Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland

Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland Author(s): Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley Source: The Journal of Irish Archaeology , Vol. 27 (2018), pp. 1-32 Published by: Wordwell Ltd. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26564142 REFERENCES Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26564142?seq=1&cid=pdfreference#references_tab_contents You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms Wordwell Ltd. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Journal of Irish Archaeology This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland Maeve Sikora,1 Mary Cahill2 and Laureen Buckley3 Irish Antiquities Division, National Museum of Ireland Department of Archaeology, NUI Galway 3 Ard Rí, Drogheda, Co. Louth 1 2 This paper reports on five Early Bronze Age burials from recent and recently analysed older excavations. Both inhumation and cremation are represented, and in all cases the human remains have been analysed and radiocarbondated. These results are presented along with a description of associated artefacts. The paper contains the first known evidence for body modification in Early Bronze Age Ireland, in the form of a pair of ceramic ear-plugs from a grave at Ballinchalla, Co. Mayo. INTRODUCTION In 2011 the results of a research project on burials excavated by the National Museum of Ireland (NMI) were published as part of the NMI’s monograph series. These excavations almost all came about as a result of the NMI’s statutory role in the care of portable heritage and the requirement to react to chance discoveries to protect reported archaeological objects (Cahill and Sikora 2011). A number of sites which were investigated since then or for which information came to light immediately prior to the publication could not be included in the monograph. These are reported on here as an addendum to the original publication. Human remains from all sites are reported on in detailed specialist reports included in these studies.The nature of the investigations was necessarily limited, as in all cases the remit was to protect the exposed remains rather than to explore the wider site context. In the case of the two older finds discussed here for which new information has come to light, limited information survives as to the site context. These are nonetheless important, as they present unusual finds in one case and an unusual burial context in the other. In these instances the importance of specialist anatomical reports is emphasised, as they provide exceptional data for sites for which the archaeological recording is so poor and inadequate by modern standards. Although the selection of sites is random, they provide important insights into Early Bronze Age burial practices. In addition, the high number of individuals cremated at Garrannaguilly, for example, adds to a picture of multiple individuals within cremations that is emerging from other recently excavated sites. Radiocarbon dates show general conformity with established date ranges, although the dates for some vessels vary slightly from accepted chronologies. Investigations at these sites were by their nature a reaction to the accident of discovery and were concerned with retrieval of artefactual material and the recording of the context. No attempt was made to seek out additional graves in the vicinity of those discovered, but it is likely, at least in the case of Corr, that other graves were present in the area. BRACKLONEY, CO. CAVAN In September 2009 the NMI received a report of the discovery of an Early Bronze Age cist at Brackloney, Co. Cavan. Both the human remains and the accompanying ceramic vessel had been removed from the cist prior to the NMI inspection of the site.The cist was discovered by Mr Martin Fitzsimons during landscaping works at the rear of a private dwelling.The cist and contents were exposed after the capstone of the cist was removed. The site had been sealed off as a crime scene and the remains and vessel had been transported to Dublin by An Garda Síochána. Location The site is in the townland of Brackloney, in the parish and barony of Castlerahan, Co. Cavan, close to the border with County Meath.1 No monuments or sites of similar date are recorded in the immediate vicinity, although a possible standing stone is listed in the neighbouring townland of Clonkieffy (O’Donovan 1995, 71). In fact, few cist burials are recorded in the county of Cavan. Most that are recorded are from cemeteries under cairns rather than single finds (O’Donovan 1995, 29). No contemporary finds are recorded from the townland of Brackloney; a number of finds from later periods are recorded from Brackloney in the files of the NMI’s Irish Antiquities Division, including a medieval cauldron from The Journal of Irish Archaeology Volume XXVII, 2018 This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 1–31 2 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley Brackloney Bog, as are a number of ‘similar vessels and parcels of bog butter’.2 The cist The site was excavated over two days by Maeve Sikora and Mary Cahill. The capstone was large and roughly rectangular in shape and had been removed in the process of the discovery of the cist (Fig. 1).The interior of the cist had been heavily disturbed and only a portion of the skeleton—a number of vertebrae and part of a pelvis—was found to be in situ (Fig. 2). The X Capstone Y portion of the skeleton submitted to the NMI prior to the excavation was badly damaged and almost fully disarticulated. This damage had probably occurred during initial discovery and subsequent removal from the cist during ground works and levelling associated with landscaping of the area. Recent breaks were visible on many of the bones. A large amount of stone visible in the field may indicate the former presence of a cairn and therefore the possibility of other burials in the vicinity. It was possible to see that there had already been significant ground works on this site prior to the landscaping, and it was noticed at excavation and confirmed by the landowner that the ground level of the field had been lowered significantly in order to build the house.The cist was found in an area of higher ground. The edges of the side stones and end stones were revealed, and the interior of the cist was also excavated (Figs 3–4). The pit dug to receive the cist was not identifiable. The cist was oriented north-west/southeast and was built of large, edge-set stones, which were supplemented with smaller packing stones placed to complete the corners of the cist. The basal slab did not extend over the entire floor of the cist, and other Fig. 1 (left)—Plan of capstone of cist, Brackloney, Co. Cavan. Fig. 2 (below)—Plan of cist, showing in situ human remains. N Scapula Vertebrae Ilium 0 This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 0.5M Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 3 Fig. 3—Plan of cist after excavation, showing basal slab and packing stones. Y N A B X 0 0.5 1M 0.5 1M Fig. 4—Sections through cist. A B X Y 0 This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 4 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley Fig. 5—Tripartite bowl from cist grave at Brackloney, Co. Cavan. smaller paving slabs made up the remainder of the paving. A number of other slabs lying in the vicinity of the tops of the side and end stones may have served as packing stones to ensure that the capstone was level. Contents The vessel and most of the human remains had been removed from the cist prior to excavation and the cist filled with loose soil, so there was no way of determining where in the cist the vessel and body had been placed; neither the finders nor the Gardaí had taken note of this. Only a few vertebrae and ribs were discovered in situ, and most bones retrieved showed recent breaks. Assuming that the body had been fully articulated, the position of the vertebrae suggests that it lay with the spine parallel to the long side of the cist, probably with the legs and arms flexed. The remains are those of a juvenile, aged between six and seven years at death (see below). The burial was accompanied by a tripartite bowl (NMI 2009:182), which is complete (Figs 5–6). Some lime concretions have formed on the outside of the vessel. The bowl is light beige in colour but with a darker orange band near the rim. This colour variation may be due to firing or to post-depositional factors. Two ancient cracks are visible. The form and decoration of this vessel classify it as a tripartite-type bowl (Ó Ríordáin and Waddell, 1993, 12–13). The central area of the vessel is delimited above and below by two horizontal ribs, both of which are decorated with incised oblique lines. The outer surface is decorated with a series of horizontal bands of incised decoration. The lowermost band of decoration is This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 5 Fig. 6—Photograph of tripartite bowl, Brackloney, Co. Cavan. delimited by an incised line, one at the top and two at the bottom, although in places this converges to a single line. Above this is a band of decoration consisting of comb impressions alternating with undecorated areas, but these are faint and the comb impression is sometimes difficult to discern. The decoration goes on to alternate between bands of incised horizontal lines and oblique lines, as well as three bands of false relief. The rim is decorated with incised oblique lines. These motifs follow the tradition of decoration on tripartite bowls. The decoration on the Brackloney vessel is, however, far less accomplished than that on the vessel from Corr, for example (see below). Not only is the decoration shallower and more difficult to make out but also the patterns are far simpler and less finely executed. The base of the bowl is decorated by three incised arcs which form a triangular shape with concave sides at the centre. A sample from a rib bone was submitted for radiocarbon dating and yielded a result of 1955–1752 cal. BC at 95.4% probability (UBA-29871, 3536±35 BP). This burial would fit with the pattern of Early Bronze Age inhumation burials that were accompanied by ceramic bowls. The date is considerably later, however, than that proposed by Brindley (2007, 328) for the Bowl Tradition and should therefore be treated with caution, although there is no reason to question the validity of the date from the perspective of the processing laboratory.The bowl from Brackloney shares decorative characteristics with Brindley’s stage 2 bowls, which she dates to 2080–1980 BC (Brindley 2007, 250). THE HUMAN REMAINS (NMI 2009:181) Introduction The remains were analysed by Laureen Buckley and represent the remains of a juvenile aged six to seven years at death. This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 6 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley Methods The sex of the skeletons was determined by examination of morphological features of the pelvis and skull. The criteria for male and female features are those described in Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994. The age of adults is determined by examination of various degenerative features, such as the surface of the pubic symphyses (Myers Suchey et al. 1988) and the auricular surface of the ilium (Lovejoy et al. 1985). The sternal ends of the ribs can also be used for aging (Íşcan et al. 1984). The stage of dental attrition (following Brothwell 1981) can also be used to determine approximate age, although this needs to be used carefully, as many extrinsic factors can influence dental wear, such as the amount of grit or sand in a diet. Juveniles were aged by eruption of teeth and dental development (AlQahtani et al. 2010). Aging of younger adults by examination of the state of epiphyseal fusion is possible up to 25 years of age. As there is a certain degree of inaccuracy in the various aging methods, it is better to look at the overall degeneration of the individuals to place them in age groups.The age groups used here are young adult (YA), 17–25 years; middle adult (MA), 26–45 years, although this can sometimes be divided into early middle adult (EMA) (26–35 years) or late middle adult (LMA) (36– 45 years); and older adult (OA), 46+ years. Since individuals degenerate at different rates there will be some overlap between these groups. Stature was estimated using the regression equations of Trotter and Gleser (1952; 1958). Preservation The long bones and part of the skull are in a moderate state of preservation in that the outer cortex of the bone is still present but there is porosity and decay of the surface. Most of the smaller bones and the joint ends of the long bones are missing, however, probably owing to decay. The left clavicle and ribs are encrusted with mineral deposits, as is the right humerus. Description of skeletal remains The skull remains consist of the left side of the frontal bone, the area around the right orbit on the right side of the frontal bone, most of the left and right parietal bones, most of both temporal bones (although the mastoid area is missing on the left temporal bone) and the right side of the occipital bone. Also present are the left and right zygomatic bones, the left greater wing of the sphenoid, the left maxilla and most of the right maxilla, and fragments of the rami of the mandible. The vertebral column consists of seven cervical, twelve thoracic, three lumbar and two sacral vertebrae. The arches are fused to the vertebral bodies in the cervical region but not in the sacral or lumbar region. There are twelve pairs of ribs present and both ilia and ischia are present from the pelvis, but the right ilium is very fragmented. The clavicles are almost complete and there are fragments of both scapulae; the left humerus shaft is shattered but the right humerus shaft is almost complete. The radii and ulnae are present but, apart from part of the left ulna proximal joint end, all the joint ends are missing. Incomplete shafts of five metacarpals are all that remain of the hand bones. The left femur is almost complete but the distal third is missing, apart from a small portion of the distal joint surface.The shaft of the right femur and the shafts of the tibiae and fibulae are also present. Only the incomplete calcanea and two metatarsals, possibly the fifth metatarsals, remain from the foot bones. Skeletal pathology There is severe cribra orbitalia in both orbits. Dentition Table 1—Dentition, Brackloney, Co. Cavan. P 17 47 P P 16 46 P P 55 85 P P 54 84 P P 53 83 P P 52 42 P E 11 41 P E 21 32 P P 62 32 P P 63 73 P P 64 74 P P 65 75 P P 26 36 P P 27 37 P Dental development The roots of the permanent first molars are halfformed. The roots of the central incisors are onequarter formed and the crown of the second permanent molar is half-formed.This is consistent with an age of six to seven years (AlQahtani et al. 2010). Summary and conclusions The remains are those of a juvenile aged six to seven years at the time of death.The child had been suffering from anaemia at the time of death. Preservation of the bone is moderate and all skeletal elements, apart from the small bones of the hands and feet, are represented. GARRANNAGUILLY, CO. KILKENNY In 2007 a short stone cist containing cremated bone was discovered during quarrying at a sand and gravel pit at Garrannaguilly, between the towns of Ballyragget and Castlecomer, Co. Kilkenny.The cist appears to have been exposed for some time before it was reported to the National Monuments Service, who in turn reported it to the NMI. The site was investigated by Mary Cahill and Maeve Sikora. The correspondence from the National Monuments Service stated that two ceramic vessels had been discovered along with a quantity of bone. This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 7 N Y Paving slab A Capstone (Removed) B X 0 0.5 1M Fig. 7—Plan of cist after excavation, Garrannaguilly, Co. Kilkenny. A B X Y 0 Fig. 8—Sections through cist, Garrannaguilly, Co. Kilkenny. This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 0.5 1M 8 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley Location The find-spot was at the edge of a large quarry in the townland of Garrannaguilly, in the parish of Donaghmore and barony of Fassadinin, on the western edge of the Castlecomer plateau.3 The delay in reporting the discovery caused a significant loss of evidence and artefacts from this site. The site of the cist is just a few kilometres south of an excavated Early Bronze Age cemetery in the townland of Ballyoskill (Cahill and Sikora 2011, 235–43). The cist The site was heavily disturbed at the time of the NMI’s visit, and the cremated bone was mixed with the gravel and topsoil noticed in the surrounding area. No remains appeared to be in situ and this was confirmed during excavation of this material. The cremated bone was mixed with recently broken sherds of decorated ceramics. The cist was rectangular in plan, built of four edge-set slabs, one forming each wall. The floor was paved with a single large slab. Smaller stones had been placed in the interstices of the walls and on top of the cist walls to seal the cist (Figs 7–8). The capstone was noticed by the side of the opened cist. Contents The contents of the cist had been trampled, as evidenced by footprints therein, and only sherds of ceramics rather than the complete vessels described in the newspaper article were recovered. Unfortunately, it was not possible to obtain any information from the finder who had discovered the cist as he was removing topsoil from the quarry surface. A complicated situation of ownership and leasing of the quarry further hampered attempts by the NMI to ascertain the circumstances of discovery and events thereafter. An appeal in a local newspaper for the return of the vessels did not result in the recovery of further pottery or human remains. The sherds recovered on site represented at least four different vessels, but most have suffered damage on the outer (decorated) surface and are in very poor condition (Fig. 9), mostly too poor even to illustrate. They are presented here with their NMI register number. NMI 2007:231: Numerous sherds probably of a bowl decorated with shallow grooves. NMI 2007:232:Ten body sherds of a possible vase; in poor condition, with much loss of decorated surface. Decoration survives as a series of grooves with some interspersed small depressions of approximately triangular form. NMI 2007:233: Numerous rim and body sherds of a simple bowl. Some decoration survives in the form of short, slanted comb impressions. These sherds are not illustrated. NMI 2007:234: Numerous undecorated ceramic fragments, which cannot be ascribed to a vessel type. These sherds are not illustrated. Laureen Buckley’s analysis has shown that there are at least six individuals present (NMI 2007:230): three adults (including at least one male), an adolescent aged thirteen to fourteen years, a juvenile aged five to six years and an infant aged six to twelve months. It is very regrettable that the contents of this cist were so badly compromised before the NMI visited the site.The contents of the cist are interesting in that both vase and bowl sherds appear to be present, although given the condition of the ceramics this must remain tentative. The cremated remains consisted of a crosssection of ages, including adults, an adolescent, a juvenile and an infant. Very little can be concluded from the badly damaged surviving ceramics other than to say that the association of cremated human remains and these types of ceramics would seem to fit the general pattern known for Early Bronze Age burials (Brindley 2007, 78). A sample of human bone was submitted for radiocarbon dating and yielded a result of 2031–1829 cal. BC (95.4% probability; UBA-29872, 3586±32 BP). Brindley (2007, 328) proposes date ranges of c. 2160–c. 1920 BC for the Bowl Tradition and 2000/1980–1740 BC for the Vase Tradition. The calibrated date of the remains from Garrannaguilly falls within these ranges but because of the damaged nature of the ceramics it is very difficult to discuss this in any greater depth. THE HUMAN REMAINS (NMI 2007:230) Methods Examination of cremated remains involves a description of the colour and texture of the bone, as this helps to determine the efficiency of the cremation. Bone contains collagen, which is the organic part, and an inorganic part composed mainly of calcium and phosphate. An efficient cremation is one in which the organic part of the bone has been fully burnt. Blackened bone is due to burning with insufficient oxygen, resulting in carbonisation of the surface. At this stage the bone has reached a temperature of 300oC (Holden et al. 1995). A grey-blue or grey colour is due to pyrolised organic components (600oC) while white or cream indicates calcination, which is the complete loss of the organic portion and fusion of bone salts (800oC). Between 600oC and 800oC the structure of the bone changes and develops crystals which become hexagonal in shape at the higher temperature. Thus bone colour is actually an indicator of collagen content and so is associated with the elimination of the organic constituents of the bone. The combustion of organic This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 9 2007:231.01 2007:231.02 2007:231.03 2007:231.06 2007:231.04 2007:231.05 2007:231.07 2007:232.01 2007:232.02 2007:232.03 2007:232.04 2007:232.05 2007:232.06 2007:232.06.2 Fig. 9—Ceramic sherds from two vessels, Garrannaguilly, Co. Kilkenny. This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 10 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley materials followed by recrystallisation of the matrix results in shrinkage of the bone’s dimensions and also has a warping effect. Subsequent cooling of the bone results in the development of cracks and fissures (ibid.). After the assessment of its colour and condition, the bone is weighed. Studies of modern cremations have shown that the weight of bone from a single cremated body varies from 1,001.5g to 2,422.5g, with an average weight of 1,625.9g (McKinley 1993). In archaeological examples these weights are rarely recovered unless more than one cremated individual is present in the sample. The bone fragments are then graded by size in order to determine the degree of fragmentation, and the maximum fragment size is also recorded. Although fragmentation of the bone occurs continuously after deposition, owing to compression pressures as well as the disturbance of excavation and processing, it is still possible to assess whether or not the bones were deliberately crushed as part of the cremation ritual. A high proportion of relatively large fragments would suggest that the bones were not deliberately crushed after the cremation, whereas a small deposit of relatively small fragments would indicate a ritually crushed deposit. The weight and proportion of the total cremation in each category, coupled with information about how the site was discovered and the degree of disturbance, enable an assessment of post-cremation ritual to be attempted. Each fragment of bone is then examined and identified, if possible. The degree of identification is generally dependent on fragment size. Larger fragments are usually easier to identify, although phalanges are often found intact among the smaller fragments. Successful identification depends on the number of distinguishing features present on the bone fragments, as well as on knowledge of the thickness and expected cross-section of particular bones. Bones shrink and warp during the cremation process, however, and sometimes it is not possible to specifically identify long bone fragments.The proportion of bone identified can vary considerably, usually from 20% to 50%, but in undisturbed Bronze Age cremations that have been protected in a covered short cist identification can be as high as 80%. The identified bone is summarised into four categories: skull (including teeth), axial skeleton (vertebrae, ribs, pelvis), upper limb and lower limb.The percentage of identified bone in each of the categories is noted. In a normal skeleton the percentage of bone in each of these categories is not equal owing to the variation in bone density. The average percentage of bone in each category is: skull 18.2%; axial 23.1%; upper limb 20.6%; lower limb 38.1% (McKinley 1989). Examination of the actual percentages of the identifiable bone can highlight preferential collection of the cremated material, either at the pyre site or later. The minimum number of individuals present can then be determined by the numbers of specific skeletal elements. It is possible to distinguish juveniles from adults by the thickness of the bone fragments, the presence or not of unfused epiphyses and the fragmentation of the teeth. Adult teeth crowns tend to shatter during the cremation process but unerupted juvenile teeth tend to survive intact, as they are protected by the jaw bones. It is usually possible to age juveniles if enough teeth are present. Certain particular skeletal elements, such as the petrous portion of the temporal bone, can be particularly useful in determining the minimum number of individuals and also in helping to distinguish adults from juveniles and infants. It is not generally possible to age adult cremated remains accurately. Some indicators of age, such as osteophytosis of the spine, may be found; as the skeleton is usually incomplete, however, this only gives a broad indication of age category and normally the cremation can only be designated as being adult, although occasionally in highly fragmented samples even this may not be possible. Sexing of the adults is again dependent on the skeletal elements found. It is rare to find intact pubic bones that can be used for sexing, although it is not unknown. Separate elements of the skull can provide indications but skulls can often have a mixture of female and male traits, so it is generally safer to have at least two sexual markers before the sex of the individual is postulated. To further complicate matters, there is a built-in bias to sexing cremations because the parts of the skull that are thicker and more prominent in males, such as the mastoid processes and supraorbital ridges, are more likely to stay intact in males and it is therefore easier and more common to identify males than females in cremations. It is also certainly not safe to assume that the absence of these markers indicates the presence of a female. Finally, as already mentioned, any pathological conditions on the bone can be noted but the interpretation of these will be severely limited, as the entire skeleton will not be there, and diseased bone can be weaker and more likely to disintegrate during and after cremation. Even when a pathological lesion is known to be present, distortion of the bone during cremation can make interpretation difficult. Results The total weight of bone recovered was 6,453.6g. This is much higher than the average weight expected from a cremated body, indicating that more than one individual was present. The bone is mostly white in colour, indicating efficient cremation. The larger fragments are considerably warped and therefore the This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 11 bone had probably reached at least 700oC. There are also cracks and fissures in the bone. A small proportion, 268.8g (4%), of the sample consists of fragments that are blue or partially blue in colour, indicating that some of the organic part of the bone was still present and that the cremation process had not been completed. This is only a small proportion, confined to the back of the femurs, a small amount of the skull and some hand bones. Oxygen can be restricted in areas where the body is lying close to the ground, such as the back of the skull and back of the femurs, while bones such as hand bones can fall away from the fire area and thus are incompletely burnt. The fragmentation of the bone is given in Table 2, with the largest fragment 116mm in length. slightly lower than expected. The delicate bones of the vertebrae are more easily crushed and are difficult to collect from the funeral pyre. The amount of upper limb is similar to what would be expected, but the proportion of lower limb is reduced. Table 2—Fragmentation of bone, Garrannaguilly, Co. Kilkenny. Fragment size (mm) No. fragments Weight (g) Percentage by weight <10 8,500 597.2 9.3 10–15 6,000 995.9 15.4 15–25 4,212 1,848.10 28.6 25–40 1,272 1,896.80 29.4 265 1,115.60 17.3 20,249 6,453.60 100 >40 Total It can be seen that the percentage of very small fragments less than 10mm in length is very small at 9.3%. In fact, only a quarter of the sample consists of fragments less than 15mm long. The remainder of the sample consists mainly of moderately sized and large fragments, with a low proportion of very large fragments. Nearly half the sample consists of fragments more than 25mm in length, however, and there are some very large fragments present, so there does not seem to have been a high degree of crushing of the bone after cremation. It is likely that fragmentation occurred as a result of cracking of the bone as it was cooling and when the bones were disturbed either during the cremation or collection from the pyre. Identification Since the bone is not highly crushed, identification of the fragments was relatively straightforward. It was possible to identify 2,687.1g (42%) of the sample. The weights and proportion of identifiable bone for each skeletal element are given in Table 3. This table also summarises the proportion of bone in each of the body regions. It can be seen that the proportion of skull (33%) is nearly twice the 18.2% expected from a normal cremation. The proportion of axial skeleton is Table 3—Proportion of Garrannaguilly, Co. Kilkenny. Bone skeletal elements Weight (g) Percentage of identifiable bone Cranium 780.5 29.1 Mandible and teeth 104.6 3.9 Vertebrae 149.7 5.6 Ribs/sternum 142.7 5.3 181 6.8 identified, Body region percentage Skull 33% Pelvis Axial 17.7% Scapula/ clavicle 97.4 Humerus 3.6 221.2 8.2 Radius 62.7 2.3 Ulna 88.5 3.3 Carpals/MC/ phalanges 58.9 2.2 Upper limb 19.6% Femur/patella 429.9 16 Tibia 226.4 8.4 Fibula 78.4 2.9 Tarsals/MTs/ phalanges 65.2 2.4 Lower limb 29.7% Total 2,687.10 100 100 The descriptions of the various skeletal elements identified are given below, and a summary of the maximum number of skeletal features is given in Table 4. Descriptions of identified skeletal elements Cranium (780.5g) The assemblage includes fragments of squamous frontal bone from at least three individuals, two with the This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 12 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley Table 4—Maximum no. of skeletal elements, Garrannaguilly, Co. Kilkenny. Skeletal element Left side Right side Centre 2 1 3 Temporal bone 2 3 Petrous temporal 3 3 Zygomatic 1 2 Mandible 2 2 Maxilla 2 1 Frontal bone Occipital 3 maxillae are presented in Table 5. Mandible and teeth (104.6g) Fragments include parts of the right ramus from two bones, with the condyle present in one of these fragments. There are large fragments of body with at least two left and one right side present, as well as other small fragments with sockets or partial sockets visible. There are at least two other condyles present, and fragments from the inferior border of the body of the mandible. A fragment from the angle of a juvenile bone is also present. Sockets present in mandibles are presented in Table 6. Ilium 1 2 Clavicles 2 3 Table 6—Sockets present, Garrannaguilly, Co. Kilkenny. Scapula 2 3 (1) Humerus 2 2 Radius 3 Ulna 2 3 Femur 1 2 1 Tibia 4 Fibula 2 internal frontal crest visible. There is also a fragment from the glabella, with part of the right orbit visible. The edge of the superior margin of a left orbit is also present, as well as the lateral part of another left orbit. Several fragments of parietal bone are represented, some with the sagittal suture visible. The anterior portions of four temporal bones are present, two left and two right, all with the anterior suture, mandibular fossa and superior part of the external auditory meatus present. There is a fragment from another right temporal bone with the anterior suture and mandibular fossa present, making five temporal bones altogether. Three left and three right petrous temporal areas are present, with one of these representing the left petrous temporal bone from an infant or juvenile. There are several fragments of squamous occipital bone with three external occipital protuberances present. In one of these the occipital crest is very pronounced, indicating that it is probably from a male individual. Table 5—Sockets present in maxillae, Garrannaguilly, Co. Kilkenny. (1) 21 22 23 24 (2) 13 12 11 (3) 22 23 24 Other skull fragments present include one left and two right zygomatic bones, the nasal margin of the left side of a maxilla and fragments from the left side of the maxilla with sockets present. Sockets present in (2) ______________________ 35 36 37 ___________________ 45 44 43 42 Teeth Most of the teeth consist of roots and partial crowns only. There are four intact crowns, two upper and two mandibular third molars. The fact that these are intact indicates that they were unerupted at the time of cremation. The crowns are not fully formed; they are half-complete, indicating that they came from a juvenile aged 13–14 years at the time of death. The complete crowns of two deciduous second molars as well as crowns from a permanent canine and premolar are also present. The permanent crowns indicate an individual aged 5–6 years, but the deciduous crowns are from an infant aged 6–12 months. The tooth roots include an upper first, second and third molar, left and right lower second molars and lower right third molar. The partial roots consist of fragments from at least 24 molar teeth, including three lower third molars, one with an enamel pearl present. There are also the roots of twelve incisor teeth, including seven mandibular incisors, six canines and eleven premolars. Vertebrae (149.7g) (Table 3) Fragments of two atlases, two axes and five lower cervical vertebrae bodies. Also present are the bodies of at least ten thoracic vertebrae and seven partial thoracic arches. A minimum of seven bodies and four lumbar arches are present, and the bodies of two first sacral vertebrae as well as the partial dorsal surfaces of two sacra are present. Some of the vertebrae are adult and some are from an adolescent. Ribs and sternum (142.7g) Fragments of shaft and fragments from the medial ends This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 13 of a minimum of sixteen left ribs and thirteen right ribs. One segment of the sternum is also present. Pelvis (181.0g) Several large fragments of ilium, including the posterior parts of two right ilia, part of the posterior half of a left ilium, several fragments of acetabulum and iliac crest, as well as part of the sciatic notches from at least three ilia. There are also a left and a right ischium and part of a pubic bone present. Scapulae and clavicles (97.4g) This includes the glenoid fossa from at least four scapulae, one of which, with a breadth of 28mm, is from a male individual. There are also the acromial spines from at least five scapulae, two left and three right, and three coracoid processes. The lateral borders from at least two bones are also present. The lateral halves of two left and three right clavicles are present, as well as the mid-shaft areas and medial ends of three bones. One of the medial ephiphyses was unfused and is therefore probably from an adolescent. Humerus (221.2g) This includes the heads of at least four bones, one of which is from an adolescent. The distal end of a right humerus is present and there is another partial distal joint surface.There are several large fragments from the shafts of adult bones, including at least two left and one right bone. Part of the proximal shaft and metaphysis from a juvenile right humerus is present. Radius (62.7g) Fragments include the proximal thirds, including the heads of three bones. There are several fragments from the mid-shaft areas and the distal third of one bone, as well as a fragment from a distal surface. fifteen proximal phalanges, fourteen middle phalanges and sixteen distal phalanges, including some from at least one adult and at least one adolescent. Femur (411.3g) This includes fragments from at least four proximal joint surfaces, one of which may have been from a juvenile or adolescent with the others being from adult bones.There are at least three distal joint ends, with one of these also being from a juvenile or adolescent. The remainder of the fragments are shaft fragments, including the proximal shafts of at least one left and two right bones. Fragments from the mid-shaft area and the posterior surface of the distal shaft are also present. Patella (18.6g) An almost complete left bone and the lateral half of a right bone, as well as fragments from another left and one other bone. Tibia (226.4g) The proximal joint ends from at least two bones, several fragments of shaft from the proximal, middle and distal areas of adult bones, and a minimum of three distal joint surfaces. There is also a fragment of distal shaft from a juvenile or adolescent with the metaphysis present. Fibula (78.4g) Several fragments of shaft from at least two bones, as well as the proximal end of one bone. Ulna (88.5g) This includes the proximal ends of two left and three right bones, several fragments from the mid-shaft area, and the distal shafts of three bones. One of the distal ends is from an adolescent, as the distal epiphysis is unfused. Tarsals/metatarsals/phalanges (65.2g) Fragments from at least one calcaneum, three tali, two navicular, one cuboid and one cuneiform bone. There are a minimum of twelve metatarsals present, including the heads of three first metatarsals and the distal ends of two fifth metatarsals. Also present are at least fourteen proximal, five middle and ten distal foot phalanges, including three first distal phalanges. There are also four sesamoid bones present. Most of the bones are adult bones, but one talus, two metatarsals and a proximal phalange from a juvenile are present. Carpals/metacarpals/phalanges (58.9g) There are a number of partial carpal bones, including at least three scaphoid bones, two lunate bones, five hamate bones, one left and one right trapezium bones, one left and one right trapezoid bones, a left triquetral bone and two right pisiform bones. There are also at least eighteen metacarpals, including four first metacarpals, two second metacarpals and at least two fifth metacarpals.There are Minimum number of individuals Based on the number of frontal, occipital and right temporal bones, the number of right scapulae and clavicles and the number of right ulnae, the minimum number of adult individuals present is three. One of the adults is probably male, although only one male characteristic has been identified. Analysis of the teeth indicated that there are at least three adults present, but there is also at least one adolescent aged 13–14 years at This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 14 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley the time of death, one juvenile aged 5–6 years and one infant aged 6–12 months. The minimum number of individuals is therefore six, consisting of three adults and three juveniles. Summary and conclusions The cremated remains weigh 6,453.6g. Almost all were efficiently cremated, i.e. the organic content was completely burnt away, with some organic part of the bone still present in only 4% of the sample. The warping of the fragments indicates that the bone had reached a temperature of at least 700oC. The bone is not highly fragmented and therefore deliberate crushing was probably not part of the cremation ritual. All body parts were collected, although the skull was over-represented compared to the fragile axial skeleton and there were slightly fewer lower limb bones than expected. There are at least six individuals present.Three are adult (including at least one male), one is an adolescent aged 13–14 years, one is a juvenile aged 5–6 years and one is an infant aged 6–12 months. There is no evidence of pathological lesions on the bone. BALLINCHALLA, CO. MAYO In the course of the NMI’s inventory project, cremated human remains from grave 2 at the Early Bronze Age cemetery at Ballinchalla, Co. Mayo, were discovered (Cahill and Sikora 2011, 290–303). The cemetery at Ballinchalla was analysed and reported on as part of this project, but it was assumed that these bones had not been retained, as they had never been registered and there was no record of their presence in the Museum. The discovery was made too late to allow this grave to be analysed and included in the Breaking ground, finding graves publication (Cahill and Sikora 2011, 291–5), but the remains were analysed with the intention of publication at a later date. The discovery of one complete and one fragmentary ceramic ear-plug— probably a pair—amongst the cremated bone was published in 2014 (Cahill and Sikora 2014). A section of the Ballinchalla report published in 2011 (Cahill and Sikora 2011) is reproduced here in order to provide a context for the report on the human remains. Between 1933 and 1944 nine graves were discovered in a sand pit at Ballinchalla, near Ballinrobe, Co. Mayo. Some of the graves were uncovered by the landowner, Mr Michael O’Connor, and others by workers for Galway County Council while digging for sand. Apart from three of the graves that were excavated by Museum personnel, most of the graves had been emptied upon discovery and were highly disturbed. Eight of the graves were stone cists and one was a pit with partial stone protection. Of the stone cists, five were single-chamber cists, two had two compartments or chambers and one—that which is discussed in this paper (grave 2)—had been divided into three compartments. The only pit grave found was divided by an upright stone. Human bone was found in eight of the nine graves and in all but one case the bone had been cremated. Graves 3, 8 and 9 were excavated by Joseph Raftery, and grave 2 was excavated by Sergeant Seavers of Westport, Co. Mayo. Location The site was in the townland of Ballinchalla, parish of Ballinchalla, barony of Kilmaine in south County Mayo, near the town of Ballinrobe.4 The cemetery lay on a gravel esker between 30m and 60m above sea level, approximately 1km east of Lough Mask. Grave 2 (long stone cist with three chambers) This was discovered in 1936 in close proximity to grave 1, approximately 0.9m below ground level at the east end and 1.35m at the west end. It was investigated by Sergeant Seavers of Westport, Co. Mayo, and the following account is based on his report in the topographical file. The cist was rectangular in plan, with its long axis oriented east–west. It measured 1.42m long by 0.76m wide by 0.41m deep externally. Seavers’s plan does not show the various slabs that formed the cist, but from the photographs on file (see Cahill and Sikora 2011, 324) it is clear that it was formed by a number of edgeset slabs (see Fig. 10). It was divided into three separate chambers by two upright partition slabs. The easternmost chamber measured 0.56m long internally, the central chamber measured the same and the westernmost chamber was 0.31m long. According to Garda Seavers, the stones of the cist did not appear to be local and some were ‘coated with black mud similar to what you would see in a river bed’. The cist did not appear to have been paved and there was no evidence for a capstone, although the latter may have been removed at the time of discovery. The grave contained three deposits of cremated bones and a number of small stones, as well as some material described by Garda Seavers as seaweed, but no vessel was found. One cremation deposit was placed in the centre of the easternmost chamber, with the ‘seaweed’ placed to the north of it. The second and third cremation deposits were both in the central chamber, one placed in the centre and a smaller one at the northern side.5 No artefacts were found with these deposits. The western compartment of the cist contained three small round stones and one ‘disc stone’.6 This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 15 Fig. 10—Sergeant Seavers’s plan of compartmented cist, Ballinchalla, Co. Mayo. The remains (1936:3761.1) were found in the NMI in two bags, but without any indication of which compartment of the cist the bones came from. Amongst the cremated bone was found a piece of unburnt antler, which is likely to be what Seavers described as a piece of seaweed (NMI 1936:3761.2), a pair of ceramic ear-plugs, as mentioned above (NMI 1936:3761.3–4), only one of which was complete, a stone pebble (NMI 1936: 3761.5) and five fragments of burnt animal bone (NMI 1936:3761.6) (see Figs 11– 12). The ear-plugs and animal bone were burnt, indicating that they were part of the cremation; the earplugs were probably worn by one of the individuals being cremated. Seavers’s sketch of the cist shows that the antler was placed adjacent to the pile of cremated bone in the easternmost compartment of the cist, two piles of cremated bone were found in the middle compartment and some coloured pebbles were found in the western compartment. It is not clear whether all of these stones were retained, but some round pebbles, one of which is green in colour, were recovered from the cremation deposit. Analysis of the remains by Laureen Buckley showed that they consisted of three individuals: two adults, one of whom was female, and an older adolescent aged not more than twenty years at death. It is tempting to consider that the compartments were symbolic of each individual, although it should be noted that only two of the three compartments in the cist contained bone. A sample of the human remains was radiocarbon-dated and returned a result of 1880– 1664 cal. BC (95.4%; UBA-19254, 3442±35 BP). This places it in the later phase of the Early Bronze Age, later than the period in which bowls were deposited (2160– 1930/20 BC) and somewhat later than the main period in which vases were generally deposited (2020–1740 BC) (Brindley 2007, 328). The cemetery at Ballinchalla is of particular interest in terms of both the grave forms and their contents. The cist discussed here—grave 2—is unusual in being a compartmented cist (Waddell 1990, 16) but also because of the unique finds; it contained the only known pair of ear-plugs from an Early Bronze Age grave, as well as a piece of antler. Seavers’s account also mentions the presence of green and white bead-like This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 16 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley Fig. 11—Selection of finds from grave 2, Ballinchalla, Co. Mayo: antler 1936:3761.2; ceramic ear-plug (two fragments) and complete ceramic ear-plug 1936:3761.3–4; stone pebble 1936:3761.5. (Cahill and Sikora 2011, 298). The complete ceramic ear-plug is saddle-shaped in section with approximately circular ends, with one end slightly bigger than the other. It measures 2.7cm in length and is 1.9cm wide at the widest end. The second ear-plug appears to have exploded during the cremation process and only fragments survive (Cahill and Sikora 2014, 31).The site is clearly a high-status site, and those who performed burial rites here had access to high-quality ceramics and other unusual objects of personal ornament. THE HUMAN REMAINS FROM GRAVE 2 (NMI 1936:3761.1) Introduction Grave 2 at Ballinchalla, Co. Mayo, contained a large sample of cremated bone. When found in Museum storage, the sample was contained in two bags; it is not known whether or not the bags represented two different areas of the cist. Fig. 12—Complete ceramic ear-plug, Ballinchalla, Co. Mayo (1936:3761.3). stones ‘mounted on a stone disc’ being found in the third, empty, cist compartment. In addition, it has been noted that grave 4 at Ballinchalla produced a lidded vase, one of the finest vases in the entire Irish corpus Methods See the Garrannaguilly report above for a description of the methods used. Results Owing to the large quantity of bone, each bag was This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 17 examined separately; as there was no particular distinction found between the bags, however, the results were combined. The total weight of bone recovered was 2,969.5g. This is much higher than the average weight expected from one cremated body, indicating that more than one individual was present. The bone was mostly creamy white in colour and appeared calcined. A small proportion, 229.5g (8%), of the sample consisted of fragments that were blue or partially blue in colour, indicating that some of the organic part of the bone was still present and that the cremation process had not been completed. The majority of the bone, however, was efficiently cremated. The larger fragments are considerably warped, therefore the bone had probably reached at least 700oC in temperature. There are also cracks and fissures in the bone. Some of the bone is considerably encrusted with mineral deposits. The fragmentation of the bone is presented in Table 7, with the largest fragment 116mm in length. was possible to identify 1,521.6g (51%) of the sample. The weights and proportion of identifiable bone for each skeletal element are given in Table 8.This table also summarises the proportion of bone in each of the body regions. A summary of the maximum number of skeletal features is given in Table 9. It can be seen that the representation of skull at 38% is over twice that expected from a normal cremation. Although the proportions of the various regions should be the same no matter how many individuals are present, in practice a higher proportion of skull usually means that more than one individual is represented in the cremation.This is because skull bones are much easier to identify than long bone fragments.The proportion of axial skeleton is much lower than expected.The delicate bones of the vertebrae are more easily crushed and are difficult to collect from the funeral pyre. It seems that the skull has been collected at the expense of the axial skeleton. The amount of upper limb is similar to what would be expected but the proportion of lower limb is reduced. Table 7—Fragmentation of bone, Ballinchalla, Co. Mayo. Fragment size (mm) No. fragments Table 8—Proportion of skeletal elements identified, Ballinchalla, Co. Mayo. Weight (g) Percentage by weight <10 3,817 444.1 15 Bone Weight (g) Percentage 10–15 1,544 361.5 12.2 Skull 577.5 38 15–25 1,049 610.4 20.5 25–40 472 759.1 25.6 Vertebrae 58.4 3.8 >40 166 794.4 26.7 Ribs 84.3 5.5 Pelvis 90.5 5.9 Total 7,048 2,969.50 100 It can be seen that the percentage of very small fragments less than 10mm in length is quite low. In fact, only a quarter of the sample consists of fragments less than 15mm long.The remainder of the sample is divided equally between the moderate, large and very large fragments. Since over half the sample consists of fragments more than 25mm in length and there are some very large fragments present, it does not appear that the bone was deliberately crushed after cremation. It is likely that fragmentation occurred as a result of cracking of the bone as it was cooling and when the bones were disturbed either during the cremation or collection from the pyre. Identification Since the bone is not highly crushed, identification of the fragments was relatively straightforward, although the encrustation of minerals on some of the fragments was so severe that it hindered identification. Despite this it Body region percentage Skull 38.0% Axial 15.2% Scapula/ clavicle 40.7 2.7 Humerus 157.1 10.3 Radius 39.8 2.6 Ulna 45.2 3 Carpals/ MCs/ phalanges 21 1.4 Upper limb 20.0% Femur/ patella 226.5 14.9 Tibia 127.7 8.4 Fibula 31.6 2.1 Tarsals/ MTs/ phalanges 21.3 1.4 Lower limb 26.8% Total 1,521.60 This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 100 100 18 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley Table 9—Maximum no. of skeletal elements, Ballinchalla, Co. Mayo. Skeletal element Left side Right side Frontal bone 2 Parietal bone 2 Centre/unsided 2 1 Occipital 2 Temporal bone 3 2 Petrous temporal 2 1 Zygomatic 2 2 Mandible 3 3 Maxilla 1 1 Ilium 2 1 Scapula 2 2 Humerus 1 3 Radius 1 1 Ulna 3 2 Femur 2 2 Tibia 2 2 Fibula 1 1 Dentition A number of sockets are present (Table 10), and roots from at least six incisors, six canines or premolars, one upper molar and two mandibular molars, three other permanent molars and a partial crown from two lower first molars as well as other crown fragments from premolars and incisors were identified. The remains of an erupted deciduous molar are also present. Table 10—Sockets present, Ballinchalla, Co. Mayo. Mandible 1 2 Description of skeletal elements Skull (577.5g) This category includes a large fragment from the left side of the frontal bone, other large fragments of squamous frontal bone, including two fragments with the internal crest visible, one with the fovea caecum present and another fragment with the internal crest and most of the left sinus visible; most of a glabella and part of a left orbit and a fragment of another orbit; large fragments from the posterior parietal bones with lambdoid suture visible; very large fragments from at least two occipital bones, with portions of lambdoid suture and the internal occipital protuberance present; the anterior suture, mandibular fossa, superior margin of the external auditory meatus and part of the zygomatic arch from two left and two right temporal bones; the anterior suture and mandibular fossa from another left temporal bone; the posterior part of a right temporal bone with lambdoid suture and most of the mastoid process visible; a similar area from a left temporal bone, although only part of the mastoid process was present; two left and one right petrous temporal bones; part of the basilar occipital and sphenoid bones; two left and two right zygomatic bones; fragments from at least three mandibles, including three right mandibular condyles, part of a right ramus of mandible, fragments from three left and two right mandibular bodies and the left and right sides of a maxilla. ____________________ 48 47 46 45 44 43--__________________ 31 32 33 34 35 36 Mandible 2 31 32 33 34 35 36 ___ 48 Mandible 3 __________ 31 32 33 34 Maxilla: The following sockets were present: 16 15 14 13 – ____________ 21 22 23 24 25 ____________ Vertebrae (58.4g) The assemblage comprises most of the left side with superior and inferior articular surfaces of a C1 vertebra; another fragmented first cervical vertebra; most of a second cervical vertebra, including the odontoid process; the odontoid process and the left and right superior articular surfaces of another adult C2 vertebra; the bodies of four lower cervical vertebrae and two partial arches; at least eight thoracic arches and two partial thoracic bodies; a minimum of four partial lumbar arches and a fragment of lumbar body; part of a sacral body and part of the left ala. Ribs (84.3g) Several large and small fragments of ribs representing a minimum of ten left and ten right ribs were identified, although several other ribs are present. Pelvis (90.5g) Large fragments of iliac fossa, a large section from the iliac crest with epiphysis fused and other fragments of iliac crest, as well as a fragment of auricular surface and sciatic notch from two left and one right bones, were identified. Also present are fragments from two acetabula, including at least one left acetabulum with This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 19 part of the ischium present and another partial left ischium. The wide sciatic notch and pre-auricular sulcus on one left bone are suggestive of a female. Scapula (35.1g) A minimum of two left and two right scapulae are represented by partial acromial spine fragments and fragments of the area around the base of the spine and near the glenoid fossa. Smaller fragments from the base of the acromion from another two bones are also present. One of the left bones was heavily encrusted with minerals.There are also several fragments of lateral border from at least two bones. Clavicle (5.6g) The distal thirds of a left and a right bone. Humerus (157.1g) This assemblage consists of large fragments of shaft from the proximal and middle areas from at least one left and three right bones, including one with the nutrient foramen and bicipital groove visible and another with the deltoid tuberosity present. There is also the distal area of shaft and part of the distal joint surface from a right bone and fragments of posterior surface from near the distal end of a left bone, as well as a fragment of a humerus head. Radius (39.8g) Fragments from the mid-shaft and distal shaft areas from at least one left and one right radius bone, and part of the proximal shaft with part of the head and tuberosity from a left radius bone. Ulna (45.2g) Several fragments from the mid-shaft area, three left and two right distal shafts, the proximal shaft and proximal joint surface of a left ulna were identified. One left and one right distal shaft had unfused distal epiphyses. Carpals/metacarpals/phalanges (21g) Fragments from a scaphoid and one other carpal bone; the shafts of six metacarpals, including a first metacarpal and two metacarpal heads; thirteen proximal, eight middle and seven distal hand phalanges, including two first distal phalanges. Femur (226.5g) A fragment from two proximal joint ends; the distal ends of a left and a right bone and three other partial distal joint surfaces; fragments from the posterior surface near the proximal end of the shaft from at least one left and one right femur; other fragments from the anterior surface mid-shaft and fragments from the posterior surface near the distal half of the bone. A fragment from the distal shaft appeared to have an unfused epiphysis. A right patella and parts of two other patellae are present. Tibia (127.7g) Several large fragments of shaft, including most of the shaft of a left bone and the proximal shaft of a right bone; fragments from the posterior surface near the proximal end with the nutrient foramina visible from a left and a right bone; large fragments from the midshaft area of a left bone, with medial surface and anterior crest visible; several other fragments from the mid-shaft and distal shaft areas. Fibula (31.6g) Several fragments from the proximal and mid-shaft areas, as well as the distal shaft and distal joint ends from a left and a right fibula. Tarsals/metatarsals/phalanges (21.3g) Fragments of tali and calcanea; part of a navicular; the heads and part of the shafts of two first metatarsals; the proximal half of a left fifth metatarsal; shafts and partial heads from three other metatarsals; twelve proximal phalanges, including a first, and also a first distal phalange and one sesamoid bone. The metatarsal heads are of different sizes so probably represent two individuals. Minimum number of individuals Based on the number of temporal bones, mandibles, right humeri and left ulnae, the minimum number of individuals present is three. There seem to be at least two adults present and one older adolescent less than twenty years, as the distal femur and distal ulna were unfused. One of the adults appears to be female. Summary and conclusions The cremated remains weigh 2,969g. Almost all were efficiently cremated, with only 8% having some of the organic part of the bone still present. The warping of the fragments indicates that the bone had reached a temperature of at least 700oC. The bone is not highly fragmented, suggesting that deliberate crushing was not part of the cremation ritual. All body parts had been collected, although the skull was over-represented compared to the fragile axial skeleton. There were also slightly fewer lower limb bones represented than expected. There are at least three individuals present. Two were adult and one was an adolescent or younger adult of less than twenty years at the time of death. One of the adults appears to be female.There is no evidence of pathological lesions on the bone. This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 20 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley BALLYNAMONA, CO. OFFALY This burial was excavated by Michael Duignan in 1935. No report exists on this site in the NMI’s files, but the human remains were found during the unpublished burials project with the label ‘pillarstone burial’ (NMI 2017:44) and had been stored with the human remains from Duignan’s excavation of a Bronze Age cemetery at the nearby townland of Lug, Co. Offaly. Correspondence on the NMI’s topographical file for Lug from Father William Moran, who reported the Lug site to the NMI, describes the site at Ballynamona as follows: ‘The neighbouring townland [Ballynamona] also contains an interesting site. All that is now visible is a great standing stone (something like those around New Grange [sic] tumulus). A few years before the great war, however, when a trench was being dug some 50 yards from this stone on the western (I think) side of it, the workmen came on two skeletons in what were described to me as rudely constructed stone coffins lying almost side by side.’7 Location The site is in the townland of Ballynamona in the parish of Durrow and barony of Ballycowan, north Co. Offaly, not far from the border with County Westmeath.8 The burial There is no report on file recording the excavation of this Ballynamona burial. It was only when Professor John Waddell gave the NMI some papers of Duignan’s that had been found in the Archaeology Department of NUI Galway that two photographs of this excavation were discovered. It seems that when Duignan was excavating at Lug he also undertook the excavation at the Ballynamona site, perhaps at the instigation of Fr Moran. No licence has been recorded for what was probably a short rescue excavation of what remained of the site described by Moran. To judge from Moran’s account, this may have been a Bronze Age cemetery site similar to Lug. Interestingly, one burial—that under discussion here— appears to have been directly adjacent to a standing stone, below the level of the stone’s socket. From the photographs found amongst Duignan’s papers (see Figs 13–14), the bones seem to have been surrounded by or contained within a few large irregularly shaped stones. Fig. 13 (top right)—View of standing stone, Ballynamona, Co. Offaly, showing bones at base. Fig. 14 (right)—View of human remains at base of standing stone, Ballynamona, Co. Offaly. This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 21 All evidence points to the ‘pillarstone burial’ being at Ballynamona and not Lug. The burial appears to be adjacent to a large standing stone (it is difficult to be precise about the exact relationship: the bones appear to be at a lower level than the standing stone, although the angle of the photographs makes this interpretation very challenging). This stone is described in the Archaeological inventory of County Offaly as measuring 2.1m by 1.3m by 40cm thick and resting on top of smaller stones which are bedded in the ground (O’Brien and Sweetman 1997, 4). From Duignan’s photographs it appears as though the stone was less than 2m high, but this is probably due to the fact that a portion of it was underground. It is described as having ‘other sandstones gathered to its base to keep it steady’. From the photographs, which are the only surviving record of the burial, the bones appear to be disarticulated and gathered together in a small pile.This suggests the possibility of defleshing prior to burial, although this must be tentative given the absence of any report on how these remains were discovered and whether any disturbance was observed. It is worth noting that in her analysis of the human remains Laureen Buckley suggests, on the basis of the missing elements of the skeleton (namely vertebrae and left ribs), that the body could have instead been crouched and lying on its right side, so that the remains might not have been disarticulated at the time of interment but disturbed in antiquity. If the standing stone and the burial are not contemporary, and it is worth reiterating that this cannot be established, it may be the case that an Early Bronze Age burial was disturbed when the standing stone was erected, also in antiquity. It is not possible to be certain about this, and it is also conceivable that the burial and stone are contemporary. The remains are those of a young adult female. A sample of rib bone was submitted for analysis and yielded a date in the Early Bronze Age of 2015–1772 cal. BC (95.4% probability; UBA-29874, 3556±34 BP). Unfortunately, the details of the excavation of this burial are sketchy and we are reliant on two photographs to reconstruct the particulars. Nevertheless, the label of ‘pillarstone burial’ on the human remains and the labelling of the photographs with the same name suggest that we can be reasonably confident that these refer to the Ballynamona site. Notwithstanding the lack of detail, it is interesting that an Early Bronze Age burial should lie so close to a standing stone. It raises the possibility that the cemetery was marked by this stone either at that time or at a later date. THE HUMAN REMAINS FROM ‘THE PILLARSTONE BURIAL’ (NMI 2017:44) Introduction These bones were found in a bag in Museum storage with the label ‘pillarstone burial’. Description of skeletal remains The burial consisted of skull and long bones, ribs and some hand and feet bones. As the bones are well preserved, the lack of vertebrae and left ribs suggests that the body had been crouched and lying on its right side, so that the left ribs, shoulder and vertebrae may have been lost if it was disturbed. It is mainly the back of the skull, most of the squamous occipital bone, most of the right parietal bone, the posterior part of the left parietal bone, most of both temporal bones and a small fragment of frontal bone that remain. Most of the mandible is also present. Only the posterior arch of the first cervical and the right side of one thoracic arch survive from the vertebral column. Nine ribs from the right side remain but there were none from the left side. Only a fragment of medial border remains from the left scapula, but the right scapula is almost complete. The medial end is missing from the right clavicle. The left humerus is missing the proximal end and the right humerus is complete. Both radii and the left ulna are complete and the shaft of the right ulna is present. Only the fourth left metacarpal and the shaft of one other metacarpal survive from the left hand, but all the metacarpals and four proximal and one middle phalanges remain from the right hand. The phalanges are long and slender. The left femur is almost complete but the head and neck are missing and the distal end was decayed. The head of the right femur is also missing and the distal end was partially decayed. The left tibia is complete but the proximal end is missing from the right tibia. The shafts of the fibulae are also present. Both tali, calcanea and right navicular remain of the tarsal bones, and there are fragments of the left and right second, third and fourth metatarsals and left fifth metatarsal. Age and sex The external occipital protuberance, right mastoid process and mental eminence of the mandible are all of the female type. The diameter of the humerus head, radii heads and glenoid cavity width are also within the female range. Since the pelvis is missing, the only indications of age were the lack of wear on the teeth, the lack of suture closure in the skull and the fact that the epiphyseal line is still visible on the proximal humerus This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 22 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley Table 11—Dentition, Ballynamona, Co. Offaly. _________________________________________________ 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 -P P P P P P PM PM PM PM P P P PM PM and proximal radius, suggesting a young female. Stature was estimated as 169cm based on the length of the tibia. Dentition (Table 11) Attrition There is light wear on the canines, premolars and first molar, with no wear on the second and third molars. Calculus There are light deposits on the lingual surfaces of the right premolars and molars and the left first premolar. Hypoplasia Linear enamel hypoplasia was noted on the canines. CORR, CO. WESTMEATH The site was reported to the NMI on 27 June 2011. The landowner, Mr John Bellingham, stated that the cist had been discovered some weeks previously when the capstone was hit and broken during ploughing.9 The site was visited on 6 July by Maeve Sikora and Carol Smith. No remains were visible inside the grave, as the broken capstone had been replaced over the cavity, but the cist structure was discernible through a gap between the piece of broken capstone and the in situ portion. Any remains that survived were in danger of being damaged as a result of exposure. Location The site is in the townland of Corr, parish of Ballymorin, barony of Rathconrath, near the village of Rathconrath, Co. Westmeath.10 The field in which the cist was found had been planted with rapeseed but the area immediately surrounding the cist had been left unplanted. The surrounding land is undulating, and a gentle rise was noted in the area in which the cist burial is located. The landowner, Mr John Bellingham, thought that the ground might have been levelled slightly during ploughing and hence the capstone of the cist was discovered. No archaeological sites are recorded from the immediate vicinity, although two ringforts are recorded in the townland: WM017-108 and WM017-109.11 The site at Corr is overlooked to the south by the prehistoric cult centre and royal site of Uisneach, the so-called centre of Ireland (Schot 2006). A number of Bronze Age burials are recorded from neighbouring townlands; two cist graves were excavated by Raghnall Ó Floinn of the NMI in Rathconrath townland in 1990 (Cahill and Sikora 2011, 522–40), and a cist grave containing an inhumation and a tripartite bowl, also in the barony of Rathconrath, was excavated by Joseph Raftery in 1971, in the townland of Milltown (ibid., 516–19). A Bronze Age cist grave was also excavated by John Sheehan on the west side of the Hill of Uisneach, in the townland of Killarecastle (Sheehan 1985). The cist The cist was recognisable by a portion of the capstone which protruded from the ground where it had been fractured. The broken capstone was recorded and then removed with the assistance of David Geoghan and David Clarke. Some smaller stones were found on top of the capstone and may indicate the former presence of some form of cairn above the burial. The capstone appears to have been at a depth of around 0.2m below the current ground level. It was roughly rectangular in shape, the in situ portion measuring 1.1m long by 1.23m wide. The two broken pieces measured 0.58cm by 0.5m by 0.095m thick and 0.62m by 0.85m by 0.15m thick respectively (Figs 15–16).When complete, therefore, the capstone would have been substantial in size. The cist was of solid construction, built of four edge-set slabs: two long slabs, each forming one side, and a shorter slab at each end. The cist was oriented north-east/south-west and measured 0.95m long at the top, tapering inwards to measure 0.85m long at the base. It was 0.57m in maximum width. The southeastern slab was very large, extending some 15cm beyond the chamber. It measured 1.1m long by 0.12cm wide by c. 0.75m high. The area to the south of the south-western end stone was examined during the excavation of the cist and was found to consist of cairn material, cobbles with very little soil in the interstices. It is possible that this side is a burial cairn and that more burials are present in the vicinity. Contents The cist was filled with loose soil, much of which had spilled into the cist around the time of discovery. Prior to this, the lower level of the fill must have been undisturbed for some time, as water marks were visible on the walls of the cist. Some bones of a small rodent and a few disarticulated human vertebrae and phalanges were discovered in the upper layers of this loose soil, most notably on the eastern side. The cranium was the first in situ bone to be exposed and the edge of a ceramic bowl was visible next to it. The ceramic bowl was damaged, possibly as a result of the ingress of soil and water after the breaking of the capstone. For this This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 23 F N C D E 0 0.5M Fig. 15—Plan of inhumation in cist, Corr, Co. Westmeath. C D Fig. 16—Sections through cist, Corr, Co. Westmeath. E This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms F 24 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley Fig. 17—Drawing of tripartite bowl, Corr, Co. Westmeath. reason it was decided to lift it immediately. Excavation of the remainder of the cist revealed that the skeleton was tightly flexed, with the head in the north-eastern corner (Fig. 15). The mandible and maxilla had separated and the cranium had toppled off, so that the maxilla was exposed. At the time of burial, the head of the interred was probably resting against the northern end stone. The left arm was slightly bent at the elbow, and the right arm was bent at about a 90° degree angle at the elbow, with the lower arm resting over the thorax and the right finger bones against the eastern cist wall. The legs were flexed; the left (lower) leg was tightly flexed at the hip, with the lower leg drawn up to near the pelvis. The right leg was less tightly flexed at the hip, with the knee set tightly close to the southern corner of the east side of the cist. Both legs were tightly flexed at the knee joint. The lighter colour of some of the bone—in particular the right scapula—indicates This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 25 Fig. 18—Image of tripartite bowl, Corr, Co. Westmeath. that some of the bones had been exposed to the air, perhaps since the recent discovery of the cist. The remains were those of an adult male aged between 35 and 44 years at death. This man suffered neuromechanical problems in his legs, as a result of either genetic factors or nutritional deficiencies. The upper body had developed well, however, and there was evidence that the man was involved in heavy physical labour during his lifetime (see below). A ceramic vessel (11E259:2) was discovered adjacent to the right shoulder of the interred, in an upright position but tilted to one side (Figs 17–18).The vessel is a very finely made example of a bowl of the tripartite type as classified by Ó Ríordáin and Waddell (1993). It is complete apart from an approximately 6cm section of the rim. The outer surface is decorated all over apart from the rim, which is plain. Some burnishing is visible on the inner base and on the outer surface. The base is decorated with an incised cruciform pattern similar to that seen on some Early Bronze Age gold discs and representing a complex solar image (Cahill 2015). The bowl is decorated with a series of alternating horizontal bands of decoration delimited by incised horizontal lines. The main elements of the decoration will be described from the base to the rim.The first band is of vertical short combimpressed lines, above which are two plain incised parallel horizontal lines. The next band of decoration consists of lunate-shaped impressions filled with short vertical comb impressions, delimited below by a band of short triangular impressions and above by a band of short vertical comb impressions. Above this is a band of short triangular impressions which is delimited above and below by a horizontal incised line and an undecorated band. Above these, and again delimited by an incised horizontal line, are a series of bands of alternating comb impressions and impressed lunate shapes. The widest band occurs at the top and consists of a series of lozenges infilled with comb impressions. The base of the vessel is decorated with a series of chevron impressions to form a plain cruciform motif. The maker of this vessel used the standard repertoire of This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 26 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley elements seen on other tripartite bowls: parallel horizontal lines and false-relief chevrons. The ribs are decorated with comb-impressed lines, again something which is frequently seen on bowls of this type (Ó Ríordáin and Waddell 1993, 13). Whether or not this cist is part of a larger cemetery or group of burials cannot be established here, as the excavation did not extend beyond the limits of this cist. The presence of stones on top of the capstone of the cist and around it suggests that it may have been covered by a stone cairn and that there may therefore have been more than one burial here. A number of large slabs which had been cleared from the field and placed near a shed in the fields may represent parts of other graves—or, indeed, cairn material. A sample of the human remains was submitted for radiocarbon dating and returned a result of 3536±40 BP, which calibrates to the Early Bronze Age, 2006– 1748 cal. BC (95.4% probability; UBA-29873). The bowl shares characteristics with Brindley’s stage 2 bowls, which she has dated to the period 2080–1980 BC (Brindley 2007, 250). As is the case with the date from Brackloney, the later range of the date from Corr would be treated with caution by Brindley, who considers the date range for bowls in general to be within the period c. 2160–1920 BC (ibid., 328). THE HUMAN REMAINS (NMI 11E259:1) Introduction The human remains were cleaned in the NMI laboratory before being submitted for analysis. Preservation The burial is fairly well preserved although there are slight pock-marks on the outer cortex on the anterior shaft of the left humerus near its distal end, possibly owing to the ingress of water into the cist. The outer cortex of the right humerus is slightly more decayed than that of the left and the articular surface of the head is almost decayed away, with trabecular bone visible. There is also some mineral encrustation on the head of the left humerus, the head of the left radius, the capitulum of the right humerus and the olecranon of the right ulna, with decay of the outer cortex in these areas. The left femur has moderate destruction of the cortex on most of the shaft but there is more destruction on the distal shaft area. There is severe destruction on the shaft of the left tibia, with the medial and lateral surfaces pock-marked and most of cortex removed, although the articular surfaces are in good condition. The pock-marks on the bones and the encrustation with mineral deposits suggest that the skeleton had been exposed to water. It is probable that the cist was waterlogged at various stages and the green algae deposits on the sides of the cist represent water levels. Completeness The skeleton is approximately 92% complete.The only bones missing are some tarsals and phalanges from the foot bones and most of the right hand bones. Some decay of the scapula and the base of the skull was noted. Non-metric traits There is a third trochanter on the right femur and a vastus notch on the right patella. There is a posterior foramen on the right side of the first cervical vertebra and a partial foramen on the left side. Age and sex In the pelvis the narrow sciatic notch, the sharp subpubic angle and broad ischio-pubic ramus all indicate that this is a male individual. The morphological features of the skull are also of the male type.The pubic symphysis and auricular surface of the ilium suggest an age of 35–44 years, placing him in the late middle adult category. Stature The living stature of the individual was estimated as 173cm from the length of the femur and tibia, using the regression equations of Trotter and Gleser (1952; 1958). Skeletal pathology Muscle development Both humeri have a deep bicipital groove for the long head of the biceps muscle. The lateral lip of the groove is also pronounced and this is where the pectoralis major muscle is attached. They also have welldeveloped deltoid tuberosities. These muscles are involved in adduction and medial rotation of the humerus as well as flexion of the forearm. There is also moderate enthesophytes development on the left posterior iliac crest where the gluteus maximus muscle is attached. It appears that this individual had highly developed muscles, particularly in the upper arm and chest areas and at the back of the thigh. Neuro-mechanical anamolies In the mid-shaft of both femurs, the area of the linea aspera appears to have developed as a strong bar of bone. This is known as a pilaster and develops in late childhood, reaching maximum development in early adult life (Cunningham et al. 2016, 390). It is thought This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 27 Table 12—Dentition. C C P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 41 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P to strengthen the shaft where there is a greater degree of anterior curvature. In addition, there is some torsion of the upper part of the femurs, with the heads facing more anteriorly than expected. Alternatively, if the head was in the correct position then the lower half was twisted medially and posteriorly. The left femur head is slightly distorted and there is a double attachment area for the ligament. The fovea capitis in the centre of the head is quite shallow, with lipping around the depression. Inferior to this there is an almost horizontal deeper groove, which appears to be for the ligament attachment also. The head of the right bone has been partially damaged but there is a deep horizontal groove for the ligament and a slight depression behind this. It appears that there was some movement of the ligament attaching the femur to the socket of the hip joint at an early stage in development. This may have been caused by the torsion in the shaft of the femurs. It is not clear whether this was a congenital defect or a neuro-mechanical problem caused by nutritional deficiencies. More evidence of stress on the spine is evident in the presence of Schmorl’s nodes in the lower thoracic and mid-lumbar region, with some of the nodes very deep. These depressions in the vertebral bodies are caused by herniation of the disc material following stress on the spine. They tend to become worse with age and increased stress (Rogers and Waldron 1995, 27). There are some outgrowing nodules on the right auricular surface of the sacrum suggestive of a disease process, and it is possible that this individual was developing sacro-ilitis, an infection of the sacro-iliac joint. Pathology Osteochondritis dessicans is present on the right superior facet of C2.This defect occurs on convex joint surfaces. It is usually caused by trauma where a small injury causes necrosis (bone death). This is seen as a small circular depression on the bone surface. In addition to the deformities of the femurs described above, there is a slight scoliosis (lateral bend) of the vertebral column in the lumbar region. Degenerative joint disease is also present in the upper and lower thoracic regions and in the lumbar vertebrae, although it is mild. There is ossification of the ligamentum flavum throughout the thoracic region and in the first lumbar vertebra. The ligamentum flavum is a deep ligament of the spine that attaches to laminae of adjacent vertebrae from the axis to the sacrum. It helps to maintain the upright posture and in straightening the vertebral column from the flexed position. Ossification of this ligament is often seen in skeletal remains and seems to be associated with stress on the spine. This cannot be considered in isolation and it is more than likely to be linked to the deformity in the legs and the slight scoliosis which put the vertebral column under pressure. Dental pathology Attrition is light to moderate and calculus deposits were slight. There are very small pinpricks of caries on the occlusal surface of the upper right second and third molars. Linear enamel hypoplasia is present on the upper left lateral incisor and canine, and there are pits caused by hypoplasia on the upper left first molar and third molar.This indicates acute infection or nutritional deficiency throughout childhood and adolescence. Dentition See Table 12. Dental anomalies There is overcrowding in the maxilla, with the left lateral incisor, 22, rotated 90° laterally and the adjacent canine, 23, slightly behind the incisor, 22, and first premolar, 24. Summary This is the skeleton of an adult male with an estimated living stature of 173cm. He had suffered from acute infection or nutritional deficiency throughout childhood and adolescence. Possibly as a result of nutritional deficiency or possibly owing to genetic factors he had neuro-mechanical problems in the leg bones.There was torsion and rotation of the upper ends of the femurs, causing problems in the hip joints. In order to bolster the strength of the femurs, bars of bone, pilasters, had developed throughout childhood on the backs of the femurs. Despite the early problems, this individual had developed well and the upper body was very muscular, in particular the pectoral muscles This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 28 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley and biceps. There is evidence that he was involved in heavy labour, which caused problems in his spine in the form of herniations of the intervertebral discs. He had a slight scoliosis and his spine appears to have been under stress, as the ligament involved in maintaining an upright spine had started to ossify. His dental hygiene was good, although very small cavities had started to form on the upper back molars. FINAL DISCUSSION As outlined in the introduction, the sites presented in this article represent a random collection of Early Bronze Age burials rather than a specific typological or geographic selection. They were selected for publication together owing to their shared date, the fact that they were previously unpublished and were discovered or rediscovered too late for inclusion in a 2011 corpus (Cahill and Sikora 2011). The circumstances of discovery echo Waddell’s (2000) observation that all too frequently such burials are casual discoveries in the course of agricultural activity and these circumstances can mean that the graves are sometimes damaged prior to investigation. This is particularly true in the case of the Garrannaguilly cist discussed above, where the contents were trampled and substantially destroyed prior to the NMI’s investigation. Nonetheless, there are some important conclusions to be drawn from the distribution, form and content of the sites discussed here, not least the fact that such burials enrich the record and support the idea that the burial evidence from this period is indeed ‘varied and complex’ (Waddell 2000, 140). Given the nature of the discoveries and the large volume of published data on this subject, what follows is a short discussion of these burials in context and a brief outline of their most significant aspects. In terms of distribution, the selection is of course random, although their locations would appear to conform to recognised patterns of distribution (Waddell 1990; 2000; Grogan 2017). Waddell has noted that graves containing bowls have a northern and eastern distribution, and the Brackloney and Corr examples support this trend. The cist at Garrannaguilly, although containing both vase and bowl sherds, seems also to fit with the distribution pattern for both vessel types, while the cemetery at Ballinchalla is part of an important distribution of such Early Bronze Age sites in Mayo and Galway (Waddell 2000, 145).The location of the Ballynamona burial adjacent to a standing stone is of great significance and raises the possibility of a grave-marker, or perhaps the possibility that this important site had some longevity (see Grogan 2017, 64).The location of the burial at Corr is also interesting in that it adds to a pattern of burials of similar date surrounding the important prehistoric cult centre at the Hill of Uisneach (Cahill and Sikora 2011, 516–19, 522–40; Sheehan 1985). The burials at Ballinchalla and Ballynamona are both part of larger cemeteries, whereas the limited nature of the investigations at Brackloney, Corr and Garrannaguilly do not allow for any consideration as to the extent of these sites. It is likely, however, given the presence of cairn-like material around the cist, that the Corr grave at least is part of a larger cemetery, while single graves are very rarely found in County Cavan and it is therefore possible that the Brackloney grave was part of a cemetery too. Within the group discussed here, all but one— Ballynamona—are interments within a stone cist, and both cremation and inhumation are represented. In the case of Ballynamona, defleshing may have occurred before interment; alternatively, it is possible that the burial had been disturbed in antiquity and was not in its original position when excavated by Duignan. All of the inhumation burials are individual interments, two with a vessel and one unaccompanied. At Brackloney a 6–7-year-old was buried alone with a ceramic vessel; at Corr an adult male aged between 35 and 44 was buried in a crouched position with a ceramic vessel close to the head, while at Ballynamona a female burial was found adjacent to and perhaps associated with a standing stone. Where they have been analysed, Early Bronze Age cremation deposits are known to comprise both single individuals and multiple individuals, although the latter are less frequent (Waddell 2000; Cahill and Sikora 2011). Analysis of age and sex of multiple individuals within single cremation deposits is important and the evidence deserves further consideration more widely, as has been demonstrated by others (Mount and Hartnett 1993; Waddell 2000, 157). At Garrannaguilly and Ballinchalla—the two cremation burials discussed here—six people and three people were buried respectively. At Garrannaguilly an infant aged between six and twelve months, a juvenile aged between five and six years and an adolescent were cremated along with three adults, only one of whom— a male—could be sexed. At Ballinchalla—a compartmented cist—two adults, at least one of whom was female, and one adolescent were buried. In addition to the actual burial rite, the osteoarchaeological analysis of the remains from the graves provides interesting insights into the lives of those interred. Of particular interest is the young age of the individual interred in a well-built cist at Brackloney, which might suggest an inherited social status sufficiently high to receive such a special burial at a young age, although this is by no means unusual and it has already been demonstrated that burials of This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 29 children are known to have been associated with ceramic vessels of all types (Ó Donnabháin and Brindley 1989–90; Waddell 2000). The inclusion of infant remains amongst the individuals cremated and buried at Garrannaguilly recalls sites such as Tomfarney, Co. Wexford, where at least seventeen cremated individuals were buried, including two juveniles and two infants, one of whom was aged about six months at death (Cahill and Sikora 2011, 609–10). The analysis of the cremation deposits at Ballinchalla demonstrates again the merit of re-examination of older excavations and the value of the curation of archaeological human remains. The anatomical information regarding the interment at Corr is also worth consideration, as it shows an individual who adapted to neuro-mechanical problems in the legs by strengthening his upper body. The man had suffered from acute infection or nutritional deficiency throughout childhood and adolescence and had suffered neuro-mechanical problems in the leg bones. Despite these early problems, he had developed well and his upper body was very muscular, in particular the pectoral muscles and biceps.To summarise, the anatomical analysis of this small group of graves provides evidence for inhumation and cremation and the burial of both adult males and females and children. There is evidence for nutritional deficiency and heavy physical labour, something which has been noted in the anatomical analyses of many prehistoric burials (see, for example, Cahill and Sikora 2011, 147, 494). As Grogan (2017) has recently pointed out, despite many new discoveries in recent years the archaeological record for Early Bronze Age burials is still dominated by funerary ceramics, specifically ceramic vessels (see Waddell 1990; Ó Ríordáin and Waddell 1993). The group of graves discussed here bears this point out well. In general, the ceramic vessels discovered within the graves discussed here conform to what has already been noted as regards the distribution of specific vessel types. As has been noted above, bowls tend to have a more northerly and easterly distribution, and the Cavan and Westmeath locations of two graves therefore seem to support this trend.Where it has been noticed within the graves discussed here, the bowl was deposited near the head with the mouth upwards, which is again the norm (Waddell 2000, 142–3). In recent years much work has been done to establish a strong typo-chronology for Early Bronze Age funerary ceramics (Ó Ríordáin and Waddell 1993; Brindley 2007). The dates associated with the vessels presented in this paper all fall within a calibrated range of approximately 2030–1650 cal. BC. Brackloney, where the burial was associated with a tripartite bowl, was dated to 1801–1752 cal. BC. Corr, the only other grave with a complete vessel within the group published here, also contained a tripartite bowl and yielded a wider range of 2006–1748 cal. BC. Both of these dates are later than what Brindley (2007, 328) suggests as the accepted date range for the Bowl Tradition. The interments at Garrannaguilly were associated with a number of vessels which, owing to their condition, are difficult to classify, but both bowl and vase sherds have been identified. The date range for these remains is 2031–1829 cal. BC. At Ballinchalla a pair of ceramic ear-plugs was the only associated ceramic find and the remains were dated to 1880–1664 cal. BC.The location of the burial at Ballynamona adjacent to a standing stone is interesting, but the lack of a written account of the discovery means that we do not fully understand the stratigraphic relationship. At least we can be reasonably certain of the date for this burial, which is Early Bronze Age, between 2015 and 1772 cal. BC. Overall, the results show general conformity with established date ranges for Early Bronze Age burials, though with some variance as regards accepted chronologies for the ceramics. Given the predominance of vessels then, it is very significant that the grave from Ballinchalla discussed here contained a type of ceramic object previously unknown in the archaeological record for this period. One of the three cremated individuals in grave 2 at Ballinchalla was probably wearing a pair of ceramic ear-plugs. In addition, animal bone was placed in the cremation pyre and was collected for burial along with the human remains and the associated objects. These individuals were then buried not with a ceramic vessel but in small piles within a compartmented cist, together with a piece of antler and some coloured pebbles. The presence of personal ornaments is a highly unusual occurrence in Irish Early Bronze Age burials and must be one of the most significant aspects of the burials discussed here.This is the only recorded instance of the presence of ear-plugs and is evidence of body modification practices otherwise unknown in Irish prehistory. This may be compared in a general way to the important site of Whitehorse Hill, Dartmouth, Devon (Sheridan et al. 2016, 117–45), where the organic materials preserved in an exceptionally rich cist burial included four wooden ear-studs dated to c. 2200–1980 cal. BC in a cist dated to 1730–1600 cal. BC (ibid.). Perhaps most significantly amongst the group of burials discussed here, then, the grave at Ballinchalla provides the only known evidence for body modification practices in the Early Bronze Age burial record, introducing the idea of the body as an object to be manipulated and changed in accordance with ritual practices that might mark specific achievements in reaching puberty or other important developmental markers. As the Whitehorse Hill burial demonstrates so well, organic remains will only be This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 30 Maeve Sikora, Mary Cahill and Laureen Buckley preserved in very exceptional environmental conditions and we therefore lack evidence of possible comparable finds in wood. It is also possible that such finds in bone or stone may not have been recognised and may have been discarded, although given the large corpus of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland it is difficult to imagine that such objects would have been entirely missed before now. The Ballinchalla finds were collected in 1933 but their significance was not recognised until about 70 years later, again underlining the research potential in full analysis and dating of all older excavated remains. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the finders and landowners at the sites excavated, especially John and Fiona Bellingham, Paul Gibson-Brabazon, Dary and Linda Farrelly and Martin Fitzsimons.Thanks also to our colleagues in the National Monuments Service, particularly Laura Claffey, and our colleagues across the heritage sector, including Savina Donohue and Dearbhala Ledwidge. Our thanks are due to Professor John Waddell, who brought the photographs of the Ballynamona site to our attention, and to the NMI inventory team for bringing the Ballynamona and Ballinchalla material to our attention. Special thanks are due to the NMI’s Graphic Design Department, particularly Michael Heffernan, for the production of all site drawings, and to Darko Vuksič for the object illustrations. We are grateful to Valerie Dowling and Richard Weinacht for the provision of the images. Our thanks are due to Helen Roche for her advice on the ceramics from Garrannaguilly.We are very grateful to the editor of JIA and to the anonymous referee for their thorough reading and valuable comments on an earlier draft of this paper. Any mistakes that remain are our own. REFERENCES AlQahtani, S.H., Hector, M.P. and Liversidge, H.M. 2010. The London Atlas of Human Tooth Development and Eruption. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 142, 481–90. Brindley, A.L. 2007. The dating of food vessels and urns in Ireland. Bronze Age Studies 7. National University of Ireland, Galway. Brothwell, D.R. 1981. Digging up bones. National Museum of Natural History, London. Buikstra, J.E. and Ubelaker, D.H. 1994. Standards for data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series No. 44. Fayetteville. Cahill, M. 2015. Here comes the sun. Archaeology Ireland 29 (1), 26–33. Cahill, M. and Sikora, M. 2011. Breaking ground, finding graves: reports on the excavations of burials by the National Museum of Ireland. National Museum of Ireland Monograph Series 4. Wordwell, Bray. Cahill, M. and Sikora, M. 2014. More evidence for body-piercing. Archaeology Ireland 28 (2), 30–1. Cunningham, C.A., Scheuer, L. and Black, S. 2016. Developmental juvenile osteology. Academic Press, San Diego. Grogan, E. 2017. The Bronze Age: a surfeit of data? In M. Stanley, R. Swan and A. O’Sullivan, Stories of Ireland’s past: knowledge gained from NRA roads archaeology, 57–84.TII Heritage 5.Wordwell, Bray. Holden, J.L., Phaky, P.P and Clement, J.G. 1995. Scanning Electron Microscopic observations of incinerated femoral bone: a case study. Forensic Science International 74, 17–28. Íşcan, M.Y., Loth, S.R. and Wright, R.K. 1984. Metamorphosis of the sternal rib end: a new method to estimate age at death in white males. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 65, 147– 56. Lovejoy, O., Meindl, R.S., Pryzbeck, T.R. and Mensforth, R.P. 1985. Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium: a new method for the determination of adult skeletal age at death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68, 15–28. McKinley, J. 1989. Cremations: expectations, methodologies and realities. In C.A. Roberts, F. Lee and J. Bintliff (eds), Burial archaeology: current research, methods and developments, 65–76. British Archaeological Reports, British Series 211. Oxford. McKinley, J. 1993. Bone fragment size and weights of bone from modern British cremations and the implications for the interpretation of archaeological cremations. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 3, 283–7. Mount, C. and Hartnett, P.J. 1993. Early Bronze Age cemetery at Edmondstown, County Dublin. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 93C, 21–79. Myers Suchey, J., Brooks, S.T. and Katz, D. 1988. Instructional materials accompanying female pubic symphyseal models of the Suchey Brooks system. Distributed by France Casting, Colorado. O’Brien, C. and Sweetman, P.D. 1997. Archaeological inventory of County Offaly. Stationery Office, Dublin. Ó Donnabháin, B. and Brindley, A.L. 1989–90. The status of children in a sample of Bronze Age burials containing pygmy cups. Journal of Irish Archaeology 5, 19–24. This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Recent discoveries of Early Bronze Age burials in Ireland 31 O’Donovan, P.F. 1995. Archaeological inventory of County Cavan. Stationery Office, Dublin. Ó Ríordáin, A.B. and Waddell, J. 1993. The Funerary Bowls and Vases of the Irish Bronze Age. Galway University Press, Galway. Raftery, J. 1940–1.The long stone cists of the Early Iron Age. Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 46C, 299–315. Reimer, P., Bard, E., Bayliss, A. et al. 2013. IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50,000 years Cal BP. Radiocarbon 55 (4), 1869– 87. Rogers, J. and Waldron, T. 1995. A field guide to joint disease in archaeology. Wiley, New York. Schot, R. 2006. Uisneach Midi a medón Érenn: a prehistoric ‘cult-centre’ and ‘royal site’ in Co. Westmeath. Journal of Irish Archaeology 15, 39–71. Sheehan, J. 1985. A Bronze Age cist-grave near Uisneach, Co. Westmeath. Journal of the Old Athlone Society 2 (6), 88–93. Sheridan, A., Brunning, R., Straker, V., Campbell, G., Cartwright, C., King, S. and Quinnell, H. 2016. The wooden studs. In A.M. Jones (ed.), Preserved in the peat—an extraordinary burial on Whitehorse Hill, Dartmoor, and its wider context, 117–45. Oxbow, Oxford and Philadelphia. Trotter, M. and Gleser, G.C. 1952. Estimation of stature from long bones of American whites and negroes. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 10, 463–514. Trotter, M. and Gleser, G.C. 1958. A re-evaluation of estimation of stature based on measurements of stature taken during life and long bones after death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 16, 79–123. Waddell, J. 1990. The Bronze Age burials of Ireland. Galway University Press, Galway. Waddell, J. 2000. The prehistoric archaeology of Ireland. Galway University Press, Galway. NOTES Ordnance Survey six-inch sheet 42, ITM 653481 783021. 2 This report is recorded in the RIA Antiquities Committee Minute Book and the cauldron was acquired in 1890. Brackloney Bog is probably the area marked out on the first-edition Ordnance Survey map as marshy, to the east of the townland. 3 Ordnance Survey six-inch sheet 5, ITM 647699 672924. RMP KK005-087——. 4 Ordnance Survey six-inch sheet 117. National Grid reference 11590, 26158. RMP MA117-028——. 5 According to Raftery (1941 304), the deposits were located in the two end chambers, but Seavers’s plan is at variance with this opinion. This information was supplied to Raftery by the landowner, Mr O’Connor, in 1939, some three years after its initial discovery and investigation by Sergeant Seavers. It would seem that Seavers’s report is more reliable, as it was written at the time of investigation. 6 There is no record to suggest that these stones were retained. 7 NMI topographical file, townland of Lug, Co. Offaly. 8 Ordnance Survey six-inch sheet 9, ITM 634837 730461. 9 Coincidentally, the cist was discovered by Paul Gibson-Brabazon, on whose parents’ land in Rathconrath—a nearby townland—two cists had been excavated in 1990 by Raghnall Ó Floinn and Stella Cherry (see Cahill and Sikora 2011, 522–40). 10 Ordnance Survey six-inch sheet 17, ITM 628614 751389. 11 On-line database 1 NMS 2018 WM-017-108—— and WM017-109——. National Monuments Service Historic mapviewer (http://webgis.archaeology.ie/ historicenvironment/, accessed 17 May 2018). 1 This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms This content downloaded from 109.255.126.130 on Fri, 07 Jul 2023 08:22:48 +00:00 All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms