NEW by Vitus Angermeier
The foremost objective of the Arthaśāstra (AŚ, 50 BCE – 300 CE) is teaching the king or a prince ... more The foremost objective of the Arthaśāstra (AŚ, 50 BCE – 300 CE) is teaching the king or a prince (i.e., a king in the making) how to successfully do his job: Ruling a country and securing its survival and prosperity. As part of this task, it is the ruler’s responsibility to be prepared to deal with all kinds of calamities – in the interest of his own security, of his subjects on the individual level, of certain professions, as well as socially and religiously defined segments of society, and of the whole kingdom. To this end, the work contains a whole book (AŚ 8) on the assessment of various defects (vyasana) of the constituents of a kingdom, including a chapter (AŚ 8.4) on great dangers (mahābhaya), threats like fires, floods, droughts, and epidemics. Additionally, there is one more chapter enumerating practical countermeasures for natural and other disasters (AŚ 4.3), and, scattered all over the work, many suggestions and exemption clauses, that shall facilitate survival of the subjects in times of distress.
This study focuses on the modes of reaction that were available to the king according to the Arthaśastra. What measures could he fall back to in the event of crisis? Which red lines must not be crossed under any circumstances? What fell in the king’s own responsibility and which tasks could he delegate? Which experts were available and could be consulted or mobilised? Were there certain taboos, or people and powers that should not be made use of in solving the crisis? How far does the alleged utilitarianism of the Arthaśāstra go when faced with calamities?
Books by Vitus Angermeier
Puṣpikā – Tracing Ancient India through Texts and Traditions: Contributions to Current Research in Indology, 2023
In the series Puṣpikā – Tracing Ancient India through Texts and Traditions: Contributions to Curr... more In the series Puṣpikā – Tracing Ancient India through Texts and Traditions: Contributions to Current Research in Indology, the proceedings of the International Indology Graduate Research Symposium (IIGRS) are published. Puṣpikā is a peer-reviewed series that provides early-career scholars with a platform to share the results of their research on pre-modern South Asian cultures.
This is the 6th volume in the series, containing thirteen articles based on the talks presented at the 12th IIGRS online and in Vienna, Austria on 22–24 July 2021.
Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2020
OA Publication available from: https://verlag.oeaw.ac.at/regenzeiten-feuchtgebiete-koerpersaefte
... more OA Publication available from: https://verlag.oeaw.ac.at/regenzeiten-feuchtgebiete-koerpersaefte
"Regenzeiten, Feuchtgebiete, Körpersäfte" analyses the role of water in early Indian medicine on the basis of its source texts. In three large sections, Angermeier discusses the medical relevance of nature and climate, the role of water in the human body and its dietary and medical use, offering multi-layered insights into the intellectual history of early Ayurveda. Since this healthcare system considers water not only in the strict medical sense, but also deals in detail with climatic and ecological conditions that are essential for a long, healthy life, this book provides relevant aspects for all disciplines that deal with water in South Asia.
Papers by Vitus Angermeier
Studia Orientalia Electronica, Apr 26, 2024
A passage on suffering (duḥkha) in the first section of the Suśruta saṃhitā (SS), one of the foun... more A passage on suffering (duḥkha) in the first section of the Suśruta saṃhitā (SS), one of the foundational compendia of Āyurveda, elaborates on three kinds of suffering. The very same scheme also occurs in the commentarial literature of Sāṅkhya, one of the oldest and most important philosophical systems of South Asia. In the SS, however, this account leads a solitary life, never being referred to in the whole work again, or in other contemporary medical literature. This article determines the actual position of this passage within the work and its relation to the Sāṅkhya parallels, and examines other approaches regarding the causation of suffering and disease in the SS. To this end, not only its representation in the vulgate edition of the SS but also the version appearing in three early Nepalese manuscripts is considered.
Visages du dharma, 2023
This essay shows that physicians of early Āyurveda adopted a pragmatic approach to the challenges... more This essay shows that physicians of early Āyurveda adopted a pragmatic approach to the challenges dharma imposed on them. While the concept and its importance is generally accepted in the medical compendia, various passages stress the fact that good health is an indispensable precondition to pursue dharma and other goals of life. In the interests of health it is even tolerable to deceive patients if their religious convictions would get in the way of treatment.
From the viewpoint of Āyurveda, following dharma not only means complying
with the orthodox Brahminical prescriptions, but also implementing various health-preserving measures. This merger of ethical and medical ideals is shown in various lists of prescriptions for right conduct. Neglect of these rules constitutes a case of adharma and leads to shortened lifespans, suffering and unfavourable rebirths. The concept of dharma is even employed to explain the otherwise incomprehensible phenomenon of epidemics and the gradual decline of the human lifespan throughout the ages. This employment contains a sophisticated proto-ecological theory explaining the impairment of nature through human deeds and its consequences for the affected people.
History of Science in South Asia, 2022
Most passages on the seasons in works of ancient Indian medicine list frost, spring, summer, rain... more Most passages on the seasons in works of ancient Indian medicine list frost, spring, summer, rainy season, autumn and winter as the divisions of the year. However, in some contexts, the hibernal season frost (śiśira) is left out and replaced by a second rainy season, called “beginning of the rain” (prāvṛṣ), that is placed between summer and the actual rainy season. In this paper, I first introduce the concept of the seasons and the division of the year into two halves. Second, I examine the dichotomy of the existence, within one scientific corpus, of two seasonal schemes that vary regarding the included seasons. Concerning this matter, I review the investigations of Francis Zimmermann and compare them with Ḍalhaṇas commentary on the relevant passages in the Suśrutasaṃhitā. This analysis shows that Zimmermann was by and large correct when he argued that the two schemes are utilized in specific contexts but it proposes a new terminology for the schemes, understanding them as preventive and reactive instead of distributive and transitive. Finally, an examination of the relevant passages in the lesson on the seasons in the Suśrutasaṃhitā reveals that, contrary to the correspondent lessons in the other sources, here the two schemes are mixed together in a very confusing way. This, in combination with further textual evidence, clearly points to the posteriority of the Suśrutasaṃhitā’s lesson on the seasons compared to its counterparts in the Caraka- and Bhelasaṃhitā.
Puṣpikā: Proceedings of the 11th International Indology Graduate Research Symposium (Oxford, 2019), 2024
The causes of suffering are a central topic in Buddhism as well as in Ayurveda. The Pāli Canon an... more The causes of suffering are a central topic in Buddhism as well as in Ayurveda. The Pāli Canon and other early Buddhist texts like the Milindapañha mention eight specific causes resulting in disease or suffering at several places. In contrast, early Ayurveda, as presented in the Carakasaṃhitā, knows a threefold causal complex of diseases or suffering in general. In this study, I aim to present and disentangle the confusing information in the Carakasaṃhitā and isolate two consistent models of causes of suffering. Based on this analysis it is possible to better understand the interrelation of these models as well as their position in contrast to the causes enumerated in the early Buddhist texts. * This article is based on a talk presented at the Indology Graduate Research Symposium (iigrs.wordpress.com) 2019 in Oxford. Later adaptions were made within the frame of a research project funded by the Austrian Science Fund FWF (Epidemics and Crisis Management in Pre-modern South Asia [10.55776/P35301]; epidemics.univie.ac.at). I also need to thank Dominik A. Haas, Philipp A. Maas and Valters Negribs who read the paper and made various valuable suggestions for improvement. 1 Regarding the various terms denoting disease and suffering in Early Buddhism, cf. Divino 2023, 29-34. Causes of Suffering 2/24 Vitus Angermeier Bile and phlegm and wind, their confluence, and the seasons, 2 adverse [surroundings or activities], 3 injury (opakkamika) 4 with ripening of karma as the eighth. 5
The seminal 1989 study "Mantra in Ayurveda" by Kenneth G. Zysk describes four areas in which mant... more The seminal 1989 study "Mantra in Ayurveda" by Kenneth G. Zysk describes four areas in which mantras were used in early Āyurveda: the treatment of wounds and swellings/tumours, of poisoning, of mental disorders, and the collection and preparation of certain medicines. Although this article is a highly important contribution to the study of the significance of Vedic concepts in āyurvedic medicine, it leaves much room for further investigation into the role of mantras in early South Asian medical history. Mantras appear in many more contexts than those mentioned by Zysk. Vedic and post-Vedic mantras are also mentioned in prescriptions on general preventive measures, preparation of food, intake of medicines, after-care of surgical procedures, pregnancy, childbirth and childcare, initiation of medical students, and other topics. Apart from their mere appearance, their medical use raises several more concrete questions such as: Who is in charge of pronouncing the mantras? Are they taken from the Vedic corpus or other sources, and are there original "āyurvedic" mantras? To what extent and in what way are the prescribed mantras connected to the medical circumstances? In this talk, I would like to update and complement Zysk's list, provide an overview of the importance and prevalence of mantras in the various āyurvedic schools and disciplines, and provide a perspective on what still needs to be done to thoroughly understand the role of mantras in Āyurveda.
Scholarship application for preparing a scientific project.
While the colonial and modern histor... more Scholarship application for preparing a scientific project.
While the colonial and modern history of epidemics in South Asia has been widely discussed in secondary literature, the subject of epidemics in the ancient and medieval periods constitutes a significficant research gap in the history of medicine. ThiThis project aims to filfill at least a part of this lacuna by examining the intellectual history of epidemics in South Asia and its medical, religious, divinatory, social and political aspects through a comprehensive philological investigation of the relevant Sanskrit literature from this period.
Body and Cosmos: Studies in Early Indian Medical and Astral Sciences in Honor of Kenneth G. Zysk, 2020
Agni and Soma, the essential, idolized elements of the vedic ritual, give several dubious appeara... more Agni and Soma, the essential, idolized elements of the vedic ritual, give several dubious appearances in the compendiums of early ayurvedic medicine. As already examined by Dominik Wujastyk in his 2004 study “Agni and Soma: A Universal Classification“, the concept of two polar elements that form a base for several specific substances or even the whole world represents a clear theme in ayurvedic literature.
In this study, I investigate how this basically Vedic concept emerged in the early ayurvedic compendiums. While Wujastyk's essay had a wider scope, discussing this concept's development throughout South-Asian history, including thoughts on ethnographic evidence and parallels from Ancient Greece, in the domain of Ayurveda it is concentrated on certain compound words, containing both terms, occurring in three of the most important compendiums. This study, on the other hand, collects and analyzes references of both terms in whatever form, and – to the three works examined in the preceding study, the Suśrutasaṃhitā, the Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha and the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā, adds two more, the Carakasaṃhitā and the Bhelasaṃitā. On this basis one can gather more information on the topic and get a clearer picture of the development of the agni/soma concept within early ayurvedic medicine.
polylog, 2020
This is the shortened, revised published version of this draft: https://www.academia.edu/43177003... more This is the shortened, revised published version of this draft: https://www.academia.edu/43177003/
This article discusses the changes and continuities that characterize the role of disease prevention in Ayurveda from its origins until today. Over the times, Ayurveda repeatedly came under pressure through various external factors. Among these, the impact of western culture and medicine in the wake of colonialism was of utmost significance.
As the present article shows, prevention played a role in Ayurveda from the beginning, however, its importance and the modes of its application changed over the centuries. Therapies like Rasāyana, that have been out of fashion for some time, were revived and adapted to modern needs in the 20th century. In spite of this ability to change and adjust to new circumstances, representatives of modern Ayurveda often prefer to emphasize and even exaggerate the old age and originality of their science.
eJournal of Indian Medicine, 2017
Landscapes might be a minor topic in the field of classical Āyurveda; however, they actually do p... more Landscapes might be a minor topic in the field of classical Āyurveda; however, they actually do play an important role in several contexts. For example, the constitution of the patients depends on their natural surroundings, the quality of food and medicinal plants is defined by the habitat of plants and animals, and the wholesomeness of drinking water is determined by the clime at its source. Thus, we find references to all kinds of landscapes in the compendia of ancient Indian medicine. However, not only terrestrial space is mapped. Water and sky as well are regarded as living environments of animals which in turn serve as food for humans and have specific characteristics according to their roaming area. This study is based on a search for references to landscapes in all possible contexts of the four eminent source texts of ancient Indian medicine, the Carakasaṃhitā, the Suśrutasaṃhitā, the Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha and the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā. Its first part presents the gathered information systematically rearranged and discusses the differences and similarities between plant and animal habitat, as well as the human environment. The second half is dedicated to the specific types of landscapes, describing them based on the findings in the source texts and showing their various impact on water, plants, animals, people and medicinal practice in general.
Draft version. Published version here: https://doi.org/10.18732/hssa89
Most notions of the s... more Draft version. Published version here: https://doi.org/10.18732/hssa89
Most notions of the seasons in works of ancient Indian medicine list frost, spring, summer, rainy season, autumn and winter as the particular times of the year. However , in some contexts, the hibernal season frost (śiśira) is left out and replaced by a second rainy season, called beginning of the rain (prāvṛṣ) and placed between summer and the actual rainy season. In this paper, I firstly introduce the concept of the seasons and the division of the year into two halves. Secondly, I examine the di-chotomy of two seasonal schemes inside one scientific corpus, which varies regarding the included seasons. Concerning this matter, I follow the investigations of Francis Zimmermann 1 in order to prove that the two schemes are utilized both intentionally and systematically in specific contexts. The two seasonal schemes serve diverse cases, being of use for the physician in different aspects of his work.
A revised, shorter version of this article was published as "Krankheitsprävention im Ayurveda: Pr... more A revised, shorter version of this article was published as "Krankheitsprävention im Ayurveda: Pragmatisches Recycling und historische Brüche" in polylog 42: Gesundheit und Heilung (2020): pp. 7–20. (http://www.polylog.net/?id=284)
Cf. https://www.academia.edu/43176982/
This article discusses the changes and continuities that characterize the role of disease prevention in Ayurveda from its origins until today. Over the times, Ayurveda repeatedly came under pressure through various external factors. Among these, the impact of western culture and medicine in the wake of colonialism was of utmost significance.
As the present article shows, prevention played a role in Ayurveda from the beginning, however, its importance and the modes of its application changed over the centuries. Therapies like Rasāyana, that have been out of fashion for some time, were revived and adapted to modern needs in the 20th century. In spite of this ability to change and adjust to new circumstances, representatives of modern Ayurveda often prefer to emphasize and even exaggerate the old age and originality of their science.
Reviews by Vitus Angermeier
History of Science in South Asia, 2023
Book review of: James McHugh, An Unholy Brew: Alcohol in Indian History and Religions(New York, O... more Book review of: James McHugh, An Unholy Brew: Alcohol in Indian History and Religions(New York, Oxford University Press, 2021), pp. xii, 403. £25.99. ISBNs:9780199375943, 9780199375936. DOI:10.1093/oso/9780199375936.001.0001.
Social History of Medicine, 2021
This is the draft version of a book review published here: https://doi.org/10.1093/shm/hkab026
Talks and Conference Presentations by Vitus Angermeier
As Āyurveda is at its core a highly individualistic science, information on how collective suffer... more As Āyurveda is at its core a highly individualistic science, information on how collective suffering was understood and treated is scarce in its foundational works. While the passages referring to epidemics and similar events have attracted some attention in the last decades, endemic diseases are an almost completely neglected topic. Francis Zimmermann, in his inspiring monograph The Jungle & the Aroma of Meats, noticed that passages on the quality of river water virtually provide maps of health and disease for the South Asian subcontinent, but he did not develop this theme any further. By diligent reading and cautious interpretation of the relevant passages it is indeed possible to connect certain diseases with specific regions of South Asia, revealing differing opinions on this topic visible in the various works of Āyurveda. In this talk, I will introduce, compare, and discuss maps of seemingly shifting endemic diseases as deducible from some of the earliest surviving compilations of Āyurveda (Caraka-, Suśruta-, and Bhelasaṃhitā, all dated roughly around 150 CE). In addition, I will also take into account certain later commentaries and raise the question of the plausibility of the alleged disease distributions.
Usually theories on disease causation and treatment in early Āyurveda focus on the individual pat... more Usually theories on disease causation and treatment in early Āyurveda focus on the individual patient, his diet, and his lifestyle. There are however certain contexts, in which the locality or origin of factors jeopardising health is significant. Some climatic regions are understood to constitute more unhealthy surroundings in relation to others. Also, water flowing from certain mountain ranges is made responsible for the spread of specific ailments. Furthermore, the profession of the physician is inherently positioned on the intersections between civilisation and nature, between the orthodox tradition and the heterodox others. Healers have to find their medicines in the wilderness and draw on the special knowledge of those who live in the forests. Their well-paying patients, however, belong to the civilised world. Because, in the exercise of their profession, physicians come in contact with impure substances they have a low status in society – at least according to the rules of Dharmaśāstra literature. This socio-religious rejection naturally positions them close to heterodox ascetics and other forest dwellers. However, because of their precious knowledge and the ability to save people from illness and death, they can also become highly respected by the elites.
In this talk I want to present some peculiarities of the geography of disease and healing in pre-modern South Asia and theorise on the religious, cultural and social backgrounds of these connections and attributions. What is the greater significance of geographical localisation of disease origins? How was wilderness vis-à-vis civilisation perceived by early āyurvedic physicians? What do these views tell us about their attitude towards people living in places understood to be either wild or civilised? Where have they positioned themselves and where have others positioned them?
Although a plethora of ancient South Asian sources refer to situations that would be considered c... more Although a plethora of ancient South Asian sources refer to situations that would be considered crises by modern standards, the early Sanskrit vocabulary lacks a word that we could understand as a distinct equivalent of the term “crisis” and its Greek and Latin predecessors. Nevertheless, the descriptions and discussions of personal and collective distress in the literary sources allow for a comprehensive examination of how crises were understood and dealt with in ancient India. In this presentation, I will discuss early South Asian concepts related to the Mediterranean/European notion of crisis and demonstrate the importance of theories about socio-religious norms (dharma) and actions determining one’s future fate (karma) to pre-modern understandings of calamities. Furthermore, I will sketch reflections regarding their causation and show suggested countermeasures against them. To this end, I will draw on textual sources from a variety of disciplines, including the Indian epics, medical treatises, as well as political and religious works.
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NEW by Vitus Angermeier
This study focuses on the modes of reaction that were available to the king according to the Arthaśastra. What measures could he fall back to in the event of crisis? Which red lines must not be crossed under any circumstances? What fell in the king’s own responsibility and which tasks could he delegate? Which experts were available and could be consulted or mobilised? Were there certain taboos, or people and powers that should not be made use of in solving the crisis? How far does the alleged utilitarianism of the Arthaśāstra go when faced with calamities?
University of Vienna, November 8–9, 2024.
https://epidemics.univie.ac.at/the-project/calamities-workshop-program/
Books by Vitus Angermeier
This is the 6th volume in the series, containing thirteen articles based on the talks presented at the 12th IIGRS online and in Vienna, Austria on 22–24 July 2021.
"Regenzeiten, Feuchtgebiete, Körpersäfte" analyses the role of water in early Indian medicine on the basis of its source texts. In three large sections, Angermeier discusses the medical relevance of nature and climate, the role of water in the human body and its dietary and medical use, offering multi-layered insights into the intellectual history of early Ayurveda. Since this healthcare system considers water not only in the strict medical sense, but also deals in detail with climatic and ecological conditions that are essential for a long, healthy life, this book provides relevant aspects for all disciplines that deal with water in South Asia.
Papers by Vitus Angermeier
From the viewpoint of Āyurveda, following dharma not only means complying
with the orthodox Brahminical prescriptions, but also implementing various health-preserving measures. This merger of ethical and medical ideals is shown in various lists of prescriptions for right conduct. Neglect of these rules constitutes a case of adharma and leads to shortened lifespans, suffering and unfavourable rebirths. The concept of dharma is even employed to explain the otherwise incomprehensible phenomenon of epidemics and the gradual decline of the human lifespan throughout the ages. This employment contains a sophisticated proto-ecological theory explaining the impairment of nature through human deeds and its consequences for the affected people.
While the colonial and modern history of epidemics in South Asia has been widely discussed in secondary literature, the subject of epidemics in the ancient and medieval periods constitutes a significficant research gap in the history of medicine. ThiThis project aims to filfill at least a part of this lacuna by examining the intellectual history of epidemics in South Asia and its medical, religious, divinatory, social and political aspects through a comprehensive philological investigation of the relevant Sanskrit literature from this period.
In this study, I investigate how this basically Vedic concept emerged in the early ayurvedic compendiums. While Wujastyk's essay had a wider scope, discussing this concept's development throughout South-Asian history, including thoughts on ethnographic evidence and parallels from Ancient Greece, in the domain of Ayurveda it is concentrated on certain compound words, containing both terms, occurring in three of the most important compendiums. This study, on the other hand, collects and analyzes references of both terms in whatever form, and – to the three works examined in the preceding study, the Suśrutasaṃhitā, the Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha and the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā, adds two more, the Carakasaṃhitā and the Bhelasaṃitā. On this basis one can gather more information on the topic and get a clearer picture of the development of the agni/soma concept within early ayurvedic medicine.
This article discusses the changes and continuities that characterize the role of disease prevention in Ayurveda from its origins until today. Over the times, Ayurveda repeatedly came under pressure through various external factors. Among these, the impact of western culture and medicine in the wake of colonialism was of utmost significance.
As the present article shows, prevention played a role in Ayurveda from the beginning, however, its importance and the modes of its application changed over the centuries. Therapies like Rasāyana, that have been out of fashion for some time, were revived and adapted to modern needs in the 20th century. In spite of this ability to change and adjust to new circumstances, representatives of modern Ayurveda often prefer to emphasize and even exaggerate the old age and originality of their science.
Most notions of the seasons in works of ancient Indian medicine list frost, spring, summer, rainy season, autumn and winter as the particular times of the year. However , in some contexts, the hibernal season frost (śiśira) is left out and replaced by a second rainy season, called beginning of the rain (prāvṛṣ) and placed between summer and the actual rainy season. In this paper, I firstly introduce the concept of the seasons and the division of the year into two halves. Secondly, I examine the di-chotomy of two seasonal schemes inside one scientific corpus, which varies regarding the included seasons. Concerning this matter, I follow the investigations of Francis Zimmermann 1 in order to prove that the two schemes are utilized both intentionally and systematically in specific contexts. The two seasonal schemes serve diverse cases, being of use for the physician in different aspects of his work.
Cf. https://www.academia.edu/43176982/
This article discusses the changes and continuities that characterize the role of disease prevention in Ayurveda from its origins until today. Over the times, Ayurveda repeatedly came under pressure through various external factors. Among these, the impact of western culture and medicine in the wake of colonialism was of utmost significance.
As the present article shows, prevention played a role in Ayurveda from the beginning, however, its importance and the modes of its application changed over the centuries. Therapies like Rasāyana, that have been out of fashion for some time, were revived and adapted to modern needs in the 20th century. In spite of this ability to change and adjust to new circumstances, representatives of modern Ayurveda often prefer to emphasize and even exaggerate the old age and originality of their science.
Reviews by Vitus Angermeier
Talks and Conference Presentations by Vitus Angermeier
In this talk I want to present some peculiarities of the geography of disease and healing in pre-modern South Asia and theorise on the religious, cultural and social backgrounds of these connections and attributions. What is the greater significance of geographical localisation of disease origins? How was wilderness vis-à-vis civilisation perceived by early āyurvedic physicians? What do these views tell us about their attitude towards people living in places understood to be either wild or civilised? Where have they positioned themselves and where have others positioned them?
This study focuses on the modes of reaction that were available to the king according to the Arthaśastra. What measures could he fall back to in the event of crisis? Which red lines must not be crossed under any circumstances? What fell in the king’s own responsibility and which tasks could he delegate? Which experts were available and could be consulted or mobilised? Were there certain taboos, or people and powers that should not be made use of in solving the crisis? How far does the alleged utilitarianism of the Arthaśāstra go when faced with calamities?
University of Vienna, November 8–9, 2024.
https://epidemics.univie.ac.at/the-project/calamities-workshop-program/
This is the 6th volume in the series, containing thirteen articles based on the talks presented at the 12th IIGRS online and in Vienna, Austria on 22–24 July 2021.
"Regenzeiten, Feuchtgebiete, Körpersäfte" analyses the role of water in early Indian medicine on the basis of its source texts. In three large sections, Angermeier discusses the medical relevance of nature and climate, the role of water in the human body and its dietary and medical use, offering multi-layered insights into the intellectual history of early Ayurveda. Since this healthcare system considers water not only in the strict medical sense, but also deals in detail with climatic and ecological conditions that are essential for a long, healthy life, this book provides relevant aspects for all disciplines that deal with water in South Asia.
From the viewpoint of Āyurveda, following dharma not only means complying
with the orthodox Brahminical prescriptions, but also implementing various health-preserving measures. This merger of ethical and medical ideals is shown in various lists of prescriptions for right conduct. Neglect of these rules constitutes a case of adharma and leads to shortened lifespans, suffering and unfavourable rebirths. The concept of dharma is even employed to explain the otherwise incomprehensible phenomenon of epidemics and the gradual decline of the human lifespan throughout the ages. This employment contains a sophisticated proto-ecological theory explaining the impairment of nature through human deeds and its consequences for the affected people.
While the colonial and modern history of epidemics in South Asia has been widely discussed in secondary literature, the subject of epidemics in the ancient and medieval periods constitutes a significficant research gap in the history of medicine. ThiThis project aims to filfill at least a part of this lacuna by examining the intellectual history of epidemics in South Asia and its medical, religious, divinatory, social and political aspects through a comprehensive philological investigation of the relevant Sanskrit literature from this period.
In this study, I investigate how this basically Vedic concept emerged in the early ayurvedic compendiums. While Wujastyk's essay had a wider scope, discussing this concept's development throughout South-Asian history, including thoughts on ethnographic evidence and parallels from Ancient Greece, in the domain of Ayurveda it is concentrated on certain compound words, containing both terms, occurring in three of the most important compendiums. This study, on the other hand, collects and analyzes references of both terms in whatever form, and – to the three works examined in the preceding study, the Suśrutasaṃhitā, the Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha and the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā, adds two more, the Carakasaṃhitā and the Bhelasaṃitā. On this basis one can gather more information on the topic and get a clearer picture of the development of the agni/soma concept within early ayurvedic medicine.
This article discusses the changes and continuities that characterize the role of disease prevention in Ayurveda from its origins until today. Over the times, Ayurveda repeatedly came under pressure through various external factors. Among these, the impact of western culture and medicine in the wake of colonialism was of utmost significance.
As the present article shows, prevention played a role in Ayurveda from the beginning, however, its importance and the modes of its application changed over the centuries. Therapies like Rasāyana, that have been out of fashion for some time, were revived and adapted to modern needs in the 20th century. In spite of this ability to change and adjust to new circumstances, representatives of modern Ayurveda often prefer to emphasize and even exaggerate the old age and originality of their science.
Most notions of the seasons in works of ancient Indian medicine list frost, spring, summer, rainy season, autumn and winter as the particular times of the year. However , in some contexts, the hibernal season frost (śiśira) is left out and replaced by a second rainy season, called beginning of the rain (prāvṛṣ) and placed between summer and the actual rainy season. In this paper, I firstly introduce the concept of the seasons and the division of the year into two halves. Secondly, I examine the di-chotomy of two seasonal schemes inside one scientific corpus, which varies regarding the included seasons. Concerning this matter, I follow the investigations of Francis Zimmermann 1 in order to prove that the two schemes are utilized both intentionally and systematically in specific contexts. The two seasonal schemes serve diverse cases, being of use for the physician in different aspects of his work.
Cf. https://www.academia.edu/43176982/
This article discusses the changes and continuities that characterize the role of disease prevention in Ayurveda from its origins until today. Over the times, Ayurveda repeatedly came under pressure through various external factors. Among these, the impact of western culture and medicine in the wake of colonialism was of utmost significance.
As the present article shows, prevention played a role in Ayurveda from the beginning, however, its importance and the modes of its application changed over the centuries. Therapies like Rasāyana, that have been out of fashion for some time, were revived and adapted to modern needs in the 20th century. In spite of this ability to change and adjust to new circumstances, representatives of modern Ayurveda often prefer to emphasize and even exaggerate the old age and originality of their science.
In this talk I want to present some peculiarities of the geography of disease and healing in pre-modern South Asia and theorise on the religious, cultural and social backgrounds of these connections and attributions. What is the greater significance of geographical localisation of disease origins? How was wilderness vis-à-vis civilisation perceived by early āyurvedic physicians? What do these views tell us about their attitude towards people living in places understood to be either wild or civilised? Where have they positioned themselves and where have others positioned them?
Keywords: epidemics, Pre-modern South Asia, Āyurveda, disease control, public health, contagious diseases
This talk will present results from the research project “Epidemics and Crisis Management in Pre-modern South Asia”, conducted at the University of Vienna and financed by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF).
The presentation given in this workshop will focus on theories and speculations about the causes of epidemics and similar events as found in the early pre-modern ayurvedic sources.
German abstract:
Im Ayurveda bedarf die Entstehung von Epidemien einer gesonderten Erklärung, da sie nicht mit dem dort gültigen allgemeinen Verständnis der Krankheitsentstehung in Einklang zu bringen ist. Das Grundkonzept sieht vor, dass Menschen je nach Konstitution, Ernährung, Körperkraft, Gewöhnung, Charakter und Alter für bestimmte Krankheiten anfällig sind. Eine Situation mit vielen Krankheits- oder Todesfällen, die übereinstimmende Symptome aufweisen, obwohl ihre Opfer unterschiedliche Konstitutionen haben, sich unterschiedlich ernähren usw., ist folglich schwer zu erklären. Um diesen Widerspruch aufzulösen, listet die Carakasaṃhitā, eines der grundlegenden ayurvedischen Werke, in ihrem Kapitel über Epidemien (CS 3.3) allgemeine Naturphänomene auf, die alle Menschen unabhängig von ihrer persönlichen Konstitution betreffen. Wenn Wind, Wasser, Ort oder Zeit in irgendeiner Weise gestört sind, wirken sich die Veränderungen auf alle Menschen aus, die von diesen Phänomenen abhängig sind, und können Epidemien oder ähnliche Ereignisse auslösen. Der Abschnitt, der auf diese proto-wissenschaftliche Erklärung folgt, liefert hingegen eine alternative oder ergänzende ethische Erklärung, warum es zu einem Massensterben kommen kann. Hier fungiert kollektives Unrecht (adharma) als zentrale Ursache für Epidemien und ähnliche Ereignisse.
In diesem Vortrag werde ich die beiden Erklärungsmodelle für das Auftreten von Massensterben, wie sie in der Carakasaṃhitā vorgestellt werden, skizzieren und untersuchen, inwieweit sie sich gegenseitig widersprechen oder ergänzen. Darüber hinaus soll gezeigt werden, dass dieser duale Ansatz paradigmatisch für die Situation des vormodernen Ayurveda ist, der oft zwischen sozio-religiösen Überzeugungen und wissenschaftlichen Ambitionen hin- und hergerissen ist.
Waterscapes have a probably unexpected significance in Āyurveda, because the quality and characteristics of water differ depending on its source. While some kinds of water have the potential to improve health and to heal diseases, others can be harmful or even life-threatening. For this reason all the main compendia of ancient Āyurveda contain a section on water, discussing inter alia the specific characteristics of certain bodies of water. If these are small, they are said to be dependent on the environment surrounding them. In contrast, the characteristics of rivers are determined by several conditions, like origin, direction, flow velocity etc. Apart from that, the classical Samhitās are a bit stingy with information. However, the extant commentaries on these foundational works provide us with a much clearer picture of the aesthetic, topographical and dietetic characteristics of water bodies and their vital content. Furthermore, it is possible to distill from them eco-historical information about their origin (are they man-made or natural?), about their aquatic flora and fauna, their medical significance and about geography of disease. The real meanings of the Sanskrit words for water bodies as well as their characteristics are still poorly studied, and the dictionaries contain meager and often misleading information. The examination of the relevant material in classical and medieval Āyurvedic literature, presented in this paper, provides surprising insights into morphological, sociocultural, ecological and medical significance of water and closes several gaps in our knowledge about various water bodies.
Oxford University, November 2019)
The chapter 3.3 of the Carakasaṃhitā, one of the foundational works of ancient Indian medicine, is primarily dedicated to the topic of mass mortality. Numerous sudden deaths or illnesses are problematic for Ayurveda because they cannot be explained by its central concept – the three morbific factors: bile, wind and phlegm. This chapter, by implementation of Dharma and Karma offers a creative solution. For example, if a king makes bad decisions the consequences affect all his subjects and lead to their suffering. The result might also be mass mortality, even though the victims have various physical constitutions, making them prone to different diseases.
This paper deals with the concept of collective Karma in ancient Ayurveda and discusses the representation of the medical Dharma theory. I will present two different models for understanding the emergence of suffering – both found in the Carakasaṃhitā. The two of them include the concept of prajñāparādha which describes the digression from or violation of the power of judgment. I will further examine how this concept is incorporated in the medical theories dealing with the reasons for suffering and how it affects the Dharma theory.
Agni and Soma, the essential, idolized elements of the vedic ritual, give several dubious appearances in the compendiums of early ayurvedic medicine. As already examined by Dominik Wujastyk in his 2004 study “Agni and Soma: A Universal Classification“, the idea of two polar elements that form a base for several specific substances or even for the whole world represents a clear theme in ayurvedic literature. While Wujastyk's essay had a wider scope, discussing this concepts development throughout South-Asian history, including thoughts on ethnographic evidence and parallels from ancient Greece, in the domain of Ayurveda it is concentrated on certain compound words, containing both terms, occurring in three of the most important compendiums. In this lecture references of both terms in whatever form and from a wider range of classical texts will be presented and examined. On this basis one can gather more information on the topic and get a clearer picture of the development of the agni/soma concept within early ayurvedic medicine.
Abstract: As the alteration of water shortage and overflowing rains plays an eminent role in South Asian life, the seasons are a topic of high interest for the ancient ayurvedic physician. The constitution of men changes according to the year and so gives rise to different ailments according to time. Thus in each season distinct medicines, therapies, eating customs and conducts of life are advisable. The substances used therefore undergo changes according to time as well, gain or lose potency or they are not available at all.
In all the classical medical Saṃhitās one can find a chapter devoted to the seasons. They explain the structure of the year and prescribed diets and modes of conduct according to the seasons. Besides these chapters we find references to the seasons and their implications on medicine all over the works.
As a matter of fact, we can identify two different seasonal segmentations of the year, which somehow occur side by side in these Saṃhitās. Both feature six seasons, but one of them has literally two winters while the second inserts a special period at the beginning of the rains.
In this paper I want to go into the ways of structuring the year proposed in the medical Saṃhitās – the two halves of the year, the seasons and months. I shall discuss the interrelation of natural phenomena, the concept of humors (doṣa-s), ways of life, seasonal diseases and appropriate medication according to the respective periods of the year and try to shed a light on the functions of the two seasonal concepts.
Vienna, Austria, March 31, 2017.
Water as one of the main sources of life plays an important role in Āyurveda, like it does in all sciences which are related to life.
In each of the classical Saṃhitās one can find categorizations of types and bodies of water which help the physician to decide if the specific water is safe to drink, healthy or even useful as a remedy against some specific ailment. Further more, the texts provide certain instructions for the examination of water, lists of indications for polluted water and advices about surrounding nature which should keep us from drinking the water nearby.
The Saṃhitās also describe various techniques to clean water or at least to make it smell and taste better.
In this presentation I shall concentrate on the account of this topic in the Carakasaṃhitā and compare the findings to the parallels in other works of classical Āyurveda. I will show how these categorizations of water work and on which background and principles they are developed. Upon that I want to discuss the difference between earlier works like Caraka- and Suśrutasaṃhitā and the later collections of Vāgbhaṭa (Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha and Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā), also considering the available commentaries.
In this one-day workshop the research teams will introduce the projects to each other and to interested audiences. The event is intended to highlight the medical focus at our department, stimulate exchange between the participating researchers, and to help finding new ways of collaboration and overlapping research interests.
This doctoral thesis investigates the relevance of water in classical Indian medicine by way of examining three specific topic areas. These areas, namely, nature and climate, water in the human body, and dietary and medical practice, are discussed in the three main parts of the thesis. They are preceded by an introduction which presents the general subject, describes the current state of research, and discusses questions concerning the primary sources and methodology. The introduction also summarizes the results of the investigations.
The main sources for this study are the five most important compendia of medical literature written in Sanskrit and belonging to the classical period: the Carakasaṃhitā, the Suśrutasaṃhitā, the Bhelasaṃhitā, the Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha and the Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā. In addition, the extant commentaries on these works were considered. Depending on the topic further relevant puranic, epic and scientific literature was consulted, occasionally also Sanskrit poetry.
The first topic area, nature and climate, comprises of the seasons (especially the rainy season) as well as the typology of water and bodies of water. Both the natural environment and the climate are relevant in medicine predominantly in connection with dietetics and prescriptions for a healthy lifestyle that prevents diseases, but they are also understood to have an impact on specific medical applications, for example seasonal therapies.
The second topic area, water in the human body, is not restricted to concepts about water as such, but also comprises the other bodily fluids. The concept of the five gross elements (water, fire, wind, earth and space/ether) and similiar concepts that occur in the examined works are discussed here in a separate chapter.
Finally, the topic area of dietary and medical practice concerns the relevance of water in diet, purificatory practices (in hygienic as well as ritual terms) and medical therapy.
The appendix contains large theamtic tables, that were too bulky for inclusion in the relevant parts of the book. It also contains several graphics meant to facilitate understanding of the complex relationships within the models of the seasons, the typology of water and the notions about the metabolism. Furthermore, the appendix comprises indices of the considered passages in the primary sources and of the plants mentioned in the thesis (listing the Sanskrit plant names and the current scientific names), as well as the bibliography.
Nach der Erstellung einer kritischen und annotierten Übersetzung, die im letzten Kapitel zu finden ist, wurden die einzelnen im Kapitel besprochenen Themenkomplexe genauer untersucht und unter Berücksichtigung des wichtigsten Kommentars zur Carakasaṃhitā, der Āyurvedadīpika des Cakrapāṇidatta, und unter Zuhilfenahme weiterer Stellen aus der Saṃhitā selbst weiter ausgearbeitet. Wo Probleme durch diese am nächsten liegenden Primärquellen nicht ausreichend geklärt werden konnten, habe ich zusätzlich weitere medizinische und nicht-medizinische Werke, die ungefähr derselben zeitlichen Periode zugerechnet werden können, zu Rate gezogen. Dazu gehören unter anderem die Suśrutasaṃhitā, die Bhelasaṃhitā, die Dharmasūtras von Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana und Vasiṣṭha und Teile des Mahābhārata. Thematisch teilt sich dieser Hauptteil der Arbeit in folgende Themenkreise auf:
1. Die natürlichen Grundlagen von Massensterben
2. Die moralische Begründung von Massensterben
3. Die Lebensspanne
4. Abschließende Themen des Kapitels (Allopathie und nicht zu behandelnde Patienten)
Im zu besprechenden Kapitel beginnt Ātreya auf einem Spaziergang ein Gespräch mit seinem Schüler Agniveśa, indem er ihn auf bevorstehende schlimme Veränderungen hinweist, die die Auslöschung von Land und Leuten bewirken könnten, und ihn auffordert, Heilmittel zu sammeln, um gegen diese gerüstet zu sein. Nun aber bohrt Agniveśa wissbegierig nach, wie es denn überhaupt zu solch einer Auslöschung kommen könne.