Feynman introduced virtual particles in his diagrams as intermediate states of an interaction pro... more Feynman introduced virtual particles in his diagrams as intermediate states of an interaction process. They represent necessary intermediate states between observable real states. Such virtual particles were introduced to describe the interaction process between an electron and a positron and for much more complicated interaction processes. Other candidates for virtual particles are evanescent modes in optics and in elastic fields. Evanescent modes have a purely imaginary wave number, they represent the mathematical analogy of the tunneling solutions of the Schrödinger equation. Evanescent modes exist in the forbidden frequency bands of a photonic lattice and in undersized wave guides, for instance. The most prominent example for the occurrence of evanescent modes is the frustrated total internal reflection (FTIR) at double prisms. Evanescent modes and tunneling lie outside the bounds of the special theory of relativity. They can cause faster than light (FTL) signal velocities. We present examples of the quantum mechanical behavior of evanescent photons and phonons at a macroscopic scale. The evanescent modes of photons are described by virtual particles as predicted by former QED calculations.
Since 1931, the nonclassical process of tunneling was conjectured to have a zero-time delay in th... more Since 1931, the nonclassical process of tunneling was conjectured to have a zero-time delay in the barrier. These theories have been rejected and denied. However, photonic and recent electronic tunneling experiments have proven the zero-time prediction. Tunneling is due to virtual wave packets in electromagnetic, elastic, and Schrödinger wave fields up to the macroscopic level. In this article we cite theoretical and experimental studies on zero-time tunneling, which have proven this striking behavior.
Zero tunneling time and thereby a faster than light traversal velocity was calculated nearly a hu... more Zero tunneling time and thereby a faster than light traversal velocity was calculated nearly a hundred years ago and has been observed recently. We report about experimental results and estimations, which confirm the zero time tunneling for elastic as well as for electromagnetic and Schrödinger waves. Zero time tunneling was first observed with microwaves 1992 (H. Aichmann and G. Nimtz, Found. Phys., vol. 44, p. 678, 2014; A. Enders and G. Nimtz, J. Phys. I, vol. 2, p. 169, 1992). In 2008, zero time was also observed for tunneling electrons (P. Eckle, A. N. Pfeiffer, C. Cirelli, et al., Science, vol. 322, p. 1525, 2008). Presumably, this effect took place with atoms quite recently (R. Ramos, D. Spierings, I. Racicot, and A. M. Steinberg, Nature, vol. 583, p. 529, 2020). The Einstein relation E 2 = (ħk)2 c 2 is not satisfied in the tunneling process, since the wave number k is imaginary (E is the total energy, ħ the Planck constant, and c the vacuum velocity of light), Zero time tunneling is described by virtual photons (A. Stahlhofen and G. Nimtz, Europhys. Lett., vol. 76, p. 189, 2006). The tunneling process itself violates the Special Theory of Relativity. Remarkably, Brillouin conjectured that wave mechanics is valid for all waves independent of their field (L. Brillouin, Wave Propagation in Periodic Structures, Chap. VIII, New York, Dover Publications, 1953).
Fifty years ago Hartman studied the barrier transmission time of wave packets (J Appl Phys 33:342... more Fifty years ago Hartman studied the barrier transmission time of wave packets (J Appl Phys 33:3427-3433, 1962). He was inspired by the tunneling experiments across thin insulating layers at that time. For opaque barriers he calculated faster than light propagation and a transmission time independent of barrier length, which is called the Hartman effect. A faster than light (FTL or superluminal) wave packet velocity was deduced in analog tunneling experiments with microwaves and with infrared light thirty years later. Recently, the conjectured zero time of electron tunneling was claimed to have been observed in ionizing helium inside the barrier. The calculated and measured short tunneling time arises at the barrier front. This tunneling time was found to be universal for elastic fields as well as for electromagnetic fields. Remarkable is that the delay time is the same for the reflected and the transmitted waves in the case of symmetric barriers. Several theoretical physicists predicted this strange nature of the tunneling process. However, even with this background many members of the physics community do not accept a FTL signal velocity interpretation of the experimental tunneling results. Instead a luminal front velocity was calculated to explain the FTL experimental results frequently. However, Brillouin stated in his book on wave propagation and group velocity that the front velocity is given by the group velocity of wave packets in the case of physical signals, which have only finite frequency bandwidths. Some studies assumed barriers to be cavities and the observed tunneling time does represent the cavity lifetime. We are going to discus these continuing misleading interpretations, which are found in journals and in textbooks till today.
Virtual particles expected to occur in microscopic processes as they are introduced, for instance... more Virtual particles expected to occur in microscopic processes as they are introduced, for instance by Feynman in the Quantum Electro Dynamics, as photons performing in an anonymous way in the interaction between two electrons. This note describes macroscopic virtual particles as they appear in classical evanescent modes and in quantum mechanical tunneling particles. Remarkably, these large virtual particles are present in wave mechanics of elastic, electromagnetic, and Schrödinger fields.
[1991 Proceedings] 7th International Symposium on Electrets (ISE 7)
The authors report on thermally stimulated depolarization currents (TSDC) measurements in the tem... more The authors report on thermally stimulated depolarization currents (TSDC) measurements in the temperature range 77-320 K on hydrated di-myristoil-phosphatidylcholine at different water contents up to 0.33 w/w, corresponding to approximately 18 water molecules per lipid molecule. The different relaxation mechanisms contributing to the complex thermograms are analyzed using special TSDC techniques, and the corresponding spectra of activation energies and entropy factors are determined. The results are discussed in terms of different structures of water in the context of multiphase model and head group mobilities
The recombination behaviour of excess carriers was investigated during the process of acousto-ele... more The recombination behaviour of excess carriers was investigated during the process of acousto-electric amplification. The experiments were carried out with the piezoelectric semiconductor tellurium. A decrease of the lifetime of the excess carriers was observed up to four orders of magnitude depending on the intensity of the amplified acoustic flux. The new recombination effect is explained by about 1018 states/cm3 in the forbidden band. These states are a consequence of the random nature of the carrier potential energy in the acousto-electrically amplified flux, as was shown by Bonch-Bruevich quite recently. The high intensity flux gives rise to a density of states in the band gap analogous to disordered semiconductors. Wahrend der akustoelektrischen Verstarkung wurde das Rekombinationsverhalten von Uberschusladungstragern untersucht. Die Experimente wurden an dem piezoelektrischen Halbleiter Tellur durchgefuhrt. Eine Abnahme der Lebensdauer der Uberschusladungstrager bis zu vier Grosenordnungen wurde beobachtet, wobei diese Abnahme von der Intensitat des verstarkten Flusses abhangig war. Dieser neue Rekombinationseffekt wird durch zusaatzliche Energiezustade im verbotenen Band erklart. Diese Zustande sind eine Folge der statistischen Natur der potentiellen Energie der Ladungstrager in dem akustoelektrisch verstarkten Flus. Der starke akustische Flus erzeugt Zustande im verbotenen Band analog zu jenen in amorphen Halbleitern, wie vor kurzem von Ronch-Bruevich gezeigt worden ist.
Recently acceptor levels due to chemical impurities in tellurium were calculated. Here we present... more Recently acceptor levels due to chemical impurities in tellurium were calculated. Here we present experimental results of the Hall coefficient measured in low magnetic fields between 1.4 and 77 K. The acceptor concentration of the investigated crystals was 1015 cm−3. The observed dependence of the Hall coefficient on temperature can be explained, assuming two acceptor levels above the valence band. This is in agreement with the data predicted by theory. Vor kurzem wurden Akzeptorzustande chemiseher Verunreinigungen in Tellur berechnet. Es wird uber Messungen des transversalen Halleffekts in kleinen Magetfeldern im Temperaturbereich von 1,4 bis 77 K an Kristallen mit 1015 cm−3 Akzeptoren berichtet. Die gefundene Temperaturabhangigkeit des Hallkoeffizienten kann durch die Annahme zweier Akzeptorzustande oberhalb dcs Valenzbandes erklart werden. Die Ergebnisse stehen in Ubereinstimmung mit den theoretisch bercehneten Energiewerten.
Recently results of microwave spectroscopy have shown that the water relaxation time is lengthene... more Recently results of microwave spectroscopy have shown that the water relaxation time is lengthened near the surface of aggregates of hydrogen bond-forming molecules, an effect corresponding to an enhanced viscosity [1-3]. In this communication properties of the so-called bound water are treated by a percolation calculation on the water cluster sizes. The values combined with the statistical model of the dielectric response of bulk water by Haggis et al. [4] yield the bound water relaxation time and in this way its viscosity. Fair agreement with the experimental data is obtained. The new analysis represents a keystep for a better understanding of bound water in physico-chemical and biological systems.
Feynman introduced virtual particles in his diagrams as intermediate states of an interaction pro... more Feynman introduced virtual particles in his diagrams as intermediate states of an interaction process. They represent necessary intermediate states between observable real states. Such virtual particles were introduced to describe the interaction process between an electron and a positron and for much more complicated interaction processes. Other candidates for virtual particles are evanescent modes in optics and in elastic fields. Evanescent modes have a purely imaginary wave number, they represent the mathematical analogy of the tunneling solutions of the Schrödinger equation. Evanescent modes exist in the forbidden frequency bands of a photonic lattice and in undersized wave guides, for instance. The most prominent example for the occurrence of evanescent modes is the frustrated total internal reflection (FTIR) at double prisms. Evanescent modes and tunneling lie outside the bounds of the special theory of relativity. They can cause faster than light (FTL) signal velocities. We present examples of the quantum mechanical behavior of evanescent photons and phonons at a macroscopic scale. The evanescent modes of photons are described by virtual particles as predicted by former QED calculations.
Since 1931, the nonclassical process of tunneling was conjectured to have a zero-time delay in th... more Since 1931, the nonclassical process of tunneling was conjectured to have a zero-time delay in the barrier. These theories have been rejected and denied. However, photonic and recent electronic tunneling experiments have proven the zero-time prediction. Tunneling is due to virtual wave packets in electromagnetic, elastic, and Schrödinger wave fields up to the macroscopic level. In this article we cite theoretical and experimental studies on zero-time tunneling, which have proven this striking behavior.
Zero tunneling time and thereby a faster than light traversal velocity was calculated nearly a hu... more Zero tunneling time and thereby a faster than light traversal velocity was calculated nearly a hundred years ago and has been observed recently. We report about experimental results and estimations, which confirm the zero time tunneling for elastic as well as for electromagnetic and Schrödinger waves. Zero time tunneling was first observed with microwaves 1992 (H. Aichmann and G. Nimtz, Found. Phys., vol. 44, p. 678, 2014; A. Enders and G. Nimtz, J. Phys. I, vol. 2, p. 169, 1992). In 2008, zero time was also observed for tunneling electrons (P. Eckle, A. N. Pfeiffer, C. Cirelli, et al., Science, vol. 322, p. 1525, 2008). Presumably, this effect took place with atoms quite recently (R. Ramos, D. Spierings, I. Racicot, and A. M. Steinberg, Nature, vol. 583, p. 529, 2020). The Einstein relation E 2 = (ħk)2 c 2 is not satisfied in the tunneling process, since the wave number k is imaginary (E is the total energy, ħ the Planck constant, and c the vacuum velocity of light), Zero time tunneling is described by virtual photons (A. Stahlhofen and G. Nimtz, Europhys. Lett., vol. 76, p. 189, 2006). The tunneling process itself violates the Special Theory of Relativity. Remarkably, Brillouin conjectured that wave mechanics is valid for all waves independent of their field (L. Brillouin, Wave Propagation in Periodic Structures, Chap. VIII, New York, Dover Publications, 1953).
Fifty years ago Hartman studied the barrier transmission time of wave packets (J Appl Phys 33:342... more Fifty years ago Hartman studied the barrier transmission time of wave packets (J Appl Phys 33:3427-3433, 1962). He was inspired by the tunneling experiments across thin insulating layers at that time. For opaque barriers he calculated faster than light propagation and a transmission time independent of barrier length, which is called the Hartman effect. A faster than light (FTL or superluminal) wave packet velocity was deduced in analog tunneling experiments with microwaves and with infrared light thirty years later. Recently, the conjectured zero time of electron tunneling was claimed to have been observed in ionizing helium inside the barrier. The calculated and measured short tunneling time arises at the barrier front. This tunneling time was found to be universal for elastic fields as well as for electromagnetic fields. Remarkable is that the delay time is the same for the reflected and the transmitted waves in the case of symmetric barriers. Several theoretical physicists predicted this strange nature of the tunneling process. However, even with this background many members of the physics community do not accept a FTL signal velocity interpretation of the experimental tunneling results. Instead a luminal front velocity was calculated to explain the FTL experimental results frequently. However, Brillouin stated in his book on wave propagation and group velocity that the front velocity is given by the group velocity of wave packets in the case of physical signals, which have only finite frequency bandwidths. Some studies assumed barriers to be cavities and the observed tunneling time does represent the cavity lifetime. We are going to discus these continuing misleading interpretations, which are found in journals and in textbooks till today.
Virtual particles expected to occur in microscopic processes as they are introduced, for instance... more Virtual particles expected to occur in microscopic processes as they are introduced, for instance by Feynman in the Quantum Electro Dynamics, as photons performing in an anonymous way in the interaction between two electrons. This note describes macroscopic virtual particles as they appear in classical evanescent modes and in quantum mechanical tunneling particles. Remarkably, these large virtual particles are present in wave mechanics of elastic, electromagnetic, and Schrödinger fields.
[1991 Proceedings] 7th International Symposium on Electrets (ISE 7)
The authors report on thermally stimulated depolarization currents (TSDC) measurements in the tem... more The authors report on thermally stimulated depolarization currents (TSDC) measurements in the temperature range 77-320 K on hydrated di-myristoil-phosphatidylcholine at different water contents up to 0.33 w/w, corresponding to approximately 18 water molecules per lipid molecule. The different relaxation mechanisms contributing to the complex thermograms are analyzed using special TSDC techniques, and the corresponding spectra of activation energies and entropy factors are determined. The results are discussed in terms of different structures of water in the context of multiphase model and head group mobilities
The recombination behaviour of excess carriers was investigated during the process of acousto-ele... more The recombination behaviour of excess carriers was investigated during the process of acousto-electric amplification. The experiments were carried out with the piezoelectric semiconductor tellurium. A decrease of the lifetime of the excess carriers was observed up to four orders of magnitude depending on the intensity of the amplified acoustic flux. The new recombination effect is explained by about 1018 states/cm3 in the forbidden band. These states are a consequence of the random nature of the carrier potential energy in the acousto-electrically amplified flux, as was shown by Bonch-Bruevich quite recently. The high intensity flux gives rise to a density of states in the band gap analogous to disordered semiconductors. Wahrend der akustoelektrischen Verstarkung wurde das Rekombinationsverhalten von Uberschusladungstragern untersucht. Die Experimente wurden an dem piezoelektrischen Halbleiter Tellur durchgefuhrt. Eine Abnahme der Lebensdauer der Uberschusladungstrager bis zu vier Grosenordnungen wurde beobachtet, wobei diese Abnahme von der Intensitat des verstarkten Flusses abhangig war. Dieser neue Rekombinationseffekt wird durch zusaatzliche Energiezustade im verbotenen Band erklart. Diese Zustande sind eine Folge der statistischen Natur der potentiellen Energie der Ladungstrager in dem akustoelektrisch verstarkten Flus. Der starke akustische Flus erzeugt Zustande im verbotenen Band analog zu jenen in amorphen Halbleitern, wie vor kurzem von Ronch-Bruevich gezeigt worden ist.
Recently acceptor levels due to chemical impurities in tellurium were calculated. Here we present... more Recently acceptor levels due to chemical impurities in tellurium were calculated. Here we present experimental results of the Hall coefficient measured in low magnetic fields between 1.4 and 77 K. The acceptor concentration of the investigated crystals was 1015 cm−3. The observed dependence of the Hall coefficient on temperature can be explained, assuming two acceptor levels above the valence band. This is in agreement with the data predicted by theory. Vor kurzem wurden Akzeptorzustande chemiseher Verunreinigungen in Tellur berechnet. Es wird uber Messungen des transversalen Halleffekts in kleinen Magetfeldern im Temperaturbereich von 1,4 bis 77 K an Kristallen mit 1015 cm−3 Akzeptoren berichtet. Die gefundene Temperaturabhangigkeit des Hallkoeffizienten kann durch die Annahme zweier Akzeptorzustande oberhalb dcs Valenzbandes erklart werden. Die Ergebnisse stehen in Ubereinstimmung mit den theoretisch bercehneten Energiewerten.
Recently results of microwave spectroscopy have shown that the water relaxation time is lengthene... more Recently results of microwave spectroscopy have shown that the water relaxation time is lengthened near the surface of aggregates of hydrogen bond-forming molecules, an effect corresponding to an enhanced viscosity [1-3]. In this communication properties of the so-called bound water are treated by a percolation calculation on the water cluster sizes. The values combined with the statistical model of the dielectric response of bulk water by Haggis et al. [4] yield the bound water relaxation time and in this way its viscosity. Fair agreement with the experimental data is obtained. The new analysis represents a keystep for a better understanding of bound water in physico-chemical and biological systems.
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