Space 2030: Space for the future, space for all

Final Report Southern Hemisphere Space Studies Program 2019 Space2030 SPACE FOR THE FUTURE, SPACE FOR ALL Acknowledgements: The Space2030 team would like to acknowledge the generous guidance, support, and direction provided by the following individuals: Team Project Staff Christopher Johnson (Space Law Advisor, Secure World Foundation), Team Project Chair Joanna Ruiter, Team Project Lecturer Michael Simpson, Team Project Instructor Teaching Associates Kavindi De Silva Thomas Mueller The International Space University and the University of South Australia would like to acknowledge the following organizations and individuals for their support: Program Sponsors Australian Space Industry Centre (Government of South Australia) Sir Ross and Sir Keith Fund Secure World Foundation (also Team Project Sponsor) European Space Agency NASA China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation Chinese Space Foundation Indian Space Research Organization Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR) Nova Systems Asia Pacific Satellite Communications Council Boeing Dr Michael Simpson Cleland Wildlife Park (South Australia Department for Environment and Water) Event Sponsors SA Italian Association and Committee for Italians Abroad City of Salisbury Space Industry Association of Australia Amateur Radio Experimenters Group 2 Space2030 Team: Baoyu Li Max Wayne China Australia Bronwyn Lovell Megala Senthilkumar Australia India Conrad Chee Phuong-Cac Nguyen Malaysia Australia Eamon Lawson Pierre-Alexis Lagadrillière Australia France Hamda Alhosani Ryan Benson UAE USA Heping Peng Sandra Vogt China Germany Hua Zhang Thien Nguyen China Australia Jenny Franulovic Valentina Tamburello Australia Italy Jinan Lyu Weijian Shi China China Junpeng Hui Xiaolin Yang China China Kapil Sharma Yaobin Qu India China Mark Meegan Australia 3 Faculty Preface: This report reflects research undertaken by 23 participants at the International Space University 2019 Southern Hemisphere Space Studies Program (SHSSP), a five-week intensive and interdisciplinary program on outer space in all of its aspects. This report aims to complement the United Nations ‘Space2030 Agenda’ currently being considered by the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS). At the time of writing, the Space2030 Agenda is still taking shape, but will contain the principles and objectives for the UN’s engagement with and use of outer space for the next decade or more. As students and young professionals in the space field who will become the space industry’s next generation, the participants at this SHSSP are precisely the demographic who should have the most vocal input to this undertaking. The research tasks before the participants who wrote this report were challenging and complex. Firstly, what is the Space2030 Agenda, and what issues and objectives should be included in it? In other words, how should the UN organize itself in utilizing space technologies and capabilities, and how should the UN as a body of Member States approach the multilateral governance of outer space activities? Secondly, which issues and objectives are of particular concern for the "Economic South", a large set of States below the Tropic of Cancer with diverse interests and capabilities and with a diverse array of ambitions? The team also considered the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The United Nations requires the Space2030 Agenda to drive progress towards the achievement of the SDGs — either directly through the application of space technologies and services, or indirectly via their contribution to the various indicators that measure progress toward the SDGs. So, which items of the Space2030 Agenda are both of interest to the Economic South, and also assist the attainment of the SDGs? No easy task, to be sure. However, we believe the team has delivered on its mandate. This report advances the conversation on these crucial issues and should prove useful to all interested stakeholders in this important and still developing international conversation. Christopher D. Johnson Joanna M. Ruiter Space2030 Team Project Chairs 4 Authors' Preface: The Southern Hemisphere Space Studies Program (SHSSP) was held at the University of South Australia (UniSA) in Adelaide from 14 January to 15 February 2019. SHSSP is an international, intercultural, and interdisciplinary program organized by the International Space University (ISU) and UniSA. It provides space professionals, graduates, and senior undergraduates with knowledge and experience in the areas of space science and exploration, space applications and services, space security, human spaceflight and life sciences, space systems engineering and technologies, space policy and economics, space business and project management, as well as space law and regulatory issues. In 2019, 46 participants from 11 States took part in the program. This report is the result of eight days of intense research performed by 23 participants in the Space2030 team during the SHSSP-19 program. The document contains the views and recommendations of a diverse group of program participants from different disciplines, countries, and cultures, both from the Northern and Southern Hemisphere. The report provides the reader with a set of recommendations about priority topics, which should be discussed in the process of creating the UN’s new Space2030 Agenda and implementation plan, from the perspective of the Economic South. The list of items presented is by no means exhaustive. It contains subjects which we, the authors, have identified as essential for the Economic South and which, in our view, should be addressed in the discussions about the new vision for the future, as set out in the context of the Space2030 Agenda. The topics presented in this document are also ones which the group believes could be essential in advancing and supporting the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. 5 Contents: Acknowledgements ...........................................................................................................2 Space2030 Team .................................................................................................................3 Preface..................................................................................................................................4 Faculty Preface .......................................................................................................4 Authors’ Preface ........................................................................................................5 Table of Contents .............................................................................................................6 List of Figures ...................................................................................................................7 Acronyms and Abbreviations ..........................................................................................8 Introduction ......................................................................................................................10 Mission Statement.....................................................................................................10 Definition of Economic South.....................................................................................11 Space Sector Developments ....................................................................................12 The Space2030 Agenda............................................................................................12 The Sustainable Development Goals and the Role of Space...................................14 Space Economy: development of space-derived economic benefits...........................16 Space Society: advancement of the societal benefits of space-related activities.......22 Space Accessibility: access to space for all ..................................................................28 Space Diplomacy: building partnerships and strengthening international ................34 Conclusion .........................................................................................................................38 References .........................................................................................................................40 Appendix.............................................................................................................................47 6 List of Figures: Figure 1: Map of the Economic South Figure 2: SDGs Figure 3: Applications for Proposed SmallSat Constellations Figure 4: Nanosatellites by locations Figure 5: Global annual reported natural disasters by type Figure 6: Key technologies and concepts of precision farming Figure 7: The Progression of Space Accessibility Figure 8: Landsat Scenes Downloaded from USGS EROS Center (Cumulative) Figure 9: The Global Earth Observation System of Systems Figure 10: GEO Member Map for the year 2017 Figure 11: Global Ecological Zones Figure 12: Geographical distribution of countries with satellites by 2016 Figure 13: GSO and NGSO Satellite Filings Comparison Figure 14: Economic South Satellite Filings versus Economic North 7 Acronyms and Abbreviations: APG API APRSAF APSCO BIU Advance Publication of Information Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum Asia Pacific Space Cooperation Organization Bring-Into-Use CEMA European Agricultural Machinery Association CETE Clean Energy Technology Entrepreneurship COPUOS CR/C CRED DLR EARSC EM-DAT EO ESA EU Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space Coordination Request Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt European Association of Remote Sensing Companies Emergency Events Database Earth Observation European Space Agency European Union FSS Fixed Satellite Services GDP Gross Domestic Product GEO Geostationary Orbit GEO Group on Earth Observation GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of Systems GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery GIS GNSS Geographical Information System Global Navigation Satellite System GPS Global Positioning System GSO Geostationary Orbit IAS Indian Administrative Service IMT International Mobile Telecommunications IPCC ITU LED 8 Asia Pacific Telecommunity Conference Preparatory Group Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change International Telecommunications Union Light Emitting Diodes MDGs MIFR ML Millennium Development Goals Master International Frequency Register Machine Learning MOOC Massive Open Online Course NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NGSO Non-Geostationary Orbit OCO OFDA RCMRD Orbiting Carbon Observatory Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance Regional Centre for Mapping Resources for Development RMB Renminbi SDA Sustainable Development Agenda SDG Sustainable Development Goal STEM STS Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Scientific and Technical Subcommittee SWG Special Working Group UAE United Arab Emirates UN UNDESA UNECA UNFCCC UNGA UNISDR UNOOSA US United Nations United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs United Nations Economic Commission for Africa United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change United Nations General Assembly United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs United States USAID United States Agency for International Development USGS United States Geological Survey VCS WRC Venture Catalyst Space World Radiocommunication Conference WRC-07 World Radiocommunication Conference 2007 WRC-15 World Radiocommunication Conference 2015 WRC-19 World Radiocommunication Conference 2019 9 Introduction: In 2015, all United Nations (UN) Member States adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The document outlines 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 169 targets, and 232 indicators focusing on improving health and education, reducing inequality, and spurring economic growth worldwide (UNDESA, 2019). Space plays an important role as an enabler in achieving and monitoring the SDGs, providing valuable data, and advancing technologies for the benefit of humankind as a whole (UN General Assembly resolution 73/6; UNOOSA, 2018a). To strengthen the contributions of space activities and tools in addressing global development challenges, building stronger partnerships, and bridging the space divide between developed and developing nations, the UN are developing a “Space2030” Agenda (UN, 2018b, pp.6–7). The agendasetting process takes place at a time of rapid change in the space sector, with an increasing number of private actors entering the scene and major technological advances. Space2030 presents a unique opportunity to insert ideas into the discussion about the next ten years of space collaboration and, in particular, about how to advance the Sustainable Development Goals through the use of space science and technology. This report focuses in particular on the perspectives of the Economic South and their priorities for a vision for the next decade. It also provides practical examples which highlight how space technology and applications create environmental, economic, and social benefits for all and help to attain the goals of the international development agendas. Mission Statement: “ To identify and recommend priority items to be included in the Space2030 Agenda from the perspective of the Economic South which advance the UN Sustainable Development Goals ” “ Space for the Future, Space for All” takes a unique look at the Space 2030 agenda-setting process and identifies priority items of the Economic South, which advance the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals and should be included in the global vision for space for the next decade. The report has the following objectives: • To raise awareness among policy makers and society at large of the needs and of the Economic South in the context of space; ambitions • To identify priority topics for the Economic South to be included in the Space 2030 agenda; • To include the voice of countries in the discussion which have not (or not often) been heard; • To highlight the link between Space 2030 and the Sustainable Development Goals and show how particular SDGs can be advanced and/or measured by space. 10 Definition of “Economic South”: In this report, the term “Economic South” refers to States south of or on the Tropic of Cancer. It includes the States of the Global South as well as Oceania. The “Economic South” consists of a unique mix of developed and developing States, emerging space powers, and States with a growing influence on the world stage. It includes some of to the world’s most densely populated, resource-rich and economicallycompetitive States as well as some of the poorest, most polluted, and poverty-ridden States. The report uses the term “Economic South” rather than “Global South”, since not only developing but also developed States such as Australia are considered. Figure 1. Map of the Economic South 11 Space Sector Developments Since the beginning of the Space Age roughly 60 years ago, the space domain has become a critical infrastructure for developed States (UNOOSA, 2018a). Data and information from satellites are omnipresent in people’s everyday lives and have led to vast improvements in communication, navigation, science, and technology – cross-linking a variety of domains and creating measurable socio-economic benefits (European Commission, 2018). In 2017, the global space economy was worth USD 348 billion, having experienced a growth of three percent in one year (Bryce, 2018). Figures for the share of States and companies in the Economic South in these numbers are not available, but based on the origin of most major satellite manufacturers and service providers, it can be inferred that a large part of the economic activity takes place in States with advanced space capacities such as the United States, the European Union, Russia, and parts of Asia (China, Japan, and India). In the last decade, the space sector underwent major changes. More actors have started to engage in space activities, especially private enterprises and corporations. There has been a move away from purely government-initiated and funded missions to private endeavors, including small satellites developments, downstream applications, and Earth Observation constellations. New space-based business models are emerging as well as applications for society which can spur growth by creating jobs and increasing access to space (World Economic Forum, 2019). In addition, emerging spacefaring States have entered the scene and are developing space capabilities at an accelerated speed, including States situated in the Economic South, such as Malaysia, the United Arab Emirates, and Australia. Given the above developments, the UN has started to discuss the future of space cooperation. In June 2018, the UNISPACE+50 conference, held in Vienna, addressed seven thematic priorities for the future including partnerships, the legal regime for space, information exchange, a space weather framework, cooperation in global health, lowemission societies, and capacity-building (UNOOSA, 2019a). On the basis of the conference results, the UN General Assembly (UNGA) invited the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) to develop a “Space2030” Agenda and implementation plan, which will define the next decade of activities in space (UNGA Resolution 73/6, 2018, p.2). Intersessional consultations of the newly established COPUOS Working Group on the Space2030 Agenda commenced in 2018. One of the agenda's underlying premises is that “all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development, are participants in, contributors to and beneficiaries of the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space” (UNGA Resolution 73/6, 2018). The Space2030 Agenda During its sixty-first session in June 2018, COPUOS endorsed the draft Resolution Fiftieth anniversary of the first United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: space as a driver of sustainable development which invites the Committee to continue to develop a “Space2030” Agenda and implementation plan (UNOOSA, 2018e). Following this, COPUOS established a Working Group on the Space2030 Agenda which reports to the Committee and is mandated with developing the agenda. Discussions about the structure of the Space2030 document have commenced within the COPUOS Working Group. The group is currently preparing a draft structure for the agenda and will submit a consolidated draft Space2030 Agenda to UNCOPUOS at its sixty-second session in 2019. A final draft agenda will be submitted during UNCOPUOS’ sixty-third session in 2020. The UN General Assembly shall consider the outcome of the work in 2020 during its seventy-fifth session (UNOOSA, 2018e). 12 As a proposal for a draft structure of the Space2030 Agenda is being debated at the time of writing of this report during the fifty-sixth session of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, and further work on the draft agenda is about to commence, “Space for the Future, Space for All” comes at the right time to make contributions to the debate. So far, the Space2030 Working Group has identified four overarching pillars under which the strategic objectives of Space2030 will be presented (UNOOSA, 2019b): Space Economy: Enhancing space-derived economic benefits and strengthening the role of the space sector as a major driver for a sustainable economy; Space Society: Advancing societal benefits of space-related activities and making the best use of space technologies and space-based services and applications for improving the quality of life on Earth; Space Accessibility: Improving access to space for all and ensuring that all countries can benefit socio-economically from space science and technology applications and space-based data, information and products; Space Diplomacy: Advancing space diplomacy by building partnerships and strengthening international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space. Sub-goals for each pillar are being identified in the Working Group consultation process. “Space for the Future, Space for All” aims to contribute to the debate and to propose a set of sub-goals, which could be of interest to the Economic South. Scope “Space for the Future, Space for All” identifies topics of interest and areas for potential progress for the Economic South pursuant to the Space2030 agenda, which are also complement the SDGs. However, the long-term sustainability of outer space, although very important for the agenda as a whole, is outside the scope of this document. Space sustainability aspects which are included, are discussed in the context of the Sustainable Developments Goals and how Space2030 could assist in achieving the SDGs. 13 The Sustainable Development Goals and the Role of Space The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) initiated at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro in 2012 aim to overcome 21st-century challenges in areas such as the economy, the environment, and society by 2030. The SDGs build on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which started as a global effort in 2000 to overcome poverty, hunger, disease, and inequality by 2015. The success of the MDGs was the driving force to establish the SDGs and to move toward sustainability to deal with the challenges that are facing our world today, and to provide a better life for future generations (UNDP, 2019). The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development constructs a long-term vision for new approaches, both in governance and technological innovations. The agenda is one of the key drivers for development toward sustainability and better living conditions on Earth. Space technologies have been viewed as integral to SDG achievement and they can be used to support most goals. Space programs, such as Earth Observation (EO) and Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), can make significant contributions in different areas, including natural disaster forecasting, air and water quality monitoring, emergency response, search and rescue operations, and more. In addition, the Figure 2. Sustainable Development Goals 14 use of data contributes to building stronger partnerships and coordination for the peaceful uses of outer space, and helps to reduce the space divide (UNOOSA, 2018d). This report considers space to be a critical tool for advancing and measuring the UN SDGs and their targets. As outlined in UN Resolution 73/6, the Space2030 Agenda aims to strengthen “the contribution of space activities and space tools to the achievement of the global agendas addressing long-term sustainable development concerns of humankind” (UNGA Resolution 73/6, 2018). Both Space2030 and the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda 2030 (SDA) are closely linked and, for a large part, have common goals and a common reporting date in 2030. Accountability aspects play a key role in the SDGs. Targets and indicators to measure the success of the implementation of the goals were included from the very beginning and a link to space was established in the 2030 SDG Agenda itself. Article 76 of the SDA highlights the importance of Earth Observation and geospatial data as integral for achieving the SDGs (UN, 2015). Other space technologies that support the implementation and monitoring of the goals include Satellite Communication, Satellite Positioning and Navigation, Human Spaceflight and Microgravity Research, Technology Transfer, Research and Education (Wood, 2018). 15 Space Economy: Development of Space-Derived Economic Benefits Introduction The space economy can be defined as the full range of activities and use of resources that create and provide value and benefits to the world population in the course of exploring, understanding and utilizing space. [...] Space is increasingly seen as a contributing lever for economic growth, social well-being and sustainable development. —The “Space2030” Agenda and the Global Governance of Outer Space Activities United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 13 Dec. 2017 Space technology and its applications are a powerful factor for economic development and a crucial driver for the advancement of developing States in the Economic South. The space economy can make substantial contributions to the prosperity of emerging space States. In the context of the “New Space Economy” and space technology developments, new opportunities present themselves to the Economic South. As a key enabler, the space economy functions as the driver and connector of all four pillars. Finance and funding, social business, the emerging CubeSat market and the potential of clean energy are addressed in the following sections and deemed relevant for the Economic South. Finance and Funding for Startups Space enabled technologies have the potential to increase efficiency and promote economic growth. However, the high cost of building satellites deters the participation of private entrepreneurs (de Selding, 2015). Technology startup incubators have already attracted significant investment and growth of entrepreneurship within Southeast Asia (Nikkei Asian Review, 2018). Space startup incubators, modeled in the same manner, provide entrepreneurs in the Economic South the opportunity to develop and launch their own satellite systems. Australia, for example, created the Venture Catalyst Space (VCS) initiative, providing seed money to promote new ideas in the space sector (VCS, 2018). These startup incubators serve as expert advisory panels to ensure that business models are viable, sustainable, and accountable, and follow good business practices. Accountability is vital in securing continued funding support as the NewSat Ltd. bankruptcy in 2015 caused significant losses to the US and France exportcredit agencies (de Selding, 2015). Therefore, a Special Working Group (SWG) with expertise in the space sector could be created within these 16 space startup incubators for the purpose of assessing upcoming space ventures and ensuring accountability in funded ventures. Potential sources of development funds are export-credit agencies, angel investors, venture capital funds, and government grants (Nikkei Asian Review, 2018; de Selding, 2015). Successful space startups emerging from incubators and funding initiatives can positively impact SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), measurable by increased food production as a result of precision agriculture. Innovative and disruptive business ideas, nurtured by these initiatives, benefit SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure), measurable through an increase in medium and high technology industry value. States in the Economic South, as individuals or collaboratively, could create startup incubators that help potential space entrepreneurs secure expert advice and funding. Social Business for the Benefit of the Economic South The relative lack of space activities in the Economic South compared to the Economic North limits the development of industries evolving from space technology, and consequently meaningful employment. However, an increase in space research and education in the Economic South could lead to the creation of more highly skilled jobs. This, combined with capacity building, is particularly important for developing States and satisfies Sustainable Development Goal 8 (Good Jobs and Economic Growth). Looking towards the future, the ‘social business’ model may be implemented in the space industry to stimulate social changes as envisioned in the SDGs. Social businesses can be characterized as “businesses which contribute to solving social problems in a financially sustainable way” (Yunus, 2010). Social businesses have the potential to be used to finance space companies, especially if the need to foster space startups is seen as a pressing, urgent need (Yunus, 2010). A key principle of social businesses is that they must be financially sustainable; not requiring continuous funding in the form of charity, increasing the likelihood of eventual economic growth. The principles of social business could be used to establish manufacturing infrastructure in developing States from the Economic South. This will transfer into economic growth through technology by 2030. 17 Case Study: China Supporting New Startups With support from the government, China’s commercial space market is growing rapidly. Many commercial launch companies and commercial small satellite companies have emerged since 2018. Also, the utilization of space technology by civilian industries is increasing. Both developments contribute to the nation’s economic growth. This case study presents examples of both these aspects. Commercial Space Markets 2015 is considered to be “the first year of China's commercial space development”. With policy support from the government, it is estimated that there have been at least 100 new companies in China's commercial space industry since 2015. The launch requirements of small satellites have rapidly driven the development of the commercial space launch market. In 2018, China's private space sector continued to grow rapidly. According to statistics, in 2018, the commercial space market completed at least six or more financings of over RMB 100 million. With the vigorous development of the domestic satellite launch market, it is estimated that 2,619 payloads will be launched into orbit in the next ten years, and the total number of commercial launches will reach 412. The first wave of orbital launch peaks will be ushered in around 2021. This market will increase demand for new commercial launch operators and continues to inspire the rise of small and mediumsized space companies (Galactic Energy, 2018). Utilization of Space Technology to Civilian Industries More than 2,000 technologies have been converted to civilian use in China's aerospace industry. Application of aerospace technology has driven the development of civil industries such as the production of batteries, photovoltaics, high-quality automotive parts, flexible fabrication lines, and large-scale intelligent equipment. Space technology such as precision control and intelligent manufacturing accumulated in endeavours such as spacecraft manufacturing and crewed rendezvous docking into a networked distributed intelligent flexible manufacturing system based on mobile robots. This system can quickly build a smart production line, transforming the traditional batch manufacturing single production mode into a small-batch intelligent production mode, realizing customization needs, allowing manufacturing to be more customer-oriented, and improving efficiency while reducing costs. It can also provide technical services for production system planning, design, analysis, and optimization of manufacturing to help enterprises improve production efficiency, improve product quality, and enhance market competitiveness. Transformation and application of 3D printing in microgravity is an emerging field of research. The global market for 3D printing is forecasted to be USD 300 billion market by 2025, compared with USD 3.7 billion in 2016 (Government of Dubai, 2019). This is an attractive market for States within the Economic South due to its potential for economic growth. As this industry matures it has the potential to provide breakthroughs in space-related problems such as lowering the expense of one-off custom parts for spacecraft. 18 The Emerging CubeSat market Advances in microelectronics, microelectromechanical systems, materials, and production techniques have stimulated investment into small and micro-satellites (Wekerle et al., 2017), and commercial launch markets (Xue, 2018). There are numerous proposals for large constellations of small satellites and, if they mature, this development would radically change both the Communications and Earth Observation (EO) space sectors (Figure 3) (Sweeting, 2018). Currently, the majority of States in the Economic South has an insufficiently developed or utilized small and micro-satellite market. Most of the small satellites in orbit are developed and launched by States in the Economic North (Figure 4) (Sweeting, 2018). One important use case for the introduction of micro and small satellites in the market of the Economic South is their capability of enabling ubiquitous telecommunications coverage to unserviced remote areas. EO satellites support precision agriculture, management of natural resources, and disaster monitoring which are of great importance to States in the Economic South due to their geographical location and levels of development. States in the Economic South could facilitate the emerging market involving small and microsatellites by forming an intergovernmental or non-government advisory committee working collaboratively with the UN to establish financial mechanisms to support commercial and noncommercial space activities. Figure 3: Applications for proposed SmallSat constellations (Surrey Satellite Technology, 2018) Interest is growing in satellites weighing less than 2,500 kg and a mission life of five to seven years. These satellites require substantially lower capital investment than other types of satellites. They could be operated in clusters allowing greater agility, quicker replacement of damaged/decommissioned satellites, and lower individual launch costs (Sweeting, 2018). The reduced cost of entry increases the feasibility of financial support from public funds or development bank initiatives. At this point in time, many developing States in the Economic South have limited space capabilities. The lower cost of CubeSats compared to regular satellites could improve the likelihood of public funding and development bank initiatives, opening up a market for these States. States of the Economic South could pursue these initiatives, which could be vital for economic growth. Figure 4: Nanosatellites by locations (Nanosats Database) 19 Clean Energy Through Remote Sensing The demand for energy in developing States is increasing. An increasing trend indicates that energy consumption has surpassed the supply output of many developing States within the Economic South (Catherine Wolfram et al., 2012). In order to achieve sustainable economic development, States must initiate research into clean energy. Primarily, clean energy includes solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, tidal energy, and geothermal energy (McKenna, 2018). Different clean energy sources have different characteristics. Clean energy technology entrepreneurship (CETE) is incorporated into all elements of the supply chain to reduce emissions (Malen and Marcus, 2016). EO supporting energy decision-making mainly includes: prospecting sites for energy plants and facilities, optimizing the design of plants and facilities, extending/harmonizing in-situ datasets, as well as creating energy yield forecasts based on near real time data and modelling (Zoltan Bartalis, 2013). Clean energy construction supported by space observations can advance SDG 13 (Climate action) and SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy) by helping to provide more sustainable forms of energy and reducing energy construction cycle lengths and costs. The construction of space observing systems and clean energy stations can create new industries for developing States, which in turn will drive economic development. 20 Clean energy will gradually replace traditional energy sources. Some types of clean energy can be supplied continuously (for example solar energy). The detection cycle of space observation clean energy is shorter than traditional energy sources. Satellite observations provide a lowrisk solution as direct observation is different from and less costly than traditional energy indirect detection. Space observations for prospecting of clean energy sites require less personnel and equipment, so testing costs are lower. (Zoltan Bartalis, 2013) Space observations of clean energy are a great help for developing States and should be addressed in the discussion about the Space2030 agenda and a vision for the future. States of the Economic South could promote international cooperation and data sharing, and establish a space clean energy observation organization. States with clean energy construction needs can join the organization. Support should be provided to each State participating to establish the required observing systems, especially in States facing challenges in accessing clean energy. Space agencies from States with advanced technologies as well as NGOs and private entities could be encouraged to join the organization to provide data and assistance. 21 Space Society: Advancement of the Societal Benefits of Space-Related Activities Introduction The term “space society” implies a society carrying out its core functions while making the best use of space technologies and space-based services and applications for improving the quality of life. [...] Another important societal dimension of space is the fact that it unites humankind for a shared and higher purpose and serves as an area of inspiration, innovation, interconnectedness, integration and investment. — The “Space2030” Agenda and the Global Governance of Outer Space Activities United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 13 Dec. 2017 Space society is about using space applications and technologies to benefit society. Applications and space technologies can improve environmental management and quality of life, encourage international cooperation, and enable change in the structures of society. We have identified the following priorities under the “space society” pillar for the Economic South: Earth Observation for Disaster Management, Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) for precision agriculture, Climate Change Carbon Emission Monitoring, and Gender Equality. Disaster Management through Earth Observation Natural disasters have an impact that can be measured in terms of human lives lost and a negative impact on the economy. In the report Economic Losses, Poverty & Disasters: 1998– 2017, the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) and the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) found that in the last 20 years more than 1.35 million people died and more than four billion either lost their homes, were injured, or found themselves in an emergency situation due to natural disasters. Resulting economic losses have risen by 151 percent in the last two decades compared to the previous 20 years (1978–1997). Despite geophysical events such as earthquakes and tsunamis being responsible for the majority of fatalities, they only account for nine percent of all disasters. The remaining 91 percent have been caused by floods, storms, droughts, heatwaves, and other extreme weather events (see Figure 5). According to the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT), the majority of States most affected by natural disasters are in the Economic South (including, for example, India, China, Indonesia, and the Philippines). Disaster management is an essential tool to prevent, or at least to reduce, mortalities, mitigate environmental impact, and reduce economic losses. 22 The disaster management cycle consists of four phases: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery (Wisner and Adams, 2002). The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) “ensures the coordination and synergies among disaster risk reduction activities of the United Nations system and regional organizations and activities in socio-economic and humanitarian fields” (UN General Assembly resolution 56/195). In March 2015, the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015– 2030, which is supported, monitored, and reviewed by UNISDR. The Sendai Framework explicitly promotes the use of Earth Observation (EO), which has proven to be an effective tool in all phases of the disaster management cycle. It provides the necessary data on hazard exposure, vulnerability, and risk and it is indispensable in supporting decision-making in emergency situations (see Guo, 2010). Data is provided for emergency response at local, regional, and international levels. EO can provide synoptic (large area) coverage, as well as diverse spectral, spatial, temporal, and potentially three-dimensional information Figure 5: Global annual reported natural disasters by type (EM-DAT, 2017, OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database, Université catholique de Louvain - Brussels) (Kerle, 2013) fundamental for disaster management. “Reducing disaster risk is a crosscutting issue for all the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially SDG 1, on the eradication of poverty in all its forms, everywhere” (UNISDR and CRED, 2018). Moreover, effective disaster management through the use of EO improves the safety and wellbeing of citizens in line with SDG 3 (Good Health and Wellbeing) Since many UN Member States do not have a space program, it is essential to provide access to space-based technologies for disaster risk reduction. This task is fulfilled by UN-SPIDER, the United Nations Platform for Space-based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response Activities. The system could be strengthened by increasing training for civil protection agencies and the number of Regional Support Offices in risk areas. Timely, accurate, and reliable data must be freely accessible at all times to monitor high-risk areas and to forecast natural disasters in a similar manner to the ESA Copernicus program. Satellite temporal resolution of high-risk areas can be improved, through the development of more multi-satellite constellations. Satellite images can be classified and analyzed by Machine Learning (ML) algorithms and used to predict natural disasters, as shown by Lary et al. (2018). Other case studies have been reported by the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) (GFDRR, 2018), demonstrating the value of ML in management and analysis of EO data. Finally, to improve disaster recovery activities and coordination efforts, public participation through citizen science can be used to increase temporal and spatial coverage. Local volunteers can collect data with mobile devices on-site, which can be combined with satellite images to improve information to aid disaster recovery activities and coordination efforts (case studies reported by Kotovirta et al., 2015). It is recommended to increase numbers of multisatellite constellations to improve temporal resolution of high-risk areas. Global collaboration among EO stakeholders (public and private) should be encouraged, following the example of the European Association of Remote Sensing Companies (EARSC). The vast quantity of satellite data could be managed by ML techniques, which have proved to be powerful in analyzing images of any resolution. In the future it is recommended that optimized ML algorithms are installed directly on satellite computers (on-board processing) to reduce image analysis time. This will allow satellites to send immediate emergency notifications to the ground, as soon as significant changes on the surface of the land or sea are detected. 23 Synergy of Earth Observation (EO) with the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) for the Sustainable Development Goal of Zero Hunger SDG 2 set by UN aims to end hunger and all forms of malnutrition. The prevalence of world hunger has marginally declined from 15 percent in 2002, to 11 percent in 2016. More than 790 million people worldwide still lack regular access to food that meets dietary requirements (UNOOSA, 2018). At this pace, the target of “zero hunger” set by the UN as its foremost Sustainable Development Goal will unlikely be met by 2030. However, the use of EO and GNSS in precision farming is a beacon of hope for achieving this seemingly unreachable target. Precision agriculture is a modern agriculture practice involving the use of technology in agriculture like remote sensing, Global Positioning System (GPS) and Geographical Information System (GIS) for improving productivity and profitability. It uses precise agricultural inputs with respect to soil, weather, and crops in order to improve productivity, quality, and profitability in agriculture. It increases tillage and harvest efficiency in addition to the targeted application of pesticides and fertilizer. More effective inputs will lead to increase crop yield while reducing pollutant runoff and will lead to increased agricultural and development sustainability. GNSS helps in optimization of inter row spacing and improved fertilizer application. GNSS is mainly known for Figure 6. Key technologies and concepts of precision farming (CEMA, 2017) 24 navigational aid but can also be used for measuring soil moisture using L-band microwave radiometry (Rodriguez-Alvarez, 2009). By precisely measuring soil moisture through GNSS, farmers can use their water resources more effectively; especially in dry periods. EO satellites in association with GNSS can provide early warning of drought and forecast crop yield and quality, assisting governments in food planning. Adoption of precision agriculture in developing States like India is not an easy task. High capital costs may discourage farmers from adopting this method of farming. The small landholdings for most Indian farmers limits economic gains from currently available precision farming technology (IAS Express, 2018). Governments should focus on creating space-based infrastructure for collecting data to develop tools for visualising and analysing with special emphasis on addressing national, regional and local needs. Governments could offer free or subsidised access to GNSS and EO for agriculture purpose and also assure availability of low-cost equipment. By doing so, farmers could increase yields by 10 percent or more, as well as reduce wastage of fertilisers, fuels, and pesticides by 15–20 percent (UNOOSA, 2018). Climate Change - Carbon Emissions Monitoring We need to understand climate change as global citizens to better address desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, and food security. Developed States have contributed more than 70 percent of the world’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions over the last half of the twentieth century, while developing States have contributed only two percent of the world overall CO2 emissions (IPCC, 2014). In 2017, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) identified that CO2 levels have increased, since preindustrial times by 40 percent (IPCC, 2017). Target 13.2 of SDG 13 (Climate Change) requires integrating climate change mitigation mechanisms into policy considerations. The Paris Agreement, signed by all parties to United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2015, recognizes and advances this goal and other related SDGs. The Paris Agreement, aims at combating climate change by investments needed for a sustainable low carbon future. The agreement requires States to develop long-term low greenhouse gas emission strategies (UN SDGs, 2018, p. 1–2). The indicators of target 13.2 have a direct and indirect impact on SDGs 2 (Zero Hunger), 3 (Good Health and Wellbeing) and 6 (Clean Water). UNFCC focuses on the least developed and African States. UNFCC and the Green Climate Fund have both contributed to USD 10.3 billion (UN SDG, 2018, p. 2). Under Articles 4 and 5 of the UNFCC, Parties to the Convention have agreed to promote and cooperate in global satellite observation for climate change monitoring and mitigation (WMO, 2015, p. 24). The Paris Agreement recognized that human health and the health of the planet are linked. In 2017, the Rockefeller Foundation and UNFCC secretariat launched a three-year project to address this issue (UNFCC, 2019). At present, there are 58 global applications on planetary health (UNFCC, 2019). It is imperative that States recognize that climate change is a global issue, which requires collective action through international cooperation and the utilization of space technologies. Climate change policy makers must acknowledge equity, justice, and fairness while addressing ethical considerations (IPCC, 2014). The 2030 Agenda emphasized the need for high quality, timely, and accessible data to meet the SDGs at all levels, by using multiple types of new data sources of data (Marc Paganini and Ivan Petiteville, 2018, p 9). For example, the second Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO-2) Spacecraft was designed to provide better precision, resolution, and coverage to measure regional carbon sources and sinks. The OCO-2’s enhanced instruments provide scientists with new information about CO2 emissions. The data will enable decision makers to better manage our planet’s natural resources in order design and implement strategies to minimize humanity’s carbon emissions. 25 Data received from these satellites must be shared with all relevant non-government and government organizations at all levels. The data retrieved will provide scientists with unprecedented new information about CO2 emissions on regional scales (Karen Yuen et al. p.5). Kenya has the Regional Centre for Mapping Resources for Development (RCMRD) which works with the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) and the Africa Union. The RCMRD has more than 20 contracting states in eastern and southern Africa regions for all are members of the Pacific Group of States. At present, the RCMRD through SERVIR Global has “a partnership between the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) using Earth Observation” data to better understand climate change (SERVIR GLOBAL, 2018). To meet SDGs 2, 3, 6 and 13, developing States require new technology frameworks and enhanced capacity building toward regional and national priorities. Data must be shared between all states to better understand and respond to climate change. In order to ensure that carbon emissions information is accurate, a UN body of Earth Observations must be formed to specifically monitor carbon emissions and the impacts on all regions of the Earth. The aim is to serve larger communities of end-users to emphasize knowledge sharing for the benefit of humanity (UN, 2004, p. 47). Gender Equality In the 1999 Vienna Declaration on Space and Human Development, the United Nations (UN) recommended that States, especially developing States, provide opportunities for young people, especially women, to learn about technology and fully participate in the space industry. The 2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) similarly emphasized the importance of ensuring “women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership” in all aspects of public life (UN Women, 2017). The achievement of SDG 5 Gender Equality is fundamental to the achievement of all other SDGs (UN Women, 2017), since half of humanity remains hindered from full participation in and contribution to these global efforts until gender equality is realized. The UN reports that 20 percent of workers in the space industry are women (UNOOSA, 2019). Gender equality can not be said to have been reached in the space sector until women occupy 50 percent of roles as well as 50 percent of leadership positions. As part of the Space 2030 agenda, the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) launched the Space for Women project in 2017, which has a special focus on “the empowerment of women in developing States, in particular by strengthening the possibility of their participation in science, technology, 26 engineering and mathematics” (STEM) (COPUOS, 2017). UNOOSA has pledged to achieve gender parity in its training and capacity-building activities by 2025 (COPUOS, 2017) and to establish a network of female STEM mentors and role models as part of the Space for Women project (UNOOSA, 2019). Globally, women need access to quality education, training, and mentorship if they are to participate in the space sector as professionals and leaders. This kind of expertise is difficult for women to access in developing States, where gender inequality exacerbates women’s poverty and exploitation. In environments where young girls may be forced into marriage before they are 15 or 18, there may only be a small window of opportunity for them to pursue opportunities. It is imperative that girls are introduced to STEM education early and informed of scholarships and prospects for pursuing higher education. It is recommended that UNOOSA does not solely focus on professional training but also considers initiating programs that specifically target childhood STEM education for girls in developing States, to give girls an early vision of what might be possible for their lives and a clear path out of poverty and exploitation towards economic autonomy in a professional career. 27 Space Accessibility: Access to Space for All Introduction Space accessibility refers not only to physical access to outer space but also to access to spacerelated infrastructure, data, information and services. [...] Ensuring access to space means that all countries can benefit socio-economically from and make equal use of space science and technology applications and space-based data, information and products. —The “Space2030” Agenda and the Global Governance of Outer Space Activities United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 13 Dec. 2017 Access to space for the Economic South will be greatly assisted through cooperation and coordination with the Economic North. States in the Economic South are in need of education and professional training, access to space data and assets, ground station infrastructure, and links to space networks in the North. We have identified five areas as priorities for the Space2030 agenda, to ensure greater access to space for the Economic South in the next decade. Access to space does not only include access to the space environment, but also access to data, technology, and financing which allow States to take part in and benefit from the space economy. For the developing States of the Economic South, access to data, knowledge and technology is a more pressing issue than launch capabilities and flight opportunities. However, States with an existing technological know-how which are keen to develop their space capabilities also need to be considered in the discussion about space access. Figure 7. The Progression of Space Accessibility 28 Knowledge Sharing and Skills Training Quality education is a Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 4), and one of its targets is to “substantially increase the supply of qualified teachers, including through international cooperation for teacher training in developing countries, especially least developed countries and small island developing States” (United Nations, 2018). This target can be facilitated through the use of satellite technology; distance and open learning can bring education to rural and geographically remote communities, as well as provide pedagogical training for in-service or pre-service teachers in developing States. Cooperation on issues of remote access for education should be increased on global and regional levels. Space literacy gained through such measures may allow future generations of developing States to improve their nation’s economic situation and participation in the space sector. Adopting new tools and technologies, such as Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), is one way to increase the reach and impact of education and training. International cooperation can allow teachers from developed States to participate in teacher training in developing States. It is recommended to develop a framework and policy whereby government, industry, and private funding sources from participating States can work cooperatively to allow teachers from developed States to participate in teacher training in developing States. It is recommended to increase such efforts. Technology Transfer Between States Developed States with advanced technology and economies can support their own space programs. States without access to space, data, and advanced technologies are often left behind when it comes to participation in the international market (Tyler, 2018). SDGs with the emphasis of sharing information. APRSAF was formed in 1993 with government and international organizations, private companies, universities, and research institutes from more than 40 States and regions (APRSAF, 2019). The Asia Pacific Space Cooperation (APSCO) is a successful example of technical cooperation for promoting space technology in the Economic South (APSCO, 2019). APSCO member states include Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran, Mongolia, Peru, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Turkey and China (APSCO, 2008). These members share space technology. Currently, the group has set up a ground-to-air observation network, an earthquake monitoring network, a data sharing network, an education and training network, and a disaster monitoring network. Technology transfer can promote and achieve SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure) by promoting inclusive and sustainable industrialization to drive the development of space capabilities in the Economic South. Global partnerships can improve technology transfer between governments. The Asia-Pacific Regional Space Agency Forum (APRSAF) similarly works to achieve UN It is recommended that the UN facilitate a technology transfer cooperation mechanism based on the principle of equality and mutual benefit, for developed States to work collaboratively with States in the Economic South to promote the development and application of space technologies. 29 Data Sharing Data that is archived for the purpose of disaster warning and relief is often shared openly and freely. However, for purposes such as Earth Observation (EO) and natural resource management, enterprise data policies become far stricter and commercialized. This is particularly disadvantageous for developing States, and those in the Economic South that cannot afford the cost of entry into these markets. Data available for use in decisionmaking has either low resolution or is extremely expensive. Regions like Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean and the Middle East have less satellite coverage compared to other regions, (UNCOPUOS A/AC.105/1196, 2018). Developing States that wish to utilize space data often cannot use it because the information is not disseminated in a user-friendly manner. Ultimately, those States without an active space program lack services provided by space data and lack the infrastructure or finance to support their populations through space technologies. This deficiency has begun to form a divide between the Economic North and South. It is recommended that the United Nations may encourage a discussion on the opening of data sharing between States to make space data affordable or free. The promotion of an open and free data policy is a priority item for the Space2030 agenda to bridge this global economic divide and foster international cooperation. The Importance of Data Sharing NASA’s Landsat program is the longest running program in the world for Earth Observation data. Landsat images are being used by researchers, scientists, and policymakers all over the world to monitor land use, deforestation rates, water quality, coral reef health, and wildfire risk. Until 2008, 53 Landsat scenes per day were being downloaded at a cost of approximately $500 per scene. Since the open data policy was established, approximately 5600 scenes have been downloaded per day. A United States Geological Survey (USGS) survey of Landsat users released in 2013 found that the free distribution of Landsat imagery generates more than US$2 billion of economic benefit annually. Datasets that are open to the public promote accountability, empower citizens, and propel innovation. Figure 8: Landsat Scenes Downloaded from USGS EROS Center (Cumulative) (USGS) 30 The Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS, 2018) members have created the GEOSS Data Collection of Open Resources for Everyone (GEOSS Data – CORE), which distributes datasets to GEO (Group on Earth Observations) member States with full, open, and unrestricted access at no more than the cost of reproduction and distribution for research and education purposes. Open data can allow developing States to utilize space benefits. Earth observation (EO) data can be used to implement precision agriculture techniques, to monitor and manage water conditions, as well as to monitor and assess floods, droughts, fire and meteorological events. Earth Observation data allows increased understanding of the carbon cycle, climate change, hydrology, and biodiversity. Figure 9: The Global Earth Observation System of Systems (GEOSS) Figure 10: GEO Member Map for the year 2017 (Group on Earth Observations) Because GEOSS is restricted to GEO members and participating organizations, not all States in the Economic South can receive data openly and freely. Data provided by the International Disaster charter is fully free of charge, but only for the time of a specific disaster event. Disaster management agencies have to make a formal request for EO data. UN Remote Sensing principles are not explicit on the full and open access of data. Article XII summarizes that full and open data can be made available to States on reasonable cost terms. ‘Reasonable cost’ can be interpreted as marginal or the cost of fulfilling the user request. Copernicus is the Earth Observation program of the European Union (EU) in which a family of satellites called the Sentinels are being deployed by the European Space Agency (ESA) through 2020. The 2010 Copernicus data policy requires Copernicus data and information to be made available on a full, open, and free basis, subject to limitations concerning registration, dissemination formats, and access restrictions. However, the 2014 Copernicus regulation ensures free, full and open access without any restrictions. Access is limited on legal grounds such as international agreements, intellectual property rights, and protection of personal data. The current ESA data policy for ERS, Envisat, and Earth Explorer mission divides the data into free datasets and restricted datasets. Access to restricted data is initiated by submission of a project proposal to ESA. ESA’s Sentinel data policy requires full, free, and open data. There is no restriction for accessing Sentinel data, and it caters to public, commercial, and scientific use for both European and non-European users. There is a registration process and license for users and data restriction is there for security reasons. 31 Ground Segments for the Economic South Due to the increase of satellites launched every year, particularly nanosatellites in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), the need for communication links with those satellites increases. Considering the advantages that space accessibility could provide to the Economic South, improving the ground segment appears necessary and could also provide opportunities to sell ground services to advanced or other emerging space States in need of them. Around half of the States in the Economic South are tropical and close to the equator, while the other half are mostly arid or semi arid. The closer they are to the equator, the easier it is to launch rockets. Besides, the absorption of RF signals increases with humidity and optical signals are blocked by clouds. Thus, dry regions are perfect for satellite communication. Due to their geographical location, States in the Economic South thus provide conditions which are of great interest to players in the space sector. Combining those natural advantages through regional cooperation and partnerships could allow States in the Economic South to pool their resources and to become a powerful player in the space sector, potentially even a key actor in the development of new communication systems like optical link communication. For this to happen, States with a geographically opportune position could pair up with more advanced space States who have the technological capacity to develop the technologies needed. Figure 11: Global Ecological Zones (Global Resources and the Environment, 2018) 32 Access to Space Assets Figure 12: Geographical distribution of countries with satellites by 2016 (Union of Concerned Scientist, 2019) As of January 2019, there are 1,957 satellites orbiting Earth (Union of Concerned Scientist, 2019). Thirty-one States in the Economic South own assets in space, but only China, India and Iran have launch capabilities. China and India are examples of States that are developing their space capabilities at a rapid speed, largely due to sustained investment in the aerospace sector by their respective governments. However, other States in the Economic South face large economic and technological hurdles for placing assets into space. Currently there are insufficient policies, pathways, and processes for engaging States of the Economic South in international cooperation projects. Involving these States in global projects over the next ten years will be useful for developing their assets and capabilities. Development in aerospace technology and organisational models has opened up new possibilities for States to participate in space projects, such as QB50. QB50 is an international network of CubeSats used for multi-point, in-situ measurements in the lower thermosphere, and re-entry research (QB50, 2018a). Currently, 36 cubesats from all over the world are involved in the project, and seven of the CubeSats are manufactured in the Economic South, including Australia, South Africa, Israel and China. (QB50, 2018b). Other models of cooperation that could be implemented are hosted payloads on other satellites and shared launch vehicles. The application of such models needs encouragement of the standardization of spacecraft and launch vehicle interfaces by COPUOS. This model of cooperation satisfies SDG 9 (Infrastructure, industrialization), measurable by the growth in the technology sector as well as SDG 17 (Partnerships for the Goals), recognizable from improved trade relations and cooperation. 33 Space Diplomacy: Building Partnerships and Strengthening International Introduction Space diplomacy, built on existing norms and negotiated treaties, refers to cooperation among nations on the basis of equal engagement and mutual respect, with the overall goal being to address the common challenges facing humanity and to build constructive, knowledge-based partnerships. —The “Space2030” Agenda and the Global Governance of Outer Space Activities United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 13 Dec. 2017 Due to shortages in technical expertise and financial capabilities, space diplomacy is an important focus for States in the Economic South seeking to develop their emerging space sectors through increased international coordination and cooperation. Under this pillar we explore the need for equitable access to orbit spectrum resources for the Economic South and the revitalization of orbital debris mitigation policies. Equitable Access to Orbit Spectrum The space industry benefits the Economic South by providing telecommunications connectivity and broadcasting to remote areas not reached by terrestrial infrastructure, developing a knowledge-based economy as well as providing employment opportunities for highly skilled professionals. This section examines satellite network filing activities and considers how States of the Economic South access orbit spectrum resources. The space industry is undergoing a transformation in which the status of geostationary orbit (GSO) satellites as primary satellite communications service providers is being Figure 13: GSO and NGSO Satellite Filings Comparison 34 challenged by Large Non-Geostationary orbit (NGSO) constellations such as OneWeb, SpaceX, and LEOSat (Alleven, 2017). The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) is the regulatory body responsible for all radiofrequency spectrum allocation and maintains the Master International Frequency Register (MIFR), which contains a database of radiofrequency spectrum usage. The satellite filings submitted to the ITU by Member States fall under two categories: prioritization by order of application time, or a planned equitable access approach, which applies only for GSO satellite networks (Vallet, 2018). Figure 13 shows Non-Geostationary Satellite Orbit (NGSO) network filings to the ITU have been steadily increasing since 2014. By 2017, the percentage of Advance Publications of Information (API) and Coordination Requests (CR/C) for NGSO satellite networks grew to 17.8 percent of the total GSO and NGSO publications of the two types, illustrating the shift in focus from GSO to NGSO satellite networks. (Note that only CR/C publication has been taken into consideration for GSO satellite networks, because API is no longer in use since 1 January 2017 as an outcome of WRC-15) (ITU BR, 2018). Figure 14: Economic South Satellite Filings versus Economic North Based on the 2017 ITU Radiocommunication Bureau annual report to the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (STS) of the Committee for the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), there are a total of 4182 satellite network filings valid to date from 94 State administrations, of which 45 are members of the Economic South (ITU BR, 2018). The Economic South is responsible for 30.3 percent of the total satellite filings still valid as of 31 December 2017. However, satellite filings by China, India, and the United Arab Emirates account for almost half of the Economic South’s share. It can be argued that, although the satellite network filing data shows that access to outer space is not an immediate priority for the governments of the Economic South, safeguards must be put in place to ensure these States’ equitable access to outer space for the future. This is especially true for the NGSO segment, which currently has no equitable access measures in place compared to the GSO segment. Equitable access measures safeguard the Economic South’s access to outer space and reduce the risk of inequalities in knowledge, economy, and connectivity that result as a result of disadvantaged access to space. Thus, SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities), SDG 9 (Industrial, Innovation, and, Infrastructure), and SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) can be addressed with equitable access to space. States of the Economic South require international cooperation to develop in space and should collaborate to champion their rights to access orbit spectrum resources with a common voice, since each State has a vote without discrimination at the World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC) (Maniewicz, 2016). A successful example of this was during WRC-07 and WRC-15, in which Pacific Islands cooperated to successfully safeguard their satellite telecommunications interest and vote against mobile allocations in the C-band used by satellites (PTC, 2018). Furthermore, States in the Economic South should closely monitor Agenda Item 7 Issue A of WRC-19 to ensure the bringing-into-use (BIU) procedures for NGSO satellite networks do not allow spectrum “grabbing”, which entails launching part of a constellation of satellites to claim that the entire system has been brought-into-use, thus blocking access to others. The BIU regulations are used to ensure that satellite operators can only protect the frequency bands they are capable of operating in orbit to promote efficient use of the spectrum. However, current regulations allow NGSO satellite networks to claim completion of BIU with the launch of one single satellite within the constellation (Laurenson, 2018) and refinement of the regulations is being discussed in WRC-19. 35 Case Study: International Cooperation based on Pacific Islanders involvement in World Radiocommunication Conference 2015 (WRC-15) The C-band frequencies 3400–4200 MHz are a critical part of the Pacific Islands’ telecommunications system. Eight of 17 States in this region rely on Fixed Satellite Services (FSS) for international and domestic connections and the rest for redundancy purposes (Finau, n.d.). Any interruption to the FSS services in C-band would affect Pacific Islanders deeply. An agenda item related to the allocation of International Mobile Telecommunication (IMT) services in the C-band was being discussed at WRC-15. Due to potential interference in the FSS service, IMT and FSS services are mutually exclusive and unable to operate within the same overlapping frequency band. Therefore, it is crucial for the Pacific Islanders to protect the C-band for satellite use. In the lead-up to WRC-15, Papua New Guinea, the Republic of Fiji, Nauru, The Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu submitted an input paper to the regional Asia Pacific Telecommunity Conference Preparatory Group (APG) arguing the importance of C-band to the Pacific Islands and informing their vote for “No Change” to the allocation (Yokope, 2014). The Pacific Islanders were successful in protecting their interests and there was no change to the primary FSS allocation in the C-band. However, States may choose to opt-in for IMT services within their territories subject to protection of FSS services in neighbouring States (Henri, 2016). This case study highlights the importance of international cooperation for common goals with a common voice. Each of the 17 Pacific Island States is eligible for one vote each. With 17 votes, the Pacific Island States hold considerable power. This power could be channelled to enhance the Pacific Island States’ access to outer space and lay the groundwork for their future development. Promoting Active Space Debris Removal Currently, the level of orbital space debris has the potential to jeopardize missions and space assets where even tiny collisions can cause catastrophic damage. In time, this series of collisions could cause a cascading effect wherein outer space becomes difficult to utilize (Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines, 2010). Future access to orbital zones is of particular importance to States in the Economic South who are developing emerging space sectors and will require a healthy space climate over the long term. Dialogue continues on the international stage in furtherance of firmer debris mitigation policies aimed at slowing down the creation of new orbital debris; however, a truly sustainable outer space climate will require action beyond mitigation and the commencement of active debris removal (European Space Agency, 2018). Beyond the financial and technological hurdles this challenge presents, is the even more difficult legal and political problem of State ownership. Consequently, the promotion of international engagement and discussion toward active debris remediation is a key priority of the Space2030 Agenda. This engagement should be focused on the creation 36 of a recognized system for the abandonment of untraceable minor space debris and the streamlining of a process for acquiring launching State consent to remove larger defunct objects. Solving space debris does not directly connect to the UN Sustainable Development Goals; however, monitoring and verification of all space-related goals, present and future, are contingent on a healthy orbital environment. While the current treaty regime remains mostly silent on the matter of space debris, the indirect operation of its provision creates a scheme wherein State ownership creates a roadblock to debris clean-up efforts. Article VIII of the Outer Space Treaty provides that each State retains ownership and control over objects launched into space that are added to its registry (See also Registration Convention, 1975). A "space object", as defined under both Article I(d) of the Liability Convention and Article I(c) of the Registration Convention, extends to any "component parts of a space object as well as its launch vehicle and parts thereof." No investigation is made as to the working functionality of the material; thus, no distinction is drawn between an “intact satellite or an errant paint chip” (Muñoz-Patchen, 2018). Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty operates to prevent a State’s “harmful interference” with the property of another state without consent. Ultimately, a scheme exists where a launching State retains enduring ownership, even over tiny fragments of materials that may no longer be traceable. Gaining consent to remove debris therefore proves an issue where efficient removal of larger objects calls for disclosure of classified satellites build-specifications, and the owner of smaller debris is unable to be readily ascertained. Ultimately, there is little incentive for States to consent to disposal, nor for other parties to develop technology to remove space debris, where there is an ever-present risk of creating international tension. A revitalization of the current system is clearly necessary and would see the ownership of space debris treated differently than the ownership of space assets. Commentators have identified several rationales for establishing this distinction and noted the role that the doctrine of abandonment may play in setting the stage for a new international scheme (Muñoz-Patchen, 2018). If designed as abandoned property, space debris would no longer be subject to property rights of the launching State. It is likely that an international agreement would be required to provide sufficient certainty to States engaging in cleanup efforts that no claims of ownership would be raised against them. This scheme would require the creation of a measure by which small debris could automatically be categorized as abandoned and stripped of State ownership. It will be necessary to retain a system of consent for larger objects; however, further developing the currently ad hoc sanctioning system is important to facilitate a wider removal effort. One means of achieving this goal may be through increasing the functions of the Register of Objects Launched into Outer Space (The “Space2030” Agenda and the Global Governance of Outer Space Activities, 2017). A more comprehensive register of abandoned objects would not only assist clean-up efforts, but also work to increase transparency and improve the efficiency of the registration mechanism. One incentive for a collective agreement may stem from the State-based liability caused by orbital debris. Article VII of the Outer Space Treaty, in coupling with the Liability Convention, establishes a system by which one State is liable for damage caused by its space debris to another State’s space assets. Liability is tied to a launching State’s enduring ownership, meaning that alongside the accumulation of debris in orbit, is the accumulation of potential State liability for damages. An agreed international system that recognized abandonment, would allow States to distance themselves from their space debris, opening up opportunity for interested parties to begin disposal. Allowing States to relinquish their property rights of debris also allows for the effective abandonment of responsibility, but without responsibility there exists a greater need to incentivize parties to undertake the expensive act of debris removal. Currently, there exists no direct enforceable instrument by which to compel States to clean-up orbital debris, and it is unrealistic to expect that States will provide support for a new treaty that would see them obliged to engage in costly space clean-up (Kurt, 2015). One avenue commentators have explored is investigating how existing treaties may be used to tackle this issue (MuñozPatchen, 2018). Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty requires that States "shall conduct all their activities in outer space … with due regard for the corresponding interests of all other State Parties"— a sentiment reflected across the space treaty series. The creation of debris that diminishes free access to space could readily be said to violate this fundamental principle. Evidence of diminished access is already noticeable: delayed launches, risk posed to the International Space Station, and over-crowding of the geostationary orbit (Kurt, 2015). In short, the very act of a State creating debris limits and another State’s right to free use of space and may violate the current treaty regime (Muñoz-Patchen, 2018). How this fundamental principle of free access may be adapted on an international level to compel national action is a question worth investigating. The recommendation made is that a priority item for the Space2030 Agenda should be the enhanced safety, security, and sustainability of outer space activities. Debris management is not only a long-term sustainability issue but impacts present day activities; requiring increased protection of space assets, space systems, and critical infrastructures (The “Space2030” Agenda and the Global Governance of Outer Space Activities, 2017). The creation of a system for the permissible removal of space debris will foster increased international accountability and ensure that States can continue to utilize space for economical and societal growth into the future. 37 Conclusion: The Space2030 Agenda and implementation plan will outline, under the pillars of space economy, space society, space accessibility, and space diplomacy, proposals for a common vision on space activities for the future. In the debate surrounding the agenda, it is of utmost importance to ensure that all voices are heard and that the views of all States with an interest in space activities are taken into account. In this report, the authors have identified priority areas for discussion from the perspective of the Economic South, which they hope will contribute to the discourse about the Space2030 agenda and the way in which space activities can contribute to the global goals for sustainable development. Topics of particular concern are the creation of space-derived economic and societal benefits as well as access to space assets and data, especially for States in the Economic South. Increased international cooperation and new partnerships are imperative for progress in all four pillars of the Space2030 Agenda. The key recommendations stemming from this report are as follows. Space Economy: Space technology and its applications are powerful tools for economic development and crucial drivers for the advancement of developing States in the Economic South. The space economy can make a substantial contribution to the prosperity of emerging space States. As a key enabler it functions as the driver and connector of all four Space2030 pillars. Issues which are considered to be of particular importance to States in the Economic South, which should be discussed in the context of the Space2030 agenda, are funding, social business, as well as developments in the CubeSat and renewable energy sectors. Recommendation 1: encourage the creation of startup incubators in the Economic South, potentially as joined partnerships between States or Regions, that help future outer space entrepreneurs to secure expert advice and funding; Recommendation 2: use the principles of social business to establish manufacturing infrastructure in developing States in the Economic South to achieve economic growth through technology by 2030; Recommendation 3: encourage the formation of a small/micro-satellite market in States of the Economic South by forming an intergovernmental or non-government advisory committee working collaboratively with the UN to establish financial mechanisms to support commercial and non-commercial space activities; Recommendation 4: promote international cooperation and data sharing by establishing an outer space renewable energy observation organization and supporting each State to establish the required observing systems, especially in States which are facing challenges in accessing renewable energy. 38 Space Society: Space activities are not only about looking away from our planet, but also about looking towards our planet and seeing it in a new light—whether that be from an electromagnetic or philosophical perspective. Space applications and technologies can improve environmental management and quality of life. This is especially true for States in the Economic South, which can benefit from space applications that assist in disaster management, precision farming, and monitoring carbon emissions and the effects of climate change. Space can also have positive social benefits, such as fostering international cooperation, inspiring the public, and enabling positive change in the structures of society. This section of the report proposed the following recommendations. Recommendation 5: mitigate climate change through enhanced international cooperation in the area of carbon emission monitoring; Recommendation 6: use machine learning to analyze satellite images and provide early warning systems for natural disasters; Recommendation 7: develop a mechanism for global collaboration among EO stakeholders, both public and private; Recommendation 8: initiate programs that promote STEM education for girls during childhood in developing States. 39 Conclusion: Space Accessibility: Access to space does not only include access to the space environment, but also access to data, technology, and financing which allows States to take part in and benefit from the space economy. Access to space for the Economic South will be greatly assisted by cooperation and coordination with the Economic North. States in the Economic South are in need of education and professional training, access to space data and assets, ground station infrastructure, and links to space networks in the North. Priority areas for the Economic South which have been identified include knowledge sharing and skills training, technology transfer, data access, development of ground station capabilities, and access to space assets. Recommendation 9: extend capacity-building efforts for the Economic South in the area of space education; Recommendation 10: increase global cooperation on the issue of satellite access for remote education and teacher training; Recommendation 11: maximise opportunities for technology transfer between the Economic North and South; Recommendation 12: encourage a discussion at UN level on data sharing between States and on how to make space data more readily available and free; Recommendation 13: ensure States in the Economic South receive training in data analysis so they can utilize EO data; Recommendation 14: establish more ground stations in the Economic South and create cooperative networks with satellite operators in the Economic North; Recommendation 15: build a path toward payload carrying, launch vehicle sharing, idle time reuse, and joint programs, so States in the Economic South can more readily access space assets. 40 Space Diplomacy: The cooperation of States and the establishment of partnerships relies on diplomacy. 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[online] Available at: <https://reason.com/archives/2012/01/26/how-much-isan-astronauts-life-worth> [Accessed 6 February 2019]. 46 Appendix List of Sustainable Development Goals Goal 1 End poverty in all its forms everywhere Goal 2 End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture Goal 3 Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages Goal 4 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all Goal 5 Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls Goal 6 Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all Goal 7 Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all Goal 8 Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all Goal 9 Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation Goal 10 Reduce inequality within and among countries Goal 11 Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable Goal 12 Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns Goal 13 Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts* Goal 14 Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development Goal 15 Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss Goal 16 Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels Goal 17 Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development 47 The team also gratefully acknowledge the generous guidance, support, and direction provided by the following faculty, teaching associates, staff, advisors, and visiting experts. Dr. Omar Hatamleh, ISU Dr. Ady James, UniSA Mr. Joseph O’Leary, UniSA Associate Professor David Bruce, UniSA Mr. Arif Göktuğ Karacalıoğlu, ISU Dr. Noel Siemon, ISU Dr. Stephen Hicks, ISU Mr. Eric Dahlstrom, International Space Consultants Ms. Alexandra Ryan, ISU Ms. Ruth McAvinia, ESA Ms. Philomena Bonis, ISU Ms. Amanda Johnston, ISU Mr. Joel Hermann, ISU Mr. David Cowdrey, UniSA Mr. Keith Wright, ISU Ms. Hannah Webber, UniSA Professor Steven Freeland, UWS 48 The 2019 Southern Hemisphere Summer Space Program (SHSSP) was convened at the Mawson Lakes Campus of the University of South Australia (UniSA), Adelaide, Australia, by the International Space University (ISU) and UniSA. This intense course takes participants through a multidisciplinary lecture and workshop series conducted over three weeks, followed by a two week section dedicated to the production of this report. While all care has been taken in the preparation of this report, it should not be relied on. ISU and UniSA do not take any responsibility for the accuracy of its content. University of South Australia Mawson Lakes Boulevard Mawson Lakes South Australia 5059 www.unisa.edu.au The Executive Summary and the Final Report can be found on the ISU website www.isunet.edu. Paper copies of the Final Report can also be requested, while supplies last, from: International Space University Strasbourg Central Campus Attention: Publications/Library Parc d’Innovation 1 rue Jean-Dominique Cassini 67400 Illkirch-Graffenstaden France Tel. +33 (0)3 88 65 54 32 Fax. +33 (0)3 88 65 54 47 Email: [email protected] © International Space University & University of South Australia All Rights Reserved 49