fisheries, and it is landed throughout the year, along with L. forbesii. However, directed small-scale coastal fisheries targeting inshore spawners, using hand-jigging, beach seining, and other artisanal gears such as gill nets and trammel nets and recreational fisheries also exist (Lefkaditou and Adamidou, 1997; Lefkaditou et al., 1998; Morales-Nin et al., 2005; Adamidou, 2007; Cabanellas-Reboredo et al., 2012a, b, 2014a, b). 8.1.2. Loligo forbesii The veined squid L. forbesii is also widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the western and central Mediterranean waters, the central and southern Adriatic Sea, the Ionian Sea, the Aegean Sea and the Levant Basin (Jereb et al., in press). The species has not been recorded in the Sea of Marmara. Once relatively abundant, at least in some Mediterranean areas (i.e., the Sicilian Channel; Ragonese and Jereb, 1986), this species has undergone an abrupt decrease in its southern distributional range, including the Mediterranean, since the 1990s (Jereb et al, 1996; Chen et al., 2006). Recent studies, however, indicate that L. forbesii constitutes an important resource among loliginid squids of the Egyptian Mediterranean waters (off Alexandria, Riad and Werfaly, 2014), both as bycatch of artisanal trawling and as the subject of directed hand-jig fisheries. Results from different studies on this species age and growth in the Atlantic, suggest a lifespan of about 16 months with a maximum estimate of 18 months (Rocha and Guerra, 1999), though most of the sampled individuals showed an annual lifecycle (Jereb et al., in press). Information on the biology of this species in the Mediterranean is poor, but data from the Atlantic indicate an extended spawning season, with spawning peaks variable in time, according to different 139 geographic areas (Jereb et al., in press). Preliminary observations from the Sicilian Channel (central Mediterranean), indicated a winter spawning concentration in that area, from November-December till February–March (Ragonese and Jereb, 1986) and, possibly, a second pulse in late spring-early summer. Recent observations from the Egyptian Mediterranean indicate that spawning occurs in spring and early summer in that area (Riad and Werfaly, 2014). In the Mediterranean Sea L. forbesii occurs down to depths of over 700 m (i.e., 715 m in the Ionian Sea; Lefkaditou et al., 2003a). Though records in waters shallower that 50 m do exist (e.g., Cuccu et al., 2003), major L. forbesii concentrations occur close to the shelf break area, between 200 and 500 m both in the eastern (Lefkaditou et al., 2003b) and the western (Quetglas et al., 2000) Mediterranean. As previously mentioned, where its distribution overlaps with that of L. vulgaris, L. forbesii tends to be found in deeper water, the switch from dominance of one species to the other being placed at around 70–80 m (Ragonese and Jereb, 1986, Ria et al., 2005). Migratory patterns have been described in the northeast Atlantic, but are still poorly understood (Jereb et al., in press). The veined squid is a highly opportunistic predator, feeding on fish, crustaceans, cephalopods, polychaetes, and any other potential available prey, and cannibalism, also, occurs; the species is preyed upon by several pelagic and demersal fish, sharks and marine mammals (Jereb et al., in press). In the Mediterranean Sea L. forbesii is mainly a bycatch of the multi-species trawl bottom fisheries and it is landed throughout the year, usually mixed with L. vulgaris; however it is also a target of hand-jig fisheries in some areas (e.g., Egyptian Mediterranean waters; Riad and Werfaly, 2014). 8.1.3. Alloteuthis media and Alloteuthis subulata Alloteuthis media and A. subulata are widely distributed in the Mediterranean Sea (Jereb et al., in press), however, due to the still unresolved taxonomic issues related to these two species, doubts remain as to the true geographic limits and location of each of them, as well as to the true taxonomic allocation of Mediterranean specimens to either species. Both A. media and A. subulata are considered represented in the western and central Mediterranean waters (e.g., Mangold and Boletzky, 1987; Belcari and Sartor, 1993; Jereb and Ragonese, 1994; Relini et al., 2002; Cuccu et al., 2003), in the  Adriatic Sea and the eastern Ionian Sea (Krstulovi
c Sifner et al., 2005, 2011). Alloteuthis media is also widely distributed in the Ionian and the Aegean Sea (Tursi and D’Onghia, 1992; Salman et al., 1997; Lefkaditou et al., 2003a, b), and it has been recorded from the western Marmara Sea (Kata gan et al., € 1993; Unsal et al., 1999). The presence of one morphometric taxa in the eastern Mediterranean, A. media, is supported by recent morphometric analysis (Laptikovsky et al., 2002, 2005); subsequent genetic analysis, confirming the existence of two species in the Mediterranean (Anderson et al., 2008), suggests that one species, A. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 140 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. media, extends from the eastern to the western side of this sea, while the other, A. subulata is present in the Adriatic Sea; the presence of A. subulata in the Ionian Sea has been recently confirmed (Lefkaditou et al., 2012). Alloteuthis media is one of the most abundant cephalopods of the shelf community throughout the Mediterranean Sea, from the western side (Gonz
alez and S
anchez, 2002; Massut
ı and Re~ nones 2005) through the central waters (Mannini and Volpi, 1989; Sanchez et al., 1998), the Adriatic Sea (Ungaro  et al., 1999; Krstulovi
c Sifner et al., 2005) and the Aegean Sea (Katsanevakis et al., 2008). It is found from shallow waters down to about 600 m (585 m, Aegean Sea; Lefkaditou et al., 2003b). Little information on the biology of Alloteuthis species in the Mediterranean Sea is available, the most comprehensive information still being data collected in the Catalan Sea for A. media (Mangold-Wirz, 1963). Lifecycle is probably 1 year (e.g., Mangold-Wirz, 1963; Auteri et al., 1987; Rodhouse et al., 1988) even though a slightly shorter lifespan has been estimated by direct ageing for A. media in the Aegean Sea (Alidromiti et al., 2009) and as short as six months for A. subulata off the African coast (Arkhipkin and Nekludova, 1993). According to observations on A. media in the Gulf of Naples (Lo Bianco, 1909; Naef, 1921/1923) and more recent information from the eastern Mediterranean (Laptikhovsky et al., 2002), spawning occurs year round, even though a more restricted spawning season (March-October) has been reported from the Catalan Sea (western Mediterranean; Mangold-Wirz, 1963). Both Alloteuthis species are caught as bycatch in bottom trawl and beach-seine fisheries and, even though these species are discarded in some areas (e.g., Machias et al., 2001), they are considered of variable commercial interest in others (Ragonese and Jereb, 1990b; Sartor et al., 1998) and are landed and marketed in Spain and Italy. In southern Sicily, they are marketed under the commercial category “calamaretti.” 8.1.4. Illex coindetii The broadtail shortfin squid I. coindetii occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the western and central Mediterranean waters, the whole Adriatic Sea, the Ionian Sea, the Aegean Sea, and the Levant Basin (Jereb et al., in press). The species has been recorded in the Sea of Marmara (Katagan € et al., 1993; Unsal et al., 1999). In the Mediterranean Sea the lifecycle is most likely annual (i.e., 14–16 months, Sicilian Channel; Jereb and Ragonese, 1995; 10–15 months, Greek Sea; Arvanitidis et al., 2002; 13– 14 months, north Aegean Sea; Lefkaditou, 2007; 12–15 months, Ligurian Sea; Cavanna et al., 2008) even though shorter and longer lifespans have been estimated by using different age techniques and by geographic areas. A lifecycle as short as 6–7 months (Sicilian Channel; Arkhipkin et al., 2000) and as long as 18 months (western Mediterranean; Sanchez et al., 1998) has been estimated by statoliths reading, while modal progression analysis resulted in a lifespan between 17 and 18 months (Sanchez, 1984) and 2 years (Mangold-Wirz, 1963) in the Catalan Sea. The broadtail shortfin squid is a medium-sized squid, commonly reaching 200–250 mm ML throughout its distributional range (see Jereb et al., in press). Females are larger than males. Very large specimens up to 300 mm ML have also been recorded in the Mediterranean Sea (Ceriola et al., 2006; Profeta et al., 2008; Perdichizzi et al., 2011); these represent extremes in the population and it has been hypothesized that they are late-hatching members of the previous year class or individuals that do not reach maturity and continue to grow (see Jereb et al., in press). Spawning occurs year-round for this species in most of its distributional range (Sanchez et al., 1998; Arkhipkin et al., 2000; Arvanitidis et al., 2002; Ceriola et al., 2006), however, spawning peaks have been observed throughout the Mediterranean, such as in spring and summer in several Italian seas (Maragliano and Spedicato, 1993; Soro and Paolini, 1994; Jereb and Ragonese, 1995; Gentiloni et al., 2001; Ceriola et al., 2006). In the Mediterranean Sea I. coindetii has been recorded from surface waters to over 700 m (i.e., 776 m, South Aegean Sea; Lefkaditou et al., 2003), with highest densities found between 100–200 and 400–600 m (e.g., Tursi and D’Onghia, 1992; Jereb and Ragonese, 1995; Salman et al., 1997). It lives close to muddy, sandy, and debris-rich bottoms and it is often associated with decapod crustacean such as the deep-water rose shrimp (Parapenaeus longirostris) and the European hake (Merluccius merluccius) (Jereb and Ragonese, 1991), the lesser flying squid (T. eblanae) (e.g., Mangold-Wirz, 1963; Lumare, 1970; Gentiloni et al., 2001; Ciavaglia and Manfredi, 2009), the horned octopus (E. cirrhosa) and the midsize squid  (A. media) (Krstulovi
c Sifner et al., 2005, 2011). Juveniles and adults share the same depth ranges in some Mediterranean areas (Sanchez et al., 1998; Ceriola et al., 2006), though juveniles/small specimens show a major concentration in waters shallower than 200 m. Adults undergo vertical migrations from the bottom to the upper layers at night and seasonal migrations have been observed in the western and central Mediterranean waters (Mangold-Wirz, 1963; Soro and Paolini, 1994; Sanchez et al., 1998; Gentiloni et al., 2001) with the bulk of the population approaching shallow waters (70–150 m) in spring, to spread again over a wider bathymetric range in autumn. In the Mediterranean Sea I. coindetii is taken throughout the year as bycatch in bottom and pelagic trawls, and, to a lesser extent, with gill and trammel nets, at depths between 100 and 400 m. 8.1.5. Todaropsis eblanae The lesser flying squid T. eblanae is widely distributed throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the western and central Mediterranean waters, the whole Adriatic Sea, the Ionian Sea, the Aegean Sea and the Levant Basin (Jereb et al., Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES in press). The species has been recorded in the Sea of Marmara € (Kata gan et al., 1993; Unsal et al., 1999). The information on the biology of this species in the Mediterranean is limited to the Catalan Sea (Mangold-Wirz, 1963) and to few other studies in Italian waters (e.g., Belcari et al., 1999; Lelli et al., 2005; Cavanna et al., 2008). In the Mediterranean Sea, the lifecycle is most likely annual, as a recent direct ageing study evidenced (12 months; Ligurian Sea, Cavanna et al., 2008), even though a lifespan up to 2 years has been estimated by indirect age observations on the species in the Catalan Sea (Mangold-Wirz, 1963). Todaropsis eblanae is a medium-sized squid. In the Mediterranean Sea maximum ML was 210 and 200 mm for females and males from the Sicilian Channel (central Mediterranean waters; Ragonese and Jereb, 1990). The spawning season probably extends year-round, mature females having been found from March through November in the Catalan Sea (Mangold-Wirz, 1963). This squid inhabits mainly the lower sublittoral and upper bathyal throughout the Mediterranean waters (Mangold-Wirz, 1963; Ragonese and Jereb, 1990; Belcari and Sartor, 1993; Salman et al., 1997; Giordano and Carbonara, 1999; Quetglas et al., 2000; Gonzales and Sanchez, 2002; Cuccu et al., 2003;  Lefkaditou et al., 2003a, b; Krstulovi
c Sifner et al., 2005). Deepest records occurred in the northeastern Ionian Sea (848 m; Lefkaditou et al., 2003a), but the species is particularly abundant between 200 and 500 m (e.g., Belcari and Sartor,  1993; Krstulovi
c Sifner et al., 2005) and in highly productive areas such as the shelf-break (100–200 m; Colloca et al., 2004). In the Mediterranean Sea T. eblanae is taken throughout the year as bycatch in bottom and pelagic trawls, and, to a lesser extent, with gill and trammel nets, in depths between 100–200 and 600–800 m. 141 Most individuals probably live for 12–14 months, even though the lifespan of the largest individuals may approach 2 years. Spawning likely takes place on the continental slope, as suggested by Clarke for Todarodes species (Clarke, 1966). According to the presence of mature females and males year-round (Quetglas et al., 1998), spawning probably occurs throughout the year, even though different seasonal spawning concentrations may occur, depending on the geographic area; a major spawning season occurs in autumn-winter in the western Mediterranean (i.e., between September and November–December in the Catalan Sea and the Balearic Islands, Mangold-Wirz, 1963; Quetglas et al., 1998). The European flying squid inhabits the water column in the open ocean as well as near the coast, and has been found from shallow waters down to 800 m throughout the Mediterranean (e.g., Jereb and Ragonese, 1990; Tursi and D’Onghia, 1992; Belcari and Sartor, 1993; Salman et al., 1997; Casali et al., 1998; Giordano and Carbonara, 1999; Quetglas et al., 2000; Gonzalez and Sanchez, 2002; Cuccu et al., 2003; Lefkaditou  et al., 2003a, b; Krstulovi
c Sifner et al., 2005). It is known to migrate between the surface at night and near bottom waters during the day and more important migrations toward deeper waters in winter may occur, according to the higher captures observed in summer in some areas of its distribution (i.e., Ionian Sea; Lefkaditou et al., 2003a; southern Tyrrhenian Sea; Potoski and Longo, 2009). As mentioned above, artisanal hand-jigging fisheries occur in some areas of the Mediterranean Sea (e.g., southern Tyrrhenian Sea; Potoski and Longo, 2009; Battaglia et al., 2010), and the species is also taken as a bycatch in trawl fisheries. Todarodes sagittatus is reported as a separate category in FAO statistics; however, no data are recorded at present from Mediterranean countries. 8.1.6. Todarodes sagittatus The European flying squid T. sagittatus occurs throughout the Mediterranean Sea, including the western and central Mediterranean waters, the whole Adriatic Sea, the Ionian Sea, the Aegean Sea and the Levant Basin (Jereb et al., in press). Old references to the presence of the species in the Sea of Marmara € exist (Demir, 1952, in Unsal et al., 1999); however, the species has not been recorded by recent investigations in those € waters (Kata gan et al., 1993; Unsal et al., 1999). The biological information on this species in the Mediterranean Sea is mainly restricted to the western Mediterranean (Morales, 1958; Mangold-Wirz, 1963; Quetglas et al., 1988, 1999; Cuccu et al., 2005). The European flying squid is a typical strong, muscular ommastrephid, with common sizes ranging between 350 and 400 mm for females and 200 and 250 mm for males. Very large animals have been reported from the Mediterranean, a female of 600 mm ML and males of over 380 mm ML (south Sardinia; Cuccu et al., 2005), while a maximum ML of 418 mm is reported for a female from the Balearic Islands (Quetglas et al., 1998). 8.2 Fisheries The variety of squid species, the absence of large, monospecific “stocks” comparable to those inhabiting other wide areas of open oceans, the variety of small-scale fisheries operating along the coastlines and the need to coordinate 23 countries bordering its body of waters (each with its own legal approach toward marine resources management within national waters) make for the unusual circumstances of the Mediterranean fisheries (Caddy, 1993; Farrugio et al., 1993). In particular, fishing activities exhibit great variation from one area to the other, differences being related not only to geographical and ecological constraints, but to the social, economic and historical context of neighboring countries. Cephalopod fisheries in European waters have been extensively reviewed by Lefkaditou et al., 2010. Statistical information reported therein has been updated for the Mediterranean, using FAO’s database and FishstatJ (2.0.0) software (FAO, 2011–2013). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 142 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 35. Total cephalopods capture production in the Mediterranean Sea and proportion over the total Mediterranean capture production (1950–2011). Bars D capture production; line D proportion over the total. Figure 36. Percentage of squids, cuttlefishes and octopuses over the total cephalopods capture production in the Mediterranean Sea (1950–2011). NEI D not elsewhere indicated. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 8.2.1 Landings Cephalopod landings data in the Mediterranean are gathered and grouped according to the following main commercial categories: Cuttlefishes: not only Sepia officinalis, but also S. elegans and S. orbignyana Octopods: mainly Octopus vulgaris, Eledone cirrhosa, and E. moschata Long-finned squid: mainly Loligo vulgaris and L. forbesii, but also Alloteuthis media and A. subulata species Short finned squid: Illex coindetii, Todaropsis eblanae, and Todarodes sagittatus Total fisheries capture production in the Mediterranean increased from about 500,000 t in 1950 to about 1.6 million t at the end of 1980s, fluctuating around 1.4 million t since then. Cephalopod contribution to the total Mediterranean fisheries capture production reached 7% in the middle sixties but oscillated around 4.5% throughout the time range observed (Figure 35); octopuses and cuttlefishes dominate the landings (Figure 36), and the overall trend showed a slight but constant increase since 1950 (Pearson’s coefficient, p < 0.05 for cuttlefishes, p < 0.01 for octopuses). Total squid capture production increased for about 20 years, from 1950 to the end of the sixties and remained quite stable since then, with a peak at the end of the eighties and the minimum reached at the beginning of 2000 (Figure 37). Squids contribution to total cephalopod capture production oscillates around 25%. Italy, Spain, Greece, Libya, and Turkey are the main producers (Figure 38), with recorded landings of 4971, 2629, 1551, 470, and 394 t, respectively, in 2011. Most of the squid fisheries capture production (52–100%, 1950–2011) in the Mediterranean Sea is reported as unclassified. The remaining part is dominated by short-finned squids with a peak at the end of the eighties-beginning of the nineties and a strong reduction from 2000 onward (Figure 39). Longfinned squids capture production was first recorded as a separate category during the mid-seventies and peaked at the end of the time period considered (2011; Figure 39). However, it is not clear if this increase is related to an effective increase in capture production or to a more accurate reporting for the species. According to a recent practical working approach by the FAO General Fisheries Commission for the Mediterranean, this body of water is divided into three main areas: western Mediterranean (Algeria, France, Morocco, and Spain), central Mediterranean (Albania, Croatia, Italy, Libya, Malta, Montenegro—before 2008 reported as Serbia and Montenegro—and Tunisia) and eastern Mediterranean (Cyprus, Egypt, Gaza Strip, and West Bank [Palestina], Greece, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria) (GFCM, 2007). Most of the squids capture production is recorded in the central Mediterranean with a maximum (about 13,500 t) at the end of the eighties and minimum at the beginning of 2000 (about 4,000 t) (Figure 40). 8.2.2. Fishing Fleets According to Lleonart et al. (1998) and as adopted in Sacchi (2011), Mediterranean fishing fleets can be broken down Figure 37. Squids capture production in the Mediterranean Sea (1950–2011). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 38. Reported squids capture production of Mediterranean countries in 2011. into three main categories: industrial, semi-industrial, and small-scale artisanal fishing (Sacchi, 2011). Industrial fleets, often described as ocean-going or longdistance fishing fleets, go out for several days at a time and use large vessels, generally over 500 GRT, to transport the catch and accommodate the crew (Folsom et al., 1993). They target large catches of certain species (such as tunas, sardines, anchovies, large gadidae, squids, or prawns) for the international fresh or frozen markets and especially for processing. This implies large investments, both in fishing vessels and gear (ship-owners) and processing (factories and fattening units), and it is only possible for industrial or financial groups. Semi-industrial fleets. Also driven by domestic or international market demand, the management of these vessels is mainly artisanal, with the captain being also the owner of the vessel and fishing gears. The relationship with markets is either via auctions or contracts with fishing associations (such as cooperatives, producer bodies and Spanish “cofradias”). Like industrial fleets, they specialize and use fishing gear suitable for large catches. In the Mediterranean, this category mainly comprises trawlers, sardine seiners and vessels using equipment such as mechanical drag nets, certain long-lines and trammel nets. They generally land their catches daily or on 2–3 days basis and mainly operate on the continental shelf and around the continental slope. 143 Figure 40. Squids capture production in the western (Algeria, France, Morocco, and Spain), central (Albania, Croatia, Italy, Libya, Malta, and Montenegro—before 2008 reported as Serbia and Montenegro and Tunisia) and eastern (Cyprus, Egypt, Gaza Strip, and West Bank [Palestine], Greece, Israel, Lebanon, and Syria) Mediterranean Sea (1950–2011). Small-scale artisanal fishing fleets. These fleets mostly target local markets with varied products, mainly sold directly to consumers. However, some of them may contribute significantly to the export market. They generally operate in lagoons and in the coastal areas of the continental shelf. They mainly use lowtonnage boats with small or no engines, usually no more than 12 m long and comprise small-scale fisheries, made up of vessels that require low levels of investment. Boat length is not an absolute criterion and in certain countries polyvalent (i.e., multipurpose) vessels longer than 12 m and specializing in longline and gillnet fishing can be considered as practising artisanal fishing. Artisanal fleets use a wide variety of fishing techniques (45 types of fishing gear have been identified in the Mediterranean), catching around a hundred different demersal species and a smaller proportion of medium-sized pelagic species. They employ a variable number of fishermen, depending on the practices of the various geographical areas, generally with one or two registered fishermen per vessel and one or two “seasonal” hands. It is important to stress that, while “small-scale” and “artisanal” fisheries clearly differ from industrial and recreational fisheries, and even though in the preface of the draft “Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication,” (FAO, 2012) it is acknowledged that the terms “small-scale fisheries” and “artisanal fisheries” are considered to relate to the same fraction and can be used interchangeably, from a technological point of view these two terms imply somewhat dissimilar concepts, relating to the size of the fishing unit (i.e., the scale) as well as to the relative level of technology (or “artisanality”) expressed as capital investment/ men-on-board (Farrugio, 2013). 8.2.3. Fishing Methods Figure 39. Total capture production of short- and long-finned squids in the Mediterranean Sea (1950–2011). Generally, all squids species are caught as bycatch of the several scale-differing trawl fisheries operating throughout the Mediterranean Sea and trawling is responsible for the main Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 144 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. landings of these cephalopods; however, other fishing systems are also used and some species are geographically and seasonally targeted. This is the case, for example, of T. sagittatus, which is the object of recreational and artisanal fisheries in southern Italy. According to a recent study carried out in the Aeolian Island (southern Tyrrhenian Sea, northeast Sicily; Battaglia et al., 2010), the artisanal fishery use the typical Aeolian hand-jig line (called “totanara,” after the Italian name given to ommastrephid squid, “totano”), consisting of a crown of hooks mounted on a stainless steel cylinder, baited at its central part and empowered by the addition of a small blinking light. Larger cylinders baited but devoid of hooks are positioned near the bottom, at 400– 600 m depth, to attract squid. These are then hauled to a depth of about 120 m and fishermen commence fishing with hand-jig lines. Boats are between 5.40 and 9.80 m long and engine power varies between 6.6 and 133 kW. According to the analysis of Battaglia et al. (2010), the average income per fisherman in summer may be among the highest registered for the local small-scale fisheries (comparing trammel nets, squid hand-jig line, and albacore drifting longlines). Hand-jigs of various types named “calamarieres” in Greek, “palhacinhos” or “toneiras” in Portuguese, and “poteras” in Spanish are used by artisanal and sport-fishery vessels to catch L. vulgaris and O. bartramii (e.g., Lefkaditou et al., 2010; Battaglia et al., 2010). Typical jigs are usually lead cylinders, bearing crowns of metal hooks at one end and a metal ring on the other end, to which the fishing line is tied. Fishermen hold the fishing line, giving rhythmic movement to the gear (i.e., “jigging”). Jig fishing is carried out mostly before sunset or at night using some kind of light attraction (Ragonese and Bianchini, 1990; Potoschi and Longo, 2009; Lefkaditou et al., 2010). Boat-seines with bags are used along the Spanish and Greek coasts, where they target L. vulgaris when the species concentrates in coastal fishing grounds (Lefkaditou et al., 2010). The “boliche” or “chinchorro” used in Spain has two wings, each 75 m long, and the cod-end is 10 m long with a mesh size of 18–60 mm (the minimum legal mesh size is 17 mm). Loligo vulgaris appears to be the most important catch of this fishery (e.g., 45.5% of catches during the years 1999–2003; Lefkaditou et al., 2010). The “pezotrata” or “vintzotrata” used in Greece consists of a main body (or “shoulder”), two relatively long wings, the bag, and the cod-end (Katsanevakis et al., 2008; Lefkaditou et al., 2010). The total length of the net in Greek boat seines is usually between 200 and 450 m. The wings constitute the longest part of the net, having a length of 140–400 m and a stretched mesh size of 350–600 mm. The bag, which is the central part of the net, is 13–40 m long with a stretched mesh size of 20–28 mm. The rearmost part of the bag is the codend, which has a length of 1–7 m; the netting of the cod-end usually has a stretched mesh size between 16 and 20 mm (Adamidou, 2007). This m
etier is registered separately in Greek fisheries statistics and yields 25–30% of the total national catches of L. vulgaris (Lefkaditou et al., 2010). Beach-seines and trammel nets are also used to fish L. vulgaris and I. coindetii (e.g., Guerra et al., 1994; Lefkaditou, et al. 1998; Colloca et al., 2004). In the western Mediterranean an inshore recreational fishery for L. vulgaris occurs in the southern waters of Mallorca (Balearic Islands), as part of the recreational fishery which is one of the island’s main leisure activities (Morales-Nin et al., 2005; Cabanellas-Reboredo, et al., 2012a, b). It is a seasonal activity, as local fishers concentrate on squid when they enter shallow waters for reproduction, and hand-line jigging with artificial lures are used (Cabanellas-Reboredo, 2012a). Local fishing activity is restricted to a shallow depth range (25– 30 m) and fishing operations occur primarily at sunset, when squid become more active for feeding (Cabanellas-Reboredo, 2012a, b, 2014a). 8.3. Stock Assessment and Management According to the peculiarities mentioned above, biologist and decision makers face numerous difficulties in their efforts to study and manage the Mediterranean fisheries (e.g., Caddy, 1993; Farrugio et al., 1993; Papaconstantinou and Farrugio, 2000; Scovazzi, 2011). As for most Mediterranean cephalopods, squids stocks are not assessed. In the Mediterranean, fisheries management measures indirectly affect squids capture production as they involve the various fisheries exploiting them; thus, measures adopted at national level for bottom trawlers, such as capacity control, limitation of fishing days and restricted areas, indirectly affects the capture of squid. In particular, management measures aimed at protecting nursery areas and improving selectivity for bottom trawling indirectly affect cephalopods fisheries; for example, prohibition of trawling within 3 NM off the coastline, at depths shallower than 50 m and on Posidonia beds (nursery areas for many species including cephalopods) indirectly protects cephalopod juveniles; also, the adoption of diamond 50 mm stretched or 40 mm squared mesh size in the cod-end instead of the traditional diamond 40 mm stretched enhances selectivity for octopuses and juvenile squids. The general rules established by United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS; Montego Bay, 1982) on marine spaces division and attributes apply also in semienclosed seas, such as the Mediterranean Sea. However, in the case of this body of water, the presence of 23 bordering States creates a particularly complex situation (Scovazzi, 2011). While most coastal Mediterranean States established a 12mile territorial sea, not all of them have established an EEZ. However, others have proclaimed fishing zones or ecological protection or both, beyond the territorial sea. Although some high seas zones still exist in the Mediterranean Sea, the area is already fractioned into several subareas under different control regimes, some of which by law implement measures not applicable in the Mediterranean Sea (i.e., quotas catch systems). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES As for the high seas, the UNCLOS fisheries regime is based on an obligation to cooperate for the conservation and management of living resources, which is not devoid of legal meaning and, in principle, should favor the conclusion of agreements for the conservation of common resources to the benefit of all (Scovazzi, 2011). In practice, however, problems such as unregulated fishing, vessel reflagging to escape control, insufficiently selective gear, unreliable databases, excessive fleet size, and lack of sufficient cooperation between States frustrate and neutralize efforts toward conservation and management goals in the Mediterranean. However, two important commissions have been established with relevance to Mediterranean fisheries management: the FAO General Fisheries Commission (formerly Council) for the Mediterranean (GFCM; 2007, amended to its actual status) and the International Commission for the Conservation of the Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT; 1996) in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. In addition, a network of FAO Projects has also been established to promote cooperation and capacity development of fisheries in the Mediterranean. GFCM counts 24 members at present (including Japan and the European Union (EU)) and covers the high seas and marine areas under national jurisdiction, with the purpose of promoting the development, conservation, rational management, and best utilization of all marine living resources. FAO fisheries related Projects (i.e., AdriaMed, CopeMed, EastMed, and MedSudMed) contribute to this goal by providing member countries with the necessary tools to meet national and international requirements. GFCM “adopts” ICCAT decisions related to tuna fishing and quotas on tuna fish. Last but not least, an important role in the Mediterranean fisheries is played by the European Union (EU), through its eight Mediterranean coastal member countries (Croatia, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Slovenia, and Spain). Due to the multi-form and complex status of present maritime zones within the Mediterranean, which reflects on the fisheries, it is to be hoped that future jointly agreed fisheries management approaches will be developed by the GFCM, and that the EU fishery policy will devote more attention to the peculiarities of Mediterranean fisheries communities. 8.4. Concluding Remarks With a production reaching about 11,000 t in 2011, Mediterranean squids landings undoubtedly contribute only a small proportion of the world squids production, estimated at over 2 and a half million t for the same year (2,564,978 t; FAO, 2011–2013). Their contribution to the European squids fisheries by means of the coastal Mediterranean members has also decreased conspicuously in the last years, after an important peak in the mid-1960s (Figure 41). However, squids are an important resource for the Mediterranean communities and economy. Average prices for Mediterranean Loligo still are 145 Figure 41. Squids capture production: percentage of Mediterranean European countries (Croatia, Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, Malta, Slovenia, and Spain) over the total European countries (1950–2010). the highest with respect to other areas production, averaging more than twice the values of Loligo from other areas (i.e., 15–20 € £ kg, compared to 6–8 € £ kg, respectively; So.Ge. Mi. SpA, 2013). Also, traditionally, local demand for regional, high-quality products obtained from the artisanal fisheries still exists in some Mediterranean areas, and prices of L. vulgaris caught by trammel nets, for example, are double those for trawl caught squids (Guerra et al., 1994), due to the higher quality of the former. The role of squids in the economy and social structure of local communities involved in the small-scale artisanal fisheries may have been underestimated, as future investigations and studies on these fisheries are likely to prove. 9. SOUTHEAST ATLANTIC A number of squid species are found in the Southeast Atlantic; however, few are of any commercial importance. An exception is Loligo reynaudii, targeted by hand jigging in South Africa as a major commercial fishery, and caught with homemade jigs in southern Angola by artisanal fishers. Todarodes angolensis is broadly distributed around the southern part of Africa, and is especially common and abundant in Namibian waters. Caught as a bycatch by commercial trawlers, it has in the past been sold as bait but presently is discarded as far as we are aware. Todaropsis eblanae is another widely distributed species present in the Eastern Atlantic, but differing genetically from other areas of distribution and is considered to be a separate population. The lifecycle of the southern African population has not been studied in any detail and is imperfectly known. In southern African waters, this species is a bycatch in the demersal trawl fishery. 9.1. Loligo reynaudii (Cape Hope Squid) 9.1.1. Distribution and Life History The Cape Hope squid L. reynaudii, locally known as chokka, is distributed from Southern Angola on the west coast Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 146 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. of southern Africa, to the Great Fish River on the east coast of South Africa (Shaw et al., 2010). Interestingly, L. reynaudii is rarely found on the shelf off Namibia, which lies between Southern Angola and the west coast of South Africa. This is a neritic loliginid species and is seldom found deeper than 200 m. In South African waters, although distributed along the majority of the coastline, two-thirds of the adult biomass is concentrated on the south east coast (Augustyn, 1989, 1991; Augustyn et al., 1993). Size at maturity within this species is highly variable, particularly for males, depending on not only location but also the time of year (Augustyn et al., 1992). Males can be mature at 90 mm ML or immature at 250 mm ML. Females generally mature between the sizes of 100–180 mm ML (Augustyn et al., 1992). L. reynaudii spawn inshore in both protected bays and open, exposed parts of the south east coast of South Africa (Augustyn, 1989, 1990; Sauer et al., 1992). Depending on the substrate (open sand vs. rocky reef with small patches of sand), egg beds comprise of a few egg strands to large beds up to 4 m in diameter (Sauer et al., 1992). Eggs recovered from demersal research trawls (Roberts and Sauer, 1994; Roberts et al., 2012) and hydroacoustic traces of mushroom shaped spawning aggregations offshore (Roberts et al., 2002) indicate this species also spawns in the deeper colder waters between 70 and 130 m (Roberts et al., 2012). Inshore spawning peaks during the summer months (November-January) (Augustyn, 1989). In some years, a second peak in spawning occurs during the winter (Olyott et al., 2006). The environment appears to play a role in the formation of spawning aggregations (Roberts, 1998) with the initial formation of spawning aggregations possibly being triggered by upwelling (Sauer et al., 1991; Roberts, 1998; Sch€ on, 2000; Downey et al., 2010). L. reynaudii are serial spawners (Sauer and Lipinski, 1990; Melo and Sauer, 2007), and as a result mortality is sporadic over a prolonged period. The most important prey for L. reynaudii paralarvae is the copepod Calanus agulhensis (Venter et al., 1999; Roberts, 2005). On the spawning grounds, adults feed mainly at night with teleosts dominating the prey items (Lipinski, 1987). During the day, cannibalism is prominent (Lipinski, 1987). Lipinski (1992) investigated the impact of predation by L. reynaudii on commercial fish species. The results indicated that there may be an impact on anchovy (Engraulis capensis) and hake (Merluccius capensis) of 100,000 and 70,000 t/y respectively, but further study is needed. 9.1.2. Stock Identification In South African waters, the population characteristics of L. reynaudii from the western part of its distribution differ from those of the population in the east (Augustyn, 1989). Generally, when compared to squid occurring in the east, squid from the west are slower growing, mature at a larger size, the size distribution is narrower and gonadal development is not as far advanced (Augustyn, 1989; Olyott et al., 2007). Although as yet inconclusive, results of a study by Olyott et al. (2006) suggest there may indeed be two separate stocks in South African waters. Recent genetic evidence (Shaw et al., 2010) further strengthens this hypothesis. 9.1.3. Catches and Effort The small commercial jig fishery (6000–13,000 t caught annually) occurs mainly on the south Eastern Cape coast of South Africa. Fishermen target squid on inshore spawning aggregations, as well as using drogue anchors and strong lights to attract the squid during offshore drift fishing. In South African waters, squid are also caught as bycatch of a hake directed demersal trawl fishery (Figure 42). Initially, chokka squid was caught as bycatch of the trawl industry operating in South African waters. This species was considered a bait species and bycatch was sold as such. Between 1974 and 1985, both the South African and foreign trawl fleet were catching between »1,800 and »3,800 t per annum (Roel et al., 2000). Squid targeted trawling is not possible in South African waters due to a ban on trawling within bays, introduced in 1987 (Augustyn and Roel, 1998). As a result, only 200–500 t are caught (as bycatch) annually, by the demersal trawl fisheries. Commercial jig catches vary considerably from year to year, as can be seen in Figure 43. The lowest annual catch of under 2,000 t was recorded in 1992, and the highest annual catch, over 13,000 t, was landed in 2004. Annual catches appear to have stabilized at around 9,000 t in recent years, however preliminary catch data for 2013 indicates another period of very low catches. Nominal CPUE, measured in kg per man per day, ranged from »16 to »38 kg/man/d during the period 1995–2008. 9.1.4. Fishing Methods and Fleet In Southern Angola, an artisanal hand-line jig fishery occurs close to shore (Sauer et al., 2013). Fisherman use floats washed ashore to make rafts from which they operate the hand-lines (Sauer et al., 2013) (Figure 44). In South African waters, only in 1985 did a coastal jig fishery begin to develop (Augustyn et al., 1992), starting with squid being targeted by hand-line from ski-boats. The jig fishery expanded rapidly and by 1986 the squid fishing fleet comprised 17 mother vessels with freezing capacity, 95 deck boats (10–15 m) and 40 skiboats (M. J. Roberts unpublished data). In 1987, trawling within bays along the South African coast was banned, preventing the targeting of spawning squid by trawlers (Augustyn and Roel, 1998). Although not yet used to target squid spawning concentrations, purse-seining was also banned as it was considered too destructive on the spawning habitat (Augustyn and Roel, 1998). From 1988 ski-boats in the squid fishing fleet began to be upgraded to larger vessels with on-board freezing capacity (M.J Roberts, unpublished data). This enabled vessels to remain at sea for more than a week at a time. By 1998, the number of small ski-boats within the fleet had been reduced from 128 to only 39 (M. J. Roberts unpublished data). The Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 147 spawning period (October-November), and a ban on fishing in the Tsitsikamma National Park area on the south coast. 9.1.7. Economic Importance Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 42. The contribution of Loligo reynaudii to the Eastern Cape demersal inshore trawl catch between 1967 and 1995, South Africa (from Booth and Hecht, 1998). current fleet is comprised of large-decked vessels with freezing facilities (Sauer, 1995) (Figure 44). 9.1.5. Duration of Fishing Period The jig fishery operates throughout the year, except for a 5 week period during the peak spawning season when a closed season is imposed. 9.1.6. Stock Assessment The first formal stock assessment conducted on the L. reynaudii fishery in South Africa was in 1998 and indicated the resource was at risk of collapsing (Roel, 1998). Although a 33% reduction in the then effort levels (3.6 million man-hours) was advised, due to employment reasons, only a 10% reduction in effort levels was implemented (Roel, 1998). Recent stock assessment results indicate the L. reynaudii resource is in a healthy condition as a result of above average recruitment in successive years (Sauer et al., 2013). Currently, effort levels are capped at 136 vessels and 2422 crew (Sauer et al., 2013). In addition, effort is further reduced by an annual 5-week closed season during the peak The jig fishery centred on L. reynaudii is the third most valuable fishery in South Africa (Cochrane et al., 2012). It provides employment for »3000 people with catches generating R400 million per year (DAFF 2009/2010). As the majority of the fishery operates out of the Eastern Cape, it is an important economic engine for that province (Glazer and Butterworth, 2006). In fact, links have been made between increased crime levels and low squid catches in one of the main coastal towns out of which this fishery operates (Downey et al., 2010). 9.2. Todarodes angolensis (Angolan Flying Squid) 9.2.1. Distribution and Life History Todarodes angolensis is a distinct species, broadly distributed around the southern part of Africa, and is especially common and abundant in Namibian waters (Jereb and Roper, 2010). The lifecycle is still unclear. Spawning occurs year-round, with a peak in spring-summer (October–December). It is also the period of greatest catches by bottom trawlers during daylight hours, with female squid dominating the catch. Spawning behavior and larval biology are unknown. Juveniles grow in the epipelagic zone where they are most abundant on the Orange Banks in 200–300 m of water, feeding mainly on crustaceans. Adults feed mostly on myctophids and lightfish (Lipinski, 1992). Longevity is about one year, with fast growth (Villanueva, 1992). 9.2.2. Stock Identification Stock structure has not been investigated in any detail but judging from the even distribution of catches it is likely to be a single uninterrupted stock. This species is bottom-dwelling, dominating the cephalopod fauna between a depth of 200 and 400 m in the north of Namibia (18
–28
S, mainly 23
30’– 24
S) (Villanueva, 1992) and a depth of around 500 m in the south, investigated in detail in the Cape Canyon and Cape Valley by Roeleveld et al. (1992). Nocturnal vertical migrations of adult squid have not been investigated in any detail although Laptikhovsky (1989) and Villanueva (1992) confirm that they do undertake diel migrations. Juveniles, however, have not been caught in the water column during day or night trawls (Lipinski, R/V Dr Fridtjof Nansen unpublished data). 9.2.3. Catch and Effort Figure 43. Commercial jig catches (tons) of Loligo reynaudii in South Africa from 1985–2008. Adults of this species are caught as a bycatch of the trawl fishery in Namibian waters, aimed mainly at deep-water hake (Merluccius paradoxus). Between 1960 and 1980, bycatch of Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 148 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 44. (A) Typical squid hand jigging fishing vessels used in the earlier days of the South African chokka squid fishery, beached along the Kromme River, South Africa. (B) A typical squid hand jigging boat used today, with fishermen along the rail with jig lines in the water. (C) Squid caught on a single line with two jigs. (D) Strong lights are used to attract squid to the surface at night. (E) A raft fashioned from floats washed ashore, typically used by artisanal fishers in Southern Angola to target both squid and teleosts. (F) The current South African fleet is comprised of vessels with freezing facilities, and squid are sorted by size, packed and frozen on board. (G) The frozen catch is packaged at land-based factories, with more than 95% of the catch exported. T. angolensis was frozen whole by trawlers belonging to the Eastern Bloc countries (Russia, Poland, Germany, and Romania) and sold as bait (e.g., to Faroe Islands). Russian trawl operations in this area began in roughly 1970, followed by other Eastern bloc countries in 1973. Spanish trawlers also fished in this area. Anecdotal evidence suggests that catches were fairly low per trawl (»30 kg/hr); however, the large number of trawlers indicates a considerable catch, estimated at 5,000–7,000 t in good years. To the best of our knowledge T. angolensis are presently discarded by the fishing fleet in Namibia. 9.2.4. Stock Assessment T. angolensis are not subject to any stock assessment and conservation measures. The only exceptions are two demersal surveys per year, conducted with a stratified random survey design in South Africa and one survey per year conducted according to transect design in Namibia. The biomass indices are calculated for all dominant demersal species, but provide only indicators of yearly changes rather than absolute measures of total biomass. Available catch and biomass data are given in Figure 45. importance is given by Jereb and Roper (2010). Stock identification was studied by Dillane et al. (2000; 2005) using microsatellite DNA analysis, concluding that the south-eastern Atlantic part of this species distribution constitutes a separate population, differing significantly from all other populations. The lifecycle of the southern African population has not been studied in any detail and is imperfectly known. Longevity is probably one year on average, hence growth is relatively rapid (Arkhipkin and Laptikhovsky, 2000, for NE African waters), although there is evidence on the possibility of slower growth for this species in South African waters (Lipinski et al., 1993). Research conducted in Cape Valley and Cape Canyon indicated an association of this species with the slope waters (around 300 m). Feeding is conducted mainly in the water 9.3. Todaropsis eblanae 9.3.1. Distribution and Life History Todaropsis eblanae is a widely distributed species, laying claim to two hotspots of occurrence; Indo-Pacific, and Eastern Atlantic. A precise account of the biology and ecological Figure 45. Catches and estimates of biomass of cephalopods in the northern Benguela ecosystem, 1980–1988. Most of the catch and all of the biomass estimates are for Todarodes angolensis (from Lipinski, 1992). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES column, indicating some vertical movement (as adults, they feed upon lanternfish Lampanyctodes hectoris, lightfish Maurolicus muelleri and some other small fishes; Lipinski, 1992)), with feeding intensity independent on the stage of maturity. There is no evidence of geographical migrations. Spawning occurs year-round, with no distinct spawning peak. Spawning behavior and biology of paralarvae are unknown. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 9.3.2. Catch and Effort In southern African waters, this species is a bycatch in the trawl fishery for hake (both Merluccius capensis and M. paradoxus). Adult squid are caught year-round, mainly on the western Agulhas Bank and along the west coast of South Africa in depths between 200 and 400 m. The average catch is small and does not exceed 30 kg/hr trawled. Total catch rarely exceeds 100 t per year. In the years 1980–2000, this species was retained and frozen whole as there was a limited Mediterranean market for it (Lipinski, unpublished data). It is presently discarded. 149 Ocean (Chen et al., 2007c), with the Arabian Sea considered one of the richest regions for this species (Mohamed et al., 2006). S. oualaniensis are pelagic, inhabiting the open ocean beyond depths of 250 m. Three major and two minor intraspecific forms of this species have been described by Nesis (1993). The middle-sized form is the “typical” form occurring throughout its range (Mohamed et al., 2006; 2011). Distribution is closely linked to oceanographic conditions, such as the presence of an upper-homogenous layer in areas with large scale cyclonic gyres, and sea surface temperatures within the range 25–28
C (Chen et al., 2007c). As summarized by Young and Hirota (1998); (1) the small dwarf form (the only form without a dorsal photophore) occupies equatorial waters, (2) the giant form is found in the Red and northern Arabian Seas and the Gulf of Aiden, (3) a small dwarf from (with a dorsal photophore) is found in the Red Sea and Mozambique Channel, (4) the middlesized “typical” form (with double axes on the gladius) is found throughout the species range, and (5) the “typical” form (with single axes on the gladius) is found in the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, and the Northern Arabian Sea. 9.3.3. Stock Assessment T. eblanae are not subject to any stock assessment and conservation measures. The only exception are two demersal surveys per year, conducted with a stratified random survey design in South Africa and one survey per year conducted via transects in Namibia, providing an index of biomass. 10. WEST INDIAN OCEAN The Western Indian Ocean region includes the western part of the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and Arabian Sea, and is bordered by 24 countries. There is a high dependence on marine resources in this region and fishers operate primarily at the subsistence and artisanal level (van der Elst et al, 2005). Annual landings of squid in the West Indian Ocean have increased from »10,000 t, in 1986, to »140,000 t, in 2001 (van der Elst et al., 2005). Uroteuthis duvaucelii, the most common loliginid squid in Indo-Pacific waters, is exploited throughout its range by artisanal fishers. U. duvaucelii also supports commercial fisheries in India, Thailand, the Andamen Sea and Gulf of Aden. Sepioteuthis lessoniana, another neritic loliginid, and the oceanic squid S. oualaniensis, are also targeted by commercial fisheries in this region. The squid are caught using a variety of gears, including purse-seining, trawling, jigging (hand and mechanical), and specialized shore seines. 10.1. Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis (Purpleback Flying Squid) 10.1.1. Distribution The purpleback flying squid S. oualaniensis is distributed in the equatorial and tropical waters of the Indo-Pacific 10.1.2. Life History Mohamed et al. (2011) provide detailed information on the life history of S. oualaniensis stating that the lifecycle of the dwarf form (modal sizes of 90–100 mm for mature males and 90–120 mm for mature females and a maximum length of 140–150 mm;) is estimated at 6 months, whereas the lifecycle of the middle form (modal sizes 120–150 mm for mature males and 190–250 mm for mature females) and giant (modal sizes 400–500 mm and maximum size of 650 mm) forms is one year. Females tend to be larger than males (Chen et al., 2007c). The giant forms inhabit depths 400–1100 m during the day, migrating to 50–150 m at night (Mohamed et al., 2011), whereas the middle size form is found near the surface (Mohamed et al., 2011). Chen et al. (2007c), investigating the fisheries biology of this species in the northwest Indian Ocean, found three spawning groups with different growth rates: a summer spawning group (highest growth rate, Chen et al., 2008b), a spring spawning group and an autumn spawning group (lowest growth rate, Chen et al., 2008b). There is some evidence indicating S. oualaniensis is an intermittent multiple spawner, with spawning occurring over a period of 1–3 months (Mohamed et al., 2011). Unlike loliginids, eggs are not attached to the substrate and spawning is not dependent on suitable or available substrate. Instead, eggs are released in the epipelagic zone (Mohamed et al., 2011). The tentacles of the rhynchoteuthion paralarvae are fused to form a proboscis. During growth, the proboscis gradually separates, and this separation is complete by 7.0–8.0 mm ML. Subadults and adults migrate vertically. At night, they inhabit the surface and subsurface layers from 0 to 150 m to feed, with Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 150 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 maximum numbers between the surface and about 25 m depth. In the morning, they descend to 200–1100 m and remain there during the day. Wormuth (1976) reported that S. oualaniensis usually forms small schools comprising about thirty individuals of nearly the same size, most likely to avoid cannibalism. Giant forms larger than 35 mm ML have been observed swimming alone in the Arabian Sea (pers. ob.). The diet of S. oualaniensis not only varies with size but also with region (Chen et al., 2007c). Generally, early juveniles are active-grazing predators (feeding on crustaceans), late juveniles and middle sized squid are predator pursuers (feeding on small fish) with large squid being attacking predators (feeding on fish and squid; Nesis, 1977; Mohamed et al., 2011). In larger squid, cannibalism accounts for 50% of the diet (Chen et al., 2007c). 10.1.6. Stock Assessment Management The biomass of S. oualaniensis in the Indian Ocean ranges from 50 to 75 kg.km¡2, with the highest concentration (4–42 ton.km¡2) found in the Arabian Sea (Zuev et al., 1985; Pinchukov, 1989). A more recent biomass survey (2010–2011) of the Arabian Sea (area between the Lakshadweep Islands) provided estimates of biomass in excess of 5 t.km¡2 (Mohamed et al., 2011). Total biomass throughout this species range has been estimated to be 8 to 11 million t (Nigmatullin, 1990). An earlier estimate of total biomass in the Indian Ocean alone was approximated to be 2 million t (Zuev et al., 1985). 10.1.7. Economic Importance S. oualaniensis is used as bait for tuna as well as for human consumption. 10.1.3. Fisheries A small-scale Chinese commercial jig-fishery targeting S. oualaniensis in the Northwest Indian Ocean commenced in 2005 (Chen et al., 2008b). This fishery has yielded more than 5,000 t in production (Chen et al., 2008b). In India, this species is caught using hook and line by fisherman targeting tuna and sharks (Mohamed et al., 2006). Due to the lack of market demand, these squid are not currently landed, but there is potential for the development of a new fishery (Mohamed et al., 2006). There has also been an investigation of the abundance of S. oualaniensis in the Arabian Sea as a first step to possibly developing a fishery for S. oualaniensis in Indian waters (Mohamed et al., 2011). Studies suggest fishing grounds that yield a high daily catch can be identified by the presence of zooplankton Chaetognatha, Copepoda, and Mysidacea, all of which have been found in the stomachs of S. oualaniensis (Chen et al., 2008b). This would suggest fisheries target this species on their feeding grounds. However, during the spawning period, no significant decrease in feeding rate has been observed (Mohamed et al., 2011) and it may be that spawning individuals are not vulnerable to exploitation. 10.1.4. Stock Identification No work been done on identifying specific stocks. 10.1.5. Catch and Effort Data Research survey catch, using Chinese squid jigger vessels, in the northwest Indian Ocean showed the catch rate to vary from 0.1–36 t/d with an average catch of 4.4 t/d (Chen et al., 2007c). A total of 1570 t of S. oualaniensis was caught throughout the three surveys (one in 2003 and two in 2005), the majority of which were captured on the edge of an upwelling area (Chen et al., 2007c). Since its inception in 2005, the small-scale S. oualaniensis fishery has yielded 5000 t in production (Chen et al., 2008b). 10.2. Uroteuthis duvaucelii (Indian Squid) 10.2.1. Distribution The Indian squid U. duvaucelii (formally Loligo duvaucelli) is one of the most common species among the Indo-Pacific loliginids (Jereb and Roper, 2006). It is distributed in coastal waters within depths of 0–170 m (Bergman, 2013), from Madagascar, the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea, eastward to the Bay of Bengal (Sri Lanka) and the Andaman Sea, with Taiwan being the northern limit (Meiyappan et al., 1993; Jereb and Roper, 2006; Choi, 2007; Sukramongkol et al., 2007; Bergman, 2013). U. duvaucelii is the most abundant squid species in Indian waters (Meiyappan et al., 1993), the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea of Thailand (Sukramongkol et al., 2007). 10.2.2. Life History Length frequency analysis of U. duvaucelii from the waters of India suggest a lifecycle of more than 12 months (Kasim, 1985 in Jereb and Roper, 2006; Mohamed, 1996; Mohamed and Rao, 1997); however, results from statolith age readings suggest that this may be an overestimate with the lifecycle not exceeding 1 year (Jereb and Roper, 2006). Similar results were found for specimens from the Gulf of Thailand, as described by Sukramongkol et al. (2007). Interestingly, statolith age determination of specimens collected from both Hong Kong waters (Choi, 2007) and the Andaman Sea (Sukramongkol et al., 2007) has suggested an even shorter lifespan of 7–8 months and 161 days, respectively. It is also possible that similar sized U. duvaucelii from the Andaman Sea mature at a younger age than those from Gulf of Thailand (Sukramongkol et al., 2007). As described by Choi (2007), the maximum ML of U. duvaucelii varies throughout its’ range with the largest specimens found in India (371 mm), while those in Thailand reach Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES just 300 mm and those in Hong Kong 160 mm. Further investigation on the maximum dorsal length of U. duvaucelii from India has shown squid on the west coast to attain a greater size than those on the east coast (Meiyappan et al., 1993; Meiyappan and Mohamed, 2003). This was evident in both sexes (males west coast: 371 mm, males east coast: 260 mm and females west coast: 235 mm, females east coast: 210 mm). Size at first maturity also appears to vary between regions in the waters of India (Rao, 1988), but in general size at 50% maturity for this species is 90–130 mm ML for females and 70–150 mm ML for males (Jereb and Roper, 2006). Spawning appears to occur throughout the year, with seasonal peaks dependent on the region (Meiyappan and Mohamed, 2003; Choi, 2007; Sukramongkol et al., 2007). For example, Meiyappan and Mohamed (2003) reported peaks in spawning in India during the postmonsoon period whereas in Hong Kong waters peak spawning appears to occur during both summer and winter (Choi, 2007). Spawning aggregations are formed close inshore and become vulnerable to exploitation during this period (Meiyappan and Mohamed, 2003). U. duvaucelli have been found to prey on both fish and crustaceans, with fish forming an important component of the diet throughout the size range, and a preference for crustaceans declining with increasing size (Meiyappan et al., 1993). Cannibalism increases with size (>80 mm) (Meiyappan et al., 1993). 10.2.3. Fisheries U. duvaucelii is exploited throughout its range by artisanal subsistence fishers (Roper et al., 1984). It is also one of the most important commercial cephalopod species in India (Jereb and Roper, 2006), Thailand (Chotiyaputta, 1993), the Andamen Sea (Sukramongkol et al., 2007), Hong Kong (Choi, 2007), and the Gulf of Aden (Roper et al., 1984). It further forms a large portion of the bycatch of prawn trawlers off the northeastern South African coast (Fennessy, 1993 in Bergman, 2013). INDIA: During the 1970s, U. duvaucelii was generally caught as an incidental catch by Indian EEZ shore seine, trawl, boat seine, and cast net fisheries (Sarvesan, 1974). Due to the small numbers caught in shore and boat seines, it was initially thought this species was not abundant (Sarvesan, 1974). The use of mechanized vessels and the consequent ability to fish further offshore resulted in much higher yields of U. duvaucelii (Sarvesan, 1974). Landings of cephalopods in the 1980s were mostly as a bycatch of the shrimp trawl fisheries, with some 10,000 trawlers operating in 1982 (Silas et al., 1982). Cephalopod production increased ten-fold in the period between the 1980s and late 1990s (Mohamed and Rao, 1997), but only in the last decade have they become a targeted resource (Sasikumar and Mohamed, 2012). Trawl nets operating up to 100 m depth account for nearly 85% of the cephalopod landings 151 in Indian marine waters (Sundaram and Deshmukh, 2011). For example, along the Karnataka coast the trawl fishery is made up of a single-day fleet and a multi-day fleet (Mohamed and Rao, 1997), with the latter undertaking fishing trips of up to seven days in depths from 25–100 m and accounting for 98% of the squid catch (Mohamed and Rao, 1997). Hand jigging is now slowly emerging as a viable method for targeting cephalopods and has been observed in a number of regions, and catches fetch a premium price (Sundaram and Deshmukh, 2011). THAILAND: U. duvaucelii is exploited for both local consumption and export in the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea (Srichanngam, 2010). During the period 1977–1978, small trawlers targeting squid were replaced by purse-seiners with strong lights to attract squid (Department of Fisheries, 2006 in Srichanngam, 2010). Over time cast nets were replaced by falling nets, lift nets, and scoop nets, and the electric power of light lures has been increased from 20 to 30 Kw (Panjarat, 2008). Together with Loligo chinensis, U. duvaucelii is the most valuable commercial cephalopod in the Andaman trawl fishery (Sukramongkol et al., 2007). Age at recruitment into the fishery is within 2–4 months of hatching (Sukramongkol et al., 2007). HONG KONG: Choi (2007) provided a brief synopsis of the Hong Kong U. duvaucelii fishery, recording that U. duvaucelii has recently become the dominant species in the Hong Kong cephalopod fishery, replacing U. chinensis/ edulis. In addition, a new recreational jigging fishery targeting U. duvaucelii has developed. As a number of Hong Kong fisheries are in decline, the “new” recreational fishery is seen as having a number of benefits: it is a high-profit fishery with revenues 27 times higher than those generated by the commercial trawl fishery (Recreational catch: HK$ 635/kg, vs. commercial catch, HK$: 20–30/kg) and benefits the local economy; it is potentially sustainable as catch rates are low and the escape rate of squid high (due to the inexperience of fishers), as jigging is a very selective method of fishing there is little to no bycatch; and jigging does not disturb the benthic habitat. 10.2.4. Fishing Seasons In the Karnataka state mechanized fishing operations are suspended from 1st June to 31st August, due to the southwest monsoon (Rao, 1988). 10.2.5. Stock Identification Population genetic studies have not been carried out throughout the distributional range of U. duvaucelii. However, a study by Bergman (2013) has found U. duvaucelii from Iranian waters to be genetically distinct from specimens caught in Thai and Chinese waters. As Bergman (2013) elucidates, a phylogeographic pattern similar to this has been observed in Sepia pharaonis, another neritic cephalopod found throughout the Indo-Pacific. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 152 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 46. Production of Uroteuthis duvaucelii in India. on the east coast, although high, would most likely not adversely affect recruitment, but suggested a cap on effort. The studies highlight the complexity of managing bycatch of a multi-species trawl fishery, particularly those targeting shrimp with small mesh sizes. As suggested by Abdussamad and Somayajulu (2004), the only feasible solution is the regulation of effort to reduce fishing pressure in coastal waters during periods of peak abundance and by limiting the operation of larger trawlers to deeper water. In Thailand fisheries are open access, with licenses only required for some of the main fishing gears, and are not an accurate indication of fishing activity, as motorized vessels are registered separately and “illegal” or unlicensed fishing gear is often used on these vessels (Panjarat, 2008). Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 10.2.6. Catch and Effort Data The increased production of U. duvaucelii from India (Figure 46) is a result of the increased demand for cephalopods (Meiyappan et al., 1993). Trawl catches account for the majority of the catch (Figure 46), with the remainder being caught by artisanal gears including boat seines, shore seines, hooks and line, fixed bag nets (dol) and drift nets (Meiyappan et al., 1993). A review of the emergent jig fishery in India by Sundaram and Deshmukh (2011), reports CPUE of cephalopods (of which U. duvaucelii forms over 95%) varies from 30–50, 100– 120, and 200–250 kg, dependent on the vessel size and power. In Thailand, total squid production increased from 63,996 t in 1985 to 76,202 t in 2006 (Srichanngam, 2010). According to Kaewnuratchadasorn et al. (2003) (in Choi, 2007), over 95% of the squid landed is U. duvaucelii. Srichanngam (2010) found the average size and the CPUE of U. duvaucelii to have decreased, possibly as a result of the improvements in fishing gear and high fishing effort. No species specific landing data exists for Hong Kong (Choi, 2007). 10.2.7. Stock Assessment and Management Numerous stock assessments have been carried out on U. duvaucelii in Indian waters (Meiyappan et al., 1993; Mohamed and Rao, 1997). Meiyappan et al. (1993) found exploitation of U. duvaucelii to be just below the level of maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and increases in effort would only result in a marginal increase in catch. An assessment of the stock off the Karnataka coast (west coast of India) was carried out by Mohamed and Rao (1997). Using virtual population analysis (VPA) and a Thomson and Bell analysis they concluded there had been a slow but steady increase in the spawning stock biomass since 1988, possibly contributing to the increased abundance of U. duvaucelii stocks in the 1990s. An assessment of stocks on the east coast of India, undertaken by Abdussamad and Somayajulu (2004) revealed large size differences of squid caught in comparison to the west coast, suggesting that this was either a result of size overfishing on the east coast or two separate stocks exist on the east and west coasts of India. They concluded that the level of exploitation 10.3. Sepioteuthis lessoniana (Bigfin Reef Squid) 10.3.1. Distribution The bigfin reef squid S. lessoniana is a neritic species common throughout the coastal waters (<100 m) of the Indo-West Pacific (Chotiyaputta, 1993; Triantafillos and Adams, 2005). It is distributed from Japan to Australia and New Zealand, and from Hawaii to East Africa, north to the Red Sea and south to Madagascar (Jereb and Roper, 2006). Due to different reproductive features (number of eggs in a single capsule, capsule attachment, and spawning season, Jereb and Roper, 2006) evident in S. lessoniana in Japanese waters, it has been suggested a species complex exists (Aoki et al., 2008). These consist of aorika or shiroika which has a white body color and is the most abundant, akaika which has a red body color, and kuaika which has a small body size at maturity in comparison to the other two. Population genetics studies have shown the genetic structure of S. lessoniana around Japan to differ significantly (Yokogawa and Ueta, 2000 in Aoki et al., 2008), but interestingly a study comparing S. lessoniana from Japan and Thailand report a single large gene pool (Izuka et al., 1996 and Pratoomchat et al., 2001 in Aoki et al., 2008). The results of a study by Aoki et al. (2008) suggest limited gene flow between Japan and East and South China Seas, resulting in isolated Japanese populations with low genetic variability. Two genetically distinct groups of S. lessoniana have also been recorded in Australian waters (Bergman, 2013). This Australian form is also genetically distinct from the southeast Asian groups (Bergman, 2013). Bergman (2013) also refers to the recent finding of a third genetically distinct group from Sumatra and concludes that six or more separate species could exist. 10.3.2. Life History Early length frequency analysis and field observations indicated a lifespan between 1 and 3 years for S. lessoniana (Jereb and Roper, 2006). However, rearing experiments and Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES direct ageing techniques indicate a much shorter lifespan of »6 months (Jackson and Moltschaniwskyj, 2002), with animals reaching sexual maturity between 110 and 140 days (Jereb and Roper, 2006). Significant variation in growth rates and maturity exist between equatorial, tropical, and subtropical Indo-Pacific populations (Jackson and Moltschaniwskyj, 2002). In the equatorial waters of the Gulf of Thailand, growth is faster and squid mature at a smaller size when compared to S. lessoniana inhabiting the subtropical waters of southern Australia (Jackson and Moltschaniwskyj, 2002). S. lessoniana in tropical waters show intermediate growth when compared to the two extremes previously mentioned (Jackson and Moltschaniwskyj, 2002). As mentioned the size at maturity differs between regions, but generally males mature at a smaller size compared to females (Mhitu et al., 2001). S. lessoniana spawns in multiple batches throughout its adult lifespan (Jereb and Roper, 2006). In the waters of India, these squid migrate inshore after winter to begin mating and spawning (Jereb and Roper, 2006). The spawning season varies throughout its distribution as summarized by Chung (2003) and Jereb and Roper (2006). In southern India, S. lessoniana moves inshore to spawn from January to June, from mid-June to August in southern Japan and in Okinawa three spawning seasons have been documented, late January to late February, late April to late May and late June to midSeptember. S. lessoniana preys mainly on prawns and fish, with stomapods and crabs also contributing a small percentage to the diet (Silas et al., 1982). 10.3.3. Fisheries S. lessoniana is one of the most commercially important squid species throughout its distributional range (Jereb and Roper, 2006). In Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar off India, S. lessoniana is caught by specialized shore seines (ola valai, Silas et al., 1982), by hand jigs and as trawl bycatch (Silas et al., 1985a). It is one of the most valuable fishery species in the Jaffna Lagoon in the Northern Province of Sri Lanka where it is caught by “sirahu valai,” jigs and pots and also as bycatch from trawl, cast net, and beach seine fisheries (Sivashanthini et al., 2009). In Taiwan, S. lessoniana is caught by jigging, producing a high quality product (Chung, 2003). In Zanzibar, S. lessoniana is used as bait in the hook and line fishery and also for human consumption (Mhitu et al., 2001). In Japan, it is caught by a directed trawl fishery, a directed seasonal purse seine fishery around Hong Kong and by jigging (Jereb and Roper, 2006). It is also caught in the South China Sea, Indonesian waters, northern Australian waters, the Gulf of Thailand, and the Andaman Sea (Jereb and Roper, 2006). 10.3.4. Catch and Effort In general, there is very limited information on the catch and effort for S. lessoniana, and where it exists, is often 153 outdated. In Indian waters, the S. lessoniana fishery is mostly confined to Palk Bay, with S. lessoniana and Doryteuthis spp. contributing 300 t to the annual average squid production of 11,030 t (Alagarswami and Meiyappan, 1989). Silas et al. (1985b) reports that cephalopods around Mandapam are caught as bycatch of some »120 (1985 records) otter trawlers, with total squid landings, recorded for 1976 and 1977, of 1,366 and 1,457 kg, respectively, 65.5–74.9% of which consisted of S. lessoniana. About 140 trawlers operate out of Rameswaram, with the fishing grounds of these trawlers coinciding to a large extent with those from Mandapam. Unlike landings recorded at Mandapam, however, S. lessoniana is not the dominant species making up the squid catch (1976: 4,685 kg and 1977: 7,138 kg) but contributes only 37.4–45.3%. This species is also caught by handlines in these two areas, operated by fisherman in canoes or standing in shallow waters. Annual landings are small, varying between 143–480 kg, and with CPUE of 0.9–12.4 kg. In the Kilakarai region S. lessoniana is targeted by shore seines (Kara valai and Ola valai) and handlines. From 1973–1975 Kara valai annual landings ranged between 3,781–4,797 kg, dropping to 329 kg in 1977. On the east coast of India, S. lessoniana was recorded as contributing 7% (750 t) to total cephalopod landings in the period 1990–1994 (Meiyappan et al., 2000). 10.3.5. Stock Assessment Stock assessment studies of S. lessoniana appear limited. However, a stock assessment of U. duvaucelli, Doryteuthis sibogae, S. lessoniana, Sepia pharaonis, S. aculeata, and Sepiella inermis from the Tuticorin coast reported overexploitation of four of the species viz. U. duvaucelii, Doryteuthis sibogae, S. lessoniana, and Sepiella inermis (Mohan, 2007). A reduction of 10% of effort levels was recommended to sustain the stock of squids and cuttlefishes of the area (Mohan, 2007). An assessment of S. lessoniana in Sikao Bay (1987– 1997) by Thapanand and Phetchsuthti (2000), indicated that the squid resource had been overfished since 1991, resulting in decreased catches in the following years. After a reduction in fishing effort however, catches increased. MSY was calculated to be 301.693 t, optimum fishing effort to be 54,000 days and the number of fishermen should be limited to 225. 10.3.6. Economic Importance S. lessoniana is consumed by a certain class of people in the coastal areas of India (Alagarswami and Meiyappan, 1989). At Mandapam and Rameswaram this species is sold at a price almost twice that of Sepia aculeata and U. duvaucelii (Silas et al., 1985a). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 154 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. (Chotiyaputta, 1995a; Boonwanich et al. 1998; Suppanirun et al., 2011). Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 11. EAST INDIAN OCEAN Over the last two decades the annual yield of loliginid squids in Thai waters varied between 70,000 and 100,000 t, 1986–2010 (DOF, 2013), with approximately 90% of the catch from the Gulf of Thailand and 10% from the East Andaman Sea. Catches from these areas make up almost half of the total squid yield for the south-east Asian region (200,000–250,000 t). Other major countries that fish for squids are Indonesia and Malaysia, with annual yields of about 60,000 t (SEAFDEC, 2013). In Thailand, one-third of the catch is locally consumed and the remaining two-thirds processed on both a small and large scale and exported. Thailand is one of the major exporters of cephalopod products to Japan and Europe. Commercial cephalopod catches are comprised of loliginid squids (60%), cuttlefish (35%), and octopus (15%) (Kittivorachate, 1980; Supongpan, 1995). Small species are processed into fish-meal, which is the main ingredient of feed used by the aquaculture industry. The main species captured in the East Indian Ocean are neritic, with nine species recorded in Thai waters (Nabhitabhata et al., 2009; Nabhitabhata and Nateewathana, 2010). These are Uroteuthis chinensis (Gray, 1849); U. duvaucelii (Orbigny, 1835); U. edulis (Hoyle, 1885); U. singhalensis (Ortmann, 1891); U. sibogae (Adam, 1954); Loliolus affinis Steenstrup, 1856; Loliolus sumatrensis (Orbigny, 1835); L. beka (Sasaki, 1929), and S. lessoniana Ferussac, 1831. However, no detailed statistics of individual species exist. All cephalopods caught are mixed and roughly categorized as (loliginid) squid, cuttlefish or octopus according to size at landing. Small-sized species (e.g., Loliolus) are mixed with juveniles of other large-sized species. The gears used by the industrial fishery are mainly trawlers (otter board trawlers, paired trawlers) purse seiners and lift-netters using lights. The artisanal fishery uses mostly traps and hand jigging under lights. The use of lift-netting emerged in about 1979 and soon became an important gear for squid fisheries. By the 1990s, more than 40% of trawlers had changed to lift-netting and purse seining (Supongpan, 1995). 11.1. Distribution and Lifecycles of Commercial Loliginids Only the three major commercially important species are described here. 11.1.1. Uroteuthis chinensis (Mitre Squid) Uroteuthis chinensis is the largest (350–460 mm ML) and most commonly caught species in this region. Although distributed throughout the depth range 10–100 m, squid are most abundant in the 30–50 m depth range. Males mature at 105 mm ML and females at 90 mm ML. Female fecundity is 3000–20,000 eggs. The sex ratio is 1:1.5 males to females. Spawning is thought to occur all year round with two minor peaks during March–July and August–December 11.1.2. Uroteuthis duvaucelii Uroteuthis duvaucelii is routinely fished in this region. Although smaller (30–300 mm ML) than U. chinensis, this species is more abundant in shallower waters, 10–30 m. Males also mature at a smaller size (80 mm ML) compared to U. chinensis. Females mature at 90 mm. Female fecundity is 1500– 12,000 eggs. The sex ratio of males to females is 1:1.3. Spawning is likely to occur year round, but peak spawning is observed during January–June and August–December (Supongpan et al., 1993; Chotiyaputta, 1995a; Boonwanich et al. 1998; Suppanirun et al., 2011). 11.1.3. Sepioteuthis lessoniana The bigfin reef squid S. lessoniana inhabits rocky reefs in shallow water between 5 and 45 m deep. Aggregation and school size is smaller (5–20 individuals) compared to that recorded for the genus Uroteuthis (Nabhitabhata, 1996). Squid trapping is the most important fishing method, and annual yields are 2000–4000 t. Catch is composed of squid across the size range 75–325 mm ML. The fecundity is estimated at 700–2300 eggs (Rattana-anant, 1978, 1979, 1980). Spawning occurs year round with peaks during November–January, March–May, and July–August in the Gulf of Thailand (Chotiyaputta, 1984, 1988; Roongratri, 1997) and June-December in the East Andaman Sea (Yakoh et al., 2013). 11.2. Stock Identification Stock identification methods employed for each economically important species include morphometric measurements (dorsal ML and weight), and; age and growth rate (see Dawe and Natsukari (1991) and Natsukari et al. (1988) for methods) (Chotiyaputta, 1995b; Supongpan, 1996; Boonwanich et al. 1998). Length frequency analysis is based on von Bertalanffy’s growth model. Bhattacharya’s method is used to separate normal distribution curves from the total distribution plot. Modal progression analysis is used to estimate growth. Fecundity, sex ratio and reproductive status are used to determine reproduction seasons. The CPUE is estimated from routine research survey catch composition. The MSY is estimated from Schaefer’s surplus production models and Fox’s derivatives (Vibhasiri et al. 1985; Supongpan, 1996). Tropical neritic squids have a fast growth rate and a short lifespan of less than 1 year. Spawning can occur all year round without prominent peaks. As a result, the stocks or populations are mixed and it is possible to distinguish at least two to three annual growth cohorts. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Figure 47. Total loliginid squid catches (t) in the Gulf of Thailand and the East Andaman Sea during 1986–2010 (DOF 2013). Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 11.3. Fisheries Squid catches contribute about 50% to total cephalopod production in Thai waters. Annual yields range from 51,000‒ 97,000 t (1986 to 2010, Figure 47). Catch composition is made up of 15–52% U. chinensis, 29–64% U. duvaucelii and 5–8% S. lessoniana (Kittivorachate, 1980; Chotiyaputta, 1995b; DOF, 2013). The potential yield of the squid stock in Thai waters has been estimated to be about 67,000 t for U. chinensis and 60,000 t for U. duvaucelii, with a corresponding optimum fishing effort of 6.29 million hours (Supongpan, 1995). Vibhasiri (1980), FAO (2010) and Supongpan (1995) estimated that the MSY of the squid stock had already been reached by 1977, and in fact U. chinensis had been overexploited by some 20% (Supongpan, 1995). However, it is important to note that estimations have been based on the premise that the squid resources in Thai waters belong to a homogeneous single stock. 11.4. Fishing Methods Squid capture fisheries in south-east Asian countries can be categorized by fishing gear type. Historically, gears consisted of hook and line, gill nets, cast nets, and bamboo stake traps. More recently small-scale or artisanal fishing gears include gill nets, small push nets, hook and line, jig, cast nets, and traps (Munprasit, 1984; Bjarnason, 1992). Small scale or artisanal fishing boats are non-powered, equipped with an outboard engine (so-called “long-tail boats” in Thailand) or a small inboard engine. A larger industrial sector uses otterboard trawls, beam trawls and pair trawls, large push nets, and largescale squid traps. All industrial vessels are powered with inboard engines that can be classified according to length as small (<14 m), medium (14–18 m), and large (>25 m) (DOF, 1997). In Thai waters, approximately 40–55% of the annual yield is captured by trawlers (10–35% from otterboard trawlers and 10–20% from pair trawlers) (Chantawong, 1993; Supongpan, 1996). 155 Light luring squid nets include a stick-held lift and a giant cast net or falling net. The main catch from this kind of fishing operation is loliginid squids (approximately 90%) with the rest of the catch being made up of pelagic fish. The yield from this fishery (Squid Light luring Fishery or SLLF) accounts for 30–50% of Thailand’s production (Supongpan, 1996; Songjitsawat and Sookbuntoeng 2001) (Figure 48). There are three types of nets used by the industrial sector: the lift net of 12 £ 12 m with 2–3 cm mesh size, the cast net of 12 £ 12 or 16 £ 16 m with 2.5–3.2 cm mesh size and the box net of 14– 30 £ 14–30 £ 20 m with 2.5–3.2 cm mesh size. The cast net is also used with small boats of less than 6 m length (Ogawara et al., 1986; DOF, 1997). The catch is comprised of 36.7– 93.9% loliginid squids and 2.9–9.0% S. lessoniana. Among loliginids, 76.4–80.3% comprises U. chinensis, 14.8–22.5% U. duvaucelii, and 1.1–4.95% Loliolus sumatrensis (Songjitsawat and Sookbuntoeng, 1988). Small scale squid fishing boats (cast netting and jigging with light luring) operate in shallow water zones of 5–15 m (Chenkitkosol, 2003). The artisanal jig fishery currently makes use of small generators and florescent lamps to attract squid (Bjarnason, 1992; Chenkitkosol, 2003). Green fluorescent light rods are used (Chenkitkosol, 2003). Hand jigging uses artificial bait with light lures during the night and trolling during the day. S. lessoniana makes up 100% of the catch at night, and 95% during the day with the other 5% comprising of loliginid squids (U. duvaucelii and U. chinensis). Yield is about 10–15 kg/d (Supongpan et al., 1988). Squid traps are the only artisanal fishing gear used to target loliginid squid with S. lessoniana being the target species (Boongerd and Rachaniyom, 1990) (Figure 49). Squid trapping originated in Eastern Thailand in the late 1960s and by the 1980s was widespread throughout Thailand and the southeast Asian region (Munprasit, 1984). Around 2005 a collapsible squid trap was developed in eastern Thailand, allowing larger vessels to carry up to 2000 traps. S. lessoniana comprises 90–95% of the catch, with the remainder made up of sepiid cuttlefish. Loliginids and octopus do not enter the traps. The lifespan of the trap is 90–120 days (Boongerd and Rachaniyom, 1990; Khrueniam and Suksamrarn, 2012). The CPUE is 10.3 kg/trip for S. lessoniana and 1.3 kg/trip for cuttlefish (Supongpan et al., 1988). During 1986–1999, the annual yield of S. lessoniana caught by trapping in Thai waters exceeded 5,000 t, decreasing to 1,000 t in 2007 (DOF, 2013). A major concern is the loss of squid egg capsules that have been attached to the traps. During 1990–2003, the Thailand Department of Fisheries tackled this problem by purchasing egg capsules from the fishermen and rearing them in a hatchery before releasing them for restocking. The number of S. lessoniana produced and released annually now averages 1.8 million individuals (Nabhitabhata et al., 2005). Another major threat is the conflict between squid trap fisheries and trawlers operating on the same fishing grounds (Figure 50). Traps are damaged or lost when they are in the line of a trawling operation. On the other hand, trawl nets are damaged by Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 156 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. squid light luring nets in the Gulf of Thailand registered to Thailand Department of Fisheries has continuously increased from 230 units in 1980 to 3,160 in 2004 (Figure 51). By contrast, the number of trawl nets, (10,428 units in 1980) decreased to 5757 units in 2005. The total yield of loliginid squids in Thailand increased to more than 70,000 t after the introduction of squid light luring nets in the early 80s (Supongpan, 1996), but has since stabilized. More recently, the only area where there has been an increase in yield, estimated to be at least 20%, is in the Andaman Sea subregion (Chantawong, 1993). 11.5. Stock Assessment and Management Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 48. A falling net boat participating in squid light luring fishery for loliginid squid in Thailand. traps. Resolution has been reached in some communities through an agreement to annually assign zones (spatial partitioning) for the different fishing gears and limiting the fishing period for each fishery in each of the zones (temporal partitioning) (Supongpan, 1995; Srikum and Binraman, 2008). Rising costs of fishing, particularly fuel is threatening the long term viability of the fishery (Yamrungrueng and Chotiyaputta, 2005; Srikum and Binraman, 2008; Khrueniam and Suksamrarn, 2012). The annual landings of loliginid squids caught in the Gulf of Thailand by squid light luring netting constitutes about 40– 50% of the total cephalopod catch (Chantawong, 1993), and is therefore described here in some detail. Squid fisheries using the light luring technique emerged around1978 and rapidly became popular over the next 3 years (Munprasit, 1984). The high yield of this fishing gear allowed fishermen to transform small to medium trawlers into squid netters. The number of Figure 49. A long tail artisanal fishing boat with squid traps targeting Sepioteuthis lessoniana in Thailand. The MSY from trawling and cast netting of U. chinensis and U. duvaucelii is estimated at 37,179 t when the relative fishing effort (RFE) equals 1.15 in the Gulf of Thailand (Kongprom et al., 2010) and 1,728 t at a RFE of 0.75 in the Andaman Sea (Boonsuk et al., 2010). Fishing effort is considered to be about 15% below MSY in the Gulf of Thailand, but 25% above this in the Andaman Sea. In 2010, fishing mortality (F) of U. (P.) chinensis was estimated at 2.48 in the Gulf of Thailand and 8.60 in the Andaman Sea. For U. duvaucelii, F was estimated as 4.41 and 4.83, respectively (Boonsuk et al., 2010, Kongprom et al., 2010). The principle legal framework is the 1947 Thailand Fisheries Act, which was amended in 1981. The Act is a provision for the adoption of regulations and notifications which are issued for purposes of conservation and management of marine fisheries resources. Notification by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives issued in 1981 prohibits the use of nets with a mesh size smaller than 3.2 cm as well as any other kinds of fishing appliances using electric lights to target squid (Charuchinda, 1987, 1988). Push netting and trawling are prohibited within 3 km from the shoreline. At present, some of the local provincial governments have expanded this to 5.4 km (3 nautical miles). The above fishing gears are also banned in certain fishing grounds over spawning periods and also on the nursery grounds of economically important pelagic finfish species. It is proposed that these regulations should include SLLF (Supongpan, 1996) allowing for the spatial management of squid stocks. Zoning of Marine Protected Areas and Marine National Parks as well as other zoning initiatives under different names (with similar purposes) can also indirectly enhance squid stocks. The so-called “annual Gulf closing season” and “Andaman Sea closing season” that ban commercial fishing targeting pelagic fish from February to May in the western Gulf of Thailand and from April to June in the Andaman Sea (Petsalapsri et al., 2013) should be expanded to cover squid light luring fishing. Supongpan (1996) also proposed that the numbers of SLLF boats should be reduced by 20% through stepwise measures in order to make the measures politically acceptable. However, the Thai government experienced strong opposition (that turned into a political issue) soon after trying to limit the Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 157 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Figure 50. Fishing grounds for squid trapping in the Andaman Sea, Eastern Indian Ocean (after Suppapreuk et al. 2013). numbers of trawlers. It may be possible to limit light intensity used in this fishery and Munprasit (1984) has suggested that 10 kW generators can produce enough light intensity for fishery operations at depths of less than 80 m in the Gulf of Thailand. 12. NORTHWEST PACIFIC The Northwest Pacific region encompasses the Pacific Ocean waters of the southeast Kamchatka Peninsula, the Kuril Islands and Japan including the Bering Sea (western part), the Sea of Okhotsk, the Sea of Japan, the Internal Japan Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea, and the South China Sea (northern part). This region is fished by the Peoples’ Republic of China, Taiwan, Japan, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, the Republic of Korea, and the Russian Federation (Spiridonov, 2005) The Northwest Pacific has a high productivity and contributes the largest proportion of world fish and seafood (Spiridonov, 2005). In the southern regions, squids are one of the principle groups exploited. Species supporting squid fisheries in this region include Heterololigo bleekeri, Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 158 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 51. Numbers of trawlers and squid light luring netters registered in the Gulf of Thailand, 1971–2011 (DOF 2013). S. lessoniana, U. edulis, U. chinensis, U. duvauceli, Berryteuthis magister, T. rhombus, W. scintillans. T. pacificus, S. oualaniensis, and O. bartramii. The squids are caught using a variety of methods and gears such as trawl nets, set nets, angling, jigging, trolling, bait fishing, and purse seine. 12.1. Heterololigo bleekeri (Spear Squid) 12.1.1. Distribution The spear squid Heterololigo bleekeri is mainly distributed in the coastal waters of Japan from Hokkaido to Kyushu and the coast of Korea, but is occasionally found in the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea (Natsukari and Tashiro, 1991, Ti et al., 1987) (Figure 52, Tian et al., 2013). The spawning season and depth distribution depend on water temperature. In the warmer southern region, squid inhabit deeper waters compared to the colder northern region. In Tosa Bay, Kochi Prefecture, spear squid are caught in a depth range of 70–300 m and at bottom temperatures of between 11 and 15
C (Toriyama et al., 1987). 12.1.2. Population Structure and Life History Spear squid in Japan are divided into two stocks: the Tsushima Warm Current (TWC, the Sea of Japan) stock and the Pacific stock (Tian, 2012; Nashida and Sakaji, 2012). This division is convenient for stock assessment and is based on geographical distribution, but without a strict biological definition. The spear squid is a commercially important species for coastal fisheries in Japan. The fisheries depend largely on four groups: southern and northern stocks in the TWC region of the Sea of Japan, and southern and northern stocks in the coastal Kuroshio and Oyashio Current regions of the Pacific (Figure 52). There is no difference in genetic structure of the Japanese spear squid population (Ito et al., 2006). The main spawning seasons are in winter in the southern region and in spring in the northern region both in the Sea of Japan and in the Pacific. In the south-western Sea of Japan, spear squid spawn through winter to spring, grow quickly to about 100 mm ML within 6 months (Kinoshita, 1989; Murayama and Kitazawa, 2004), and recruit to the fishery in autumn and winter when they are caught by bottom trawls and set nets in Japanese coastal waters (Kitazawa, 1986). Spear squid move from deep offshore waters to coastal waters to spawn, but the species does not undertake large-scale migrations like that of the Japanese flying squid T. pacificus (Sato, 1990). In northern Japan, spawning stocks tend to move southward from December to February with decreasing water temperature and northward from March to June with increasing water temperature (Sato, 1990). This movement is considered to allow the squid to utilize the optimum water temperature of 10–12
C for spawning (Sato, 1990), with the water temperature in the spawning season ranging from 7 to 14
C (Hamabe, 1960; Ishii and Murata, 1976). The spawning grounds occur in shallow reef areas, and egg capsules are laid beneath the undersurfaces of firm substances (Isahaya and Takahashi, 1934). Embryonic development and hatching are affected by water temperature and salinity. The optima for development of eggs are 12.2
C and 36.0 psu, and the lower limits for normal development are 8.3
C and 28.0 psu (Ito, 2007). The estimated mean ML at 50% maturity is 193 mm for males and 171 mm for females (Ito, 2007). Large and small males have different reproductive strategies (Iwata et al., 2005). 12.1.3. Fishing Fleets, Seasons, and Catches In Japan spear squid are fished mainly by trawls, set nets and angling (Kasahara, 2004). The extended continental shelf of the south-western Sea of Japan, from Tsushima Islands to Oki Islands, supports the southern stock in the Sea of Japan and historically has been an important fishing ground for pair trawlers (Figure 52) (Tian, 2007, 2009). The northern stock in the Sea of Japan, which ranges from north of Noto Peninsula to the west coast of Hokkaido, is one of the most important target species of the set-net fishery (Ito, 2007; Tian, 2012). From the east coast of Kyushu to the south of Bousou Peninsula in the Pacific, the southern stock is a target of set nets and trawlers, but mainly fished by pair trawlers in the waters south of Shikoku. In the north Pacific, from Bousou Peninsula to Iwate Prefecture, the northern stock is a target of trawlers, but single trawlers operating in the waters from Bousou to Kinkazan Island had the largest contribution (Nashida and Sakaji, 2012; Tian et al., 2013). Annual landings in Japan between 1978 and 2012 ranged from 3900 to 20,000 t, showing large interannual variations (Figure 53). Total catches decreased from 20,000 t in 1979 to less than 5,000 t in recent years, showing a declining trend. In addition to the linear trend, it also showed some periodicity with peaks in 1979, 1989, 1994, and 2008 (Tian et al., 2013). Catches of the northern stock in the Sea of Japan are made mainly by set-net fisheries in Aomori and Hokkaido Prefectures; catches from Toyama to Akita form a small part of the total (Figure 54A). The catches show large interannual variation, with high catches during the late 1970s and 1990s and lower catches during the 1980s and 2000s. CPUEs for set nets Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 159 Figure 52. Distribution (shaded grey area) of spear squid and oceanographic structure around Japan (Modified from Tian et al., 2013). Four fisheries regions for southern and northern Sea of Japan (SJS, NJS) and Pacific (SP, NP) are marked by bold dashed lines and thin dotted arrows. Thick dotted bold arrows indicate the Tsushima Warm Current (TWC), Kuroshio Current (KC) and Oyashio Current (OC), respectively. Locations of some place names mentioned in the text are shown with stars. in Aomori Prefecture show a trend similar to the catches. The catches from the southern stock in the Sea of Japan are made mainly by pair trawlers; however, the proportion of catches from Ishikawa to Hyogo Prefecture has increased since the 1990s (Figure 54B). Catches from pair trawlers decreased from a maximum of 13,700 t in 1977 to a minimum of 16 t in 2003, and maintained an extremely low level thereafter. The trend of abundance index (AI, similar to CPUE) was consistent with the catch; it was high during the 1970s and 1980s, but extremely low since the 1990s, indicating decadal-scale variation (Tian, 2009; Tian et al., 2013). The catches from the Pacific northern stock depend largely on the catches from single trawlers operating from Bousou Peninsula to Kinkazan Island (Figure 54C), and catches from trawlers in Iwate Prefecture. Catches increased after the late 1980s, peaked in 1996, and decreased thereafter to the minimum in 2005. CPUE for the single trawlers in the Bousou-Kinkazan region showed large inter-annual variations. For the Pacific southern stock, catches from the pair trawl fishery were high in the 1980s, decreasing in the 1990s (Figure 54D). The CPUEs for the pair trawlers mirrored the catch throughout, excluding the last 5 years (Tian et al., 2013). Trends in catch and CPUE indicate that the abundances of the southern stocks both in the Sea of Japan and Pacific Ocean Figure 53. Annual changes in catches of spear squid from Pacific (white bars) and the Sea of Japan (black bars) for the period of 1978–2012 (Modified from Tian et al., 2013). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 160 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 54. Annual changes in catch (vertical bars) by fishing methods and CPUE or abundance index (solid line with diamonds) for the main fishery for the four stocks of spear squid around Japan (Modified from Tian et al., 2013). (A) Northern stock in the Sea of Japan during 1975–2010 (the data for Hokkaidou and for Toyama-Akita were for 1985–2010 and 1990–2010, respectively). (B) Southern stock in the Sea of Japan during 1975–2010 (the data for Ishikawa-Hyogo was for 1990–2010). (C) Northern stock in the Pacific during 1978–2010. (D) Southern stock in Pacific during 1978–2010. decreased abruptly around 1989/1990, whereas the abundance of northern stocks increased around 1993/1994. This strongly suggests synchronicity in abundance with step changes during the late 1980s to early 1990s in the Sea of Japan and Pacific (Tian et al., 2013). The disparate patterns between the southern and northern stocks indicate latitudinal difference in abundance. 12.1.4. Impact of Fishing, Stock Assessment, and Implication for Management It is notable that the decadal variation in the abundance of spear squid corresponds closely with the water temperature; the southern stocks were high during the cool thermal regime and low during the warm thermal regime since the 1990s, whereas the northern stocks showed the opposite pattern (Tian et al., 2013). The close correspondences between CPUE and WT strongly indicates the impacts of the late 1980s regime shift, which was characterized by abrupt changes from cool to warm temperature around 1987/1988 (Tian et al., 2011). On the other hand, the impacts of fishing on spear squid are unclear. Fishing effort (including the cumulative hauls and number of licensed fishing trawlers, and number of fishing units for the set-net fishery), has been declining since the 1980s (Nashida and Sakaji, 2012; Tian, 2012). However, fishing effort of both set nets and trawl fisheries appeared to intensify during the short spawning season (Tian, 2009). A case study of the southern stock in the Sea of Japan indicated that fishing mortality estimated from the DeLury model increased substantially since the late 1980s (Tian, 2009). This example strongly suggests that fishing pressure can be intensified under unfavorable climate regimes despite a decline in total fishing effort. Spear squid are one of the target species under the Japanese government stock assessment program. The status of the stock is assessed annually based on trends in catch and CPUE. Spear squid stocks have been lower since the 1990s, both in the Pacific and the Sea of Japan (Tian, 2012; Nashida and Sakaji, 2012). This is largely associated with the warming in water temperatures (Tian et al., 2013). As stated above, the responses to the regime shift differed between the southern and northern stocks. It is important to identify both favorable and unfavorable climate conditions and evaluate fishing pressure in order to develop a stock-specific management strategy to ensure the recovery of southern stocks. For the northern stocks, it is notable that the positive effects of a warm winter could be compensated by the negative effects of a warm summer. Recommended management measures to allow the recovery of southern stocks include a delay of the fishing season to protect juveniles, and a ban on fishing on the spawning grounds during the autumn spawning season (Tian, 2009; Tian et al., 2013). 12.2. Sepioteuthis lessoniana (Bigfin Reef Squid) 12.2.1. Stock Identification In Japan, the bigfin reef squid (S. lessoniana; also called the oval squid) occurs in nearshore to offshore waters from southern Hokkaido to the Nansei Islands (Sasaki, 1929; Okutani, 1973) and is a commercially important coastal resource Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 161 Figure 56. Geographical distributions of Shiro-ika (black portions), Aka-ika (dotted line), Kua-ika (black portions) (Izuka et al. 1996) in Japan. Figure 55. Sepioteuthis lessoniana variations in Japanese waters: Shiro-ika (A), Aka-ika (B) in Tokushima Prefecture, and Kua-ika (C) in Okinawa Prefecture. where food is abundant and large predators are less abundant than offshore during summer to autumn (Figure 57). In winter, subadults and adults migrate southward from coastal waters <15–20
C to offshore waters >15–20
C. Schools are mainly distributed at the thermohaline front between 15 and 20
C in high density (Ueta, 2003). In spring, adults migrate to nearshore waters to spawn. Spawning occurs mainly during April to September around Japan’s main islands and from January to October in Okinawa (Ueta, 2000). Captive females have been observed to make (Figure 55) (Okutani, 1973; Ueta, 2000). Fishers in Okinawa Prefecture have long separated local populations into three groups based on the size, color in freshly killed condition, and fishing ground (Izuka et al., 1994; Izuka et al., 1996). In Japan, three genetically and reproductively independent forms are now recognized: “shiro-ika” (“white squid”), “aka-ika” (“red squid”), and “kua-ika” (Izuka et al., 1994; Izuka et al., 1996; Figure 55). The distribution and ecology of each form differ (Izuka et al., 1996). 12.2.2. Shiro-ika 12.2.2.1. Distribution and Lifecycle. Shiro-ika is widely distributed throughout Japan from southern Hokkaido to the Nansei Islands and Ogasawara Islands (Okutani, 1973； Izuka et al., 1996), (Figure 56), and occurs from the surface to about 100 m depth. In Japan’s main islands, juveniles and young squids occur at 0–20 m depth in nearshore waters, Figure 57. The lifecycle of Shiro-ika around Tokushima Prefecture, Japan. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 162 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Large males grow to about 2–3 kg (370–440 mm ML), and large females grow to about 1–1.5 kg (280–330 mm ML). The minimum size at maturity of females is approximately 15.5 cm ML (209 g body weight) (Ueta, 2000). Figure 58. Schemata of squid-jigging, trolling, and bait fishing for Shiro-ika in Tokushima Prefecture, Japan. multiple copulations and spawn 4–11 times during a spawning season (Wada 1993Wada and Kobayashi, 1995). Egg capsules contain 1–9 eggs (mode D 5–6) and are attached to seaweed, eelgrass, corals and manmade spawning beds near the nearshore (Ueta, 2000). It is estimated that spawned eggs hatch after 24–27 days at 25
C from laboratory experiments (Segawa, 1987). Shiro-ika in the main islands recruits during July to October and dies after several spawnings in April to September of the following year (Ueta, 2003; Wada and Kobayashi, 1995). The lifespan in the main islands is about 1 year (Ueta, 2000). Water temperature has a marked effect to both the hatching period and growth rates. High water temperature appears to cause early hatching and higher growth rates, and high water temperature is associated with higher survival rates and successful recruitment (Ueta et al., 1999; Ueta, 2000). Individual difference of mantle length in adult is large, influenced by the long spawning season (April–September) and growth differences. 12.2.2.2. Fishing gear. In western Japan, shiro-ika is mainly caught year round by jigging, trolling, bait fishing, set net, and purse seine fisheries. Monthly catches peak during the recruitment period (October–January) and spawning period (April– June). Shiro-ika is mainly caught by jigging, trolling, bait fishing, set net in the night time, and daily catches tend to increase around the full moon, rainy days being the exception (Munekiyo and Kawagishi, 1993; Ueta, 2000). Moonlight of suitable luminous intensity seems to accelerate movement and predation behavior. Jigging and trolling fisheries use a traditional jig shaped like a prawn called “egi,” which was developed in Kagoshima Prefecture in the 1800s (Okada, 1978) and had been repeatedly improved (Figure 58). Catches occur mainly at dusk and at night. Shiro-ika caught in squid jigging and trolling fisheries are larger than those caught in the set net fishery due to the size selectivity of the jig (Tokai and Ueta, 1999). Trolling is more efficient than jigging, because trolling uses several lures at the same time and does not require that the rod be manually swung back and forth. Bait fishing is conducted during the day using live Japanese jack mackerel and amberstripe scad as bait. In Tokushima Prefecture, shiro-ika is mainly caught by nearshore set nets below 15–20 m depth. Fishers use the small-sized set nets of pound net type and bag net type (Figure 59). Both net types are operated by one or several fishers using small (<1–2 GRT) boats. The scale and structure of the nets vary among regions and fishers. 20–70 m leader nets are set perpendicular to the shore, and the bag net or pound nets attached to fish court for landings are positioned at the offshore end of the leader nets (Figure 59). Squid swim along leader nets and enter the bag net (bag net type). In the pound type, squid move from the fish court to the pound net with a nonreturn device. Squid tend to enter the bag net with a large mesh size (50 mm ML) more often than nets with a small mesh size (16–21 mm ML), which is used to catch Japanese sardine and Japanese anchovy. Fishers in Kyushu use purse seines and boat seines. These gears catch Shiro-ika migrating to brush woods sunk by fishers and natural seaweed beds to spawn (Figure 60). These gears are laid near a steep slope with sandy bottoms at 5–15 m depth. Fishers using a purse seine, encircle the squid and then direct the squid into the pocket net using a scaring device tied up colored ropes. 12.2.3. Aka-ika Aka-ika has a redder body color than the other forms due to its many red chromatophores (Figure 55). It is distributed in the Ryukyu Islands and probably occurs along the Pacific coast of Honshu (Figure 56). It occurs deeper than the two other Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 163 corresponding to 500–600 mm ML. It is caught at the Ryukyu Islands, Tanegashima Island and Yakushima Island, by jigging and bait fishing at 20–50 m depth. The fishing methods are the same as those used for Shiro-ika (Figure 58). Live five-barred goatfish, Parupeneus multifasciatus and striped mullet, Mugil cephalus are used as bait fish. Aka-ika is rarely caught around Japan’s main islands except the Izu and Ogasawara Islands. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 12.2.4. Kua-Ika Kua-ika occurs only near the Ryukyu and Ogasawara Islands (Figure 56) (Izuka et al., 1996). At Ishigaki Island, it occurs only near coral reefs and attaches two-egg capsules to the underside of dead tabletop corals in shallow coral reefs during June to October (Segawa et al., 1993a; Izuka et al., 1996). The maximum body weight is estimated to be about 100 g, corresponding to 100–150 mm ML. The stock size of Kua-ika is very small, and its importance as a fishery resource is small. 12.2.5. Catch Statistics Figure 59. Schemata of two types of small-sized set net for Shiro-ika in Tokushima Prefecture, Japan. forms. Females in Ishigaki Island have been observed to attach egg capsules containing 5–13 eggs (mode D 9.2) on the branches of dead staghorn corals at about 23 m depth in May (Segawa et al., 1993b). Females in the Ryukyu Islands were observed to attach egg capsules on the upper part of steel artificial fish reefs at 81–100 m depth in April and July (Ueta and Umino, 2013). The maximum body weight is about 5–7 kg, The Statistics and Information Department at the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries does not collect catch data for S. lessoniana in Japan, but regional catch statistics are available from some local fisheries research stations. Based on these data, annual landings during the 1980s in Japan were estimated to be several thousand t (Adachi, 1991). Most of landings in Japan are Shiroika. The annual catch in eight major fishing markets between 1986 and 2010 was variable from year to year, ranging from 55 to 166 t. Figure 60. Schemata of purse seine for Shiro-ika in Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 164 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 61. Main distribution area (shaded) and presumed spawning grounds (black) of Uroteuthis edulis. 12.2.6. Economic Importance The bigfin reef squid is generally caught nearshore and landed within several hours, so it is sold fresh. In Japan, S. lessoniana is called the “king of squids” because of its good taste and the beautiful transparency of its meat in sashimi and sushi. Therefore, this squid is expensive; squid >1 kg are traded at >2000–3000 yen/kg (20–30 USD/kg) at the Tsukiji fish market in Tokyo and by wholesalers selling to fancy sushi restaurants and Japanese restaurants. Some of the catch is sold live to restaurants specializing in squid dishes. In western Japan, jigging using “egi” is very popular with recreational fisherman, and the market for fishing gear such as “egi,” rods, reels, and lines is very large and growing. 12.3. Uroteuthis edulis (Swordtip Squid) 12.3.1. Japanese Fisheries 12.3.1.1. Stock identification. Uroteuthis edulis occurs in the Indo-West Pacific Ocean from central Japan to the South China Sea and northern Australia (Roper et al., 1983; Carpenter and Niem, 1998). From the southwestern Sea of Japan and the East China Sea, this species has a continuous distribution (Figure 61). Despite large differences observed in size and maturation stage among several migrating groups, allozyme analysis indicates the stock consists of an identical population (Natsukari et al., 1986). Three seasonal migrating groups of U. edulis occur in the southwestern Sea of Japan (Yamada et al., 1986; Kawano et al., 1990). The spring group consists of the largest mature individuals (200–450 mm ML), which hatch from June to September, and are fished from April to June the following year. The summer group consists of medium sized mature individuals (200–300 mm ML), which supposedly hatch from November to December, and are fished from August to September the following year. The autumn group consists of immature individuals smaller than the others (100–200 mm ML), which hatch from January to March, and are fished from September to November of the same year. Another group occurs in the waters off northwestern Kyushu in autumn, which matures at 200–300 mm ML (Tashiro, 1978; Kawano et al., 1990). The minimum size of mature squid is 120 mm ML for males and 160 mm ML for females in spring, and 110 mm ML for males and 120 mm ML for females in summer (Yamada et al., 1983). Spawning grounds in the southwestern Sea of Japan are on sandy seabed up to 80 m in depth, with spawning taking place between April and July (Figure 61; Natsukari, 1976; Furuta, 1980; Aramaki et al., 2003; Kawano, 2006; Ueda, 2009). In the East China Sea, a large spawning ground exists in the inshore waters off northern Taiwan, with spawning occurring in spring and autumn (Wang et al., 2008). The concurrent occurrence of male and female squid, and the spring and autumn presence of juveniles (20 mm ML), on the shelf edge in the northern East China Sea, suggests spawning also occurs here (Yamada and Tokimura, 1994). 12.3.1.2. Distribution and Lifecycle. Both immature and mature U. edulis are distributed over the continental shelf Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES (Natsukari and Tashiro, 1991), although seasonal migrations occur in the southwestern Sea of Japan and the waters off northwestern Kyushu (Tashiro, 1977; Kawano et al., 1990). The migration routes of the seasonal groups are hypothesized as follows (Kawano et al., 1990): the spring migrating group spawns in neritic seas whilst moving northward from waters off the southern Goto Islands, west of northern Kyushu. The summer migrating group migrates into offshore waters of northern Kyushu from offshore waters of northwestern Kyushu, and spawns after maturing while searching for food. The autumn migrating group moves southward from the southwestern Sea of Japan to waters off northwestern Kyushu from September to December. Another autumn group migrates from the waters around Goto Islands to the coastal waters off northwestern Kyushu. U. edulis is distributed over the East China Sea, especially in the southern area, throughout the year, with distribution expanding northeastward in summer and concentrating into the southern area in winter (Tokimura, 1992). The maximum number of statoliths growth rings (350) indicates a lifespan of c.a. one year (Natsukari et al., 1988). 12.3.1.3. Fishing Grounds and Seasons. During the 1970s and early 1980s, the small boat jigging fishery operated in the coastal areas (20–50 m depth) in the southwestern Sea of Japan and waters off northwestern Kyushu between April and May (Furuta, 1978a; Ogawa et al., 1983; Kawano, 1987). Since 1982, when “Tarunagashi” jigging (a kind of bottom drifting long line fishing, Kawano et al., 1990) was introduced; fishing occurred on natural reefs (<100 m depth) in the waters off northern Kyushu and off Yamaguchi Prefecture, in spring and winter (Takahashi and Furuta, 1988; Akimoto, 1992; Kawano and Saitoh, 2004). The main fishing ground moved gradually offshore to 70–120 m depth from summer to autumn (Furuta, 1978a; Ogawa et al., 1983; Kawano, 1987; Kawano, 2013). During the 1970s, the jigging fishery grounds occurred at water temperatures of 18–24
C and salinities of 34.1–34.7% (Furuta, 1976). After the introduction of “Tarunagashi” jigging, fishing grounds were found to be at temperatures between 13 and 24
C and salinities of 33.4–34.8% in winter (Takahashi and Furuta, 1988). The formation of fishing grounds is related to not only sea temperatures and salinity but also the distribution of prey for the squid; and fishing grounds coincide with distributions of pelagic fish schools (Moriwaki and Ogawa, 1986). However, the distribution of spawning groups can differ from that of fish schools (Kawano et al., 1990). Small squid (100–200 mm ML) are jigged all year round. Larger squid (> 250 mm ML) are fished in waters off northwestern Kyushu between spring and autumn, and in waters off northern Kyushu and the southwestern Sea of Japan between spring and summer (Furuta, 1978b; Yamada et al., 1983). Since 1991, the medium-size boat squid jigging fishery began to fish the squid in the East China Sea and expanded the fishing grounds in the southern areas (Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013). 165 Figure 62. Value of annual catches of Uroteuthis edulis from six prefectures located along the southwestern Sea of Japan and northwestern Kyushu shown in Figure 53. (Data are estimated values by each prefectural fisheries research institute.) East of 128
30’E, offshore pair trawl fishery CPUE (catch in case per haul) is high from the eastern Tsushima Straits to waters off the southern Tsushima Island, with these high CPUE areas tending to be inshore in spring and offshore in autumn (Ogawa and Yamada, 1983; Kawano, 1997). Bottom conditions in the high CPUE areas are generally 13–15
C and 34.50–34.70% in March, 10–15
C and 34.25–34.75% in May and August, and 13–19
C and 34.25–34.70% in November (Kawano, 1997). Many small squid (<200 mm ML) are caught year round by the offshore pair trawl fishery (except for the fishing-closed period during June and July) (Kawano, 1991). Smaller squid (90–150 mm ML) account for a large portion of the catches between August and October, and the size of squid increases gradually from November to March, with the majority having a ML of 70–200 mm (Kawano, 1991). The Japanese western pair trawl fishery in the East China Sea, west of 128
30’E, begins its fishing in the southern East China Sea over the continental shelf in May. Its fishing grounds expand toward Kyushu in summer and begin to shrink from the northern area in autumn (Yamada and Tokimura, 1994). Apart from U. edulis, the fishery changes its targets in October. MLs of U. edulis caught by trawl nets are generally small in autumn and winter and large in summer (Furuta, 1978b). 12.3.1.4. Economic importance. The value of annual catches from six prefectures located along the southwestern Sea of Japan and northwestern Kyushu were 8.2–11.9 billion yen from 2001 to 2010 (Figure 62). U. edulis is highly important in the local fishing industry as the catch value is one of the highest of marine products in each of the prefectures, and many fishermen are involved in fishing for squid. 12.3.1.5. Composition and numbers of Japanese fishing fleet. Most of squid jigging boats targeting U. edulis are less Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 166 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 2006 (Figure 63). Fishermen operate two to four rigs consisting of several jigs tied to a nylon line (Natsukari and Tashiro, 1991). Operating “Tarunagashi” jigging in spring and winter, fishermen float 10–20 buoys with the rigs. The catches of the squid by fishing boats (>5 GRT) equipped with automatic squid-jigging machines have dramatically increased in the southwestern Sea of Japan since the end of the 1990s (Kawano, 2013). The number of medium-size squid jigging boats (30 GRT) operating in the East China Sea decreased from 18 in 2001 to 3 in 2011 (Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013). The number of fishing vessels in the offshore pair trawl fishery operating in the southwestern Sea of Japan, and western trawl fisheries operating in the East China Sea, decreased from 59 and 131 in 1988 to 28 and 25 in 2000, respectively (Figure 63). Figure 63. Annual number of fishing units of small-size boat jigging fishery in the six prefectures located along the southwestern Sea of Japan and northwestern Kyushu shown in Figure 53 and trawl fisheries operating in the southwestern Sea of Japan and the East China Sea. (Annual Report of Catch statistics of Fishery and Aquaculture, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1988–2006.) than 10 t, with the majority being less than 5 t (Kawano et al., 1990). The number of fishing vessels in the six prefectures located along the southwestern Sea of Japan and northwestern Kyushu decreased from 11,851 boats in 1989 to 7082 boats in 12.3.1.6. Duration of fishing period by fishing region. Squid jigging begins in March or April in waters off northwestern Kyushu, around Goto Islands, with the arrival of the spring migrating group. The fishing grounds expand along the coastal areas between May and August, and from September to December, the autumn migrating group is fished in waters off northern Kyushu (Furuta, 1978c). In the southwestern Sea of Japan, the fishing season is also from April to December, with catches increasing around May and peaking in early summer or autumn, before decreasing in December (Figure 64; Ogawa et al., 1982). “Tarunagashi” jigging catches more squid in the waters off northern Kyushu in spring and winter compared to other jigging fisheries (Kawano, 1997). Catches peak in spring and summer in waters off northwestern Kyushu and in autumn in the southwestern Sea of Japan (Figure 64; Kawano, 1997). However, the peak in catch varies concurrently with long-term alternations of dominant Figure 64. Monthly catches of Uroteuthis edulis by fisheries operating in the southwestern Sea of Japan and the East China Sea in 2011. (Data were compiled from Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013.) Catches by small-size boat jigging fisheries are from the catches at representative fishing ports. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 167 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 species in pelagic fishes in the southwestern Sea of Japan (Ogawa, 1982; Moriwaki and Ogawa, 1986). The fishing season of the medium-size boat squid jigging fishery in the southern East China Sea is from June to October (Figure 64; Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013). The offshore pair trawl fishery in the southwestern Sea of Japan catches U. edulis throughout the year (except for during the June-July closed season) with a major peak in catch in autumn and a minor peak in spring (Figure 64; Moriwaki, 1986). Catches of U. edulis by western trawl fisheries in the East China Sea operating all year round were high in summer and autumn, especially in August, in the 1960s (Furuta, 1978c). However, the fisheries have been closed in summer since 2004 (Figure 64; Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013). 12.3.1.7. Catch and effort data of Japanese fisheries. Total squid catches from the southwestern Sea of Japan to the East China Sea decreased from 35,000 t in 1988 to 11,000 t in 2011 (Figure 65; Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013). In the southwestern Sea of Japan and in waters off northwestern Kyushu, the catches decreased from about 24,000 t in 1988 to 11,000 t in 2011. In the southern East China Sea, catches significantly dropped from 11,000 t in 1988 to about 170 t in 2011 (Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013). Fishing effort targeting squid has decreased continuously since the late 1980s: The number of fishing days of smallsize squid jigging boats (<10 GRT) in the six prefectures located along the southwestern Sea of Japan and northwestern Kyushu gradually decreased from 725,000 days in 1988 to 356,000 days in 2006 (Figure 66). That of medium-size squid jigging boats in the southern East China Sea also decreased (Figure 66; Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013), and the total number of hauls by trawlers in the southwestern Sea of Japan and the East China Sea decreased markedly from 1988 to 2011 (Figure 66; Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013). Figure 65. Annual catches of Uroteuthis edulis by fisheries operating in the southwestern Sea of Japan and the East China Sea (after Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013). Figure 66. Annual fishing days by squid jigging fisheries and number of hauls by trawl fisheries operating in the southwestern Sea of Japan and the East China Sea. (Data were compiled from Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013 except for the fishing days by small-size boat jigging fishery which were from Annual Report of Catch statistics of Fishery and Aquaculture, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1988–2006.) 12.3.1.8. Stock assessment and management. The exploitation rate was generally under 10% and the resource was not being overfished in the southwestern Sea of Japan in the 1980s (Kawano et al., 1986); therefore, fishing impact on the resource of U. edulis was small and management measures were not planned at that time. Hamada (1998) estimated%SPR (percentage of spawningbiomass per recruitment) of the spring/summer-hatched group and the winter-hatched group as 50% and 55%, respectively, based on a cohort analysis of U. edulis in waters off northern Kyushu during the 1990s, and recommended one day of fishing closure per week to improve%SPR for both groups. Hamada and Uchida (1998) proposed: (1) conservation of the eggs (protected areas and periods in the spawning grounds), (2) reduction of fishing effort (one closed day per week), and (3) restriction of squid size and spawning stages in the catch. Recently, stock assessment of U. edulis in the Sea of Japan and the East China Sea has been conducted by the Japanese government based on trends of catches by trawls and squid jigging fisheries, and an immigration abundance index of U. edulis estimated following Kitahara and Hara (1990). The assessment showed that the stock of U. edulis constantly remains at a low level (Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013). The assessment suggested that the catch should be managed so as to be lower than the ABC (allowable biological catch) and that management effort should be required not only by Japan but also by countries which harvest the stock in the East China Sea, in order for the stock to recover (Yoda and Fukuwaka, 2013). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 168 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. 12.3.2. Chinese Fisheries 12.3.2.1. Stock identification. Spring and autumn spawning groups are separated based on spawning seasons (Wang et al., 2008, 2010). Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 12.3.2.2. Distribution and lifecycle. The swordtip squid is a large-sized loliginid squid widely distributed in the continental shelf waters from northern South China to northern China (Roper et al., 1984). The squid spawn all year round (Wang, 2002; Wang et al., 2008), and the longevity is no more than one year (Natsukari et al., 1988). Females mature at about 5 months, which is about 2 months later than males (Wang et al., 2010). The size at first maturity of mature males was about 120 mm in spring and 170 mm in autumn groups, while that of mature females was about 165 mm in spring and 185 mm in autumn groups (Wang et al., 2010). 12.3.2.3. Fishing grounds. The suitable temperature for fishing ranges from 15 to 28
C and salinity from 29.0 to 34.5. The fisheries have developed in three main areas in the East China Sea, viz., the southern, central and northern parts, and two main regions in the South China Sea viz. the southern part of Hainan Island, and the central-southern part of Beibu Gulf (Chen et al., 2013b). Liao et al. (2006) suggested that the fishing grounds were generally located in the area between 25 and 29
N, 121 and 126
E, where the water depths range from 100 to 200 m. 12.3.2.4. Economic importance. The annual economic value of the swordtip squid has been more than $20 million for the past 10 years in Taiwan, while separate statistics were not reported for the Chinese mainland (Wang et al., 2008). 12.3.2.5. Duration of fishing period by fishing region. In the southern part of the East China Sea, the fishing season is from May to October with a peak from June to August. In the central regions of the East China Sea, the fishing season is from July to October with a peak from July to August. For the southern part of Hainan Island, fishing occurs year round with peaks in spring and summer. In the central-southern Beibu Gulf, fishing also occurs year round but with peaks in spring, summer, and autumn. 12.3.2.6. Catch and effort data. The swordtip squid is the most important coastal fishery species, being fished mainly by the torch-light fishery in Taiwan and by the trawl fishery on the southeast coast of China, and with annual landings of more than 20,000 t (Chyn et al., 1998; Song et al., 2008; Chen et al., 2013b). In the Beibu Gulf, previous survey data showed that the average CPUEs were 0.36, 3.55, and 2.80 kg/hr in 1997–1999, 2000–2002, and 2007, respectively (Sun et al., 2011). From 2000 to 2002, the highest CPUEs were up to 9.64, 15.50, and 15.15 kg/ h in the northern South China Sea, Beibu Gulf and southern Hainan Island, and the eastern Hainan Island, respectively (Li et al., 2010). In the area west of 25
30’N and 33
30’N, 128
00’E of the East China Sea, the average CPUEs were 8.2 and 4.2 kg/h in 1994–1996 and 2004–2006, respectively (Song et al., 2008). In China, the catch of swordtip squid were generally recorded together with Mitre squid and the total catch fluctuated between 100,000 and 200,000 tones since 1996. 12.3.2.7. Stock assessment and management. Fishing is forbidden in the spawning grounds during the breeding period. There is a need to explore light-lure fishing instead of the traditional trawl fishery. 12.4. Uroteuthis chinensis (Mitre Squid) 12.4.1 Stock Identification Spring and autumn spawning groups are separated based on spawning seasons (Chen et al., 2013b). 12.4.2. Distribution and Lifecycle The Mitre squid is widely distributed in the South and East China Seas from Japan, Gulf of Thailand, Arafura, and Timor Seas to northern Australia in the western Pacific Ocean (Roper et al., 1984). Spawning occurs throughout the year (Roper et al., 1984). The Mitre squid has a longevity of no more than 7 months (Jackson and Choat, 1992; Sukramongkol et al., 2007). The size range of the mature females is smaller than that of mature males. In the Andaman Sea of Thailand, the age of mature squid ranges from 87 to 125 days (121–286 mm ML) for males and 75–151 days (104–235 mm ML) for females (Sukramongkol et al., 2007). 12.4.3. Fishing Grounds The suitable temperature for fishing is from 21 to 29
C and suitable salinity is from 32.0 to 34.5%. The fisheries have developed in three main areas in the South China Sea: the waters around the southern part of the Hainan Island, the southwest part of Beibu Gulf, and the Taiwan shoal (Chen et al., 2013b). 12.4.4. Economic Importance The fishery accounts for up to 90% of the Chinese loliginid catch (Chen et al., 2013b). 12.4.5. Duration of Fishing Period by Fishing Region Around the southern part of the Hainan Island, the fishing season is from April to September with a peak from July to September. In the southwest part of Beibu Gulf, the fishing season is from April to January with a peak from July to September. In the Taiwan shoal, fishing occurs from April to September with a peak from July to September. 12.4.6. Catch and Effort Data The Mitre squid is the most targeted species in the Chinese loliginid fishery with a maximum catch of 100,000 t (Chen et al., Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 169 12.5.5. Catch and Effort Data During 2006–2007, in the waters off southern Zhejiang province, the CPUE was from 0.65 to 7.05 kg/h (Chen et al., 2013b). In recent years, the average catch was around 50,000 t (Figure 67). 12.6. Taiwanese Loliginids 12.6.1. Species Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 67. Total annual catches of swordtip, mitre, and Indian squid in China in 1996–2012. 2013b) (Figure 67). In the Taiwan shoal fishing grounds, annual landings were 20,000–25,000 t (Zhang et al., 2008). In the Beibu Gulf, the CPUE ranged from 0.07 to 1.91 kg/h, 1.07 to 5.51 kg/h, and 2.08 to 3.49 kg/h in 1997–1999, 2000–2002, and 2006– 2007, respectively (Li and Sun, 2011). 12.4.7. Stock Assessment and Management Fishing is banned in the spawning grounds during the breeding period. There are at least nine species of loliginid squids that have been identified around Taiwan: four species in the genus Lilolus, one species in the genus Sepioteuthis and four species in the genus Uroteuthis. S. lessoniana is targeted by the recreational fishery (angling) in the coastal waters of North Taiwan from August to March, and occasionally found in the harvest of commercial fisheries (trawlers). 12.6.2. Distribution and Lifecycle Uroteuthis edulis are predominant in the south East China Sea, while U. chinensis and U. duvaucelii are predominant in Taiwan Strait. 12.6.3. Population Structure 12.5. Uroteuthis duvaucelii (Indian Squid) 12.5.1. Stock Identification Spring, summer, and autumn spawning groups are separated based on spawning seasons (Chen et al., 2013b). 12.5.2. Distribution and Lifecycle The Indian squid is widely distributed in the Indian Ocean periphery including the Red Sea and Arabian Sea, extending eastward from Mozambique to the South China Sea and Philippines Sea, northward to Taiwan (Roper et al., 1984). Spawning of the squid occurs throughout the year, but usually peaks when water temperature increases (Roper et al., 1984). The squid longevity is no more than 1 year (Supongpan and Natsukari, 1996; Sukramongkol et al., 2007). The size range of mature females is smaller than that of mature males. 12.5.3. Fishing Grounds The fisheries have developed in two main areas of China, namely, the northern South China Sea and the waters off Zhejiang province (Chen et al., 2013b). 12.5.4. Duration of Fishing Period by Fishing Region In the northern South China Sea, fishing occurs throughout the year with peaks in autumn. Off the Zhejiang province, fishing occurs throughout the year with peaks in summer. Based on maturation and growth parameters, the spawning grounds of U. edulis are thought to be around three isles off north Taiwan (Wang et al., 2008). Based on statolith microstructure analysis, hatching may occur year round, peaking in spring (March–April) and autumn (October–November) (Wang et al., 2010). The lifespan of U. edulis was estimated to be at least 9 months. 12.6.4. Fisheries Status The annual production of neritic squid (loliginid squid) from Taiwan ranged from 1900 t (in 1968) to 20,000 t (in 1998) between 1959 and 2011. The average annual production was 9400 t, which accounted for 78.4% of the domestic cephalopod fisheries in Taiwan for the last two decades (Figure 68). The annual production of neritic squid reached a historic high (20,000 t) in 1998 and then declined thereafter. Loliginid squids are harvested by a torch-light net fishery (accounting for 62.1% of domestic neritic squid production), and secondly by a trawl fishery (accounting for 32.9%). The contribution to total catch of the torch-light net fishery showed a decrease in recent years (Figure 69). 12.6.5. Fishing Grounds and Seasons The fishing grounds are located on the shelf of the East China Sea with isopleths at 100–200 m and range from 25
to 28
N and 121
to 126
E. Seasonal movement of the fishing vessels was applied to infer the migration of the squid in this region (Liao et al., 2006). The fishing season of the torch-light Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 170 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. net fishery is between April and November, and particularly between July and September. 12.6.6. Conservation Management Measures Although the fishing vessels need a legal license to operate in the waters around Taiwan, no conservation management measures are currently adopted for the squid fishery. However, at least two scientific projects were carried out since 2010 to examine the species and stock status of loliginids off North Taiwan and in the northern Taiwan Strait. The reference points for management will be determined in the near future based on the results from these studies. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 12.7. Berryteuthis magister (Schoolmaster Gonate Squid) Berryteuthis magister (Berry, 1913) is also known as schoolmaster gonate squid, magistrate armhook squid, commander squid, or red squid. B. magister belongs to the family Gonatidae (Nesis, 1982). This is the only species of the gonate squids in the North Pacific which is fished commercially both as a target species and as a bycatch by demersal and bottom trawl fisheries (Osako and Murata, 1983; Fedorets, 2006; Ormseth, 2012). This squid species is widely distributed in the boreal North Pacific Ocean and its marginal seas (Naito et al., 1977; Nesis, 1998). 12.7.1. Stock Identification Various stock identification approaches have been applied to reveal stock composition of B. magister across the species range. Extensive population structure studies of B. magister using biochemical genetic techniques have revealed geographically related patterns within the species gene pool (Katugin, 1999, 2002). Similar geographic patterns were revealed using morphometric analysis of B. magister gladius (Katugin et al., 2004). These studies along with the analyses of size-at-maturity data and distribution of different ontogenetic stages in B. magister suggested that there presumably exist geographical superpopulations associated with major basins in the North Pacific: the Japan, Okhotsk and Bering Seas, and Gulf of Alaska. The Japan Sea squid differ most strikingly from the others and constitute a separate subspecies; conspecific populations inhabiting other areas are much closer to each other than to their counterparts from the Japan Sea in genetic composition, biology and morphology. A multi-disciplinary approach has revealed that squid populations from the Okhotsk Sea show certain differentiation from the northwestern Bering Sea squid; however, these squid have much in common in lifecycle patterns and differ from the Northeast Pacific stocks at least in size-at-maturity profiles (Katugin et al., 2013). A number of studies suggested a rather complicated stock structure for B. magister inhabiting the Northwest Pacific. The existence of two major successive spawning groupings, or cohorts (spring-summer and autumn-winter) were proposed to comprise B. magister aggregations off the Kuril Islands and in the western Bering Sea based Figure 68. Production of total domestic cephalopod fishery, neritic squids, cuttlefishes, octopus, and oceanic squids of Taiwan from 1959 to 2011. mainly upon long-term observations on monthly changes in sizeand-maturity composition of the squid catches (Fedorets et al., 1997a, b; Fedorets, 2006). More detailed analysis using data on length-frequency, maturation, and age structure (based upon microstructure of gladii and statoliths) has revealed the existence of several seasonal groups in B. magister aggregations inhabiting the northwestern Bering Sea slope (Arkhipkin et al., 1996). In the southeastern Bering Sea, along the Aleutian Islands and in the Gulf of Alaska, aggregations of B. magister also exhibit a rather complex structure with successive seasonal cohorts, judging from size structure of the squid in trawl catches (Ormseth, 2012; Katugin et al., 2013). 12.7.2. Distribution and Lifecycle The distribution range of B. magister extends along the continental slope of the North Pacific Rim: in the Japan, Okhotsk, Figure 69. Production of total domestic neritic squid fishery, as separated by torch-light net fishery and trawl fishery, of Taiwan from 1959 to 2011. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES and Bering seas, including underwater rises (Jamato, Kitajamato, and Oki in the Japan Sea; Shirshov and Bowers ridges in the Bering Sea), in the North Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of Honshu and east Hokkaido, along the Kuril Islands and east Kamchatka, along the Commander-Aleutian chain of islands, in the Gulf of Alaska and further southeast to waters off California (Nesis, 1998). This is a boreal demersal species living within a wide depth range from the lower sublittoral zone down to the bathyal (mostly upper-bathyal) zone (Nesis, 1985), and is considered quasibenthic in its life mode, which means that its lifecycle is associated with the bottom (Okutani, 1988). Bathymetric distribution of B. magister is very characteristic: the densest concentrations of adult individuals are found on the slope predominantly within 300–500 m depth in most areas of the squid occurrence (Nesis, 1998). Squid frequently occur within the core of the warm intermediate layer where water temperature is about 3.5–3.9
C in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, Okhotsk, and Bering Seas (Fedorets, 1983, 2006; Arkhipkin et al., 1996), and live in generally much colder conditions at about 0–1.5
C in the Japan Sea (Railko, 1979). There is no shortage of information on distribution and biology of B. magister micronektonic juveniles through spawning adults. However, reports on B. magister egg-masses are still to be verified, and data on the earliest ontogenetic stages are scanty, which strongly hampers the understanding of the species lifecycle. Some authors suggest that squid paralarvae live in the epipelagic plankton community for several months and are therefore susceptible to wide dispersal over vast geographic areas (Kubodera, 1982; Fedorets, 2006). However, in spite of high abundance of juveniles and adults, paralarvae of B. magister occur extremely rarely, and the most reliable information suggests that they occur primarily in deep water (e.g., Okutani, 1988). It was proposed that functional structure of the species range can be associated with the largescale gyres in the North Pacific, which serve as major external factors influencing the observed population structure and life history patterns (Katugin, 1998; Alexeev, 2012). A modified version of the species lifecycle, based on critically analyzed data on distribution and occurrence of different ontogenetic stages, suggests that passive dispersal of newly hatched squid is rather limited, and squid are demersal during the greater part of their life, foraging in the pelagic zone mainly as juveniles and living primarily near the bottom as adults (Katugin et al., 2013). 12.7.3. Fishing Grounds and Seasons Fisheries for B. magister takes into consideration the existing knowledge on the species distribution and lifecycle, and in different areas, is based upon aggregations of large adult individuals at different stages of maturity. Areas where B. magister has been historically harvested by commercial trawlers are scattered all over the extended geographic range of the species, and include underwater rises in the central and continental slope in the northwestern Japan Sea, Pacific Ocean along the 171 Figure 70. Distribution density (tons per square km) of Berryteuthis magister in areas where commercial fishery takes place: (A) northwestern Bering Sea and (B) Pacific Ocean off the Kuril Islands. Kuril Chain and east Kamchatka, western and southeastern Bering Sea, continental slope around the Commander and Aleutian islands, and the Gulf of Alaska. However, today major fishing areas for this species are located within the Russian EEZ in the northwestern Pacific Ocean off the Kuril Islands and southeast Kamchatka, and in the northwestern Bering Sea (Figure 70). Maximum distribution density of B. magister calculated from bottom trawl catches appeared the highest on the underwater plateau off the north Kuril Islands, of about 1,300 t per square km. Off the Simushir and Urup islands maximum distribution density peaked at 810–855, on the bank between Bering and Mednyi islands at 690, and in the western Bering Sea at about 560 t per square km. Size and maturity features of B. magister in the harvested commercial aggregations vary in different fishery areas. In the western Bering Sea, where there is no direct fishery for B. magister and squid are taken mostly as a bycatch during fishing for groundfish and walleye pollock, aggregations are usually comprised primarily of large maturing, fully mature, and prespawning individuals. In that region, about 60% of captured females ranged from 240 to 270 mm ML, and 70% of males had ML of 200–230 mm, and up to 70% of all animals were at advanced maturity stages (IV and V). On the banks close to the Commander Islands, where trawlers intentionally fished for B. magister close to the spawning grounds, about 70% of captured females had ML ranging from 230–270 mm, and up to 90% of males had ML of 200–270 mm; over half of harvested females and about 80% of males were at advanced Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 172 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 71. Annual catch for Berryteuthis magister in the northwestern Pacific Ocean fishing grounds, and oscillations of the Aleutian Low index (NPIa). maturity stages. Occasionally up to 100% of harvested squid were prespawning (stage IV) and spawning (stage V), and spent individuals (stage VI) sometimes comprised 20–30% of commercial catches (Fedorets et al., 1997b). In the Pacific Ocean off the Kuril Islands, where B. magister is a target species, commercial aggregations of the squid consist mainly of foraging adult squid, mostly females being at the onset of maturation and males at more advanced stages. In fishing areas off the north Kuril Islands (Paramushir and Onekotan islands), about 60% of captured females had ML ranging from 210– 250 mm, and 70% of males had ML of 190–220 mm; about 70% of all females were virtually immature (stage II), while almost half of all males were maturing and ready to mate (stages III and higher). Off the central Kuril Islands (Simushir and Ketoy islands), 60% of captured females ranged from 220–250 mm ML, and 80% of males had ML of 200– 240 mm; about 60% of females were at stage II, and 70% of males were at stage III and higher. Therefore, commercial harvest for B. magister within the Russian EEZ is based upon aggregations of adult animals; however, mostly mature and ready to spawn individuals are captured in the western Bering Sea and near the Commander Islands, and mostly immature individuals comprise the bulk of the catch off the Kuril Islands. 12.7.4. Catch and Effort Data and Fishing Fleet In Russia, targeted or specialized fishery for B. magister dates back to 1977, and during the last three decades, total annual catch of this squid fluctuated from 9,200 to 90,200 t with an evident drop in the mid-1990s, followed by a positive trend and a peak in 2006 (Figure 71). In these years, targeted fishing for B. magister took place mainly off the north and central Kuril Islands, where total annual catch ranged from 8,600 to 76,630 t, and accounted for 60–99% of the total catch for this squid in the Russian EEZ. In the ocean off the south Kuril Figure 72. Seasonal variability in catch for Berryteuthis magister in different fishing areas (shaded area correspond to the total annual catch in each fishing region). Islands and east Kamchatka, and in the western Bering Sea (on the slope along the Koryak coast and in the Olutorskyi Bay), the species was harvested as a bycatch in walleye pollock and bottom-fish fisheries during 1999–2003. However, the beginning of a targeted fishery in these areas in 2004 resulted in a sharp increase of the annual catch, up to about 13,000 t in the western Bering Sea in 2010 and off east Kamchatka in 2012. High-density near-bottom aggregations of B. magister at spawning grounds on the slope of the banks ocean-ward off the Commander Islands were harvested in the late 1960s–early 1970s, and occasionally through the early 1990s until closure was imposed on any fishing operations within the 30-miles prohibition zone around the islands, which were declared a state nature reserve. Annual landings of B. magister around the Commander Islands did not exceed 3000 t. CPUE for B. magister has been traditionally estimated and reported by captains of fishing vessels as the catch in t per day per vessel (CPDV). Large commercial trawlers with gross capacity exceeding 2500 t account for the greater portion of B. magister total catch off the Kuril Islands and east Kamchatka and in the western Bering Sea. For example, from 74% to 89% (on average, 81.8 § 2.7%) of the total squid catch off the Kuril Islands came from large fishing trawlers in 2009–2013. For large gross capacity vessels, CPUE varied within a wide range, and peaked usually at about 20–30 t CPDV during “high season” in major fishing areas, rising occasionally up to 45–46 t CPDV (e.g., off the north Kuril Islands in the late summer– early autumn in 1998 and 1999). Distribution of daily catch for B. magister in different fishing areas shows that, in the western Bering Sea and off eastern Kamchatka, squid are harvested mainly during fall, while off the Kuril Islands, there are two seasons of high catches: early (usually in the late spring and early summer) and late (usually in autumn) (Figure 72). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES A number of studies provided explanations for the variability in catch during fishery operations for B. magister. On the one hand, the observed seasonal changes in the squid catch (and abundance) are related to such factors as the species lifecycle features and stock structure, in particular, to the existence of successive cohorts. On the other hand, external factors may also have direct or indirect impacts on the squid abundance. At the fishing grounds off the Kuril Islands in the Pacific Ocean, high-density concentrations of the squid were frequently associated with quasi-stationary mesoscale eddies, which originated as a result of interaction between large-scale (geostrophic) currents and local tidal activity coupled with specific geomorphological structures of the bottom (Railko, 1983; Malyshev and Railko, 1986). Monthly fluctuations in the character and intensity of daily tidal currents along the Kuril Chain supposedly influence both density and distribution depth of the squid commercial aggregations: the densest concentrations are frequently associated with the depth of warm intermediate layer, and squid usually aggregate at shallower depths during the highest tides (when daily tidal fluctuations are up to 1.2 m) and are found notably deeper when tidal amplitude is low (of about 0.3–0.6 m) (Fedorets et al., 1997a). Regional changes in atmospheric pressure may also presumably influence the squid distribution by changing the sea level height and associated intensity of water exchange between the sea and the ocean through the Kuril passes: low pressure over the south Okhotsk Sea and high pressure over the oceanic area off the islands may provide favorable conditions for squid migrations from the sea through the passes to fishing grounds in the ocean (Alexeev, 2012). On the decadal scale (1997– 2010), the squid distribution and abundance along the Kuril Islands were evidently impacted by changes in hydrology associated with the variability in the atmospheric pressure system over the North Pacific, in particular, with the position and structure of the Aleutian Low: in warm years, when due to the position of the Aleutian Low the winter monsoon was relatively weak, the squid catches tended to be higher (Katugin et al., 2013). To efficiently identify important variables influencing catch fluctuations, we used maximum information coefficient (MIC) (Reshef et al., 2011; Speed, 2011). It appeared that, among an array of climate indices (AOIa, NPIa, PDOw, PDOs, PDOa, SAI, SI, AI, WPw, and WPsp with and without time lag) commonly available (http://www. beringclimate.noaa.gov), only the Aleutian Low index, or NPIa (Kalnay et al., 1996) showed relatively strong association with annual B. magister catch off the north Kuril Islands (MIC D 0.53). However, although during 1980– 2012, increased catches were observed mainly in years with positive NPIa, and vice versa (Figure 71), only less than 10% of changes in annual catches were due to oscillations of NPIa, and most of the observed variability in catch was explained by temporal autocorrelation between catches in successive years (Katugin et al., 2013, 2014). 173 12.7.5. Stock-Assessment Methods Direct survey-based assessment of B. magister biomass in the major fishery area along the Kuril Islands is impossible because high-density squid aggregations are located on the narrow sharp slope and near rough ground in that area. The method of the so-called “trawl tracks” (Railko, 2005), which takes into account distribution patterns and behavior of the species, has been suggested to estimate the squid biomass in fishing areas off the Kuril Islands. It has been noticed that, during the fishing season, squid density decreased by the end of each fishing day, and the more vessels trawling for squid, the quicker the fall of catch per hour trawling. However, by the new day, when the fishing is resumed after a break for the night, squid again became numerous on the fishing grounds. Therefore, to calculate squid biomass, it has been assumed that, within a given depth range, all squid are taken out during a day of fishing and new squid migrate from adjacent areas and totally replenish the harvested aggregation. During 1987– 2012, biomass of B. magister assessed using the “trawl tracks” approach off the central and northern Kuril Islands, fluctuated from 77,000 to 284,100 t. However, along the Kuril slope, tracks for relatively safe bottom trawling are located within a narrow depth range on the slope, generally between 270 and 450 m, which automatically leads to underestimation of the real squid biomass in the region. The total area occupied by trawl paths or tracks, suitable for trawling, account for only 7– 10% of the slope area off the islands, where the squid occur in large quantities. Therefore, we may assume that biomass assessments for B. magister off the Kuril Islands are in fact underestimated. Contrary to that, in the northwestern Bering Sea, where the continental slope is less rugged (e.g., along the Koryak coast, Olutorskyi-Navarin region between capes Olutorskyi and Navarin), stock assessments for B. magister, based on bottom trawl surveys, which almost totally cover the depth range of squid occurrence, seem to be more realistic. For example, within a wide area from the Olutorskyi to Anadyr bays, the squid biomass has been assessed at about 190,000 t in the autumn of 1998 based on bottom trawl survey (Lapko et al., 1999). Seasonal changes in the squid distribution density in the western Bering Sea have been thoroughly studied during a experimental fishery by Japanese research bottom trawlers (Bizikov, 1996). It was shown that in May-June, mean density distribution of the squid is low, about 200–300 kg/km2; by August, average density grows to 500 kg/km2 and in aggregations even higher, up to about 2,000 kg/km2. The squid density grows toward early October, and then decreases. The instantaneous harvested stock of B. magister was estimated to vary from about 4,500 t in June to about 30,000–60,000 t in October in different years within the Olutorskyi-Navarin region. Retrospective data for the western Bering Sea (B. magister stock abundance estimated from research trawl surveys) suggested that, in the Olutorskyi-Navarin region, autumn biomass was the highest ever recorded during 1976–1979, about Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 174 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. 350,000–390,000 t (Fedorets and Kozlova, 1986), and decreased down to about 200,000 t in the 1990s (Fedorets et al., 1997). Assessments of B. magister biomass have been used to set limits for TAC of this species in major fishing areas. Conventionally, TAC is set at about 45–55% of the total assessed biomass within each major fishing area (waters off the Kuril Islands, waters off East Kamchatka, and western Bering Sea). Such a proportion of TAC from the total assessed biomass has been historically applied for B. magister taking into consideration similar values usually applied for short-lived iteroparous animals such as pelagic squid, for example, T. pacificus (Osako and Murata, 1983), and other squid species (Au, 1975). Usually, the TAC limit for B. magister has not been attained in any of the statistical fishing regions. Annual catch usually accounted for about 75% of the TAC off the north and central Kuril Islands and 50% of the TAC off east Kamchatka only rarely hitting the limit (e.g., in 2006 off the Kuril Islands), and has been considerably lower, accounting for only 10–12% of the TAC in the western Bering Sea though showing a positive trend in recent years (Dudarev et al., 2012). Such a discrepancy between areas in the use of TAC stems from the fact that, in the western Bering Sea, B. magister was harvested as a bycatch up to 2003 and mainly in autumn, and off the Kuril Islands, squid are fished almost all the year round. The fact that B. magister is harvested at a relatively low level (below TAC) does not allow us to apply the concept of MSY for the management of this species. However, the use of a production model fairly satisfactorily predicted biomass values, and given that, during the last decade, MSY showed a slight positive trend, as well as the percent of TAC taken annually, the TAC must be higher than 70,000 t even under a precautionary approach with bias-corrected approximate confidence limits of 80%. 12.7.6. Economic Importance The economic importance of B. magister can be estimated from the amount of and wholesale price for food products that are prepared annually from squid by different companies fishing for this species in Russia. Time series of production output and interpolated price for different B. magister frozen products which are delivered to the wholesale market (e.g., mantle without fins, skinned mantle without fins, arms, etc.) suggest that general production increases by the end of the year, which is associated with high squid catches during the autumn season; and though production output showed a similar intra-annual pattern every year, the price for products from squid varied among seasons and years (Figure 73). Beginning from 2009, the highest profit from selling the squid products on the market within Russia was made in 2011, reaching almost 4.5 billion rubles, which roughly equaled 150 million US dollars. Figure 73. Time series for food production (tons) from Berryteuthis magister delivered to the Russian whole-sale market and associated income from sales per unit of production weight (Russian Rubles per kg). 12.8. Thysanoteuthis rhombus (Diamond Squid, Diamondback Squid) 12.8.1. Stock Identification Mitochondrial DNA analyses of individuals collected around Japan (Okinawa, the Sea of Japan, and the Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands) and from the eastern Pacific near the Galapagos Islands have found no evidence of stock structure either around Japan or across the Pacific (Kitaura et al., 1998). 12.8.2. Distribution and Lifecycle Thysanoteuthis rhombus is a cosmopolitan species distributed worldwide in tropical and subtropical waters. In Japan, it occurs around central and southern Japan at higher latitudes than in other regions in the world due to its association with the Tsushima Current, which transports young stages northeastward from southern spawning grounds into the Sea of Japan (Nishimura, 1966). Catch data and stranding records suggest it is more abundant along the Sea of Japan coast than along the Pacific coast. Spawning in southern Japan appears to occur almost year round, and more than one microcohort is observed annually in the Sea of Japan (Miyahara et al., 2006c). Back-calculations from growth-increment counts in statoliths and catch dates indicate that individuals in the Sea of Japan hatch from January to September, with a peak in February–March. Spawning also occurs during summer-autumn in the Sea of Japan (Miyahara et al., 2006a), but individuals that hatch during this period will encounter reduced temperatures as they grow, which will slow growth and presumably reduce survival. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 175 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 75. Sequential diagram showing the descent of the taru-nagashi fishing gear. One fisher uses 30–80 sets of gear a day (daytime fishery), which are set along a north-south line approximately 100 m apart. A standing buoy signals that a squid has been hooked. Figure 74. Scheme and picture of typical gear used in the taru-nagashi fishery of Thysanoteuthis rhombus in the Sea of Japan. The gear used in the hatanagashi in Okinawa Prefecture is very similar, but has a longer main line (350–700 m) and more jigs. Also a flag is attached to the floating buoy so that fishers can find the gear easily in the wide ocean. The early life stages have characteristics similar to those of other oceanic squid whose young are passively dispersed (Miyahara et al., 2006b). Growth rates do not differ significantly between sexes, but the microcohorts in the Sea of Japan grow at different speeds depending on the time of hatching; earlier-hatched squid grow faster than later-hatched ones (Miyahara et al., 2006c). In the Sea of Japan, males mature from about 470–520 mm ML, and females mature from about 590–610 mm ML (Nazumi, 1975; Takeda and Tanda, 1997, 1998). Analyses of statolith growth increments and catch length–frequency data suggest its lifespan is about one year (Miyahara et al., 2006c). 12.8.3. Fishing Grounds The only country with a major fishery for T. rhombus is Japan. The main fishing grounds are the Sea of Japan, Okinawa Prefecture, and Kagoshima Prefecture, with most catches occurring in the Sea of Japan and Okinawa. Fishing trials have also been promising in the Pacific near the Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands and Izu Islands (Okutani, 1995b; 1998). The fishery in the Sea of Japan began in the early 1960s using baited hooks, and in 1967 vertical long line gear called “taru-nagashi” with an attached free-floating buoy was developed in Hyogo Prefecture. The gear is now used widely in the Sea of Japan. It comprises a weighted vertical main line (75– 120 m) attached to one or two jigs (artificial lures) approximately 300 mm in length with two to three rows of stainless steel hooks (Figure 74 and 75). The other end of the line is attached to a rectangular, fluorescent-orange buoy (float) that rests on its side at the surface until an attached jig is grabbed by a squid, which causes the buoy to stand up and signals to the fisher that a squid is on the line. The squid is then pulled either by hand or using a winch to the surface, where it is gaffed or netted, and brought on board. Since this gear is operated visually, it is primarily a daytime fishery (Figure 76). The fishing grounds in the Sea of Japan are located in coastal areas and extend from Shimane to Niigata Prefectures. Good catches occur where seawater temperatures during late summer to early winter are >19
C at 50 m and >14–15
C at 100 m (Miyahara et al., 2007a). Most squid in the catches are 300–800 mm ML and weigh 1–20 kg. In 1989, fishing gear used in the Sea of Japan was introduced in Okinawa Prefecture to target T. rhombus, which was previously collected as a bycatch in a fishery for purpleback flying squid (S. oualaniensis) (Kawasaki and Kakuma, 1998). The gear was adapted to suit oceanographic conditions there. This improved gear is named “hata-nagashi” (hata means “flag”). It comprises several jigs attached to a longer main line (300–750 m) than those used in the Sea of Japan, and the line is attached to several buoys and a flag at the surface. After it was introduced, catches increased, and the fishery spread throughout the prefecture and to Amami Oshima Island (Kagoshima Prefecture). MLs of squid caught around Okinawa and Kagoshima Prefectures range from 300 to 900 mm, and most measure 600– 800 mm (Kawasaki and Kakuma, 1998; Ando et al., 2004); this size is larger than those caught in the Sea of Japan. This difference is due to the different fishing seasons, growth rates, and migration routes (Figure 77). Interest in T. rhombus is growing outside Japan. There is a small-scale, artisanal fishery in the Dominican Republic (Herrera et al., 2011), and there is interest in developing fisheries in other areas of the Caribbean (JICA, 2010), the Philippines (Dickson et al., 2000), New Caledonia (Blanc and Ducrocq, 2012), the Cook Islands (Sokimi, 2013), and Fiji (SPC Coastal Fisheries Programme, 2014). 12.8.4. Economic Importance Together with T. pacificus and U. edulis, T. rhombus is one of the most important species for small-scale coastal squid fishers in the Sea of Japan, especially in southern areas. The annual fishery production value of T. rhombus in Hyogo Prefecture in 1998 reached 480 million yen (about US$4.7 million). About 40% of the catch from the Sea of Japan is landed in Hyogo, thus the overall production in the Sea of Japan was roughly 1.2 billion yen (about US$11.7 million). In Okinawa Prefecture, the estimated annual production during 2001–2010 was in the range of 1–2 billion yen (about Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 176 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 76. Photos showing how Thysanoteuthis rhombus is typically fished in Hyogo Prefecture (Sea of Japan). (A) A typical boat used in the fishery. Most boats are operated by one fisher. (B) A bouy (float) resting on its side, indicating that no squid has grabbed a jig attached to the line. If a squid grabs a jig, the buoy will stand up. (C) When a fisher spots a standing buoy, the gear is retrieved using a winch and by hand. (D) Buoys on deck. (E) When the squid reaches the surface, it is gaffed or netted, and brought onboard (F). US$9.75–19.5 million). T. rhombus has become a core target species, and catch amounts there are now second only to that of tuna. 12.8.5. Composition and Numbers of the Fishing Fleet In the Sea of Japan, fishers use boats smaller than five GRT. These squid are caught mainly using vertical long lines set by one to two fishers (usually one) on board privately owned boats. Licenses are not needed for angling, and the numbers of fishing boats vary depending on the annual biomass (immigration level) of T. rhombus and other squids, such as T. pacificus and U. edulis. Fishers also catch T. rhombus in inshore set nets. In Okinawa Prefecture, most fishers use boats of 5–10 t. In 2011, there were 300–400 boats in the drop-line fishery and 1 boat in the long-line fishery. 12.8.6. Duration of Fishing Period by Fishing Region Figure 77. Fishing seasons and estimated growths of Thysanoteuthis rhombus in the Sea of Japan and around Okinawa Prefecture. The fishing season in Okinawa (*) is based on annual instructions from the Okinawa Sea-area Fishery Adjustment Commission. Growths were estimated by substituting hatching dates of January 1 (J), February 1 (F), March 1 (Mar), April 1 (A), and May 1 (May). Thick curves: growth curves for T. rhombus in the Sea of Japan (Miyahara et al., 2006c). Thin curves: growth curves for those in tropical-subtropical waters calculated using the logistic formula from Nigmatullin et al. (1995). In the Sea of Japan, the fishery usually runs from early August to February, with highest catches occurring in September–November. Squid are transported by the Tsushima Current from upstream spawning grounds, which are thought to extend from the southwest Pacific to the East China Sea (Miyahara et al., 2006c). Immigration into the Sea of Japan through the Tsushima Strait starts in late spring and continues through early fall. The fishing period is subject to the amount and timing of this migration. The migrants are mainly postlarvae and juveniles, which are fished as they grow (Figure 77). In Okinawa and Kagoshima Prefectures, the fishing season is regulated. It runs mainly from November to June, with highest catches occurring during February–April. 12.8.7. Catch and Effort Data The Japanese national government does not publish official catch data for T. rhombus, but Bower and Miyahara (2005) reported that the total national catch peaked in 2001 at about 5900 t. Annual catches fluctuate widely in both the Sea of Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 177 The exploitation rates in 1999–2004 were 0.3–0.7, suggesting that the fishing pressure can be very high. However, the result of the VPA suggested that fishing pressure was not concentrated in the early fishing season, and growth overfishing was not observed. Recruitment into the fishery in the western Sea of Japan during the peak fishing season (September–November) has been shown to be positively related to seawater temperatures 600 km upstream in the Tsushima Strait in June, and several models incorporating environmental indices near the strait have been shown to accurately predict the annual CPUE in the fishery (Miyahara et al., 2005). The distribution and abundance of catches are also related to seawater temperatures on the fishing ground (Miyahara et al., 2007a). In Okinawa and Kagoshima Prefectures, the stock has not been assessed, but it is closely managed by administrative commissions and local governments. Annual official instructions of the Sea-area Fishery Adjustment Commissions regulate the fishing season, number of drop-line gear, number of jigs (artificial lures) on a long-line, fishing areas, etc. Nigmatullin and Arkhipkin (1998) estimated the worldwide biomass of T. rhombus to be at least 1.5–2.5 million t, but the worldwide standing stock is not known (NOAA et al., 2005). Figure 78. Annual catches of Thysanoteuthis rhombus in two major fishing regions in Japan. The Japanese national government publishes no official catch data for T. rhombus, and the catch amounts are estimated by local research institutes. Top: Hyogo Prefecture, which generally has the highest catches among prefectures in the Sea of Japan. Bottom: Okinawa Prefecture, which composes over approximately half of the national catch. Japan and Okinawa, but the variance is larger in the Sea of Japan. In the Sea of Japan, the annual abundance is strongly related to environmental indices (e.g., water temperature) near the Tsushima Strait, when the stock passes through the strait. Changes in catch amounts show similar trends among prefectures facing the Sea of Japan. Annual catches during 1990– 2012 in Hyogo Prefecture, which generally has the highest catches among prefectures in the Sea of Japan, ranged from 10 to 1179 t (Figure 78). The highest annual production in the Sea of Japan was about 3700 t in 1998. Catches in Okinawa compose over half of the national catch, and annual catches during 1990–2012 (caught from November to the following June) were about 800–2600 t (Figure 78). 12.8.8. Stock Assessment Management Miyahara et al. (2007b) assessed the stock of Hyogo Prefecture using the DeLury method (both the standard method and a modified one taking account of the natural mortality coefficient (M) as in Rosenberg et al., 1990) and VPA. The initial stock abundance in Hyogo Prefecture on August 1 ranged from 100,000 to 700,000 individuals, and the estimated overall abundance in the Sea of Japan in 1999–2004, when M was 0.05–0.1, was roughly 200,000–2,000,000 individuals. 12.8.9. Conservation Measures and Biological Reference Points In the Sea of Japan, the stock structure is strongly affected by environmental conditions when the squid migrate into the Sea of Japan. Environmental indices and CPUE have been found to closely correspond, so numerical models based on oceanographic conditions have been proposed to forecast future fishing conditions (Onitsuka et al., 2010). Strict in-season management can help prevent growth overfishing of the young, and simulation studies suggest that closing the fishery during the first 10–20 days, when the body size of recruited squid is small, will have little effect on total catch amounts due to its fast growth. In 2001, a community-based program to release small recruits was implemented and resulted in a more stable market price. On the other hand, there are no known measures that can effectively stabilize the catches during the following year. Extensive tagging studies have found no evidence of a return spawning migration to the East China Sea (Miyahara et al., 2008), and spawners in the Sea of Japan have few chances to produce future recruits under the present oceanographic conditions (null dispersion), so fishing pressure in the Sea of Japan probably does not affect the future stock size. In Okinawa Prefecture, more detailed fishery biological information about, for example, the migration during the offseason and the stock-recruit relationship, is needed to assess and evaluate the stock. But many management measures have resulted in efficient utilization of recruits and secure spawners. Continuous monitoring of exploitation strength in more Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 178 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. tropical regions is also needed to consider future management of the fisheries around Japan. 12.9. Watasenia scintillans (Firefly Squid) 12.9.1. Stock Identification In the Sea of Japan, there is thought to be one stock based on the extent of the spawning grounds (Nihonkai Hotaruika Shigen Kenkyu Team, 1991). Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 12.9.2. Distribution and Lifecycle The firefly squid is distributed in the western North Pacific. Individuals about 70 mm ML are distributed mainly in the Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk and along the Pacific coast of Japan (Okutani, 2005). Adults occur near the seafloor at depths of 200 m or more during the day and migrate upward to depths of 50–100 m at night (Nihonkai Hotaruika Shigen Kenkyu Team, 1991; Hayashi, 1995b). The lifespan is 12–13 months for females and 11–12 months for males (Yuuki, 1985; Hayashi, 1995b). Spawning in the Sea of Japan occurs mainly from April to June when the females aggregate around the 200 m isobath (shelf break) at the spawning grounds in the eastern Tsushima Channel, off Oki Island, in Wakasa Bay, and in Toyama Bay, but eggs are collected throughout the year (Yuuki, 1985; Nihonkai Hotaruika Shigen Kenkyu Team, 1991; Hayashi, 1995b; Kawano, 2007). In the southwestern Japan, the main spawning ground forms in Tsushima Current waters deeper than 130 m depth with salinity 34.2–34.6% (Kawano, 2007). Mating occurs mainly from January to March, after which the males die (Yuuki, 1985; Hayashi, 1995b). 12.9.3. Fishing Grounds In the Sea of Japan, there are two main fishing grounds, which correspond with the spawning grounds: Toyama Bay (Toyama Prefecture) and the southwestern Sea of Japan. In Toyama Bay, W. scintillans is caught in fixed nets set around and near the shelf break in the innermost part of the bay (Figure 79), where the shelf is narrow and the break runs near the coast. The catches comprise mostly mature females, which migrate to spawn. Uchiyama et al. (2005) suggested that the potential and optimum sea temperatures for squid fishing in Toyama Bay are 9–15
C and 11–13
C, respectively. The results of multiple regression analyses suggest that potential indices for forecasting the catch of squid entering the bay from spring include water temperature, salinity and predation pressure (Nishida et al., 1998). In the southwestern Sea of Japan, W. scintillans is caught in bottom trawls towed at 200–230 m bottom depth, and good catches occur where the 200 m isobath runs close to Japan (mainland and/or islands) such as off Mishima Island (Yamaguchi Prefecture), off Hamada (Shimane Prefecture), east of Figure 79. Locations of fixed nets used to fish Watasenia scintillans (shaded areas) in the innermost part of Toyama Bay, Japan. Oki Island (Shimane Prefecture), off Tajima (Hyogo and Tottori Prefecture), and off Wakasa Bay (Kyoto and Fukui Prefectures, Figure 80). Fishing grounds form due to factors such as bathymetric features, the upwelling of bottom cold water related to Japan Sea Intermediate Water (Senjyu, 1999) and/or Japan Sea Proper Water (Uda, 1934), and vertical diffusion of warm surface waters derived from the Tsushima Current. Catches early in the fishing season (through February) comprise mostly males, but during the peak fishing season (March–May), the catches comprise mostly mature females of 50–60 mm ML, which migrate nearshore to copulate and spawn. MLs of squid caught in the southwestern Sea of Japan are slightly smaller than those caught in Toyama Bay in the same period (Nihonkai Hotaruika Shigen Kenkyu Team, 1991). 12.9.4. Economic Importance In Toyama Prefecture, W. scintillans is marketed fresh or live, and served mainly either raw (mantle and arms) or boiled Figure 80. Main Watasenia scintillans fishing grounds by bottom trawl fisheries in the southwestern Sea of Japan. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 179 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 81. Design of a typical fixed net used to fish Watasenia scintillans in Toyama Bay. (whole). The annual catch value of W. scintillans in Toyama Prefecture during 1985–1990 was 0.5–1.6 billion yen (about US$ 4.9–15.8 million at May 2013 exchange rate), which was 4–11% of the total annual value of the fishery in Toyama Prefecture (Hayashi, 1995b). In recent years, the annual catch value in Toyama Prefecture has been about 1 billion yen (about US$ 9.9 million at May 2013 exchange rate) (Uchiyama et al., 2005). The firefly squid is also an important tourist attraction. Many people enjoy watching the bioluminescent flashing of squid caught by fixed nets in the early morning and of squid that wash ashore. Part of Toyama Bay has been designated by the Japanese government as a special natural monument called “Hotaru-ika Gunyu Kaimen,” meaning “sea surface” where W. scintillans schools. In the southwestern Sea of Japan, W. scintillans is now one of the most important target species for bottom trawlers. Recent annual catch values of W. scintillans have been about 1.1 billion yen (about US$ 10.8 million at May 2013 exchange rate), which accounts for about 6% of annual total catch value from bottom trawls (mean in 2010–2012, from Tottori to Ishikawa Prefecture). In the peak fishing season (March–May), W. scintillans composes 21% of the total catch value from the bottom trawls. In Hyogo Prefecture, where most of the catch in the southern Sea of Japan is landed, 96% of bottom trawlers target W. scintillans in April. During this month, W. scintillans composes 57% of the total catch amount and 54% of the total catch value. Figure 82. Annual catches of Watasenia scintillans fished by the fixed nets in Toyama Bay (Toyama Prefecture) in 1953¡2012 and by the bottom trawls in the southwestern Sea of Japan in 1984¡2012. the females returning offshore after spawning inshore (Hayashi, 1995a). Squids that enter the net at night are landed before daybreak and transported to markets in the morning. Trawl fisheries for firefly squid in the southwestern Sea of Japan operate using single seine trawlers of <10–125 t. The bottom trawls are operated only in daytime when adult squids are distributed near the seafloor. During 2010–2012, about 40% of bottom trawlers from Tottori to Ishikawa Prefecture targeted W. scintillans. The trawlers use special trawling gear to catch W. scintillans effectively and avoid bycatch such as brittle stars (Ophiura sarsisarsi et al.) and snow crabs (Chionoecetes opilio). The gears consist of large-sized nets with small meshes (cod-end meshes D around 13 mm) and lightweight ground ropes. The nets are suspended from the ground rope using vertical ropes or major meshes. 12.9.6. Duration of Fishing Period by Fishing Region In Toyama Bay, the fishing period for fixed nets lasts from March to July. Peak catches have usually occurred from late April to early May (Uchiyama et al., 2005), but in recent years, catches have occurred earlier (from late February to early June with a peak in April) (Nanjo unpubl. data). In the southwestern Sea of Japan, the fishing season for bottom trawls occurs during January-May, with a peak in March–May. 12.9.5. Composition and Numbers of the Fishing Fleet Probably, fishing for W. scintillans began as early as 1585 using primitive fixed nets (Inamura 1994), and now it is one of the most important fisheries in Toyama Prefecture. Recently 46 fixed nets have been used to catch W. scintillans in Toyama (Nanjo unpubl. data); in the late 1980s, 52–54 fixed nets were used (Nihonkai Hotaruika Shigen Kenkyu Team, 1991). Fixed nets used for fishing W. scintillans have a large trap with a chamber, which has side walls reaching to the surface, and is closed at the bottom by netting to catch W. scintillans guided from a funnel-shaped entrance by a long leader net (Figure 81). The leader net is placed toward the shore to guide 12.9.7. Catch and Effort Data The annual landings by fixed nets in Toyama Bay during 1953–2012 fluctuated considerably between about 500 and 3900 t, with a mean of about 1900 t (Figure 82). In the southwestern Sea of Japan, the stock was first exploited as bycatch in 1984, after which bottom trawlers began to target the stock (Figure 82). In 1985, the catch amount in the southwestern Sea of Japan exceeded that of Toyama Bay. Since 1986, catches have reached 2500–4500 t. About 130 fishing boats target the squid in this area (mean in 2010–2012). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 180 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 12.9.8. Stock Assessment and Management The stock in the Sea of Japan has been assessed using the DeLury method, scientific echo sounders, and the egg production method (Nihonkai Hotaruika Shigen Kenkyu Team, 1991). The most accurate method, the egg production method, which is based on data from the broadest sea areas in the Sea of Japan, indicated that overall exploitation rates in the Sea of Japan during 1986–1989 were 0.03–0.05. This suggests that the fishing pressure was low enough to prevent recruitment overfishing (Nihonkai Hotaruika Shigen Kenkyu Team, 1991). Fishing with fixed nets in Toyama Bay also seems to prevent recruitment overfishing, because females can spawn before being caught. The exploitation rates using fixed nets in the bay between 1986 and 1990 was estimated to be 0.142–0.222 (Hayashi, 1995b), and the number of fixed nets has remained stable at around 50 during the last 30 years. In the southwestern Sea of Japan, fishers in Hyogo Prefecture have used community-based management to limit maximum landing of each boat to 300–400 boxes (2.4–3.2 t) during the peak fishing season. During June–August, the season is regulated by a ministerial ordinance. 12.9.9. Conservation Measures and Biological Reference Points The firefly squid is an important micronektonic species in the Sea of Japan (Okiyama, 1978). It is an important prey in the Sea of Japan ecosystem (e.g., as a prey for flathead flounder Hippoglossoides dubius (Uchino et al., 1994)), and management of the stock of this species should consider its niche in the Sea of Japan ecosystem and potential trophic cascades that could result following its removal from the ecosystem (Yamasaki et al., 1981). 12.10. Todarodes pacificus (Japanese Flying Squid) 12.10.1. Distribution and Lifecycle The Japanese flying squid, T. pacificus, is an ommastrephid squid with a 1-year lifecycle distributed in the northwest Pacific including the Sea of Japan (Soeda, 1950; Hamabe and Shimizu, 1966; Araya, 1967; Okutani, 1977, 1983). T. pacificus spawns year round with a peak during autumn and winter (Hamabe and Shimizu, 1966; Araya, 1967; Okutani, 1977, 1983; Kasahara, 1978). The distribution range shifts seasonally with changes in water temperature (Soeda, 1950; Araya, 1967; Okutani, 1977, 1983); the northern limit of its range reaches about 50
N in September and about 40
N in April. 12.10.2. Stock Identification The Japanese flying squid is divided into three or four cohorts based on spawning season, of which the autumn and winter cohorts are the largest in terms of biomass (Araya, 1967; Okutani, 1977, 1983; Osako and Murata, 1983; Kidokoro et al., 2003; Kidokoro, 2009). The autumn cohort spawns mainly from October to December, and is distributed and landed primarily in the Sea of Japan (Figure 83). The winter cohort spawns mainly from January to March, migrates counterclockwise around the Japanese Islands, and is caught primarily in the Pacific Ocean (Figure 83). The catch statistics of each stock are divided based on differences found in the fishing grounds throughout the seasons using monthly catch statistics (Kidokoro et al., 2003). Figure 83. Diagrams of the migration routes of Todarodes pacificus autumn cohort and winter cohort (modified from Kidokoro et al. 2010). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Figure 84. Catch composition of Todarodes pacificus by fishing methods in Japanese fisheries. 181 Figure 85. Main fishing grounds and fishing season for Todarodes pacificus around Japanese waters. In this figure, main fishing methods are also shown in each fishing ground (modified from Yamashita and Mori. 2009). Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 12.10.3. Fishing Grounds The fishing grounds shift seasonally as T. pacificus migrates. By June, individuals of the autumn cohort measure approximately 200 mm ML and begin to be caught by commercial fisheries in the Sea of Japan. In July, the winter cohort is targeted by commercial fisheries in the Pacific Ocean. The autumn cohort is fished in the Sea of Japan during June– December. The winter cohort is fished during July–December in the Pacific and during January–March in the Sea of Japan. 12.10.4. Composition of Fishing Fleets The Japanese flying squid is fished using several fishing methods, but the main method is jigging. There are two categories of jigging vessels: coastal jiggers and offshore jiggers. Coastal jiggers in Japan are restricted in size to less than 30 t, and offshore jiggers are restricted to between 30 and 200 t (to 100 t in the 1980s). The Japanese flying squid is also fished by offshore trawlers, large and medium-scale purse seiners and set nets, and the catches by these fisheries has increased since the 1990s (Yamashita and Kaga, 2013). Jiggers caught approximately 90% of the total catch during the 1980s (Figure 84), but this percentage declined in the early 1990s to approximately 60% since 2000. Ratios of the other methods have increased, in particular, offshore trawlers, and set nets have reached approximately 10–20% since the 1990s (Figure 84). The main fishing methods used differ among regions (Kidokoro et al., 2013; Yamashita and Kaga, 2013). In the Sea of Japan, T. pacificus is fished mostly by coastal and offshore jiggers (Figure 85). They operate on fishing grounds that are divided into various geographical regions. Coastal jiggers fish coastal areas in the Sea of Japan, and offshore jiggers fish the central part of the Sea of Japan (Figure 85). Catches in coastal areas are landed fresh, and offshore catches are frozen on board. In the Pacific, T. pacificus is taken largely by coastal jiggers, but more than half of the total catch is taken by other fisheries, that is, offshore trawlers, large- and medium-scale purse seiners, and set nets. In the Sea of Okhotsk and Nemuro Strait, the northeastern most fishing ground in Japan (Figure 85), most of the catches are taken by set nets and coastal jiggers, but annual catches have been changing dramatically. 12.10.5. Economic Importance The Japanese flying squid is commercially the most important cephalopod species in Japan. Annual landings have totaled approximately 500 million dollars in value since the mid1970s. They are used not only as fresh foods but also processed foods. There are many factories that process squid in cities near the fishing grounds (e.g., Hakodate and Hachinohe). The annual sales of processed squids are very important for these cities (e.g., in recent years, annual sales of processed squid in Hakodate have been approximately 500 million dollars). In these cities, industries associated with the fishery are important for generating employment. Therefore, stock size fluctuations of T. pacificus have greatly affected local communities and economies in these cities. 12.10.6. Catch Statistics Trends in catch statistics for the Japanese common squid are closely related with the development of the fishery as well as changes in stock size. Before the 1930s, squid were fished in coastal areas with hand lines and jigs from small boats. In the 1940s and 1950s, the fishing boats were motorized, and the fishing grounds expanded offshore. In the 1960s, the number of fishing vessels with large freezers increased, and in the 1970s, most vessels were equipped with squid jigging machines. Squid fishing has been conducted in Japan for several hundred years, but reliable catch statistics are available for only the past 100 years (Figure 86). Total annual landings of Japanese common squid in Japan were less than 200,000 t before the 1930s and increased in the 1940s with the development of commercial fisheries. Annual landings were usually 400,000– Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 182 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 86. Annual changes in the catches of Todarodes pacificus by Japanese fisheries, which are shown by region (Pacific region, Sea of Japan). 500,000 t during the 1950s and 1960s, but decreased during the 1970s, and dropped to 100,000 t in the mid-1980s. In the 1990s, landings increased and have rebounded to about 300,000–400,000 t. However, annual landings have decreased gradually since 2000 (Figure 86). Annual catches in the Sea of Japan were less than 100,000 t during the 1950s and 1960s (Figure 86). They rose to 200,000–250,000 t in the early 1970s due to the development of offshore fisheries (Kasahara, 1978), but declined to 150,000 t during the mid-1970s and the 1980s with the decline of the stock size of the autumn cohort. Annual catches in the Sea of Japan increased again in the early 1990s with the rebuilding of the stock size of the autumn cohort, but have decreased gradually since 2000 and have been approximately 100,000 t in recent years. Annual catches in the Pacific were approximately 300,000– 400,000 t during the 1950s and 1960s (Figure 86). They declined drastically in the early 1970s, and were approximately 10,000–30,000 t during the 1970s and 1980s. This decline is considered to have been caused by a drastic decline in the stock size of the winter cohort in the beginning of the 1970s (Murata, 1989). However, annual catches in the Pacific region increased in the 1990s, and have been approximately 100,000–200,000 t in recent years (Figure 86). The decline in the stock size of Japanese common squid during the 1970s and 1980s was considered to have been caused by excessive fishing effort at that time (Okutani, 1977; Doi and Kawakami, 1979; Murata, 1989). However, it is now clear that changing environmental conditions also affects the stock size (Sakurai et al., 2000; Kidokoro et al., 2003). For example, expansion of the spawning grounds with the 1989 regime shift (Goto, 2002), which is thought to have been caused by changing environmental conditions (Sakurai et al., 2000; Kidokoro 2009), was a cause of the increased stock size. 12.10.7. Changes in CPUE and Fishing Efforts Changes in the CPUE and fishing efforts for T. pacificus in Japanese fisheries are shown in the assessment reports on the fisheries stocks around Japan (Kidokoro et al., 2013; Figure 87. Annual changes in the CPUEs of coastal jigger and offshore jigger target for Todarodes pacificus. CPUE of coastal jigger is based on the data of operated in the Pacific region. CPUE of offshore jigger is based on the data of operated in the Sea of Japan (modified from Kidokoro et al. 2013; Yamashita and Kaga. 2013). Yamashita and Kaga, 2013). In the Sea of Japan, CPUE (t/vessel/d) of offshore jiggers was usually below 1.0 t/vessel/d in the 1980s (Figure 87). This has increased since 1989, and has remained high (2.0–3.0 t/vessel/d) for the past two decades (Figure 87). In the Pacific, the CPUE of coastal jiggers was approximately 0.1 ton/vessel/d, until the latter half of the 1980s, but increased to over approximately 1.0 ton/vessel/d since the 1990s, and has been around 0.7–1.0 t/vessel/d in recent years (Figure 87). The stock size of the autumn cohort has been rather large for two decades (Kidokoro et al., 2013), but annual catches have been decreasing in the Sea of Japan since the beginning of the 2000s. This decrease has been due to decreasing fishing effort. The number of offshore jigger vessels has been decreasing for 30 years (Figure 88). The annual number of operation days by offshore jiggers in the Sea of Japan was more than 100,000 days during the mid-1980s, but this decreased during Figure 88. Annual change in the fishing efforts of coastal jigger and offshore jigger targeted for Todarodes pacificus. Fishing effort of coastal jigger is shown by the days operated in the Pacific region. Fishing effort of offshore jigger is shown by the days operated in the Sea of Japan (modified from Kidokoro et al. 2013; Yamashita and Kaga. 2013). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 183 Figure 89. Annual changes in the quota on Japanese Todarodes pacificus fisheries. TAC is shared into major fisheries in the Japanese management system. In these figures, annual catches by each fishery are also shown. the next two decades to approximately 15,000–20,000 days in the late 2000s (Figure 88). On the other hand, fishing effort in the Pacific coast appears to have not decreased. The annual number of operation days by coastal jiggers that landed catches at major ports in the Pacific, have been stable at 30,000 days since 1990 (Figure 89). These differences in fishing effort by region are considered to have led to the differences in catch trends by region observed in the 2000s. 12.10.8. Stock Assessment Methods and Management Although some Japanese fisheries have been regulated through licensing systems, practical management has been left up to the fishermen themselves. The Japanese Fisheries Agency has managed seven major fisheries stocks since 1997 using the TAC method. T. pacificus was added to the TAC management plan in 1998. The annual TAC is set by the government through a process that weighs a combination of socioeconomic factors and the ABC recommended by researchers at the national fisheries research institute. T. pacificus is assessed as two stocks (autumn cohort and winter cohort), and an ABC is recommended for each stock, but TAC is set for the total annual catch using the sum of the two recommended ABCs. The TAC is shared among the major fisheries (coastal jiggers, offshore jiggers, offshore trawlers, large and medium scale purse seiners, and set nets) and regulated separately by the fisheries, although the ratios of actual landings to TAC differ among fisheries (Figure 89). The calculations of the Japanese ABCs are modeled after those used in the United States (Restrepo et al., 1998). ABC (ABClimit) is calculated from the fishing mortality (Flimit) and forecasted stock abundance in the target year. The Flimit usually uses BRPs (e.g., Fmsy, Fmed, F0.1: see Caddy and Mahon, 1995) or current fishing mortality when the current stock size is above a threshold stock size (Blimit). If the current stock size is below the Blimit, then the Flimit should be set below the BRP to rebuild the stock to an acceptable level within an appropriate time frame (Restrepo et al., 1998). The BRP used as the Flimit is revised every year using data from recent surveys. Change in the annual stock size of T. pacificus has been monitored by surveys conducted by scientific research vessels with jigging machines at the beginning of the fishing season since the 1970s (Kidokoro et al., 2013; Yamashita and Kaga, 2013). The density of T. pacificus at each station is estimated based on the CPUE (the number of individuals caught/squidjigging machine/hr (ind./hr)) of the research vessels, and the average CPUE is used to calculate the annual stock index (Kidokoro et al., 2013; Yamashita and Kaga, 2013). Stock abundance is quantified based on the stock index, which is assumed to be related to stock abundance. Spawning stock abundance (the number of survivors) is calculated as survivors after fishing season based on the stock abundance, annual catch and natural mortality, which is assumed to be 0.6 (Kidokoro et al., 2013; Yamashita and Kaga, 2013). BRPs are estimated based on the estimated spawner-recruit relationship. Currently ABC is calculated based on Fmed (Caddy and Mahon, 1995) and the forecasted stock abundance, which are both estimated from the spawner-recruit relationship (Figure 90). ABClimit is calculated from Flimit and the forecasted stock abundance, which is also estimated based on the spawner-recruit relationship. In this way, the spawner-recruit relationship plays an important role in the present assessment and management method for T. pacificus in Japan (Kidokoro et al., 2013; Yamashita and Kaga, 2013). In most cephalopod stocks, there is usually no clear relationship between spawning stock abundance and subsequent Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 184 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. recruitment (Pierce and Guerra, 1994; Basson et al., 1996; Uozumi, 1998). However, it is well known that spawning stock abundance of T. pacificus as determined from the paralarval density shows a clear positive relationship with stock abundance in the following year (Okutani and Watanabe, 1983; Murata, 1989; Sakurai et al., 2000). This indicates that the spawner-recruit relationship can be used to estimate the BRP and to forecast recruitment (Kidokoro et al., 2013; Yamashita and Kaga, 2013). For ommastrephid squids, annual variability in oceanographic conditions causes annual variation in recruitment strength (Dawe et al., 2000; Waluda et al., 2001). Moreover, decadal or inter-decadal variations or regime shifts also influence the stock status (Sakurai et al., 2000). The stock size and landings of ommastrephid squids fluctuate widely on decadal and inter-decadal scales. The spawner-recruit relationship of T. pacificus is assumed to change with changing environmental conditions; in particular, decadal or inter-decadal changes are assumed to influence the stock status and spawner-recruit relationship (Kidokoro et al., 2013; Yamashita and Kaga, 2013). Therefore, the parameters used in our spawner-recruit relationship were estimated from data collected since 1990 following an apparent regime shift (Figure 90), but when the current regime changes, these parameters should be revised accordingly. However, it is unclear how changing environmental conditions influence the stock size of T. pacificus, and it is difficult to predict when the regime shift might occur. On the other hand, the results of investigations show that the spawning grounds (Goto, 2002), migration routes (Nakata, 1993; Kidokoro et al., 2010), and body size (Takayanagi, 1993) all show changes that coincide with changing stock size. These changes are assumed to be closely connected with changing environmental conditions (regime shifts) and/or stock abundance. In particular, the shift in the spawning grounds may affect the survival rate of paralarvae accounting for the changing stock size. We need to better understand these ecological changes and how they affect stock size to allow us to better forecast future trends in stock abundance. 12.11. Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis (Purpleback Flying Squid) 12.11.1. Stock Identification The purpleback flying squid has a complex population structure comprising three major and two minor forms (see Section 11.1). Data from the northwest Indian Ocean on ML composition and maturity stages suggest several other groups of different sizes may exist in addition to the above forms (Chen et al., 2007). There is partial overlap in the geographic ranges of these forms. Three seasonal subpopulations with differing size-maturity relationships have been reported from Taiwanese waters (Tung, 1976). Roper et al. (2010) suggested Figure 90. Spawner–recruit relationship in the autumn cohort. There is a significant positive relationship between the number of spawners and recruits in the following year (modified from Kidokoro et al. 2013). that the species is in the process of intensive adaptive radiation and all five forms are species in the nascent state. 12.11.2. Distribution and Lifecycle The purpleback flying squid is widely distributed in tropical and subtropical oceanic waters of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, generally where the bottom depth exceeds 200– 400 m and where the surface temperature ranges from 16
to 32
C (Roper et al., 2010). The distribution is patchy and concentrated in areas of high productivity between 40
N and 40
S (Snyder, 1998). High-latitude areas are used by migrant squid as foraging zones, mainly by females (Roper et al., 2010). The species is abundant (»5 t km¡2) in the northwest Indian Ocean and South China Sea. 12.11.3. Fishing Grounds Currently, no large-scale fisheries target this species. The development of commercial fisheries is impeded for three reasons: (1) its scattered and patchy distribution in the open ocean; (2) the lack of an effective fishing method; and (3) the relatively poor quality of the meat compared to other species. Despite these shortcomings, there are small-scale fisheries in the South China Sea, near Okinawa and in the Arabian Sea (Figure 91) using automatic squid jigging, light-attraction falling nets (LAFN) and hand jigging (Chen et al., 2007; Peng et al., 2010). The fisheries target mainly adults larger than 25 mm ML. The species is also collected as bycatch. 12.11.4. Economic Importance The purpleback flying squid has increased in importance as a fishery resource during the last decade as several countries have been trying to develop fisheries. China recently developed a small-scale fishery in the South China Sea and Arabian Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 185 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 91. Locations of small-scale fisheries for Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis in the South China Sea, near Okinawa and in the Arabian Sea using automatic squid jigging, light-attraction falling nets and hand jigging. Sea. In 2008, the estimated value of the catch in the South China Sea was US$ 4 million (Peng et al., 2010). Between 2006 and 2009, mean monthly catches decreased from 197.1 t to 56.7 t, whereafter many fishing vessels switched to other fisheries in the South China Sea (Peng et al., 2010). In Hawaii, the species is used mainly as bait in the tuna handline fishery. Globally, little research has been conducted with the aim to develop commercial fisheries for S. oualaniensis; however countries bordering the Arabian Sea and South China Sea have recently shown an interest in developing fisheries. To explore the feasibility of a commercial jigging fishery on oceanic squid in the South China Sea and western Philippines, the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) (2000) conducted a survey in the region in 1998 under the SEAFDEC Collaborative Research Program. Countries that participated in the survey included Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Japan. The survey estimated biomasses of 283 metric t in the western Philippines and 1.132 million metric t in the South China Sea (Siriraksophon, 2009). To date, no commercial fishery has been developed in the region. Due to decreasing coastal resources, India has recently begun exploring offshore waters. Research cruises have been conducted to explore potential fishing areas for S. oualaniensis in the central Arabian Sea. Both gillnets and automatic jigging machines were used, and gillnets were found to be effective for the adult species (Mohamed et al., 2011). Dense aggregations (»130,000 ind./km2) of juveniles ranging from 3 to 30 mm ML were observed and collected from surface waters using scoop nets. The stock abundance of adult squids was estimated to be 5 t/km2. The purpleback flying squid was studied in the Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea under the “Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management in the Bay of Bengal,” a collaborative survey project carried out from October to December 2007 by Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Thailand. The objective was to assess potential fishery resources, including S. oualaniensis. Catches were slightly higher in the Andaman Sea (n D 30) than in the Bay of Bengal (n D 9), but were too low for fishers to develop a commercial fishery (Sukramongkol et al., 2008). CPUE using automatic jigging machines was 0.03 kg/line/hr. In 1997, jigging trials conducted in northern Australian waters yielded small catch amounts (Dunning et al., 2000). The Fishery Agency of Japan conducted two survey cruises during 1975–1976 in the Arabian Sea to examine pelagic fish abundance as part of FAO’s project on the Indian Ocean. These cruises identified dense aggregations of S. oualaniensis in the mesopelagic layer (100–300 m) during daytime and epipelagic layer at night (Fishery Agency of Japan, 1976). In 1995, the Fishery Agency of Japan conducted another survey cruise in the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean to study the abundance and biology of S. oualaniensis. This survey recorded all three major forms of S. oualaniensis with higher CPUEs for middle-sized and giant forms. Ommastrephid paralarvae were also collected, with S. oualaniensis paralarvae dominating the catch (»33%) in the northern Arabian Sea (Yatsu, 1997; Yatsu et al., 1998a). High amounts of cadmium, urea, and ammonium chloride in S. oualaniensis makes it less palatable than other squid on the market (Nakaya et al., 1998; Narasimha Murthy et al., 2008; Roper et al., 2010). Additional food processing is required to make it competitive against other squid products. 12.11.5. Composition and Numbers of the Fishing Fleet In 2008, 50 boats in the South China Sea caught a total of 5000 t. In 2009, the market price decreased, and only 10 boats remained in the fishery, with a total landing of 500 t (Peng et al., 2010). Artisanal fisheries using dipnets and hand jigs are conducted near Okinawa (Japan), Taiwan, and Hawaii (USA) (Roper et al., 2010). Other countries where S. oualaniensis is caught either in small-scale fisheries or as bycatch include Vietnam, Iran, Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia and India. In India, it is collected as bycatch by shrimp trawlers (Mohamed et al., 2011) and as incidental catch by fishers targeting tunas and sharks using small hook and lines (Mohamed et al., 2006). In the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea, it is collected Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 186 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. as bycatch in the Iranian fishery for the skinnycheek lantern fish (Benthosema pterotum) (Valinassab et al., 2007). 12.11.6. Duration of Fishing Period by Fishing Region In the South China Sea, the main fishing season lasts from March to April with an average catch of 2 t/d (Peng et al., 2010). The main fishing gear includes automatic jigging machines and LAFNs. The fishery in Okinawa runs from June to November, and the fishery in Taiwan runs from March to November, with peak catches occurring during May–August. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 12.11.7. Stock Assessment and Management The total biomass has been estimated to be near 8–11.2 million t, including 3–4.2 million t in the Indian Ocean and 5– 7 million t in the Pacific Ocean (Roper et al., 2010). Biomass has been estimated based on visual observations (e.g., Zuev et al., 1985) and on CPUE (e.g., Chesalin and Zuev, 2002). 12.12. Ommastrephes bartramii (Neon Flying Squid) 12.12.1. Stock Identification, Distribution, and Lifecycle The neon flying squid (O. bartramii) is a large, oceanic species widely distributed from subtropical to subarctic waters in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans (Bower and Ichii, 2005; Roper et al., 2010). Three major populations (subspecies) inhabit the North Pacific, North Atlantic, and circumglobal Southern Hemisphere (Roper et al., 2010). Significant genetic differences have been found between the populations in the North Pacific and Indian Ocean (Kurosaka et al., 2012) and between those in the North Pacific and South Atlantic (Wakabayashi et al., 2012). The North Pacific population is widely distributed across the Pacific mainly between 20
and 50
N. It comprises two cohorts: an autumn-spawning cohort that hatches from September to February and a winter–spring cohort that hatches mainly from January to May, but extending to August. The population can be further separated into four stocks based on the mantle-length composition (Yatsu et al., 1998b), distribution of paralarvae (Mori, 1997), and rates of infection by helminth parasites (Nagasawa et al., 1998): (1) central stock of the autumn cohort, (2) east stock of the autumn cohort, (3) west stock of the winter–spring cohort, and (4) central-east stock of the winter–spring cohort. The autumn cohort is fished in the central and the northwest Pacific from late May to late July, and the winter–spring cohort is fished in the northwest Pacific and off northeast Japan from early July to February. The neon flying squid makes an annual round-trip migration between its subtropical spawning grounds and its northern feeding grounds near the Subarctic Boundary. The feeding ground of the winter–spring cohort extends from off eastern Japan to off western Canada, whereas that of the autumn cohort occurs mainly east of the Emperor Seamounts, that is, Figure 92. Squid landings in Japan. 170
E (Ichii et al., 2006). The neon flying squid matures at 7– 10 months of age and has an estimated 1-year lifespan (Yatsu et al., 1997). Katugin (2002) reported a small but significant shift in genetic composition between western and eastern populations in the North Pacific, as evidenced by allele frequency distribution, and a slight difference in the total level of genetic variability. But Kurosaka et al. (2012) found no clear genetic differences among sampling locations in the North Pacific. 12.12.2. Fishing Grounds The neon flying squid is widely distributed in several oceans, but fished commercially only in the Pacific Ocean. It is fished mainly in summer and autumn between 36
and 46
N latitude near its northern feeding grounds. Experimental jigging surveys for O. bartramii conducted during 1968–1974 off the Sanriku and Hokkaido coasts of Japan found large densities during summer and autumn (Murata et al., 1976). The squid ranged in size from 200 to 400 mm ML (Akabane et al., 1979), and the species was found to be acceptable for processing (Araya, 1987). When landings of Japanese flying squid (T. pacificus) began to decrease in the early 1970s (Figure 92), some Japanese fishers switched to jigging for O. bartramii in the northwest Pacific. During 1974– 77, landings increased rapidly from 17,000 to 124,037 t. In 1978, a driftnet fishery began in the same region, and the fishing ground expanded eastward off northeast Japan to near 165
E (Araya, 1987; Murata, 1990) (Figure 2). As the driftnet fishery grew, conflicts developed between Japanese jigging and driftnet fisheries over the exploited stock and fishing grounds. To resolve these problems and conserve the stock, in 1979 and 1981, the Japanese government established a licensing system, delineated the fishing grounds (west of 170
E for the jigging fishery, and between 170
E and 145
W for the driftnet fishery) and limited the fishing season (Yatsu et al., 1994). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES In the early 1980s, South Korean and Taiwanese driftnet fisheries also developed (Araya, 1987). The South Korean fishery operated from coastal waters off northwest Japan to 150
W (Gong et al., 1993a). In the autumn and early winter, the South Korean fishery was concentrated from 142
E to 160
E where the Japanese jigging fleet was operating. The fishing grounds of Taiwanese squid fishing vessels are located around 30
to 47
N, particularly between 35
and 45
N. The ranges have been as far as 150
W during the period of drift-net operation (1981 to 1992). However, the fishing grounds have been located between 150
and 170
E for the past two decades. Due to the large impact the driftnets had on nontarget species (Northridge, 1991), the General Assembly of the United Nations imposed a global moratorium at the end of 1992 on the use of large-scale high seas driftnets (Bower and Ichii, 2005). Japanese medium-scale jigging vessels continued exploiting nearshore waters off northeast Japan after the moratorium. In 1996, there were about 100 Japanese jigging vessels operating on the former driftnet fishing grounds east of 170
E (Ichii, 2002). The first survey on this squid by the Chinese squid jigging boats was made in the North Pacific in 1993. Chen et al. (2012) used the catch per fishing day (CPUE, t/d) of O. bartramii from the Chinese mainland squid jigging fleets on the feeding ground (150
–165
E and 38
-4-6
N) during August to October from 1998 to 2007 to calculate the monthly latitudinal gravity center of CPUE (LATG), and analyzed the relationship between the Kuroshio and the spatial distribution. Regression modeling of LATG versus Kuroshio transport also revealed a significant (p < 0.05) influence of Kuroshio strength on north-south movement of O. bartramii. Sea surface temperature was the environmental variable most significantly correlated with LATG (p < 0.01), indicating that the distribution of O. bartramii is controlled by optimal thermal habitat. 12.12.3. Economic Importance Demand for O. bartramii increased as catches of Japanese flying squid decreased in the early 1970s. In 1978, Russia prevented access of the Japanese salmon driftnet fishery to its EEZ (Araya, 1987), so O. bartramii offered an alternative for the displaced salmon fishers. The species was acceptable for processing, so it became an important resource for the Japanese squid market supplying various food products, especially deep-fried squid, soft squid jerky, and semi-dried and seasoned squid (called “saki-ika” in Japanese). In the late 1970s, annual landings by mid- and large-sized jigging vessels were valued at approximately 1.6 billion US$ (based on 1978 yen-dollar exchange rate) (Miki, 2003; Ishida, 2008). Recently, its economic importance has increased in other Asian countries. The price of the frozen O. bartramii now costs about 2–4 US$ (200– 400 yen) more per kg than Japanese flying squid The price varies depending on catch amount and the availability of 187 other species (e.g., jumbo flying squid (D. gigas)) (Ueno and Sakai, 2010; Sakai et al., 2010). 12.12.4. Composition and Numbers of the Fishing Fleet In 1973, Japanese jigging vessels fishing for O. bartramii ranged in size from 50 to 138 GT and numbered 2006 (Miki, 2003). The number decreased to 812 vessels in 1983. Driftnet fishing vessels in Japan numbered 534 in 1981 and 457 in 1990 (Yatsu et al., 1994). In 1980, South Korean and Taiwanese driftnet vessels numbered 14 and 12, respectively, and by 1990 the number of boats in both countries had increased to 142 and 138, respectively (Gong et al., 1993a, b; Yeh and Tung, 1993). Since the closure of the driftnet fishery, catches by Chinese vessels have increased dramatically (Hu, 2003). The number of Chinese vessels in the fishery has fluctuated, but Koganezaki (2002) reported more than 500 jigging vessels were operating in the central and northwest Pacific, including within the Japanese EEZ. Little information is available on the Taiwanese fishing fleet. Recently, Taiwan fishers have developed fishing vessels that operate both squid jigging gear and light trapping nets for Pacific saury (Cololabis saira). The gear can be used alternatively but not simultaneously. These vessels target two species, making it difficult to estimate the size of the jigging fleet. 12.12.5. Duration of Fishing Period by Fishing Region In the late 1970s, the Japanese squid jigging fishery operated off northeast Japan from July to December (Akabane et al., 1979). Several years later, driftnet and jigging vessels operating in the same area came into conflict (Araya, 1987), whereupon in 1981, the Japanese government began regulating the fisheries. The driftnet fishery was allowed to operate from June to December in the central North Pacific (20–46
N, 170
E–145
W). The South Korean driftnet fishery operated from off northeast Japan to 160
W during early summer and autumn, and in the northwest Pacific during autumn to early winter (Gong et al., 1993b). The Taiwanese squid fishery (mainly driftnet vessels) operated from April to November between 150
E and 145
W (Yeh and Tung, 1993). Since the driftnet moratorium, the Japanese jigging fishery has operated in the central North Pacific from early summer to autumn and off the coast of northeast Japan in winter (Bower and Ichii, 2005).The Chinese fleet reportedly fishes mainly at 40
–46
N, 150
–165
E during August–November (Chen et al., 2008). 12.12.6. Catch and Effort Data Catch data were first collected in the North Pacific by Japan and Taiwan in 1974 (Table 4). Annual catches during 1985– 1990 by Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan ranged from 248,000–378,000 t (Murata and Nakamura, 1998; Figure 93). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 188 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Table 4. Catch and effort of O. bartramii in the North Pacific by Japan, China, South Korea, and Taiwan. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Japan Year Jig catch 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 17,000 41,164 81,739 124,037 105,000 76,000 70,450 56,803 57,575 45,043 29,061 51,010 22,900 21,034 15,610 15,888 34,376 13,434 2,272 15,279 77,744 86,270 81,528 83,384 116,494 69,168 35,002 30,812 17,880 26,400 28,874 16,690 29,882 9,268 42,126 21,844 7,566 8,586 Driftnet catch (t) 45,000 48,000 121,585 103,163 158,760 215,778 123,719 197,795 152,226 208,319 157,773 171,014 187,660 101,638 99,800 China Driftnet effort (panels) NA NA NA NA 21,928,768 25,224,746 29,251,829 34,023,355 36,367,294 32,017,130 36,055,567 34,385,032 22,769,857 23,636,744 19,568,627 Jigging catch (t) 2,000 15,000 23,000 73,000 83,770 102,918 117,278 132,836 125,655 81,377 84,967 83,770 106,508 99,327 South Korea No. jigging boats NA NA 94 191 374 340 304 398 450 426 365 205 212 227 Following the driftnet moratorium, the winter-spring cohort became the target of an international jigging fishery (Koganezaki, 2002; Chen and Chiu, 2003), with annual catches reaching 100,000–200,000 t (Chen et al., 2007). The Japanese jigging fleet has operated from near the coast of northeast Japan to the central North Pacific, but effort data have not been published. A large-scale jigging fishery by Chinese vessels started in 1994, and a total of 23,000 t catch was landed with an average of 234.6 t per fishing vessel. In 1995, the catch was expanded to 73,000 t as a result of an increase in the number of fishing vessels. The maximum Chinese catch in 1999 reached 132,000 t (Figure 93). During 2000–2008, the annual catch ranged from 80,000 to 124,000 t. But a sharp fall in catch after 2009 showed the annual catch to have reached only 34,000–56,000 t (Figure 93). Driftnet catch (t) 37,732 49,441 70,762 59,024 84,470 100,898 134,120 123,786 NA NA Driftnet effort (panels) 5,634,961 12,506,039 13,943,441 17,587,232 19,781,364 24,594,370 24,780,316 24,590,505 Taiwan Driftnet catch (t) 28 540 792 880 2,505 3,385 5,732 15,405 24,749 23,469 27,600 21,800 13,887 18,578 10,478 29,696 13,573 NA NA Driftnet boat no. 12 44 73 101 146 124 110 94 179 167 138 No. jigging boat 1 5 11 6 14 23 27 28 25 34 Figure 93. Annual catches of Ommastrephes bartramii by Japan (JPN), Taiwan (TWN), South Korea (KOR), and China (CHN) during 1974–2011. Chinese catches after 2006 are estimates. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Figure 94. Production of Ommastrephes bartramii and number of vessels for Taiwanese distant-water squid fishery in the Northwest Pacific between 1976 and 2011. Taiwanese squid fishing vessels began harvesting O. bartramii in 1977. The squid were initially harvested by the Taiwanese fleets using jigging, but in 1980, the Taiwanese fleets shifted to harvesting with large Japanese-imported driftnets. The annual production varied from 5,000 (1980) to 29,000 t (1989) between 1980 and 1992, with an annual average production of about 18,000 t (Figure 94). The annual number of vessels ranged from 39 to 183 during the same period. After a moratorium on driftnet fishing implemented at the end of 1992, O. bartramii were again harvested by Taiwanese jigging from 1993. The annual production of O. bartramii by Taiwanese jiggers varied from 23 (2011) to 34,000 t (1998) between 1993 and 2011, with an annual average production of about 7,000 t (Figure 94). The number of vessels ranged from 1 to 77 during 1993–2011, with almost no Taiwanese vessel jigging squids in the Northwest Pacific after 2007. Chen (2010) found that stocks in the northwest Pacific and northeast Pacific exhibited opposing trends in abundance suggesting that large-scale environmental factors are more critical than regional factors in influencing its abundance. But in a smaller scale study in the Northwest Pacific, Tian et al. (2009) suggested that spatio-temporal factors may be more important than environmental variables in influencing the CPUE. Roper et al. (2010) reported a total instantaneous biomass in the North Pacific of about 3–3.5 million t. 12.12.7. Stock Assessment and Management To assess how the former driftnet fishery affected the stock size of the autumn cohort, Ichii et al. (2006) conducted a stock assessment using three methods: the swept area method, the DeLury method, and the production method. The first method estimates stock size by expanding the mean density of a target species over its distribution area. The second estimates an initial stock size assuming a closed stock (i.e., with no immigrants or emigrants) that declines as a consequence of fishing mortality. The third is 189 a simple biomass dynamic model based on catch and relative abundance data, with parameter estimates that do not assume equilibrium. The stock size estimates using the three different methods were very similar (330,000– 380,000 t), and they reported that the swept area estimate was likely the most reliable. They also suggested that the driftnet fishery may have decreased the stock to around half of its unexploited size. For the winter/spring cohort in waters west of 170
E, Osako and Murata (1983) estimated the annual sustainable catch to be 80,000–100,000 t. Chen et al. (2008) concurred with this estimate. They fitted a modified depletion model to the Chinese jigging fisheries data to estimate the squid stock abundance during 2000–2005. Effects of using different natural mortality rates (M) and three different error assumptions were evaluated in fitting the depletion model. The assessment results indicated that the initial (prefishing season) annual population sizes ranged from 199 to 704 million squid with the M value of 0.03–0.10 during 2000–2005. The proportional escapement (M D 0.03–0.10) for different fishing seasons over the time period of 2000–2005 ranged from 15.3% (in 2000) to 69.9% (in 2001), with an average of 37.18%, which was close to the management target of 40%. From 2000 to 2005, the annual catch from the Chinese jigging fishery ranged from 64,000 t (in 2002) to 104,000 t (in 2000); the other fishing fleets, Japan and Taiwan, had annual catches of less than 10,000 t and 300–8500 t, respectively, during this period (Chen et al., 2008). There are currently no governance/management measures for O. bartramii fisheries on the high seas of the North Pacific. The North Pacific Fisheries Commission, a regional fisheries management organization now forming with the objective of long-term conservation and sustainable use of the fisheries resources in the North Pacific, is expected to include O. bartramii in its list of managed species. 12.12.8. Conservation Measures and Biological Reference Points There are no specific conservation measures in the North Pacific other than the driftnet moratorium. Ichii et al. (2006) suggested that a relative fishing mortality F/FMSY of 0.8–1.2 and a figure of 40% of the proportional escapement (number of squid alive at the end of the fishing season as a proportion of those which would have been alive had there been no fishing), which were derived from Japanese driftnet fishery data collected during 1982–1992, be used as management targets for the autumn cohort, however these targets have not been evaluated for the jigging fishery since the driftnet fishery closed. For the winter/spring cohort, Chen et al. (2008) consider that fishing mortality in the jigging fishery is at a sustainable level, but also note that the decrease in proportional escapement and escapement biomass from 2001 to 2005 suggest the stock might have been overexploited. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 190 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 13. SOUTHWEST PACIFIC The Southwest Pacific encompasses the ocean territories of the eastern side of Australia, all of New Zealand, and several Pacific Island states and territories including New Caledonia and Vanuatu. The broader Southwest Pacific region is generally characterized by deep waters with many seamounts about which mesopelagic fish resources are exploited. To the southeast of New Zealand there is an extensive raised area, the Campbell Plateau, of around 200 m depth. Another more shallow area extends from the centre of New Zealand in a northwesterly direction, the Lord Howe Rise, continuing to the eponymous mid-Tasman Sea islands. The types of habitats that are exploited in this area are varied and support varied types of fisheries, including small-scale or artisanal fisheries, coastal continental fisheries and deepwater seamount fisheries. Squids, cuttlefishes and octopuses account for approximately 10% of the catch for much of the area (the region corresponding to FAO area 81). The key squid fisheries in the Southwest Pacific are for N. gouldi and N. sloanii, with N. gouldi the focus in Australia and a combination of both species targeted in New Zealand. The New Zealand fishery is a low-value, high-volume fishery targeted by foreign vessels (Korean and Ukrainian predominantly), with both trawl and jig fisheries operating in different subregions. Sepioteuthis australis, in the southern half of Australia and north of New Zealand, and S. lessoniana in the northern half of Australia and north island of New Zealand are smaller volume fisheries but achieve a much price higher per kilo and are considered a superior product. Minor catches of several Uroteuthis spp. also occur throughout the Southwest Pacific. 13.1. Sepioteuthis australis (Southern Reef Squid) 13.1.1. Stock Identification Sepioteuthis australis has diamond-shaped fins that extend the length of the body with varied color patterns ranging from orange-brown to white with black bands to almost transparent (Norman and Reid, 2000). The species has maximum size up to 550 mm ML and can weigh up to 4 kg (Pecl, 2001, Lyle et al., 2012). A recent study used polymorphic microsatellite markers to assess the connectivity and population structure of S. australis across its southern Australian range. Little genetic differentiation was detected in samples collected from Western Australia to south-eastern Tasmania, indicating a panmictic population (Smith et al., in press). Currently there is little genetic evidence that the NZ Sepioteuthis bilineatus is a different species from S. australis (Triantafillos and Adams, 2001). Spawning occurs throughout the year, as evidenced from collections of reproductively mature S. australis in most months (Moltschaniwskyj et al., 2003), and back calculation of hatch date from statoliths (Pecl and Moltschaniwskyj, 2006). So while the generations of S. australis overlap, there is no evidence of population structure around season of spawning (Moltschaniwskyj and Pecl, 2003). However, in Tasmania, a single location on the east coast, Great Oyster Bay, contributes at least 55% and up to 84% of the fished S. australis caught from along the east and southeast Tasmanian coast, and this is also the only region in that larger area with any evidence of self-recruitment (Pecl et al., 2011). 13.1.2. Distribution and Lifecycle Sepioteuthis australis is endemic to southern Australia and northern New Zealand waters ranging from Dampier, Western Australia, along the southern coast and up to Moreton Bay, Queensland, including Tasmania (Norman and Reid, 2000). This inshore species inhabits coastal waters and bays usually in depths <70 m (Winstanley et al. 1983). The distribution and abundance of the species in South Australia’s Gulf St Vincent has a strong seasonal pattern, with spawning adults moving anticlockwise around the Gulf from the south-eastern corner in spring to the western boundary in winter (Triantafillos, 2001). This is related to the seasonal wind patterns affecting water clarity, as water clarity is important for their highly visual reproductive behavior (Jantzen and Havenhand, 2003). Sepioteuthis australis populations are spatially segregated, with juveniles and subadults predominantly in offshore waters, while reproductively mature adults use the inshore areas. Sepioteuthis australis has a relatively simple lifecycle. Adults typically form discrete spawning aggregations in association with shallow seagrass meadows, where courting, mating and egg deposition occur (Jantzen and Havenhand, 2003). Courtship is behaviorally complex, and females will mate with more than one male (Van Camp et al., 2003), before attaching their fertilized eggs to seagrass, macroalgae holdfast, or low relief reef. Up to 10 eggs are deposited within digitate eggs strands, with each strand attached to a common point (i.e., seagrass holdfast) to form an egg mass of >200 egg strands (Moltschaniwskyj and Pecl, 2003). More than one female can contribute to an egg mass resulting in considerable genetic diversity within a discrete egg mass (van Camp et al., 2004). Juveniles undergo direct embryonic development within the egg mass and hatch out after 6–8 weeks (Steer et al., 2002). Once hatched, juveniles are structurally and functionally adept and adopt a pelagic lifestyle, moving offshore to feed and grow prior to returning inshore to reproduce (Steer et al., 2007). Acoustic tracking of mature adults around the spawning grounds has revealed that males and females move on and off the spawning ground for at least 2–3 months, possibly spawning intermittently over this time (Pecl et al., 2006). While spawning occurs year round, the peak typically occurs during spring and early summer (Moltschaniwskyj and Steer, 2004). Sepioteuthis australis are short-lived (<12 months) (Pecl, 2001) and, consequently, display strong interannual variability in species abundance and recruitment (Moltschaniwskyj et al., 2003). Growth rates are rapid, individuals can increase their Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES body weight by as much as 8% per day, and the growth pattern is nonasymptotic, with rates differing between the sexes as males generally grow faster and attain larger sizes (Pecl, 2004, Pecl et al., 2004a). Females are reproductively mature as early as 117 days, 0.12 kg and 147 mm ML while males mature at 92 days, 0.06 kg and 104 mm ML (Pecl, 2001). Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 13.1.3. Fishing Grounds Sepioteuthis australis contribute to multi-species marine fisheries in all southern Australian states, particularly South Australia and Tasmania (Lyle et al., 2012). They are fished in shallow coastal bays with the peak catch obtained during spring and summer coinciding with the peak in spawning activity when they form large spawning aggregations (Moltschaniwskyj et al., 2003). Fishing methods primarily include hand jigs and haul nets (Lyle et al., 2012) and fishing does not appear to be sex-selective (Hibberd and Pecl, 2007). Trawlers targeting prawns and demersal fish, in South Australia and New South Wales (NSW), respectively, incidentally catch S. australis and sell it as by-product (Lyle et al., 2012). 13.1.4. Economic Importance Sepioteuthis australis is currently sold on local and national markets and there has been little international export interest (ABARES, 2011). In comparison with most other cephalopod products, S. australis generally achieves a high wholesale price. For example, between 1979 and 1999 the wholesale price ranged from $3–7/kg AUD; however, the price is now upward of $12/kg with the increased price thought to be behind localized increases in fishing effort (Green et al., 2012). Throughout Australia, S. australis is not regarded as an economically important species, although it is of key importance for individual fishers targeting the species. It is also an 191 important recreational fishery in many parts of southern Australia. 13.1.5. Composition and Numbers of the Fishing Fleet Commercial catch in 2010 was reported from 240 vessels in South Australia, 92 vessels in NSW, 52 vessels in Tasmania, 54 vessels in Victoria, and 27 vessels in the Commonwealth (Lyle et al., 2012). In South Australia and Tasmania most of these are small vessels, < 6 m in length, and predominantly use hand jigs. In NSW, fish and prawn trawlers land most of the S. australis catch. In Victoria, haul seines are predominantly used to target S. australis, while the Commonwealth trawlers in the Southern and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery (SESSF) occasionally take S. australis as a by-product. 13.1.6. Catch and Effort Data Total commercial catch across Australia in 2010 was 530 t, with. approximately 65% of this catch (348 t) was harvested from South Australia. The remainder of the catch was taken in Victoria (72 t), Tasmania (54 t) and NSW (48 t), with the Commonwealth accounting for just 8 t (Lyle et al., 2012). Of the total catch, recreational harvest is significant. In Tasmania, recreational fishers accounted for 44.6 t (30%) of the State’s total catch in 2007–08 (Lyle et al., 2012). Commercial catch data from 1990 to 2008 shows catch rates in Victoria and Tasmania have been relatively stable (around 50–100 t harvested per year), while NSW catches have declined (Figure 95). 13.1.7. Stock Assessment and Management Due to the lack of formal stock assessments, there is insufficient information to allow confident classification of the species status across all Australian State jurisdictions. Figure 95. Commercial catch (t) of Sepioteuthis australis and contribution by each jurisdiction to total catch in south-east Australia (%) by year for South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Tasmania. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 192 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Consequently, S. australis is classified as an “undefined” stock in many states, with some jurisdictions relying on performance indicators and limit reference points to describe the relative status of the stock (Lyle et al., 2012). In Tasmania and South Australia, the stocks are assessed using performance indicators based on commercial catch, effort, and catch rate trends. Comparison of these indicators against limit reference points in both these jurisdictions suggests that s. austrlis is currently harvested within sustainable limits (Lyle et al., 2012). In NSW and Victoria, no formal performance indicators are applied, apart from reports of trends in production (including effort and catch rates). In Victoria, the commercial fishery is characterized by decreasing effort and increasing catch and catch rates. In the Commonwealth, S. australis is considered a by-product species and little is known about stock structure, biomass, or the effects of fishing pressure (Lyle et al., 2012). In Tasmania, strategic spatial and temporal closures of the fishery have been instituted during peak spawning in spring/ summer to ensure the sustainability of the resource is not compromised (Moltschaniwskyj et al., 2002). Other states have instituted spatial and temporal gear restrictions; however, these are more generic measures and not specific to the harvest of S. australis. In South Australia, the quantification of the capture of subadults in the prawn trawl fishery has been used as a means to forecast S. australis recruitment strength (Steer et al., 2007). However, there are no early indicators of population size or reproductive potential in other states. The impacts of these environmental stressors (development, pollution, and climate change) on southern calamari may be significant, as S. australis populations have the capacity to rapidly respond to a changing environment, whether it is favorable or unfavorable, and subsequently boom or bust (Pecl et al., 2004a). Due to the mobility of the species and its flexible life history, the species may be quite resilient with a high capacity for adaptation (Pecl and Jackson, 2008). However, based on a recent multi-species assessment of the sensitivity to climate change drivers, S.australis was designated as “medium-high” sensitivity to climate change (Pecl et al., 2014). Any changes in the distribution and abundance of S. australis may cascade through the food chain. While S. australis may adapt due to their lack of prey specialization, there may be major trophic impacts on higher order predators, such as marine mammals and large teleosts, with unpredictable effects on inshore communities. 13.2. Nototodarus gouldi (Gould’s Flying Squid) and N. sloanii (Wellington Flying Squid) Gould’s flying squid and Wellington flying squid are discussed here together, except for the Southern Islands fishery around Auckland and the Campbell Islands (New Zealand), where the two species are managed as a single fishery within an overall TACC. 13.2.1. Stock Identification 13.1.8. Conservation Measures A preference for egg deposition on the seagrass Amphibolis tasmanica suggests that changes in distribution and abundance of A. tasmanica may influence the spatial patterns of spawning and spawning behavior of S. australis (Moltschaniwskyj and Steer, 2004). Current environmental pressures on seagrass habitats and inshore communities that have the potential to influence the success of the species include the effects of coastal development, marine pollution, ocean warming, and changing weather patterns (Hobday and Lough, 2011). Warmer temperatures accelerate embryo development and result in smaller hatchlings (Pecl et al., 2004b). As natural mortality is size-mediated hatchling size determines the relative success of survival (Steer et al., 2003), changes in temperature will affect final size and survival of the individuals. In addition, the predicted increase in intensity and frequency of storm events associated with climate change may potentially increase the loss of eggs from spawning grounds due to the dislodgement of eggs from the seagrass (Moltschaniwskyj et al., 2002). Sepioteuthis. australis also have limited capacity to tolerate low salinity conditions and are sensitive to the chemical composition of seawater, for example, the absence of strontium can result in abnormal statolith formation leading to mortality (Hanlon et al., 1989). Gould’s flying squid, N. gouldi (McCoy, 1888) is a common ommastrephid species found south of 27
S off Australia and the northern and central coasts of New Zealand (Dunning and Forch, 1998). Collections from six locations around southern Australia (700–4,300 km separation) suggest that the N. gouldi population is a single species, with little support that the metapopulation is panmictic (Triantafillos et al., 2004). However, minor stock structuring was evident; with animals on the northern coast of NSW having significant allelic differences compared with Tasmanian and southern NSW animals (Jackson et al., 2003). Comparing the shape of statoliths from squid collected in Victoria to squid collected in the Great Australian Bight suggested significant phenotypic heterogeneity in stocks; whereas elemental composition analysis of the statoliths suggested that N. gouldi caught at either location hatched throughout their Australian distribution (Green, 2011). Based on electrophoresis of the enzyme glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, morphology of the hectocotylus, and prevalence of parasites, two species of Nototodarus are found off New Zealand; N. gouldi and N. sloanii (Smith et al., 1981; Smith et al., 1987). Both species mix in waters off the west coast of the South Island and waters off the east coast of the Northern Island; however, N. gouldi dominates the west coast of the Northern Island and N. sloanii dominates the south and east coasts of the South Island of New Zealand (Uozumi, 1998). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 13.2.2. Distribution and Lifecycle Gould’s flying squid typically inhabits waters where surface temperatures range from 11 to 25
C on the continental shelf and slope (50–200 m) to a depth of <500 m, however, are also observed in estuarine habitats during summer periods (Winstanley et al., 1983, Dunning and Forch, 1998, Uozumi, 1998). In Australia and New Zealand, N. gouldi lives up to 12 months; females reach a maximum of 393 mm ML and 1655 g total body weight, and an estimated age of 360 d; while males are smaller, reaching a size of 366 mm ML, 1057 g, and a maximum age of 325 d (Uozumi, 1998, Jackson et al., 2003, Jackson et al., 2005). During cooler months, female N. gouldi grow slower and have less gonad investment compared with females caught in warmer months (McGrath Steer and Jackson, 2004). N. gouldi collected in 1979–1980 matured at 220 mm ML compared with 300 mm ML for females (O’Sullivan and Cullen, 1983). In contrast, female squid caught in Tasmania during 1999–2000 matured at 328 mm ML (Willcox et al., 2001). Eggs are released in fragile gelatinous spheres up to 1 m in diameter (O’Shea et al., 2004) and drift in oceanic currents probably at a pycnocline (Boyle and Rodhouse, 2005). Nototodarus gouldi spawn multiple times, releasing eggs in small batches during their life, with spawning occurring year round (Uozumi, 1998, McGrath and Jackson, 2002, Jackson et al., 2003, Jackson et al., 2005); though fecundity is unknown. In New Zealand, N. gouldi and N. sloanii hatch between January and December. Growth of the two species is different among sexes with the mean difference in ML at 300 days of age being 41 and 32 mm for N. gouldi and N. sloanii respectively; with females growing larger than males. (Uozumi, 1998). The maturation process is also similar among species; however, N. gouldi mature about one month earlier (Anon, 2013). At 50– 60 days of age, rhynchoteuthion larvae are distributed on the shelf and shallow waters (Uozumi, 1998). No clear difference in the geographical distribution of young adult N. gouldi and N. sloanii, at three different age groups, indicates that these species do not migrate on a large scale; however, N. gouldi may migrate north with maturity (Uozumi, 1998). Both species in New Zealand are thought to migrate to shallower water to spawn. It is assumed that the northern species of N. gouldi is a single stock, and that N. sloanii around the mainland comprises a unit stock for management purposes, though the detailed structure of these stocks is not fully understood (Anon, 2013). Growth of N. gouldi in Australian waters is spatially variable, with water temperature and productivity thought to be responsible (Jackson et al., 2003). Individuals hatching over summer and autumn grow fastest, possibly due to greater primary production (Jackson et al., 2003). Commercial catches indicate a complex population structure with multiple cohorts. Off the coast of Victoria, up to four N. gouldi cohorts were found during one year; however, these cohorts may be a function of four sampling times and not separately spawned animals (Jackson et al., 2005). 193 Female N. gouldi migrate to Tasmanian coastal waters in summer (Willcox et al., 2001), but large scale inshore/offshore migrations associated with reproduction have not been observed with mature males and females found in all sampled locations in southern Australia (Jackson et al., 2003, Jackson et al., 2005). New Zealand N. gouldi also display no large inshore / offshore migrations; although, older animals tend to be found offshore (Uozumi, 1998). In Bass Strait (between Victoria and Tasmania), N. gouldi move <100 km over 57 d (Dunning and Forch, 1998), and N. gouldi do move in and out of bays in south eastern Tasmania (Stark et al., 2005). Analysis of jig caught N. gouldi suggest that squid which aggregate on or near the bottom, migrate to shallower waters in response to stratified prey distributions (Nowara and Walker, 1998) which is supported by echo sounding results from a similar area (Evans, 1986). However, larger scale inshore/offshore migratory characteristics of N. gouldi are unknown. 13.2.3. Fishing Grounds Although N. gouldi are distributed widely around the coast of southern Australia (Dunning and Forch, 1998), fishing is generally conducted off NSW, Victoria, Tasmania, and South Australia and concentrated near fishing ports for ease of access to fishing grounds. Squid caught inshore by jiggers are larger, consist of a higher M:F ratio and have a greater percentage of mature females that suggested inshore spawning (Green, 2011). Biological differences in the catch composition of N. gouldi from Australian waters suggest jig fishers operating inshore catch a larger percentage of the spawning biomass than trawling offshore (Green, 2011). In New Zealand, Nototodarus spp. are caught by trawl and jig; however, it is not known whether these different methods and locations of capture catch different proportions of the population. 13.2.4. Economic Importance In Australia, N. gouldi are mainly sold through domestic fish markets as arrow or Gould’s squid where wholesale prices range from AUD$1.30 to AUD$1.70 per kg (1991–92). Such low prices have sustained over time with sale price around AUD$1.30 per kg in 2007–08. In 2008, the Southern Squid Jig Fishery (SSJF) recorded its lowest annual catch of 106 t, with 87% of the catch caught near Portland (Victoria). The gross value of production fell by 78% to AUD$236,000 which was thought to be in response to low levels of effort in the fishery. Many fishers found it uneconomical to fish due to the low sale price coupled with increases in fuel cost (Wilson et al., 2009). In 2011/2012, catch increased in the jig fishery and was worth approximately AUD$1.6 million (Woodhams et al., 2012). Influences in both wharf and market prices in Australia and variable catch has meant a decline in the economic importance (McKinna et al., 2011). In New Zealand, the N. gouldi/N. sloanii fishery is lowvalue, high-volume fishery targeted by foreign vessels which are chartered by New Zealand companies. An export value of Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 194 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 96. Distribution of Commonwealth Trawl Sector squid catch, 2011; inset: relative fishing intensity in the Southern Squid Jig Fishery, 2011 (Woodhams et al., 2012). NZ$71m was estimated to be exported to markets in China, Greece, Korea, the USA, Taiwan, Spain, and Italy during 2008. In New Zealand, squid can be purchased in supermarkets in the freezer section. 13.2.5. History, Composition, and the Numbers of the Fishing Fleet 13.2.5.1. Australia. In 1969/1970, the Japanese owned Gollin Gyokuyo Fishing Company conducted feasibility studies around Tasmania, Australia for unexploited fisheries (Willcox et al., 2001). With increased interest from Australian fishers, first commercial catches of N. gouldi taken in Australia Figure 97. Total number of fishing permits, active vessels and effort in the southern squid jig fishery from 1996 to 2011 (Woodhams et al., 2012). occurred in the Derwent estuary (Tasmania) in 1972/1973 when around 30 vessels caught 154 t in two months over summer (Wolf, 1973). Realising the potential to establish a fishery, a joint venture between the Japanese Marine Fishery Resources Research Centre was established with a view of (1) exploiting new resources (2) contributing to sound development of a squid fishery and a stable supply of fish products; and (3) contributing to the increased benefit of both Japan and Australia (Machida, 1979). Nineteen vessels caught 3387 t in the first year; whereas 64 vessels caught 7914 t in the second year off South Australia, Victoria and Tasmania (Wilson et al., 2009). Other joint ventures with Australia followed with the inclusion of Korean and Taiwanese jigging vessels fishing between 1983 and 1988, taking between 13 t and 2300 t per year (Wilson et al., 2009). Although N. gouldi are distributed widely around the coast of south eastern Australia (Dunning and Forch, 1998), fishing is generally conducted locally near fishing ports for ease of access to fishing grounds. In 1987, there was only one vessel operating in Bass Strait. From 1988 effort increased and fluctuated between 7 and 17 vessels with catch not exceeding 400 t until 1995 when 1260 t was landed (Wilson et al., 2009). From 1997 to 2009, the number of active vessels and jig effort had decreased. From 1997 to 2007, catch exceeded 1000 t on seven occasions. In 2008 and 2009, jig fishing resulted in 179 t (883 jigging hours) and 308 t (1,229 jigging hours) of squid caught; whereas trawling accounted for 3.5 and 1.8 times more squid caught respectively (Wilson et al., 2010). Only 7% and 3% of the total N. gouldi catch in 2008 and 2009 respectively (trawl and jig sectors combined) were caught in the GABTS. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 98. Catch and number of Japanese jig vessels fishing New Zealand waters (Uozumi, 1998). In Australia, N. gouldi are caught and landed by jig and trawl vessels. It is targeted within the SSJF; whereas it is retained as bycatch in the Commonwealth Trawl Sector (CTS) and the Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector of the within the SESSF (Figure 96). Within the SSJF, there is a relatively large amount of latent effort. In 2011/2012, there were 56 permits and 13 active vessels (Figure 97). Approximately 3,800 jigging hours were used to catch 650 t. In the CTS and GABTS, 735 ts and 14 ts were caught respectively (Woodhams et al., 2012). 13.2.5.2. New Zealand. The fisheries for these species developed in the late 1960s when low catches of Japanese flying squid (T. pacificus) in Japan prompted fishers from Kanagawa Prefecture to try squid jigging in New Zealand waters (Kato and Mitani, 2001). Although the squid jig fishery in New Zealand began in the early 1970s, its peak occurred in the early 1980s where greater than 200 squid vessels fished the EEZ (Anon, 2013). The jig fishery was developed by Japanese, Korean and Taiwanese under a joint venture where up to 60,000 t were caught. In the late 1980s, the number of jiggers fishing declined from over 200 in 1983 to around 15 in 1994 (Uozumi, 1998) possibly due to poor prices due to an oversupply in the market (Anon, 2013). Trawling by Russian, Japanese and Korean vessels caught up to 60,000 t annually in the 1980s. Historically, the New Zealand jig and trawl fisheries display variable catch; however, this is likely attributed to the number of vessels (Figures 98 and 99). The jig catch in SQU 1J declined from 53,872 t in 1988/1989 to 4,865 t in 1992/1993 but increased significantly to over 30,000 t in 1994/1995, before declining to just over 9,000 t in 1997–1998 (Anon, 2013). The jig catch declined to low levels for the next 5 years but has increased in 2004/2005 to 8,981 t. From 1986 to 1998, the trawl catch fluctuated between about 30,000–60,000 t, but in the last few years dropped to much lower levels as the impact of management measures to protect the Hooker’s sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri) restricted the catch from region SQU 6T (Anon, 2013). 195 Figure 99. Catch and number of Japanese trawl vessels fishing New Zealand waters (Uozumi, 1998). In New Zealand, there are three commercial squid fisheries; two trawl fisheries which cover the majority of the EEZ and a region located around the Auckland Islands in the sub-Antarctic; and a squid jigging fishery that covers most of the EEZ (www.newzealand.govt.nz), however, are mostly surrounding the main islands. The fisheries are split in to four fishing zones; Figure 100. Fishing sectors of the New Zealand squid fishery (Anon, 2013). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 196 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 101. Nototodarus gouldi catch history for the Australian southern squid jig fishery, Commonwealth Trawl Sector and Great Australian Bight Trawl Sector from 1986 to 2011 (Woodhams et al., 2012). SQU10T, SQU1J, SQU1T, and SQU6T (Figure 100). Both species are targeted by mainly Korean and Ukrainian foreign vessels which are chartered by New Zealand companies (www.newzealand.govt.nz). 13.2.6. Duration of Fishing Period by Fishing Region In Australia, fishers operating in the SSJF concentrate most effort in waters of Bass Strait (between Tasmania and Victoria), and near Portland in western Victoria in depths ranging from 60 to 120 m (Larcombe and Begg, 2008). N. gouldi are caught using automatic jigging machines normally at night with fishers preferring new moon periods from January to June. Vessels use up to 12 machines consisting of two spools; each consisting of up to 25 jigs that are vertically lowered then lifted. High-powered lights are normally positioned along the midline of the vessels with a function to direct light downward to the sea’s surface while casting a shadow underneath the vessel. New Zealand Catch and effort data from the SQU 1T fishery show that the catch occurs between December and May, with peak harvest from January to April (Anon, 2013). 13.2.7. Catch and Effort Data In Australia from 1988, effort increased and fluctuated between 7 and 17 vessels with catch not exceeding 400 t until 1995 when 1,260 t was landed (Wilson et al., 2009). From 1997 to 2009, the number of active vessels and jig effort has decreased. From 1997 to 2007, catch exceeded 1,000 t on seven occasions. In 2011, total jig catch increased significantly to 650 t from 62 t in 2010; the CTS catch was 735 t, up from 483 t (Figure 101). The majority of catch from both the jig and trawl sectors is N. gouldi; however, other ommastrephids are also captured including Antarctic flying squid Todarodes filippovae and neon flying squid O. bartramii (Larcombe and Begg, 2008). Bycatch in the SSJF is very small; however, barracouta Thyrsites atun and blue shark Prionace glauca also attack jigs. In New Zealand during 2012, approximately 35,000 t were landed (sectors combined); however this level was well below the combined quota of 127,332 t. Trawl fishers contributed to 94.8% most catch. Like Australia, the catch is temporally variable (Figure 102). Catch and effort data from the SQU 1T fishery show that the catch occurs between December and May, with peak harvest from January to April (Anon, 2013). 13.2.8. Stock Assessment and Management In Australia, there is insufficient information available to estimate annual biomass and hence determine a TAC for the current year. As a result, the N. gouldi resource is managed using total allowable effort restrictions determined annually and a harvest strategy that monitors catch and effort in the jig and trawl sectors within a fishing season (Dowling et al., 2007, Dowling et al., 2008, Smith et al., 2008). Within the SESSF during 2011, 560 standard jig machines are permitted to fish for N. gouldi in the SSJF with the CTS and GABTS able to retain squid as a bycatch. The “harvest strategy” uses trigger limits of catch, effort, and CPUE, that when reached, signals the need for assessment (e.g., depletion analysis) and review by the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA; Larcombe and Begg, 2008, Wilson et al., 2010). Both jig and trawl sectors have separate catch, effort and CPUE trigger limits, as well as trigger limits where both fisheries contribute to limits simultaneously (Wilson et al., 2009). A 4,000 t trigger limit is imposed on the jig sector (2013) which was calculated at half the historical maximum annual catch (8,000 t) from 1977 to 1988 during the Japanese, Taiwanese and Korean joint venture (Sahlqvist, 2007). The combined trigger limit for fisheries combined is 6,000 t (2013). If trigger limits are reached then a set of decision rules are within the harvest strategy are applied to manage the fishery. Apart Figure 102. Commercial catch and Total Allowable Commercial Catch of arrow squid in three fishing zones (Anon, 2013). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Table 5. Total Allowable Commercial Catch and report catch off N. gouldi and N. sloanii (combined) caught off New Zealand in 2008/09 (Anon, 2013). J is Jig fishery, T is trawl fishery. Fish stock 2008/2009 actual TACC (t) 2008/2009 catch (t) SQU 1J SQU 1T SQU 6T SQU 10T Total 50,212 44,741 32,369 10 127,332 1,811 18,969 14,427 0 35,207 from assessing the ecological impact of the SSJF (Furlani et al., 2007) and a depletion analysis from 2001 jig data (Triantafillos, 2008), ongoing annual biomass estimates are not calculated to determine TAC for each year. This approach to assessing and managing the N. gouldi fishery is primarily due to trigger limits not being reached and financial constraints. Australia’s arrow squid fishery is considered not overfished and not subjected to overfishing (Woodhams et al., 2012). New Zealand fisheries managers consider both N. gouldi and N. sloanii within the same unit stock. However because of their one year lifecycle and temporal variability in numbers no attempt is made to estimate biomass used to set the TACC. Catch quotas are set according to fish stock (Table 5). 13.2.9. Conservation Measures Within Australia’s SSJF, there are some 216 threatened, endangered or protected species found; however, an Ecological Risk Management assessment revealed that none of these species were assessed as a risk from commercial fishing operations (Hobday et al., 2011). In 2011 no seal interaction was recorded in the SSJF (Woodhams et al., 2012). Observers on jig vessels also noted no significant negative impact on seals from jig fishing (Arnould et al., 2003). In New Zealand, the trawl sector, squid accounts for 67% of catch with bycatch consisting of barracouta (Thyrsites atun), silver warehou (Seriolella punctata), jack mackerel (Trachurus declivis), and spiny dogfish (Squalus acanthias). However, the trawl sector also incidentally catches New Zealand (or Hooker’s) sea lions as well as New Zealand fur seals (Abraham, 2011) which are classified as Nationally Critical and Not Threatened, respectively, under the NZ Threat Classification System (Baker et al., 2010). Consequently, sea lion exclusion devices have been implemented in to the arrow squid trawl fishing since 2000–2001. In 2011–2012, 109 observed captures of seabirds were recorded to be incidentally caught in trawls (Anon, 2013). This level of bird captures is relatively low since the introduction of streamer lines, bird bafflers, and warp deflectors. 14. NORTHEAST PACIFIC The northeast Pacific (FAO area 67) is an area of relatively minor importance for squid fishing. According to FAO data 197 (FAO, 2011), annual landings of squid from this region peaked at approximately 55,600 t in 1987; indeed landings exceeded a few thousand t only during 1982–1992 when Japan reported landings from the area. Since 2007, only the USA has reported squid landings from the area and, since Japan left the fishery, the highest landings (just over 3,000 t) were reported in 1999 and in some years the figure was only a few hundred t. The coastline of area 67 extends from northern California, through Oregon and Washington to Canada, Alaska and, across the Bering Sea, the eastern tip of Russia. A number of squid species are present. In the northern part of this area, the dominant squid species is the schoolmaster gonate squid (Berryteuthis magister). Since 2004, jumbo flying squid, D. gigas has invaded the waters of Oregon and Washington states, extending up into Canadian waters. Administrative rules issued by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife define squid fisheries as referring to commercial fisheries for squid species “including, but not limited to: opalescent inshore squid (D. opalescens); jumbo flying squid (D. gigas); schoolmaster gonate squid (Berryteuthis magister); boreopacific armhook squid (Gonatopsis borealis); robust clubhook squid (Moroteuthis robusta); and boreal clubhook squid (Onychoteuthis borealijaponicus).” FAO catch data for area 67 mentions the occurrence of three squid species, namely neon flying squid (O. bartramii), opalescent inshore squid (D. opalescens, also known as California market squid), and robust clubhook squid (Onykia robusta). However, less than 2% of squid landed from the area is identified to species in the FAO records (FAO, 2010), the remainder being classified as “squid nei” (i.e., not identified to species). Of the above-mentioned species, D. opalescens, which occurs all along the Pacific coast from Alaska to BC (Jereb and Roper, 2010), probably has the longest documented history of fishery exploitation: it has been fished in California since the 1860s, although the fishery was of minor importance until the late 1980s when a rise in worldwide demand for squid led to a substantial increase in both effort and landings (Vojkovich, 1998). Doryteuthis opalescens is essentially a temperate species of the Northeast Pacific system; its occurrence in California and BC is related to the cold-water California current, which originates in the north (and indeed abundance is much reduced in El Ni~no years (Zeidberg et al., 2006). Nevertheless, much of the information for this species derives from the eastern central Pacific, as might be expected given the existence of the California-based fishery. Indeed, in FAO data, landings of this species in the USA are listed only for area 77 (Central Eastern Pacific), where they reached almost 118,000 t in 2000 (FAO, 2011). Berryteuthis magister is better known from the northwest Pacific (Section 12.7); Katugin et al. (2013) compares what is known about the species in both regions, also noting that they are genetically distinct from each other. Russian boats take this species in the western part of the Bering Sea, beyond the western limit of FAO area 67. However, there is also some Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 198 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 103. Doryteuthis opalescens fishery landings receipt data by month. Tonnage, trips, and catch per unit effort (CPUE) tonnage/trip for the commercial fishery in California 1969–2012. Grouped vertical bars are the sum of tonnage or trips for the periods of 1969–1989 (black, left), 1990–2009 (gray, center), or 2010–2012 (dark gray, right). Note the decrease in winter landings in Southern California, October–February for the period 2010–2012 (dark gray). CPUE is the summed tonnage divided by the summed trips. Point Piedras Blancas 35.7
N is the boundary for North or South classification. fishing within area 67. In Alaska, it is caught as bycatch in large amounts by the pollock fleet2 and Connoly et al. (2011) note that the first fishing permits to catch this species were issued in Alaska in 2011. 14.1. Doryteuthis opalescens (Opalescent Inshore Squid) 14.1.1. Stock Identification This species is monitored in the state of California as one stock. There have been investigations of morphometry (Kashiwada and Recksiek, 1978), allozymes (Christofferson et al., 1978), and microsatellite DNA (Reichow and Smith, 2001), the latter study extending along 2500 km of the Pacific coast, but to date none have demonstrated significantly different traits for regional stocks. However, trace element analysis of market squid statoliths can distinguish individuals captured from locations less than 100 km apart (Warner et al., 2009), suggesting that some segregation occurs over time scales too short for it to be reflected in genetic markers; this remains a ripe field of study. In addition, there is a temporal difference in the fishery landings from different locations. The majority of landings occur in 2 See Project 716 final report at http://project.nprb.org Southern California during the winter, October–February (Figure 103). About 10% of landings occur near Monterey Bay, emerging in the spring and summer, April–November (Zeidberg et al., 2006). 14.1.2. Distribution and Lifecycle Market squid range throughout the Northeast Pacific, from Southeast Alaska to BC (Wing and Mercer, 1990). Doryteuthis opalescens is a coastal species, rarely found in waters deeper than 500 m (Okutani and McGowan, 1969). Eggs are laid on sandy benthic substrates where water temperatures are 10–12
C; the depth of this environment changes with latitude and season (Zeidberg et al., 2012). The females lay 100– 300 eggs in a capsule that is attached to the sand by one end so that wave surge can provide ventilation; total fecundity is estimated at around 3000 eggs (reviewed in Zeidberg, 2013). The duration of incubation is temperature-dependent ranging from 75–45 days in water that is 9–13
C, respectively (Zeidberg et al., 2011). Upon emergence hatchlings average 2.5 mm ML and their vertical diel migration causes them to become entrained for a few weeks within three kilometres of shore by tidal fronts (Zeidberg and Hamner, 2002). Juvenile squid are found over the shelf, in the water column at night and in benthic trawls during the day (Zeidberg, 2004). Diets Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 shift with ontogeny, from copepods to krill and then to fish (Karpov and Cailliet, 1979). Adults are usually found at depths down to 500 m during the day and at the surface at night, but are occasionally recorded down to 1,000 m (Hunt, 1996). Adults average 127 mm ML, males are larger, and males and females aggregate in large spawning masses of millions of individuals on the shelf (Leos, 1998). The shift from somatic to reproductive growth probably occurs when the individual has attained a large enough size to compete for mates, or when food is scarce (Ish et al., 2004). This species lives for only a week or two after shifting to reproductive growth and shows no signs of serial spawning (Macewicz et al., 2004). From hatching to spawning the lifespan averages 6 months, range 4–9 months (Butler et al., 1999; Jackson and Domeier, 2003), and there are multiple cohorts throughout the year. 14.1.3. Fishing Grounds The vast majority of commercial fishing occurs in California, traditionally in shallow waters, less than 70 m, and focuses on spawning adults (Zeidberg et al., 2006). The locations that have yielded the largest tonnage are near the islands of Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and Santa Catalina, and just offshore of Port Hueneme and Monterey. Since 1990, the majority of landings have been brought in with purse seines. There is also a fishery for live bait that targets spawning adults with brail nets. In recent decades, the fishery has also extended northward, into Oregon, Washington and Alaska. Connoly et al. (2011) commented that fishing on market squid in Alaska had been sporadic. The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife publicizes recreational fishing on the species3. 14.1.4. Economic Importance Since 1990, market squid has been the top ranked fishery in terms of tonnage in California for 17 of 22 years. In 2010, the squid fishery had a record ex-vessel value of $73.8 million (Porzio et al., 2012). The ex-vessel price for squid is usually around $500 per ton, thus there is a financial motivation for purse seiners to seek out squid over other coastal pelagic species like Pacific Sardine, which often garner $90 per ton. 14.1.5. Fishing Fleet Commercial fishing for market squid began in California in 1863. Chinese fishermen in Monterey would encircle spawning squid with nets in small row boats. They would fish at night and use kerosene torch lamps to attract squid to the surface. The product was dried and shipped to China or consumed locally (Scofield, 1924). In 1905, the use of the lampara net allowed Italian fishermen to take over the lead role of squid fishing in Monterey. The lampara net could land 20 t in a haul, but the average 3 http://wdfw.wa.gov/fishing/shellfish/squid/ 199 landing was four t (Fields, 1950). Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, there were about 85 vessels in the fleet, and in the 1990s out-of-state fishermen increased the number to 130 (Vojkovich, 1998). In 1998 the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) began to require squid fishing permits and initially 200 boats entered the fishery, but few made landings and 95% of the landings were made by 50 boats. Due to limited entry in the fishery management plan, there are now 78 permitted seine vessels and 35 lightboat permits. For the period 1969–1989, the lampara net was the dominant gear of choice in Central California, and brail nets dominated in Southern California. The average maximum annual landing, a proxy for fleet capacity, for all boats in the fleet was 43 t. In 1990, the fishery shifted to purse seine nets (Figure 104). For 1990–2009, the average maximum annual landing for all boats in the fleet was 82 t. In addition to increasing hold capacity, all modern boats have refrigerated holds and sonar, which allow for increased time at sea and better squid detection. In the 1980s, smaller boats, now called light boats, with sonar and arrays of lights began to attract and hold squid for the seine vessels. Fishing effort has expanded to new areas in the last decade (Zeidberg, 2013). 14.1.6. Duration of Fishing Period by Fishing Region The Monterey fishery historically has peaks of landings in April–May and a second pulse in August–November. In Southern California peak landings occur in October–February (Zeidberg et al., 2006). Ninety-five percent of landings occur in 15–40 m depth in Monterey and 20–70 m depth in southern California (Zeidberg et al., 2012); in both regions benthic temperatures are 10–12
C. Since 2010, the state wide fleet has captured the annual limit of 118,000 t before the season’s end on March 31. As this limit was approached, CDFW shut down the fishery on December 17, 2010, November 18, 2011, and November 21, 2012. Thus the typical winter peak (OctoberFebruary) of squid in southern California has not been exploited for 3 years (Figure 103). The fishery is often disrupted by environmental changes with a decrease in landings during large El Ni~ no events and an increase in landings in La Ni~na years (Zeidberg et al., 2006). The Central and Southern California squid fisheries rebound from ENSO events with differing periodicity. There is no evidence that the squid migrate out of the traditional spawning grounds, rather the evidence shows that the entire population biomass fluctuates (Reiss et al., 2004). Squid that developed during the El Ni~no when Thysanoessa spinifera krill abundance was low (Marinovic et al., 2002) were smaller both on the spawning grounds (Jackson and Domeier, 2003) and in sea lion guts (Lowry and Carretta, 1999). The weak upwelling season of 2005 (Bograd et al., 2009) was followed by a poor or absent squid fishery in central California for 2006–2009 (Young et al., 2011). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 200 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 104. Doryteuthis opalescens fishery landings receipt data by year. Tonnage, trips, and catch per unit effort (CPUE) tonnage/trip for the commercial fishery in California 1969–2010. Stacked vertical bars are the annual sum of tonnage or trips for the four most productive types of gear, brail net (black, bottom), purse seine (gray, bottom middle), drum seine (dark gray, top middle), lampara net (light gray, top), and CPUE is the summed tons/summed trips. Point Piedras Blancas 35.7
N is the boundary for North or South classification. 14.1.7. Catch and Effort Data Since 1990, Monterey has yielded an average of 9,000 t/ y, and southern California has yielded 63,000 t/y (Figure 104, Zeidberg, 2013). There were significant differences in the efficiency of the fleet between the two regimes before and after the shift from lampara or brail nets to seine nets in 1990 (Figure 104). Average trips per year decreased in the north but nearly tripled in the south. Landings and CPUE increased in both regions with the transition to seines. The average maximum landing nearly doubled in the southern region and more than doubled in the north after 1990. 14.1.8. Stock Assessment and Management The authority to manage the squid fishery in California was delegated by the California Legislature to the Fish and Game Commission. A management plan was developed by the CDFW and adopted by the Fish and Game Commission in 2004 (http:// www.dfg.ca.gov/marine/msfmp/, accessed December 2014). Management measures introduced by the state include an annual (April 1–March 30) limit of 118,000 t (107,048 t), spatial closures within MAPs, weekend closures (with no seining allowed noon Friday to noon Sunday), a restricted access program, and a 30,000 watt limit on lights including a shield above the horizontal line of sight. An egg escapement model has been developed but, real-time application has not been implemented (Macewicz et al., 2004). Landings receipts have recorded tonnage, location, date, and price at California ports since 1916. Since 1999 commercial squid fishermen have been required to maintain logs with greater detail of effort including tonnage estimate, sea surface temperature, time of net deployment, the GPS location of sets, market information, and predators. CDFW implemented a port sampling program, collecting 30 squid for various biometric measurements twelve times a month. Because market squid is such a short lived species, attempts to develop a stock assessment using traditional methods have been elusive. Since there is a new cohort each month, the development of a Leslie–DeLury depletion model (Agnew et al., 2000) would be difficult for D. opalescens (Ish et al., 2004). However, there is scope to develop predictors of abundance based on oceanographic conditions and the abundance of early life stages, similar to the approach used in Japan, where the government integrates remotely sensed oceanographic data along with metrics of early life history of T. pacificus to predict the abundance of the fished stock each season (Sakurai, 2000). There are a variety of existing oceanographic sampling programs that capture California market squid as paralarvae (Koslow and Allen, 2011), juveniles (Santora et al., 2012) and acoustic signatures (Vaughn and Recksiek, 1979). Adopting Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 201 the use of attracting lights for commercial purposes in any waters of the Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary. In addition to the specific measures listed above, in California there is a network of MAPs that prohibit all fishing including the take of squid. 15. CENTRAL-EAST PACIFIC Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 105. Fisheries of loliginids landings occur in twelve Mexican States: eight in Pacific ocean and four in the Gulf of Mexico. such an approach would also facilitate adaptive management, that is, allowing the management regime to respond to changes in abundance. In other squid fisheries, there are effective adaptive management programs, notably in the Southwest Atlantic and Japan (Agnew et al., 2000; Sakurai et al., 2000). 14.1.9. Conservation Measures and Biological Reference Points Currently there is a biomass estimate derived from the egg escapement model (Dorval et al., 2013). Based upon a regression of fecundity on female ML, the percentage of biomass harvested by the fishery may be estimated (Dorval et al., 2013). The application of these estimates to derive MSY remains an option. The goals of the MSFMP are to ensure long-term resource conservation and sustainability. The tools implemented with the MSFMP to accomplish these goals include: (1) setting a seasonal catch limit of 118,000 short t (107,048 t) to prevent the fishery from overexpanding; (2) maintaining monitoring programs designed to evaluate the effect of the fishery on the resource; (3) continuing weekend closures that provide for periods of uninterrupted spawning; (4) continuing gear regulations regarding light shields and wattage used to attract squid; (5) establishing a restricted access program that produces a moderately productive and specialized fleet; and (6) creating a seabird closure restricting This region is largely comprised of waters of the west coast of Mexico. The Mexican squid fisheries are dominated by the jumbo flying squid, D. gigas. Several species of loliginids squids are landed but these are almost entirely bycatch taken by shrimp fishing vessels. 15.1. Mexican Loliginid Squid Fisheries There are five species of loliginid squid of commercial interest in Mexican Pacific waters: Lolliguncula (Lolliguncula) panamensis (Berry, 1911a), Lolliguncula (Lolliguncula) argus (Brakoniecki and Roper, 1985), Lolliguncula (Loliolopsis) diomedeae (Hoyle, 1904), D. (Amerigo) opalescens (Berry, 1911b), and Pickforditeuthis vossi (Okutani and McGowan, 1969; Brakoniecki 1996; Okutani, 1995a, Roper et al. 1995; Sanchez, 2003; Jereb et al., 2010)); where fisheries landings occur in eight Mexican Pacific States coasts (Figure 105). These are mostly taken as bycatch in artisanal trawl fisheries for shrimp (Barrientos and Garcia-Cubas, 1997; Alejo-Plata et al., 2001, Sanchez, 2003). Some 1,400 shrimp trawlers report loliginid bycatches, mostly between September and June. Data in Table 6 show landings in the Mexican Pacific and Gulf of Mexico and Mexican Caribbean from 2006 to 2012; the states with highest catches are Baja California Sur (BCS), BC, Sonora and Sinaloa; the largest catch was 27.3 t in 2010 while the lowest catch was 2.03 t in 2006; for the Gulf of Mexico and Mexican Caribbean between 2006 and 2012; Tamaulipas recorded the highest landings of 41.5 t in 2006 and Veracruz the lowest of 5.2 t in 2010 (Figure 106). No assessments of loliginid stocks are made and since it is an incidental fishery no BRPs or conservation measures exist for the Pacific fishery in Mexico. Table 6. Live weight in kilograms of squid Loligo sp. by entities captured in the Mexican Pacific and Gulf of Mexico and Mexican Caribbean from 2006 to 2012 (last updated: Thursday January 24, 2013 by WebMaster CONAPESCA). Mexican Pacific Baja California Baja California Sur 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Total 375,749 333,095 4,104,831 679,485 8,467,933 6,038,905 1,916,294 21,916,294 1,029,888 857,036 502,143 316,512 17,194,737 8,084,715 8,497,941 36,482,975 Sonora 294,399 553,705 205,264 1,058,118 1,475,277 1,990,372 169,645 5,746,782 Sinaloa Gulf of Mexico and Mexican Caribbean Nayarit Jalisco Colima Oaxaca Tamaulipas Veracruz Campeche Quintana Roo Yucat
an 329,599 0 896,975 900 431,184 0 208,675 0 144,707 0 690,430 50 2,506,082 1,000 5,207,655 1,950 0 125 0 0 0 0 0 125 556 200 2,913 1,198 2,566 10 762 2,598 2,033 4,666 8,552 7,382 0 6,979 17,382 23,033 Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture 41,490 33,894 16,965 19,498 10,758 28,748 10,253 161,607 22,985 23,411 21,127 8,512 5,214 12,730 12,347 106,326 vol. 23 2015 5,740 1,642 2,965 8,799 1,719 21,336 0 42,201 2,303 1,273 0 0 0 0 0 3,576 0 0 0 0 1,980 0 0 1,980 202 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 106. Live weight in kilograms of squid Loligo sp. captured in the Mexican Pacific and Gulf of Mexico from 2006 to 2012. (Last Modified: Thursday January 24, 2013 by WebMaster CONAPESCA). There are no data on stock structure for the commercial species but there have been proposals to discriminate stocks using morphometric and genetic analysis (Granados-Amores et al., 2013, Granados-Amores, 2013). Detailed studies on the distribution, abundance, reproduction and feeding habits of Lolliguncula panamensis have been made by ArizmendiRodriguez et al. (2011 and 2012). Basic descriptions of species and distribution maps have been published (Okutani and McGowan, 1969, Young, 1972; Okutani, 1980, Roper et al., 1984, Barrientos and Garcia-Cubas, 1997, Sanchez, 2003; Jereb et al., 2010). Loliginid bycatch in shrimp trawls is dominated by L. diomedae (29–103 mm ML) and L. panamensis 25–106 mm ML (S
anchez, 2003). Doryteuthis opalescens is also a frequent bycatch. Because loliginids are all caught incidentally they only reported as Loligo spp. Catch data for 2006–2012 reported by CONAPESCA (2013) are shown in Table 6. Shrimp trawl hauls may contain several kilos of squid which are sold for human consumption (Hendrickx, 1985), or used as bait in other fisheries (Roper et al., 1984). Sales are made locally throughout the year. Demand is increasing and squid fetch high prices sold fresh, frozen, canned, or dried. 15.2. Dosidicus gigas (Jumbo Flying Squid) The jumbo flying squid (D. gigas) is the largest ommastrephid squid, reaching up to 1200 mm ML and 65 kg in weight. This pelagic squid is endemic to the eastern Pacific Ocean and is particularly abundant in the highly productive waters of the Humboldt and California Current systems, and the Costa Rica Dome upwelling. 15.2.1. Stock Identification There are genetically separated subpopulations in the two hemispheres (Sandoval-Castellanos et al. 2007; Staaf et al., 2010), probably because the equatorial currents and countercurrents form a natural barrier in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP). Using genetic (RAPD and SSCP) techniques, Sandoval-Castellanos et al. (2007, 2010) suggest that the level of genetic separation between northern and southern locations is significant enough to support the idea that D. gigas is undergoing adaptive radiation (Nigmatullin et al., 2001). SandovalCastellanos et al. (2010) also argue that spatial pattern as well as the very recent divergence (<10,000 years) among northern and southern subpopulations could be explained by oceanographic and biological factors, in particular those affecting ocean productivity. Yet, only mild divergence between south– north populations were observed by Staaf et al. (2010) using the mitochondrial marker NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2. Ib
a~nez et al. (2011) also found limited evidence genetic structure within in the Humboldt Current system. According to these authors, D. gigas consists of a single large population that experienced a dramatic expansion in the Humboldt Current system associated with rise in sea surface temperature and the reorganization of the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ) in the last 30,000 years, probably associated with the glacial–interglacial transition. Physical, biological, and oceanographic factors in the ETP influence the reproductive interchange between potential subpopulations as well as migratory ecology (Anderson and Rodhouse, 2001), which make the dynamics of the genetic structure of this species complex. 15.2.2. Distribution and Lifecycle The jumbo flying squid is the most primitive and least oceanic representative of the Ommastrephinae, because it is the only member of this subfamily with a geographical range restricted to just one continental margin (Nigmatullin et al., 2001).Yet, this species exhibits a broad and variable range in the eastern Pacific Ocean and undergoes periodic range extensions. Until the end of the last millennium, the northern and southern limits of its distribution were around 30
N and 40
S, with the highest abundances located in the Gulf of California and in waters off Peru (Nigmatullin et al., 2001). More recently, the distribution limits shifted to 60
N and
50 S, respectively. In the equatorial region, the distribution may extend as far west as 125
–140
W (Wormuth, 1998; Jereb and Roper, 2010), but this western boundary is not well documented, particularly with regard to the recent range expansion. Little is known about spawning and embryonic development of D. gigas which spawns in the relatively inaccessible open sea and, like other ommastrephids, extrudes its eggs in a large, fragile pelagic gelatinous mass. It was only in 2006 that the first natural egg mass was observed during a blue–water dive in the Guaymas Basin of the Gulf of California (at 27
7.1´N–111
16´W) (Staaf et al. 2008). The egg mass was 2–3 m in diameter and neutrally buoyant at »16 m deep at a temperature of »22
C. With an egg density of 192 to 650 eggs/L, the potential number of eggs in the entire mass ranged from 0.6 to 2 million (Staaf et al., 2008). The recent poleward range expansion of D. gigas is probably associated with warmer periods following El Ni~no/La Ni~na events, an ongoing expansion of the OMZ in the Eastern Pacific, and changing ecosystem interactions including food availability, competition and predation. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 203 Figure 107. Major areas of commercial fishing for Dosidicus gigas in Mexico. The jumbo flying squid feeds primarily on small mesopelagic (midwater) fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods, as well as commercially important coastal fishes and squid in their expanded range. Typical daily behavior involves vertical migrations from near-surface waters at nighttime to mesopelagic depths above or within the OMZ during the daytime. A spawning migration from foraging grounds in Canada (50
N) to known spawning areas off BC (27
N: Camarillo-Coop et al., 2006) would cover a distance of »2500 km. With a lifespan of 1–2 years (Nigmatullin et al., 2001; Markaida et al., 2005), such a migration would be well within the 30–50 km/d migration capability for adult D. gigas (Stewart et al. 2012), but suitable spawning habitat may occur much further north. 15.2.3. Fishing Grounds In Mexico, the main areas of commercial exploitation are bounded by 22
and 30
N and 106
and 114
W, which covers an area inside the Gulf of California, from the mouth of the Gulf to the north of Isla Angel de la Guarda by BC to Puerto Libertad on the coast of Sonora. Although widely distributed in the Mexican Pacific fisheries are mostly located in areas of the Gulf of California (Figure 107). However, in the past 6 years, there has been significant fishing activity off the west coast of the BC peninsula, the catch being landed in Bahia Magdalena, BCS, and the port of Ensenada, BC. In the Gulf of California, the D. gigas fishery began in 1974 with an artisanal fleet mainly composed of small open boats with outboard motors, locally known as “pangas,” each operated by two fishermen using hand jigs (Nev
arez-Mart
ınez et al., 2000). A second fleet arose in 1978, when the shrimp trawler fleet switched to squid during the closed season for shrimp. In 1981, this comprised 285 shrimp boats. Between 1983 and 1987, the stock was greatly reduced and the squid fishery disappeared. From 1989 to 1992, the National Fishery Institute of Mexico conducted exploratory fishing with the participation of 6 Japanese jigging vessels, controlled by Mexican companies, and found significant quantities on the western coast of BC (Klett, 1996). 15.2.4. Economic Importance D. gigas, together with tuna and small pelagic fishes is one of the most important fishery resources of Mexico, with an average catch of 47,000 t per year in the period 2006–2012 (Figure 108); but there have been years (1996, 1997, and 2002) when it reached 100,000 t. The average catch value represents 1% of foreign incomes from artisanal fisheries in Mexico (de la Cruz-Gonz
alez, et al., 2011). Added value provided by processing increases the value of the fishery by a factor of three or more (de la Cruz-Gonz
alez et al., 2011). The fishery is an important economic activity in the northwestern Mexico. Although D. gigas is mainly exported, in recent years the national market has increased. Surveys in six cities in Figure 108. Total annual catches of Dosidicus gigas in Mexico from 2006 to 2012. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 204 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Northwest Mexico in 2004 and 2006 showed an increase in the consumption of jumbo flying squid and recognition of its nutritional value and accessible price. The fishery is an important source of employment and foreign exchange. Artisanal fishing is estimated to provide at least 3500 direct jobs and hundreds more indirect jobs. It is a cost effective alternative fishery, so in the Guaymas area it alternates with the shrimp fishery (de la Cruz-Gonz
alez, 2007). In recent years, the fishery has supported economic recovery in places such as Santa Rosalia, BCS. It has provided an important source of quality protein for local consumption (fresh and fresh frozen) and raw material for the production of processed products. It has also provided bait for sport and industrial fishing. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 15.2.5. Composition and Numbers of the Fishing Fleet Fishing is with lights and there are two fleets. Firstly, artisanal pangas which are small vessels (length 6–10 m) with outboard motors of 40–75 hp operated by two fishers. Activity in the Santa Rosalia area starts at c. 16:00 and concludes at 02:00 and any one boat usually works from 4–6 hr. In the Sonora area, fishing is usually from dusk to dawn, with any one boat working 8–12 hr per night. In Sinaloa, which is the newest fleet, the boats are 6–8 m in length with engines from 115–200 hp. These vessels can carry up to 2 t and make the trip to the fishing grounds in less than 1 hr. The light systems on the pangas range from car lights to low power decorativetype lights. The shrimp fleet (vessels 6–8 m length) which is adapted for the D. gigas fishery uses single or coupled manual reels for jigging and each vessel may carry up to 10 fishers. They use various lighting systems ranging from lamps of 100 w (6840 lumens) to 2000 w (30,000 lumens). Fleets operate in several regions and discharge catch at different ports as follows: (1) coast of BCS State: in the ports of Santa Rosalia, Muleg
e, and Loreto (and to a lesser extent in Bahia Magdalena in the west coast); (2) central Gulf of California: in the ports of Guaymas (to a lesser extent in Yavaros); (3) northeastern Gulf of California: in Bahia Kino and Puerto Libertad located in Sonora State; (4) northwestern Gulf of California: in Bahia de los Angeles; (5) Sinaloa State coast: in the port of Mazatlan located in the south, Dautillos in the central part, and Topolobampo in northern Sinaloa State; and (6) BCS: port of Ensenada located in the west coast. Some boats move between regions depending on resource availability and season. Production units are shown in Table 7. There is no recreational fishery for D. gigas. Table 7. Production units Dosidicus gigas in the states of Sonora, Sinaloa, and Baja California Sur. (Source: Federal Delegations of Fisheries, 2010). Units *Social sector Industrial sector Total Number Fishermen Boats Jigging 60** 150 210 1,972 1,200 3,172 986 180 1,136 3,944 1,600 5,444 *Artisanal associations. **Aproximate. access to the fishery by Asian vessels, large companies introduced squid boats with the technology and capacity to process squid on board. This influx of specialized vessels began in February 1980 and culminated in November of the same year with landings of 22,464 t. In 1981, the catch declined by onehalf and in 1982, the fishery collapsed (Ehrhardt et al., 1983; Ramirez and Klett, 1985). The fishery took off again in 1994 when Korean and Chinese companies began operating in the ports of Guaymas (Sonora), Santa Rosalia and Loreto (BCS) and La Reforma (Sinaloa). Landings reached a historical maximum of 117,351 t in 1997, followed closely by a similar volume in 2002, (Rosa et al., 2013c). Since 2008 catches have declined to a little over 10,000 t in 2012. This decline is most evident in the Gulf of California where the Sonora, Sinaloa and BCS fleets traditionally operate (Figure 109). 15.2.7. Stock Assessment and Management Stock assessment is commonly based on the assumption of annual cohorts (Hern
andez-Herrera et al. 1998), and therefore, the modeling of this resource depends on initial recruitment levels. Management objectives (recruitment and proportional escapement) depend on catchability, which is computed from indices of relative abundance, namely, CPUE. One published management strategy uses a constant proportional escapement as a reference point (Beddington et al., 1990; Basson et al., 1996). Management is based on retaining 40% of the stock at the end of each season, and effort is controlled by allocation of fishing permits. The Mexican National Fisheries Institute 15.2.6. Catch and Effort Data The D. gigas fishery started in Mexico as a local artisanal activity at the beginning of the 1970s. The artisanal phase was characterized by 4 years of landings of around 2000 t by small vessels operating during the summer from ports in Santa Rosalia and Loreto, BCS. After the federal government negotiated Figure 109. Total catches of Dosidicus gigas in Mexico from 2006 to 2012 by State. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES bases its estimates and recommendations on the analysis of catch and effort data and information obtained from research cruises. 15.2.8. Conservation Measures Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Exploitation has remained at “developing fishery” level. Nevarez-Martinez et al. (2010) reported that fishing mortality (F) and exploitation rate (E) are below 0.5, a level that is considered healthy for an exploited resource. Assessing the impact of fishing through the Thompson-Bell model, it seems that the observed annual fishing mortality is below the FMSY (Fishing mortality consistent with achieving MSY). This is supported by the estimate of proportional escapement, which is greater than the BRP of 40%. This suggests that D. gigas is underexploited in Mexico. 16. SOUTH-EASTERN PACIFIC Squid fisheries in the south-eastern Pacific are pursued off both Peru and Chile where the ommastrephid D. gigas and the loliginid D. gahi are targeted. The D. gahi fisheries are small and artisanal. The D. gigas fishery is artisanal and relatively small in Chile but it is a major fishery off Peru where it is exploited both artisanally and industrially. There is also a major fishery for D. gigas outside the Peruvian EEZ pursued by vessels from Korea, Taiwan, and China. Doryteuthis gahi is mostly used for local consumption. D. gigas is exported on a large scale, both unprocessed and processed. In spite of the importance of the D. gigas fishery, aspects of the biology of the species such as spawning areas and stock structure are poorly understood. 205 between the east and west coasts of South America (Shaw et al., 2004). Analysis of statoliths of male and female D. gahi collected in northern Peru and the Falklands islands revealed morphometric differences suggesting the existence of reproductively isolated populations (Vega et al., 2001). Significant differences were also found between three populations (Falkland Islands, Chile, and Peru), when hard structures (gladius, beaks, and statoliths) of males and females were compared separately (Vega et al., 2002). 16.1.2. Distribution and Lifecycle The Patagonian squid inhabits coastal waters of Peru and Chile in the southeastern Pacific (4
–55
S) and the coastal waters of Argentina and the Falkland Islands in the southwestern Atlantic (38
–55
S) (Jereb and Roper, 2010). In Peruvian waters and in northern Chile spawning takes place in shallow, sandy areas. Lifespan is short (1 year) and there are two peaks of hatching in April and December and a secondary peak between September and October in Peru (Villegas, 2001). 16.1.3. Fishing Grounds The Patagonian squid is caught off Peru from 03
to 16
S, mainly in bays where the seabed is sandy. Sizes range from 27 to 430 mm ML (mean 178 mm). Males are larger than females. In Chilean waters D. gahi is captured principally in the FAO Regions V (32
S), VIII (37
S) and X (41
S) (Sernapesca). Size is in the range 45–155 mm ML. In both sexes, maturity stages III and IV are the most frequent in spring/summer (Ib
a~nez et al., 2005). 16.1.4. Economic Importance 16.1. Doryteuthis gahi (Patagonian Squid) 16.1.1. Stock Identification Studies to discriminate between stocks of Patagonian squid (D. gahi) in the coastal waters of Peru and Chile have been made using genetic and morphometric analysis. Genetic analysis, using mitochondrial gene Cytochrome Oxidase I, detected a significant genetic differentiation of D. gahi along its geographical distribution showing two genetic units, a northern population (off Peru), and southern population (off Chile) (Ib
a~ nez et al., 2011a). Squid from the southern region showed higher genetic diversity (H D 0.34–0.50) than the northerly population (H D 0.75–0.80). The results suggest that the northern population is experiencing, or experienced in the recent past, a demographic expansion some 30,000 years ago, a pattern that was not found in the southern population (Ib
a~nez et al., 2011a). At a larger geographical scale, microsatellite analysis showed significant differentiation between samples from the Falkland Islands and from Peru, presumably caused by substantial environmental and geographical barriers The Patagonian squid is consumed locally in Chile and Peru. It is also exported from Peru but information about exports is not available. 16.1.5. Composition and Numbers of the Fishing Fleet There is no fleet dedicated exclusively to D. gahi in either Chile or Peru. In Peru, the fleet that takes D. gahi consists of artisanal boats that fish for multiple species. Gear used includes fishing with hooks, purse seine, drift net, mid-water trawl, and “chinchorro.” Table 8 shows the number of vessels fishing with each gear type and year in which D. gahi was the main catch. Most vessels either used hook and line or purse seines. In central Chile, D. gahi is taken as a bycatch in the artisanal fishery for anchovy and sardine. 16.1.6. Fishing Seasons Duration of the fishing season is very variable in Peru. Between 3
and 6
S, the fishery operates over about 10 months Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 206 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Table 8. Number of artisanal boats by year and fishing methods dedicated to catch D. gahi in Peruvian waters. Table 9. Annual effort (number of trips) by fishing methods of D. gahi in Peruvian waters 1997–2012. Year Hooks Purse seine net Drift net Chinchorro* Midwater trawls Total Year Hook Purse seine Chinchorro Mid water trawls Drift net 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 449 16 184 759 555 397 752 436 458 372 532 329 518 292 353 537 142 15 88 533 310 228 479 322 232 329 301 160 166 125 70 233 30 5 4 3 16 14 3 10 11 33 9 21 15 1 3 1 22 9 15 18 8 13 11 14 12 11 4 5 5 2 3 1 8 17 12 8 28 32 58 32 21 3 2 2 651 62 291 1313 889 664 1253 810 745 803 878 536 707 422 429 774 2,494 46 3,122 5,980 3,870 2,640 8,547 6,788 6,745 4,676 8,472 2,998 4,885 5,997 3,754 5,915 385 16 271 5,393 2,854 1,372 6,622 4,484 5,193 7,107 5,745 2,083 2,036 1,433 902 3,684 49 15 80 108 49 46 33 109 129 73 14 32 21 10 8 5 Source: Instituto del Mar del Per
u. *Chinchorro is a large net trawled by cars or men in sandy beach. Source: Instituto del Mar del Per
u. per year; between 9
and 12
S, it is highly variable and takes place over 1–6 months. In latitudes 7
–8
S and 13
–16
S, it operates some 5 months of the year. Average catch per season reaches up to 60 t between 04
and 05
S. In other latitudes, catches do not exceed 50 t per season (Figure 110). 16.1.8. Conservation Measures 8 19 0 0 0 17 11 424 692 960 450 247 8 2 0 2 234 5 4 3 25 16 3 11 15 38 9 28 15 1 3 1 Total 3,170 101 3,477 11,484 6,798 4,091 15,216 11,816 12,774 12,854 14,690 5,388 6,965 7,443 4,667 9,607 In Peru, purse seines for D. gahi fishing are prohibited for artisanal, small-scale, and industrial vessels within 5 nautical miles from the shore. There is no minimum size, catch quotas, or BRPs in either Peru or Chile. 16.1.7. Catch and Effort Data Between 1990 and 2010, the annual catch of D. gahi in Peru ranged from 287 t in 1998 to 24,548 t in 2000. In Chile annual catches ranged between 0 and 934 t. Table 9 shows fishing effort directed to D. gahi in Peru using different methods. 16.1.7.1. Stock assessment and management. There is no stock assessment of D. gahi in either Peru or Chile. However, fishing effort, size structure and biological parameters are monitored in Peru during the fishing season. 16.2. Dosidicus gigas (Jumbo Flying Squid) 16.2.1. Stock Identification Studies to discriminate stocks of D. gigas in the South East Pacific using genetic analysis (Ib
a~nez et al., 2011b) have shown no genetic differences among squid in the Humboldt Current off Chile and Peru. However, Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (Sandoval-Castellanos et al., 2007) analysis and mitochondrial DNA analysis (Sandoval-Castellanos Figure 110. Duration of fishing season (A) and mean landings per fishing season (B) of Doryteuthis gahi by latitude in Peruvian waters 1998–2010. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 207 et al., 2010) have been shown that squid from the Northeast Pacific off Mexico and from the Southeast Pacific off Peru belong to two populations separated by oceanographic and biological factors (Staaf et al., 2010). Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 16.2.2. Distribution and Lifecycle D. gigas is endemic to the Eastern Pacific Ocean between 37–40
N to 45–47
S, and common between 30
N and 20– 25
S (Nesis, 1983; Nigmatullin et al., 2001). Its range fluctuates, both in the northern and southern hemisphere (Nigmatullin et al., 2001; Field et al., 2007; Zeiberg and Robinson, 2007; Iba~ nez and Cubillos, 2007; Alarc
on-Mu~ noz et al., 2008; Keyl et al., 2008). Its flexible and opportunistic behavior (Markaida, 2006) allows the species to respond quickly to environmental variability (Rodhouse and Nigmatullin, 1996); this is manifested in changes in the distribution, abundance, growth rate, size at maturity and longevity associated with the availability of food and oceanographic conditions (Arguelles et al., 2008). However, high growth rates do not necessarily have a simple relationship to temperature and food availability. Keyl et al. (2011) have shown that fast-growing cohorts with medium longevity and large terminal size occur during moderately cool periods, and long-lived, slow-growing cohorts with small terminal size occur during the extreme ecosystem conditions of the El Ni~ no and La Ni~ na phases of the ENSO cycle. 16.2.2.1. Peruvian Waters. Off Peru, the highest concentrations of D. gigas occur between 3
24’S (Puerto Pizarro) and 9
S (Chimbote), and low to medium concentrations are located at 13
42’S (Pisco) and 16
14’S (Atico) (Taipe et al., 2001). Spawning occurs throughout the year with two main peaks from October to January, and a secondary peak between July and August (Tafur and Rabi, 1997; Tafur et al., 2001). Beyond the Peruvian EEZ spawning also takes place throughout the year (Liu et al., 2013). The main spawning grounds are located between 3
and 8
S, and between 12
and 17
S within Peruvian EEZ (Tafur et al., 2001), while beyond the EEZ spawning occurs at around 11
S (Liu et al., 2010). Arguelles et al. (2008) have described the interannual variability of the size-at-maturity of D. gigas in Peruvian waters, and they related the size-at-maturity with the increment of the mesopelagic fish stocks which are part of the diet of D. gigas. Outside the Chilean EEZ spawning grounds were reported between 22
and 34
S (Leiva et al., 1993). Annual variation of size-at-maturity in Peruvian coastal waters from 1989 to 2011 is shown in Figure 111. Significant variations in size structure were observed to be related to oceanographic changes in the period 1958–2012. During warm years (1997–1998) small and medium-sized groups were observed in the catches, with average sizes between 230 and 440 mm ML; during cold years (2000–2012) a large-sized group predominated with average sizes from 610 to 880 mm ML. From 2001 onward, there has been a significant change in Figure 111. Annual size structure of Dosidicus gigas in the artisanal fishery (dashed lines) and industrial (solid lines) for 1989–2012. population structure which is dominated by large squid (Keyl et al., 2008; Arguelles et al., 2008; Arguelles and Tafur, 2010). During a D. gigas survey on the research vessel Kaiyo Maru in Peruvian waters during December 2011–January 2012, the largest squid were found to the south of 12
S and near shore (Sakai et al., 2013). However, data from the industrial fishery in Peru show no significant latitudinal differences in size structure of the population, except for some years, for example, 2000 and 2001, in which there was a change from small and medium-sized group to a large-sized group associated with environmental changes from cold to warm conditions (Table 10). Outside the Peruvian EEZ, Liu et al. (2013) reported a wide range of sizes of D. gigas (129–1149 mm ML) in the period 2008–2010, with most squid between 350 and 550 mm ML. Variation in the size structure would explain continuous recruitment off the Peruvian coast, mainly from the west where juveniles are concentrated (Sakai et al., 2013). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 208 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Table 10. Mean, minimum, and maximum mantle length of Dosidicus gigas per latitudinal degree in Peruvian waters from 1991 to 2012. Year Latitud (S) 1991 Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) Min (cm) Max (cm) Mean (cm) 1992 1993 1994 1995 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 1996 1997 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 3 19 94 34.4 15 50 34.2 15 67 39.5 13 58 29.9 12 43 23.4 16 58 31.9 13 47 27.3 45 88 67.3 78 101 90.2 44 108 77.7 4 22 109 73.0 12 50 31.4 12 70 40.8 12 60 27.8 12 42 23.6 15 51 30.1 15 48 29.5 30 98 73.1 42 114 68.7 52 103 85.5 30 114 77.5 22 103 78.3 41 120 86.4 24 112 85.0 68 112 94.1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 19 109 58.9 15 50 33.0 14 68 36.0 15 53 27.3 17 42 27.2 28 52 30.2 15 58 36.4 27 98 69.9 54 102 79.4 62 108 92.3 42 99 62.0 20 117 71.7 34 115 70.5 30 116 84.5 25 119 82.8 21 112 75.5 28 122 85.9 30 119 82.3 27 112 89.7 27 42 36.0 19 100 41.5 14 53 29.2 17 66 40.1 15 42 27.1 18 40 27.8 14 57 30.0 19 57 38.9 30 84 60.7 50 98 74.4 40 109 86.7 24 108 62.0 28 112 66.4 27 113 73.8 37 113 78.9 27 112 84.3 41 116 78.0 23 122 77.9 16 112 75.6 33 107 90.9 22 58 39.0 10 100 47.4 14 55 31.3 16 72 44.7 15 50 27.7 17 41 26.7 15 53 29.6 19 61 42.3 19 94 34.9 15 46 33.7 18 72 49.9 19 48 29.3 15 35 24.1 18 61 39.9 19 85 39.8 20 46 32.4 24 46 31.0 22 36 31.0 20 32 26.8 18 42 24.3 25 95 47.5 22 73 39.0 32 79 52.0 22 46 32.3 24 47 35.7 19 55 28.6 16 86 28.6 36 77 60.7 28 100 79.7 63 104 88.5 19 111 71.7 25 110 63.2 26 114 73.0 26 114 69.7 30 113 82.3 31 117 84.9 23 115 88.2 22 114 84.6 22 106 60.9 38 56 47.6 38 56 47.3 35 91 52.6 23 113 70.1 24 110 59.9 21 117 77.1 24 115 77.4 28 119 78.2 31 112 78.7 41 15 87.8 26 112 77.4 72 106 92.6 27 111 65.9 24 113 74.0 20 113 78.3 32 114 79.1 49 110 81.2 61 103 87.0 34 100 73.3 40 114 65.5 30 115 56.9 18 47 32.1 15 39 26.0 24 58 44.1 30 111 60.5 30 104 63.7 34 110 79.8 37 105 66.8 32 112 82.6 41 105 80.9 24 109 66.0 15 38 26.6 40 99 79.9 60 106 85.2 28 109 73.4 26 111 83.3 30 113 79.9 45 110 78.6 40 106 87.7 22 103 40.5 Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture 14 15 16 17 22 41 31.5 16 64 31.5 15 49 28.9 19 70 34.7 17 49 27.0 20 51 29.7 19 67 34.7 15 96 35.6 23 60 36.1 37 53 47.0 22 55 33.2 15 104 65.2 22 58 43.1 22 55 34.9 21 41 28.6 16 35 25.3 19 47 26.7 16 43 26.3 17 39 25.5 28 92 48.5 38 99 74.3 20 55 33.5 20 73 42.0 32 103 76.2 15 49 29.9 20 99 65.7 29 110 69.9 21 42 27.1 21 100 69.7 29 96 68.2 17 109 55.2 26 115 81.5 40 106 70.3 50 97 84.2 27 118 78.0 37 113 78.3 33 120 85.1 24 126 88.7 25 121 52.0 32 109 82.1 45 107 75.8 40 101 52.1 28 112 80.8 36 108 70.3 28 106 80.1 70 115 91.6 30 109 81.7 30 117 77.4 29 110 76.6 102 84.0 50 99 77.6 42 105 77.2 66 110 88.2 27 109 76.8 25 117 78.3 30 116 77.1 48 102 79.1 30 113 75.7 22 110 71.3 40 118 90.0 28 111 87.0 vol. 23 2015 16 50 31.2 21 104 53.6 33 105 74.6 60 97 78.4 22 116 77.1 35 108 80.3 33 115 76.0 51 101 87.1 31 112 83.9 25 110 73.7 27 115 88.1 30 121 89.7 18 25 103 57.4 59 95 82.4 22 91 67.7 32 82 67.9 32 98 54.5 50 113 82.7 47 97 66.5 50 109 88.3 62 106 85.8 23 109 83.2 76 103 89.7 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 16.2.2.2. Costa Rica Dome. During 2009 and 2010, the jumbo flying squid (D. gigas) population was surveyed with the help of Chinese squid jigging vessels off the Costa Rica Dome (4
－11
N, 90
－100
W) (Chen et al., 2013a). The mean ML of the squid was 298 mm for males (211–355 mm) and 306 mm for females (204–429 mm). There was no significant difference between sexes in the relationship between ML (mm) and body weight (g) of the squid. The females and males were of similar maturity, mostly in the maturing and matured stages with a few spent female squid. ML and age at first sexual maturity were 297 mm and 195 days in females and less than 211 mm and 130 days in males. This indicates that off Costa Rica small-sized squid predominate. Longevity off Costa Rica was less than 10 months for females and 8 months for males, while most of those off Chile and Peru are about 1»1.5 years and a few large individuals reach 1.5»2 years old. A higher percentage of mature individuals were found off Costa Rica implying the region is a likely spawning ground, while a lower proportion of mature squid off Peru and Chile indicate that spawning may occur outside the area (Liu et al., 2013). 16.2.2.3. Chilean Waters. Data on size structure of D. gigas off the Chilean coast (29
–34
S) have been reported for the period 1991–1994 (Fern
andez and V
asquez, 1995), indicating a size range of between 770 and 1030 mm ML. Chong et al. (2005) reported two size groups of D. gigas during the winter of 1993, the first of large (710–980 mm ML) squid and the second of smaller (200–440 mm ML) squid, while in spring 1993, a group of between 260 and 600 mm ML was present. After 2000, Ib
a~ nez and Cubillos (2007) found sizes between 230 and 930 mm ML for the period August 2003–January 2004, and between 280 and 840 mm ML for winter 2003, spring 2003 and summer 2004. In Chilean waters, mature females have been observed all year round (Gonz
ales and Chong, 2006), while beyond the Chilean EEZ D. gigas spawn all year also with the peak from November to January (Liu et al., 2010). 16.2.2.4. International Waters Outside Chilean EEZ. Three surveys have been conducted in waters outside the EEZ of Chile (20
–41
S and 74
30’–84
W) by the Chinese squid jigging between April 2006 and May 2008 (Liu et al., 2010). The mean ML was 376 mm for males (range 257–721 mm) and 389 mm for females (range of 236–837 mm). Two distinguishable size classes, medium- and large-sized, were identified in this study with the medium-sized group (350–450 mm ML) consisting of 89% of the total catch. Size at first sexual maturity was 638 mm ML for females and 565 mm ML for males. Liu et al. (2010) found that all the individuals examined were hatched during March 2007–February 2008, indicating that D. gigas might spawn all year around with the peak spawning time being from November 2007 to January 2008. Most of the stomachs analyzed contained food remains. Prey included three major groups: fish (mainly lanternfish), cephalopods, and crustaceans. There is strong evidence of cannibalism in D. gigas. 209 16.2.3. Fishing Grounds The jumbo flying squid in the Southeast Pacific is fished mainly off Peru and Chile by artisanal fleets and also by commercial jiggers off Peru. Off the Peruvian coast the artisanal fleet operates mainly offshore near Talara (4
S) and Paita (5
S) in the north taking 90% of the artisanal catch, 7% is taken offshore near Matarani (16
S) and Mollendo (17
S) to the south. Lower catches Peru (3%) are recorded from the central coast. The largest artisanal catches are recorded within 40 nm from the coast (Figure 112). Between 1991 and 2009 industrial fishing off Peru was carried out over a wide area between 20 and 200 nm off the coast (Mari
ategui and Taipe, 1996; Yamashiro et al., 1997; 1998) and then was restricted to waters more than 80 nm offshore in order to avoid interference with the artisanal fleet. The jigging fleet also worked outside the Peruvian EEZ when squid distribution extended there (Figure 113). Japanese, Chinese and Korean jigging vessels operate in international waters off South America (Chen et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2013). The highest catch rates (greater than 10 t/d/boat) are between 4
–10
S and 12
–16
S (Mari
ategui and Taipe, 1996; Yamashiro et al., 1997; Taipe et al., 2001; Rosa et al., 2013c). In 1996, the fleet moved to the Costa Rica Dome when the availability and abundance of jumbo squid decreased dramatically off Peru (Mari
ategui et al., 1997). Off the Chilean coast, fishing grounds are situated off the Bio Bio region of central Chile (36
–38.5
S), and off Coquimbo and Valpara
ıso (29
–34
S) to the north (Fern
andez and V
asquez, 1995; Rosa et al., 2013c). Additionally, Japanese, Korean, and Chinese industrial jiggers exploit jumbo flying squid in international waters off South America. In the waters of the Chilean EEZ, the majority of the catch in the survey was caught within 37
30’–41
S and 78
30’–80
W and by 25
–30
S and 76
–77
30’W. Favorable SSTs for fishing grounds are 14–16
C and 16–19
C, respectively (Liu et al. 2010). Off the Costa Rica Dome, the daily catch of D. gigas by Chinese vessels ranges from 0 to 5.5 t/d and is mostly obtained from the areas defined by 6
－9
N and 91
－94
W and by 6
300 N－7
300 S and 96
－97
W between July and August. The areas yielding the most catch have had sea surface temperatures of 27.5–29
C (Chen et al., 2013a). 16.2.4. Economic Importance The jumbo flying squid supports considerable economic activity and is one of the major fisheries in the Southeast Pacific. It is fished within the EEZ of Peru (Mari
ategui and Taipe, 1996; Mari
ategui et al., 1997; Mari
ategui, 2009; Kuroiwa, 1998; Yamashiro et al., 1997, 1998; Taipe et al., 2001) and Chile (Rocha and Vega, 2003; Acu~na et al., 2006; Arancibia et al., 2007; Z
u~niga et al., 2008), and also fished offshore in international waters off the coast by Chinese, Korean and Japanese fleets (Liu et al., 2010, 2013; Rosa et al., 2013c). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 210 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Figure 112. Artisanal fishing areas of Dosidicus gigas off Peru in the period 1999–2012. Annual landings of D. gigas in the Southeastern Pacific show an increasing trend since 1990, with two periods of greatest abundance in 1994 and 2000–2012 (Figure 114). In Peru, the exports of D. gigas have increased from 66,818 t in 2000 to 262,845 t in 2012 (Figure 115), due to increased world demand, mainly in China, Spain, Japan, and South Korea (National Customs Superintendent and Tax Administration-SUNAT Peru). The industrial squid fleet is comprised of jigging vessels of 250 to 1000 m3 storage capacity; Japanese vessels are slightly larger than the Koreans vessels (Table 11). The number of vessels fluctuated between 31 and 77 in 1991–1995, with maximum numbers in 1993 and 1995 (Mari
ategui, 2009). In the following years, the number decreased to between 4 and 15 since 2003 (Figure 117). 16.2.6. Duration of Fishing Period by Fishing Region 16.2.5. Composition and Size of the Fishing Fleet The artisanal fishing fleet is composed of wooden boats of 1–15 m3 storage capacity that mostly operate with hand jigs (Rosa et al., 2013c), and other large boats up to 33 m3 capacity that also catch sharks, mahi mahi, flying fish, and other oceanic fishes, but catch squids when they are available, and when fish abundance decreases. The number of artisanal boats has increased from 292 in 1997 to 3082 in recent years; most of these are between 5 and 15 m3 capacity representing 79% of the total artisanal fleet. The number of large capacity boats has increased between 2008 and 2011 (Figure 116). In Peru, the artisanal fishery is conducted throughout the year along the coast. The industrial fishery is regulated by fishing licenses valid for 1 year. 16.2.7. Catch and Effort Data D. gigas were reported as bycatch during 1964–1971 in the coastal trawl and purse seine fisheries (Benites and Valdivieso, 1986). After 1971, D. gigas was absent or scarce in the landings until 1989. Exploratory fishing by the Instituto del Mar del Per
u (IMARPE) in 1979 and 1980 indicated low abundance at that time (Benites and Valdivieso, 1986). During Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 211 Figure 113. Industrial fishing areas of Dosidicus gigas off Peru in the period 1991–2011. 1981–1983 absence was attributed to lack of food during the 1982–1983 El Ni~ no event (Benites, 1985). Research by the Center for Marine Fishery Resources Research of Japan after 1984 revealed the existence of large concentrations outside the Peruvian EEZ (Kuroiwa, 1998) and within the EEZ (Rubio and Salazar, 1992). The industrial fishery in Peru began in April 1991 with the participation of Japanese and Korean fleets; they operated in Figure 114. Landings of Dosidicus gigas by countries in the Southeast Pacific, 1970–2012. Figure 115. Exports and FOB value of Dosidicus gigas in Peru, 2000–2012. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 212 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Figure 116. Structure by storage capacity of the artisanal fleet that catch Dosidicus gigas by hand jigs in Peru. the EEZ under fishing licenses. The annual catch fluctuated between 57,703 and 164,715 t during 1991–1995 and in the following years (1996–1998), the catches were very low due to oceanographic changes produced by La Ni~ na 1996 and El Ni~no 1997–1998 (Rosa et al., 2013c). Since 1999, there has been a gradual increase in catches, with greater participation of the artisanal fleet and a reduction in the number of industrial jiggers. The annual catch between 2004 and 2012 ranged from 321,636 to 558,850 t, with the artisanal fleet taking around 90% of the total catch (Table 12, Figure 118). There is a seasonality in the artisanal landings between 1991 and 2010, with higher values in summer and autumn. Landings tend to decrease in winter and spring, as a result of intensification of upwelling that extend cold coastal waters westward. The industrial fleet shows the opposite trend with higher landings in winter and spring. This is because the resource is more accessible offshore where these vessels operate (Rosa et al., 2013c). CPUE varies annually, with two periods of highest abundance in 1991–1995 with a maximum value in 1994, and 2000– 2012; an intermediate period of lower abundance between 1996 and 1998 was related to the intense ENSO event that had a major impact on recruitment in Peruvian waters. A progressive increase in CPUE has been observed in artisanal fisheries with highest values between 2009 and 2012 (Table 12). Figure 117. Number of jigging vessels (dotted line) and artisanal boats (black line) that catch Dosidicus gigas off Peru in the period 1991–2012. In Chilean waters, the landings of D. gigas have been sporadic (Fern
andez and V
asquez, 1995). The fishery is artisanal and catches have been generally low with occasional periods of high abundance in the bycatch of demersal and pelagic fisheries. A period of higher abundance occurred from 2002 onward, with a maximum of 296,954 t in 2005, especially from the purse seine and bottom trawl fleets (Rosa et al., 2013c; Figure 119). Z
uniga et al. (2008) report a regular seasonal pattern in monthly catch data between 2002 and 2005, and suggest these fluctuations may be related to reproductive success. Between June and September in 2001, the Chinese squid jigging industry carried out the first survey of the D. gigas resource in the high seas off Peru and Costa Rica. This was followed by commercial exploitation, and an annual catch reaching 17,770 t. In 2004, a large number of Chinese jiggers moved to the high seas outside the Peruvian EEZ after April, and annual output reached 205,600 t, with an average output of 1,728 t per vessel. During 2005-2010, the annual catch ranged from 46,000 to 140,000 t. In 2011 and 2012, this increased to 220,000–250,000 t (Figure 120). Table 11. Main characteristics of Japanese and Korean squid fleet, 1991– 1996. Japanese fleet Korean fleet Characteristics Max Min Max Min TRN TBR Storage capacity (m3) Length (m) Sleeve (m) Strut (m) Crew number Year of construction Machines number 411 1096 1000 69 10.7 9.3 24 1988 56 251 305 300 48 8.7 3 20 1982 44 481 824 800 57 11.1 4.9 36 1978 52 191 323 250 44.2 7 3 27 1971 42 Figure 118. Annual landings of Dosidicus gigas off Peru in 1991–2012. Artisanal fleet (gray bars) and industrial fleet (white bars). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 213 catch catch per fishing vessel Catch (10 thousand t) 25 2000 1800 1600 1400 20 1200 1000 15 800 10 600 400 5 Catch per fishing vessel (t) 30 200 0 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Year Figure 119. Landings of Dosidicus gigas off Chile between 1987 and 2012 (data from SERNAPESCA, Chile). Figure 120. Total catch and catch per fishing vessel of Dosidicus gigas for Chinese squid jigging fleets in the southeast Pacific. Between 2002 and 2011, Taiwanese jigging vessels recorded annual catches ranging from 12,000 in 2002 to 39,000 t in 2004, with an average annual production of some 21,000 t (Figure 121). The number of vessels fishing per year ranged from 13 to 29 in the same period. The fishing grounds for Taiwanese vessels are from about 5
to 40
S, particularly around 10
–30
S and 75
–85
W. Fishing seasons for these vessels were from May to August or October between 2002 and 2006, but they have operated throughout year from 2007 to the present. catchability for the period 1999–2011. The best fits were obtained with varying catchability. Population parameters of D. gigas resulting from the Schaefer dynamic model are presented in Table 13. The biomass estimates indicates that the stock of D. gigas in Peruvian waters for the period 2001–2011 ranged between 2.51 and 2.96 mt, with an estimated MSY of 991,514 t (Table 13). The exploitation intensity measured by fishing mortality (F) has grown steadily since 1999, without exceeding the reference value (FMSY). 16.2.8. Stock Assessment and Management 16.2.9. Conservation Measures The large-scale fishery for D. gigas in Peruvian waters has been managed by quotas since the industrial fishery began in 1991. The first quotas were derived using relative abundance data (CPUE) recorded during exploratory fishing carried out from November to December 1989 and June–July 1990. Initially CPUE values were 258.61 kg/hr, 53.83 kg/machine and 8.35 kg/machine/hr, and later 506.8 kg/hr, 117.2 kg/machine, and 9.79 kg/machine/h. With this level of effort an initial quota of 50,000 t was estimated for 1991. It was also set down that (1) the D. gigas fishing should be restricted to 30–200 miles off the coast, (2) a maximum of 20 vessels, (3) fishing only with jigs—no nets, (4) minimum ML of 320 mm, with an incidence not more than 20% smaller specimens, (5) no transshipment of catch and, (6) an IMARPE scientific observer in each vessel. In August 1991 using monthly data from jiggers that fished from April to August, combined with production models (Schaefer, Fox) it was determined that the quota for 1991 could be increased to 80,000 t. Quotas for the period 1992–2001 were estimated using production models and allowed totals of 100,000–150,000 t. From 1999 onward, biomass estimates of D. gigas were made in the summer months by acoustic methods. This information was combined with other data to produce an index of abundance of recruits starting in 2002. With this information the catch quotas increased to 300,000 t per year using a projection of the biomass of recruits. From 2010 the Schaefer Biomass Dynamic Model (Hilborn and Walters, 1992) has been used. Catch and CPUE were set assuming variable catchability (based on sea surface temperature) and with constant The fishery in Peru is managed through annual catch quotas derived from fishery data and research cruises. Jiggers need a licence issued by the Government which has implemented a satellite tracking system for control and surveillance. They must also carry a scientific observer to record fishery data. In Chile, the management of the D. gigas fishery started in 2012 and includes restricted access, the exclusive use of catches for human consumption, and a modifiable TAC based on the landings of the last 10 years and actual catches divided into an industrial (20%) and an artisanal (80%) part of the catch (Rosa et al., 2013c). Figure 121. Production of Dosidicus gigas and number of vessels for Taiwanese distant-water squid fishery in the Southeast Pacific between 2002 and 2011. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 214 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. Table 12. Annual landings, effort and CPUE of Dosidicus gigas in the artisanal and industrial fleet in 1991–2012 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Artisanal fleet Year Landings (t) 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 23952 2762 2028 45257 28347 8138 16061 547 54647 53794 71833 146390 153726 270368 291141 434258 427591 533413 405674 355668 374639 461800 Effort (trips) 29029 39327 70305 53941 92731 98071 123527 105880 119674 62927 50034 71810 62497 Industrial fleet CPUE (t/trips) Landings (t) Effort (days) CPUE (t/day) 57703 103785 138327 164713 80808 1650 5825 3317 9114 11358 6930 11599 2530 1463 17.4 11.4 12.2 23.8 7.0 0.7 4.0 23731 89563 103708 77328 26803 51268 47254 43448 20175 25437 48108 32641 13263 1347 3296 3164 3690 1097 1990 1594 1140 923 833 1523 1411 834 17.6 27.2 32.8 21.0 24.4 25.8 29.6 38.1 21.9 30.5 31.6 23.1 15.9 1.9 1.8 2.1 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 6.4 7.1 5.2 7.4 The South Pacific Regional Fisheries Management Organization (SPRFMO) came into force on 24 August 2012. Three squid species, D. gigas, O. bartramii and S. oualaniensis, in the South Pacific high seas are covered by Conservation Management Measures of the Commission of the SPRFMO. All the fishing vessels are required to follow measures adopted by the SPRFMO Commission. Strict reporting and use of vessel monitoring are currently required. 16.2.10. Development of the Global Market for Jumbo Flying Squid 16.2.10.1. Beginning of utilization of jumbo flying squid. D. gigas has become one of the most economically important squids globally. Until the 1980s, it was seldom used because of problems with quality. When the supply of neon flying squid (O. bartramii) were reduced following the 1993 moratorium on high seas driftnets set by the UN General Assembly Table 13. Dosidicus gigas population’s parameters estimated with Schaefer Dynamic model. K (t) D 3,000,000 rD q (average) D MSY (t) D Optimal effort (days) D Biomass (< 200 nm) (t) D MSY (< 200 nm) (t) D 1.763 0.0000100 1,322,019 87,880 2,032,283 991,514 (Miki and Sakai, 2008), D. gigas grew in economic importance in Japan and Korea (Miki and Wakabayashi, 2010). Landings of O. bartramii by the Japanese jigging fleet also decreased drastically in the early 1990s and squid processors in Japan began using D. gigas caught by the Japanese far-seas jigging fleet or imported from Peru. Initially, the high concentration of ammonium chloride in the meat prevented it from being widely used for traditional squid processing products, but the development in Japan of a method to remove the ammonium chloride (Yamanaka et al., 1995) contributed greatly to the increasing use of D. gigas pickled, deep-fried and in the form of steaks. The increasing demand for D. gigas has also led to the development in Peru of processed products such as fillets since the mid-1990s. Peru now exports these products to many countries including Japan. D. gigas is now widely used in Japan for processed products also made from T. pacificus such as “sakiika” dried squid jerky, “shiokara” salted/fermented squid, and frozen mixed seafood using squid arms as a substitute for octopus arms (Wakabayashi et al., 2009). In South Korea, D. gigas caught in the far-seas jigging fishery has been used to make “sakiika” since the early-1990s. Since 1994, several Korean companies have constructed squid processing factories in Mexico, shifting to local production of “sakiika” using squid landed by small-scale local fisheries and exporting to South Korea (Miki et al., 2010). The South Korean “sakiika” industries were drastically reduced by the Asian financial crisis in 1997. The center of the “sakiika” industry has now moved from South Korea to China and Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 Japan. In China especially, the “sakiika” industry has become a major exporter. 16.2.10.2. Expanding the use of jumbo flying squid. Processing methods developed in Japan and South Korea have expanded throughout the world since the late 1990s for several reasons. Firstly, investment in squid processing factories in Peru, Mexico and Chile increased, particularly in Peru where D. gigas is most abundant. Secondly, primary products imported from developing coastal countries have been processed into products that meet the demand of countries of final consumption such as Spain and China. China has contributed markedly to global expansion of squid consumption by processing squid caught by Chinese vessels, or imported from coastal countries, and then exporting the products. Spain, which originally supplied processed squid rings of Argentine shortfin squid (I. argentinus) to EU markets, has expanded the squid market by processing squid rings made from D.gigas which are cheaper than I. argentinus. The global demand for D. gigas has thus increased. D. gigas has therefore played an important role in supplying the word market for squid and in expanding global squid consumption. In traditional squid-consuming countries such as Japan, this low-priced species has accelerated development of new processed products, which have led to increased demands, for example, as a substitute for O. bartramii (Wakabayashi et al., 2010). In EU countries, where squids are often consumed as rings, there has been a shift to D. gigas as a substitute for I. argentinus. In both Japan and the EU, the lower price of D. gigas was an important reason why processors switched to the species. If the stocks of O. bartramii or I. argentinus increase and prices go down, the demand for D. gigas may decrease. Likewise, the demand for D. gigas might decrease if an unutilized and low-valued squid stock such as purpleback flying squid (S. oualaniensis) in the Indian Ocean (Yatsu 1997, Yatsu et al., 1998a, Chen et al., 2007) were to be exploited. 17. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SQUID FISHERIES AND ECOSYSTEMS Interactions between fisheries and ecosystems operate in two directions. On one hand fisheries can bring about major and persistent changes in ecosystems in a numbers of ways including the damaging effects of fishing gear on the seabed and benthos, removals of bycatch including birds, seals, and cetaceans, unsustainable removals of the target species and the impact of their loss on dependent predators and on the prey of the target species. All these effects impact the natural balance and energy transfer within ecosystems because many species are targeted simultaneously. On the other hand changes in ecosystems driven by anthropogenic and natural climate change and variability, pollution by contaminants, underwater noise, and presence of built structures such as oil and gas rigs, wind farms, etc. all in turn affect fisheries conducted in these ecosystems. 215 17.1. Effects of Fishing Gear on Ecosystems The most apparent effect of fisheries on ecosystems is often the direct impact of fishing gear. The world’s largest fisheries for ommastrephid squids are pursued by squid jiggers using lights. The power output of the lights of the larger jiggers may be 300 kW or more and fleets of jiggers can be seen in satellite imagery from the United States Defense Meteorological Satellite Programme (Rodhouse et al., 2001). The major light fisheries can be seen in imagery from the northwest Pacific (Kurushio Current), over the continental shelves of the China Sea and the Sunda-Arafura Province (east Asia), around New Zealand, in the Humboldt Current—particularly off Peru—and in the southwest Atlantic over the Patagonian Shelf and shelf edge (Brazil and Falkland Current). Despite the scale of the global light fishery, the jigging gear used for squids seems to cause little damage to ecosystems. The gear does not come into contact with the seabed and there is virtually no bycatch of fish, seabirds, or marine mammals (Gonaz
alez and Rodhouse, 1998; Laptikhovsky et al., 2006). This is partly because jigs are specifically designed to snag squid by the tentacles and do not readily catch other marine organisms and because there is no bait the jigs do not attract seabirds. Also, the catch comes aboard the jiggers undamaged and is generally carried in running seawater directly to the working deck so there is no offal and there are no damaged squid on, or around the vessel to attract predators and scavengers as happens with trawlers. However, squid being hauled upward on a line attract predators such as sharks that may swallow jigs together with squid damaging the lines (Lipinski and Soule, 2007). The lights, however, do sometimes attract flying seabirds toward the vessels in foggy conditions at night and these may come aboard and remain there until daylight. Swarms of insects are also frequently present, especially if jigging is conducted inshore. This may be detrimental but there are no data to quantify the extent of any damage caused to these populations. Similarly planktonic and nektonic species are attracted toward the lights together with the squid but no data have been collected to test whether there is any effect on these groups. Neither has there been any research on the effects of lights on the phytoplankton, which might be expected to be sensitive locally, or possibly on a larger scale, to the presence at night of powerful lights close to the ocean surface. Trawl nets are far less discriminating in what they catch. Bottom trawls in particular cause widespread and severe damage to the seabed and the benthos (Løkkeberg, 2005) as well as to the target and bycatch species. While pelagic trawls avoid damage to the seabed and benthos the bycatch issues remain the same. Several squid species are targeted by major trawl fisheries including N. sloanii, D. pealeii, and D. gahi. Particular attention has been drawn to the New Zealand sea lion, Phocarctos hookeri, bycatch taken by the trawl fishery for N. sloanii which uses bottom and pelagic trawls with high headlines. This sea lion breeds on sub-Antarctic Islands—mostly, the Auckland Islands to the south of New Zealand. It is one of Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 216 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. the rarest and most locally distributed pinnipeds in the world. Despite banning trawling by establishing a marine mammal sanctuary out to 12 nm around the Auckland Islands in 1995 and increasing protection by making it a no-take marine reserve in 2003, sea lion pup production declined by 30% in the eight years between 1998 and 2006 (Chilvers, 2008). Currently, a bycatch limit is set annually by government and the fishery is closed when the limit is reached. Recently, a bioeconomic approach has been proposed that would encourage fishing effort to be increased in areas of high squid and low sea lion density (Kahui, 2012). Trawl fisheries for squid generally present the same bycatch problems as fisheries using trawl gear for fish species. Foreign trawlers fishing for D. pealeii and I. illecebrosus off the east coast of the USA in the period 1977–1988 were responsible for captures of several cetacean species especially pilot whales and common dolphins but also minke, right and humpback whales (Waring et al., 1990). More recently in the fishery for L. pealeii the bycatch of fish species, especially undersized scup, butterfish, and flounders, has been demonstrated to be substantial. These fish are important commercial and recreational species and research on trawl design has enabled bycatch to be reduced by making changes to the gear. These changes exploit differences in the behavior in the net between squid and fish to separate them out and allow the fish to escape (Glass et al., 1999). Nevertheless the difficulties of introducing effective mitigation measures in this fishery show that the problem is more complex than can be solved by gear modifications alone (Powell et al., 2004). Elsewhere, in the Falkland Islands trawl fishery for D. gahi, about 6% of the total catch includes bycatch some half of which is commercial species including red cod, hakes, kingclip, hoki, blue whiting, rays, and the squid I. argentinus. The rest of the bycatch is comprised of other fish and invertebrates (Laptikhovsky et al., 2006). A wide variety of other net types are used for squid (Rathjen, 1991). Some are local, artisanal designs; others are used on a larger scale. The fishery for D. opalescens off Southern California largely uses a method introduced from Sicily employing seine nets in conjunction with lights to catch the squid while they are aggregating at the spawning grounds. This lampara net fishery around the Californian Channel Islands has been shown to cause disturbance to nesting seabirds within range of the lights. Evidence that nests were abandoned and chick predation was increased resulted in the Fish and Game Commission requiring vessels to restrict the wattage output of the lights and to shield them (Barsky, 2008: http:// nrm.dfg.ca.gov/FileHandler.ashx?DocumentIDD34405). During the 1970s, driftnet fishing for the ommastrephid squid O. bartramii commenced in the North Pacific and by the 1980s, it peaked at some 400,000 t/y (Murata, 1990). However, this fishing method was very destructive of marine life and was causing high levels of environmental degradation. Large bycatches of other commercial species as well as marine mammals, seabirds and turtles were common and if nets were lost they continued to catch and kill marine life by so-called ghost fishing (Alverson et al., 1994). The fishery was banned by a UN Moratorium in 1991 (http://www.un.org/documents/ ga/res/46/a46r215). 17.2. Role of Squid in Ecosystem Change Induced by Overfishing on Groundfish The short lifespan coupled with the rapid growth and reproductive rates of squid gives them the selective advantage of ecological opportunists which can rapidly increase population size when environmental conditions are favorable. Caddy (1983) first suggested that cephalopods generally may be able to increase population size in ecosystems where overfishing of slower growing and slower reproducing groundfish stocks have been overexploited. Reduced predation pressure from groundfish would enable the cephalopods to fill the vacant ecological niche left by the groundfish themselves. Subsequently, Caddy and Rodhouse (1998) presented evidence from FAO landing statistics that in some heavily overfished regions cephalopod stocks had increased. In one cephalopod fishery (the Saharan Banks), there is more detailed evidence that there have been changes in the community as a result of fishing pressure but that the changes are not as great as the FAO landing statistics suggest (Balguer
ıas et al., 2000). Here, changes seem to have been caused by multiple factors including economic drivers, oceanographic variability and competition for food. Major changes in species range and size of populations of D. gigas in the eastern Pacific since the 1997 ENSO event have been documented by Field et al. (2007). These changes have been linked to climate/oceanographic changes in the region, together with reductions in top fish predators (tuna and billfishes) and Pacific hake caused by high fishing pressure (Zeidberg and Robison, 2007; 2008). Other authors (Watters et al., 2008) have argued that the changes can be explained by bottom up forcing alone and that D. gigas numbers increased post 1997 at a time when tuna stocks were at a relatively high level. Modeling results also show that squid are more susceptible to bottom-up rather than top-down control (Watters et al., 2003). Given the complexity of marine ecosystems, it is perhaps not surprising that when causes of a change in one element (squid in this case) are subjected to close analysis, it becomes difficult to isolate a single driver. Over the last two centuries the most substantial changes in marine ecosystems have almost certainly been caused by direct and indirect removals of fish, seabirds, whales, and seals by targeted fisheries, bycatch or anthropogenic factors driving global climate change. The latter is increasingly driving further change. There is a need to take a holistic, interdisciplinary, approach to observing, and modeling marine ecosystems in order to resolve questions about change in squid populations and fisheries. Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES 217 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 17.3. Ecosystem-Based Fishery Management (EBFM) EBFM has its origins in the early 1980s when CCAMLR (Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources) was established in response to international concern about the threat to the Southern Ocean ecosystem posed by an Antarctic krill fishery. Concern focused on the threat posed to krill-dependent predators including baleen whales, seals and seabirds. The Commission’s objective is conservation (including rational use) of Antarctic marine life according to three principles: ensuring stable recruitment of harvested resources, maintaining ecological relationships and preventing irreversible ecosystem change: http://www. ccamlr.org/en/organisation/camlr-convention-text. By the turn of the millennium, catches worldwide had been declining for over a decade and it had been clear for some time that conventional fishery management was failing in many areas. This led to calls for radical reappraisal of fishery management (Pauly et al., 2005) and for more holistic approaches to marine resource management and adoption of EBM (Larkin, 1996; Link, 2002, 2010). A decade later this multi-faceted approach is becoming embedded in fishery management thinking and has been widely, but not universally adopted. EBM differs from traditional resource management by defining management strategies for entire systems, not individual components of the ecosystem (Link, 2010). Central to this ecosystem-based perspective is the requirement to account for all factors that can influence resources within and ecosystem, including ecological and economic interactions. Squid figure in EBFM both as the subject of targeted fisheries themselves and also as key components in ecosystems where the EBFM approach is being applied to the fisheries for other species. Faced with the prospect of a new fishery for the ommastrephid squid Martialia hyadesi in the Southern Ocean CCAMLR adopted precautionary management measures based on consumption of this species by predators including odontocetes, seals and seabirds (Rodhouse, 1997). Elsewhere the changing population size of the jumbo flying squid, D. gigas, in the Gulf of California is a factor in the EBM of forage fisheries (Bakun, 2009). EBFM is being applied to the fishery for the loliginid squid D. opalescens in the Monterey Bay area, California—http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/education/voicesofthebay/ pdfs/balancepowerpointslides.pdf—in an area where there is a considerable amount of ecological data collected for over six decades by CalCOFI (California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations)—http://www.calcofi.org/. Elsewhere cephalopods, including squids, have been included as part of an overall ecosystem approach in relation to fisheries on the Georges Bank off the Northeast coast of the USA (Brodziak and Link, 2002) and in Southeast Australian waters (Smith et al., 2007). Whether squids are being considered as elements in the ecosystem or as the subject of targeted fisheries there are several issues that need to be considered in relation to EBFM. Firstly, Figure 122. Projected quarterly yield (thousands of metric tons, t) of Northwest Atlantic longfin inshore squid (Doryteuthis pealei) fishery for the 5-year average of total mortality. Modified from Moustahfid et al. (2009a). their role in marine food webs, especially as prey for vertebrate predators. Because of the short squid lifecycle, there is an annual cycle of abundance that teuthivorous predators may rely on in a particular season and at a specific geographical location. Natural variability in squid populations will impose pressures on these predators but intensive fishing, which is likely to coincide spatially and temporally with activity of the predators, can be expected to intensify these pressures. As stated above forage species such as squid (the prey of many top predators) can occupy middle trophic levels that link lower trophic level energy or biomass to upper trophic levels, by being common prey for a range of species (Rice, 1995). They can be an important source of standing biomass in an ecosystem, and are often subject to both predation pressure and commercial harvesting. Various authors have found that when consumption of particular forage species is calculated, the predation mortality for the species that had been assumed as a part of the total natural mortality in traditional stock assessments were underestimated (e.g., Hollowed et al., 2000; Moustahfid et al., 2009b). Because predation and fishing mortality vary temporally, spatially, and ontogenetically, total mortality rates have the potential to be concentrated during a narrow time-span and cause local depletions (Tsou and Collie, 2001; Staudinger, 2006; Staudinger and Juanes, 2010). Another consensus among scientists is that, for forage species in particular, careful examination of traditional assumptions regarding predation mortality is needed because the abundance of their major predators (e.g., demersal fish, large pelagics, marine mammals, birds, etc.) can reasonably be expected to increase in the next several years as stocks are rebuilt to meet legal requirements (e.g., Overholtz et al., 2008; Moustahfid et al., 2009a). Figure 122 illustrates the trade-offs between predators and fisheries to be made when managing forage species such as the longfin inshore squid in the northwest Atlantic. It is clear that if timing of high commercial exploitation and predatory removals are not synchronous but dynamic over the year, traditional single species models that assume constant natural mortality rates will overestimate the stock’s recovery potential (e.g., Moustahfid et al. 2009 a, b). Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 218 A. I. ARKHIPKIN ET AL. The short lifespan, ecological opportunism and sensitivity to environmentally driven variability of squid make it hard to distinguish between natural and fisheries driven reduction in stock size. The I. illecebrosus fishery which rose to prominence off the east coast of the USA and Canada in the late 1970s and early 1980s declined rapidly later in the 1980s and it would be easy to assume that fishing pressure was the cause. However, elsewhere major interannual changes in biomass in T. pacificus, I. argentinus, and D. gigas have been accompanied by high fishing pressure which does not seem to have prevented recovery after periods of low biomass. For a rationally based system of EBFM to be effective, it will be necessary to discriminate between the effects of naturally occurring environmental variability and the effect of fishing pressure on biomass variability. In Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), measures to protect squid stocks will be dependent on the species concerned, in particular, the loliginids and ommastrephids have different lifecycles, habitats, behaviors, and position in the food web. Loliginids are coastal/shelf species, have greater dependence on the sea bed where they spawn and make shorter migrations over the course of the lifecycle. Ommastrephids are more pelagic, more oceanic, spawn in midwater, and make long migrations (Young et al., 2013). Loliginid stocks are likely to spend most or all of their lifecycle within one MPA and protection may need to be focused on conserving spawning grounds, maintaining spawning biomass and regulating bycatch in fisheries for other species. Ommastrephids are likely to move in, out and between MPAs. They may need protection at times in their lifecycle when they are passing through areas of intensive fishing effort and are especially vulnerable. In the interests of their dependent predators, they may need protection when they are in, or approaching, areas where they are preyed on intensively and so are critical in the predator’s diet at a particular time of the year. The under- and unexploited species of squids listed in the Introduction as having potential for fisheries are all large oceanic species. These forage in midwater/pelagic habitats, largely on mesopelgic fish—especially myctophids—in ecosystems which are poorly understood. The effective management of any future fisheries for these species would be dependent on obtaining sound knowledge of their biology and ecology and about the ecology of the systems on which they depend. 18. GENERAL DISCUSSION The total world catch of squids has increased steadily over several decades but there is now evidence in the FAO data that this has been followed by an apparent stabilization over the last ten years (Table 1). Behind this recent overall stability, however, there has been considerable variation within species. In particular, production of I. argentinus varied by a factor of over 5 in the 4 years between 2004 and 2007. It is not possible to determine from the data whether the global pattern is because the current fisheries have approached full exploitation, whether market conditions are playing a part or whether there are environmental effects. Given the role of squids in marine ecosystems, there are good reasons to monitor the global catch in future and explore the reasons for its behavior over time. If it becomes clear that production has levelled off it should highlight the need for careful management of individual stocks in future and also the need to make maximum use of the catch to avoid waste and maximize the economic benefits from an industry which is reaching the limits of growth. The assessment of squid stocks and management of the fisheries is inconsistent regionally and there would be advantages in moving toward standardising the approach, especially in the major fisheries. The scheme outlined by Caddy (1983) still remains valid today and has the advantage that it is relatively inexpensive to implement and it enables a fishery to be managed in real time, which is especially important in volatile stocks of short-lived species such a squids. It can form a good starting point from which regional solutions can branch out. This approach needs to be underpinned by good scientific knowledge of the lifecycle, migratory patterns, and stock structure of the species being managed. This knowledge is incomplete in many cases and further fundamental research is needed. Understanding of the environmental influences on recruitment and hence interannual variability in abundance remains sketchy, although important progress was made recently (Rodhouse et al., 2014). Improved knowledge of the effects of environmental variability would open the way to prerecruitment prediction, at least in broad terms, of likely stock size in the coming season. It would also lay the foundations for predicting the possible effects of longer term climate change on squid stocks. Over the last three decades, a considerable body of knowledge has accumulated on the role of squids in the diet of vertebrate predators. However, there are inconsistencies emerging between data collected using conventional gut contents analysis, the identification and quantification of squid beaks and the biomass they represent, and the use of fatty acid signatures in the fatty tissues of predators, including milk, in mammalian predators (Rodhouse, 2013). There is a need to reconcile these inconsistencies as these data will become increasingly important in the context of ecosystem-based fishery management. Less attention has been given to the role of squids as predators. This is partly because of the difficulty of identifying gut contents of squids but this problem may become more tractable with the use of DNA sequencing for identification of prey. Pauly et al. (1998) has pointed out that changing patterns in marine fisheries can be interpreted as a forced, quantifiable trend of fishing down the trophic pyramid. This view was first questioned by Caddy and Garibaldi (2000) and then, from a different perspective, by Hilborn (see Pauly et al., 2013). Can cephalopod catches, and especially of squid, be seen as a valid factor in this debate? All three of the most exploited species of squids are excellent examples. Their fisheries have expanded over 100 years in the case of T. pacificus (with tremendous Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture vol. 23 2015 Downloaded by [University of Kiel] at 03:24 25 June 2015 WORLD SQUID FISHERIES fluctuations in abundance), over 30 years in the case of I. argentinus) and over 20 years old in the case of D. gigas. All three of these species lie toward the middle of the trophic pyramid. It has been argued that the concept of food chain links as applied to opportunistic predators should be revised (Xavier et al., 2014). These three examples of squid fisheries do not necessarily indicate that Pauly et al. (1998) were wrong, but perhaps they took their conclusions too far. Their hypothesis may be specific rather than general, applying to some data and scenarios and not to others (Caddy and Garibaldi, 2000). More complex interactions between squid fisheries and marine ecosystems involve the effects of removals of squid biomass. They are key prey for vertebrate predators and have substantial seasonal impact on their own prey populations so unsustainable levels of exploitation will have impact throughout much of the food web. The role of squids in ecosystem change includes their response to change caused by overexploitation of groundfish stocks as well as their response to changes in other predator populations and to environmental variability on various time scales, including long-term climate change. An important scientific challenge for the future will be to discriminate between these interactions in order for fishery managers to respond appropriately to changes in squid stocks. It is advisable to use information on large-scale oceanographic processes in the management of the renewable resources—including squids—of these systems. It can be envisaged that large and productive systems (such as the Humboldt Current system) might be the first to be managed fully according to the ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF) principles and strategies. An early task will be to model the energy balance of these systems using different input parameters and under different environmental scenarios. For practical reasons rophic pyramid related controls of the marine ecosystems, food transfer energetics and food web related models are little utilized in squidand fish management. They nevertheless hold the key for understanding ecosystem dynamics generally. As ecosystembased fishery management develops, squid specialists have a role both in contributing to the holistic understanding of marine ecosystems and the role of squids in them and in developing squid fishery management protocols that are sensitive to the needs of the ecosystem. FUNDING Gold Open Access of this paper was generously sponsored by Pharma Marine AS, Norway, processors of omega-3 oils from squid trimmings, for the Nutriceutical market. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL Supplemental data for this article can be accessed on the publisher’s website. The file includes a list of the authors and the sections of the article to which they contributed. 219 REFERENCES ABARES. Australian fisheries statistics 2010, Canberra (2011). Abdussamad, E. M., and K. R. Somayajulu. Cephalopod fishery at Kakinada along the east coast of India: Resource characteristics and stock assessment of Loligo duvauceli. Bangladesh J. Fish. Res., 8(1): 64–69 (2004). Abraham, E. R. 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