Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette fl... more Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette flow apparatus. The device is capable of generating particulate flows at different shearing rates and solid fractions. Mono size plastic disks are sheared across an annular test-section for several shear rates. Motion of particles is recorded through high speed digital camera and analyzed by image processing techniques. The average and fluctuation velocity profiles are obtained and granular temperature relations with shear rate are investigated. Average streaming velocity across the shear cell decays slightly faster than exponential, and is rather Gaussian when not too close to the wall. Fluctuation velocities and granular temperature across the shear cell are related to effective shear rate. Interparticle collisions are estimated from the particle trajectories and probability distribution of collision angles obtained from particle collision data. In dense flows, three peaks of collision angles are observed which signal the onset of triangular structure formulation and cause crystallization. It is found that the distribution of collision angles is anisotropic. CE Database subject headings: Couette flows; Flow properties; Granular temperature; Interparticle collisions
Undergoing mountain building process, unstable steep slopes, weak geological formations, severe c... more Undergoing mountain building process, unstable steep slopes, weak geological formations, severe climate change impact along with heavy monsoon rainfall make Nepal one of the most hazardous countries in the world that can easily turned into disaster. In Nepal, generally the disasters are brought by different hazards like epidemics; landslides, floods, earthquake, fire, thunderstorm and accident. These disasters are sometimes triggered by natural causes but in many cases they are triggered by human induced factors. In both the cases, people; community, country and sometimes the entire world have to face severe loss, damage and hardship. Since, disasters are complex phenomena with life threatening consequences; the widely accepted norms and provisions of human rights can be easily violated unless the proper research, planning and other endeavors are kept intact. It is the responsibility of the individuals, concerned authorities and the state to ensure the principles, norms, provisions and guidelines of human rights to be followed and implemented in any situations. This paper reviews the human rights principles, norms, provisions and guidelines that should be followed in disaster management cycle and quickly evaluate the human rights situations during few recent disasters in Nepal.
Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette fl... more Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette flow apparatus. The device is capable of generating particulate flows at different shearing rates and solid fractions. Monosize plastic disks are sheared across an annular test section for ...
Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette fl... more Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette flow apparatus. The device is capable of generating particulate flows at different shearing rates and solid fractions. Mono size plastic disks are sheared across an annular test-section for several shear rates. Motion of particles is recorded through high speed digital camera and analyzed by image processing techniques. The average and fluctuation velocity profiles are obtained and granular temperature relations with shear rate are investigated. Average streaming velocity across the shear cell decays slightly faster than exponential, and is rather Gaussian when not too close to the wall. Fluctuation velocities and granular temperature across the shear cell are related to effective shear rate. Interparticle collisions are estimated from the particle trajectories and probability distribution of collision angles obtained from particle collision data. In dense flows, three peaks of collision a...
Landslide is the one of the natural hazards that occurs frequently in the Nepal Himalaya causing ... more Landslide is the one of the natural hazards that occurs frequently in the Nepal Himalaya causing huge loss of life and property every year especially during rainy season. Landslides occurred in the Sindhupal chowk District, Jure (2 August 2014), along the road corridor of Araniko Highway blocked Sunkoshi River resulting loss of 156 lives, damaged road section and huge property loss. Due to the weak geological condition, rapid developmental activities and other inherent natural conditions, Barhabise area of Sindhupal chowk District has been exposed to landslide hazard. Therefore, present study concentrates on landslide susceptibility mapping of the area along the road corridor of the Araniko Highway about 30 km from Bandeu to Barhabise, Sindhupal chowk District by using Arc GIS 10.3. Statistical index method was used to prepare the landslide susceptibility maps. The causative factors considered for the study were elevation, slope angle, slope aspect, geology, distance from drainage, ...
Sub-Himalayan zone also called Siwalik is located between the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) at north... more Sub-Himalayan zone also called Siwalik is located between the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) at north and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) at south. As a consequence of lithospheric plate dynamic between the Indian and Tibetan plate, the young and fragile sedimentary rock of the Siwaliks area are highly weathered and highly deformed. The Siwaliks range is made up of geologically very young sedimentary rocks such as mudstones, shale, sandstones, siltstones and conglomerates, due to such young and weak geological condition, trend of occurring different types of landslide is higher in the Siwaliks zone. Present study was conducted in Babai Khola watershed of Mid-Western Nepal to find the landslide distribution in different geological formations and to identify the lithistratigraphic control for landslide occurrence. Landslide inventory map was prepared by using Google Earth pro, 2017 and Arc. GIS 10.3, and it was verified by several field survey. Geological map was prepared in the field by de...
The relationship of the amplification of vibration on the surface with the slope geometry, earthq... more The relationship of the amplification of vibration on the surface with the slope geometry, earthquake input signal (mainly frequency of the wave) and the material property of the slope is studied using the finite difference program FLAC. A sinusoidal wave with acceleration of 1 m/s2 is applied for the duration of 0.25 sec. The influence of varying input frequency is investigated applying the frequencies in the range of 3 Hz to 15 Hz. The variation of amplification due to the change in shear modulus of the material in the slope and that due to slope height is also investigated. It is found that the crests of the higher slopes are amplified most by the lower input frequency and smaller slopes are amplified most by the higher input frequency. The overall magnitude of the amplification is maximum for smaller slopes when input signals of higher frequency are applied. The generation of standing waves at certain harmonic frequencies could be the reason behind such a high amplification. It ...
The Siwalik zone of the Nepal Himalaya is highly sensitive to landslides. The study of landslides... more The Siwalik zone of the Nepal Himalaya is highly sensitive to landslides. The study of landslides in the catchment scale gives the basic concept of the overall landslides of the typical zone. In this study, the decadal evolution trend of the four largest landslides of the Babai River watershed was evaluated. The Landsat, Sentinel-2, and Google Earth imageries were used to obtain the physical data of the landslide from 2010 to 2019. The area, total length, and width of scar toe, and the body of landslides were obtained from the images. The rainfall data of two stations was used to evaluate the role of rainfall in the landslide development and evolution process. The trend of rainfall and area of landslides was not the same but the development process of all four landslides was more or less similar. The area of landslides fluctuated till 2014 but suddenly increased after 2015. The landslide area was highest in 2017 and moderately changed in 2018 and 2019. The landslides showed dynamic ...
The present study focuses on the compositional analysis and phase relationship of soil mass and t... more The present study focuses on the compositional analysis and phase relationship of soil mass and their role to trigger landslides in the Babai River watershed, Siwalik zone of Nepal. A total of 76 landslides are selected for sampling and further analysis among 769 active landslides from the total study area. For the classification of soil, the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is adopted by using both the sieve and hydrometer analysis. The centered log-ratio (clr) and mean component fraction of sand, silt, and clay are obtained from the compositional analysis by using R and CoDapac v.2.02.21 software. Correlation of phase relationships like moisture content, unit weight, specific gravity, void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation of each soil samples are obtained. The results indicate that the degree of saturation is highly correlated with moisture content and void ratio but less correlated with the specific gravity and dry density. Furthermore, the highly correlated var...
Due to natural conditions or manmade actions, landslides have produced multiple human and economi... more Due to natural conditions or manmade actions, landslides have produced multiple human and economic losses (Fleming 1980, Guzzetti 2007). Earthquakes are one of the main triggering factors of landslides and rapidly changes of surface with generate landslides. Largest earthquakes have capable to trigger thousands of landslides throughout areas of more than 100,000 km2 (Keefer, 1984). Earthquake induced landslides have been documented from at least as early as 1789 BC in China (Hansen and Franks, 1991) and 372 BC in Greece (Seed, 1968). The first scientific identification of earthquake induced landslides and their systematic documentation was undertaken in the Calabria region of Italy after the 1783 earthquake swarm and first basic inventory for earthquake induced landslides accomplished in 1957 for Daly City after the California earthquake (Keefer, 1994). On the other hand the first large inventory attempt done by Harp et al. in 1981 for Ms 7.5 Guatemala earthquake (1976). According t...
Global warming leading to climate change is a rapidly growing global threat to humanity and envir... more Global warming leading to climate change is a rapidly growing global threat to humanity and environment of the world. The present research in the Langtang Valley, Central Nepal attempts to find out the impact of climate change on glacier retreat and local community based on the studies of available long-term hydrological-meteorological data, satellite image analysis of glaciers from 1979 to 2009, and observation of local people and their experience on climate change issues. The high altitude areas of the Langtang Valley show a consistent trend of increase in temperature, a clear evidence of the global warming that has resulted in the fast melting of glaciers with both horizontal and vertical retreats . The Lirung Glacier and the Kimjung Glacier have retreated for over 900 metre and 400 metre, respectively, with an average retreat of about 40 metre/year and total vertical retreat in the snout position is 100 metre for both. The study also reveals that this glacier retreat is due to a...
This book entitled “Impact of Climate Change and Adaptation Practices in Central Nepal: A case of... more This book entitled “Impact of Climate Change and Adaptation Practices in Central Nepal: A case of Salyantar” has tried to depict the status of climate change, its impact and adaptation strategies of the local people to cope with it especially in the sector of water resources. With the view of assessing the impacts and identifying adaptation means, people’s perception was studied through Participatory Rural Appraisal tools which was supplemented by scientific means where appropriate. The meteorological data was analysed followed by the Mann-Kendall Test to assign the statistical significance to the trend. Present scenario of water resources was found by discharge and water level measurement along with the analysis of landsat images for last three decades. Similarly, temperature vegetation dryness index and laboratory analysis of soil samples was used to identify soil moisture. The research revealed that the study area, which was already stuck in the grip of water stress because of it...
Topographical, geological and hydrological attributes of mountainous region play significant role... more Topographical, geological and hydrological attributes of mountainous region play significant role for landslide occurrence. In this study, the spatial and temporal behaviors of landslides in the Siwalik zone of Babai watershed are evaluated on the basis of topographical, geological and hydrological attributes. For this work, polygon based landslide spatial inventory and spatio-temporal inventory from the years 2010 to 2019 were prepared by using Santeniel-2, USGS and temporal series of Google earth images. Further analysis of landslides including the numbers, area and other geometrical parameters were carried out using Q-GIS. The geological map prepared by the Department of Mines and Geology of Nepal government was referred and validated from the field. The precipitation data was obtained from department of hydrology and meteorology, Government of Nepal. The state of activity of landslides was evaluated in different geological formations in temporal basis. The result shows that the landslides in study area are highly dynamic in nature showing reactivation, expansion and even self stabilization in some parts. The new and active landslides are identified every year in every geological formation since a decade. It is also found that the hanging wall of the thrust zone is more sensitive for the distribution of medium to large scale landslides. The total annual rainfall shows positive correlation with the landslide frequency. The study will be useful for the researchers and policy makers to understand landslide mechanics and to manage the safe settlements in the area.
As a youngest Mountain of the world, Siwalik region of Nepal is facing several mass movements lik... more As a youngest Mountain of the world, Siwalik region of Nepal is facing several mass movements like landslide and debris flow in monsoon period every year. Debris flow is very common in the steep slope of weak and fragile sedimentary rocks. This paper used remote sensing data and GIS to evaluate evolutional characteristics of debris flow hazard in the Siwalik hill of Babai watershed based on the geological, topographical and hydrological factors. All together 101 debris flow polygons were made by using Google Earth and by field verification. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was used to analyze debris flow distribution and topographical features. Lithostratigraphy was studied to evaluate geological characters and rainfall data was used to evaluate hydrological character. Average slope for debris flow evolution in Lower, Middle and Upper Siwalik is 34˚, 50˚ and 30˚ respectively. The average 24 hours rainfall to occur debris flow is found 160.67 mm. The area and length of debris flow channel are significantly different in three geological formations. The temporal distribution of debris flow from 2001 to 2018 shows that the trend of debris flow generation is higher in Middle Siwalik rocks with slope greater than 30˚. Three major sources of debris flows were evaluated namely slide induced debris flow, fall induced debris flow and erosion induced debris flow where the slide induced debris flow is predominant. This study can be better source to understand the general mechanism of debris flow generation to the policy makers for reducing the future impact of debris flow in the overall Siwalik zone of Nepal.
Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette fl... more Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette flow apparatus. The device is capable of generating particulate flows at different shearing rates and solid fractions. Mono size plastic disks are sheared across an annular test-section for several shear rates. Motion of particles is recorded through high speed digital camera and analyzed by image processing techniques. The average and fluctuation velocity profiles are obtained and granular temperature relations with shear rate are investigated. Average streaming velocity across the shear cell decays slightly faster than exponential, and is rather Gaussian when not too close to the wall. Fluctuation velocities and granular temperature across the shear cell are related to effective shear rate. Interparticle collisions are estimated from the particle trajectories and probability distribution of collision angles obtained from particle collision data. In dense flows, three peaks of collision angles are observed which signal the onset of triangular structure formulation and cause crystallization. It is found that the distribution of collision angles is anisotropic. CE Database subject headings: Couette flows; Flow properties; Granular temperature; Interparticle collisions
Undergoing mountain building process, unstable steep slopes, weak geological formations, severe c... more Undergoing mountain building process, unstable steep slopes, weak geological formations, severe climate change impact along with heavy monsoon rainfall make Nepal one of the most hazardous countries in the world that can easily turned into disaster. In Nepal, generally the disasters are brought by different hazards like epidemics; landslides, floods, earthquake, fire, thunderstorm and accident. These disasters are sometimes triggered by natural causes but in many cases they are triggered by human induced factors. In both the cases, people; community, country and sometimes the entire world have to face severe loss, damage and hardship. Since, disasters are complex phenomena with life threatening consequences; the widely accepted norms and provisions of human rights can be easily violated unless the proper research, planning and other endeavors are kept intact. It is the responsibility of the individuals, concerned authorities and the state to ensure the principles, norms, provisions and guidelines of human rights to be followed and implemented in any situations. This paper reviews the human rights principles, norms, provisions and guidelines that should be followed in disaster management cycle and quickly evaluate the human rights situations during few recent disasters in Nepal.
Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette fl... more Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette flow apparatus. The device is capable of generating particulate flows at different shearing rates and solid fractions. Monosize plastic disks are sheared across an annular test section for ...
Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette fl... more Micromechanics of rapid granular flows is studied in a two-dimensional planar granular Couette flow apparatus. The device is capable of generating particulate flows at different shearing rates and solid fractions. Mono size plastic disks are sheared across an annular test-section for several shear rates. Motion of particles is recorded through high speed digital camera and analyzed by image processing techniques. The average and fluctuation velocity profiles are obtained and granular temperature relations with shear rate are investigated. Average streaming velocity across the shear cell decays slightly faster than exponential, and is rather Gaussian when not too close to the wall. Fluctuation velocities and granular temperature across the shear cell are related to effective shear rate. Interparticle collisions are estimated from the particle trajectories and probability distribution of collision angles obtained from particle collision data. In dense flows, three peaks of collision a...
Landslide is the one of the natural hazards that occurs frequently in the Nepal Himalaya causing ... more Landslide is the one of the natural hazards that occurs frequently in the Nepal Himalaya causing huge loss of life and property every year especially during rainy season. Landslides occurred in the Sindhupal chowk District, Jure (2 August 2014), along the road corridor of Araniko Highway blocked Sunkoshi River resulting loss of 156 lives, damaged road section and huge property loss. Due to the weak geological condition, rapid developmental activities and other inherent natural conditions, Barhabise area of Sindhupal chowk District has been exposed to landslide hazard. Therefore, present study concentrates on landslide susceptibility mapping of the area along the road corridor of the Araniko Highway about 30 km from Bandeu to Barhabise, Sindhupal chowk District by using Arc GIS 10.3. Statistical index method was used to prepare the landslide susceptibility maps. The causative factors considered for the study were elevation, slope angle, slope aspect, geology, distance from drainage, ...
Sub-Himalayan zone also called Siwalik is located between the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) at north... more Sub-Himalayan zone also called Siwalik is located between the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) at north and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) at south. As a consequence of lithospheric plate dynamic between the Indian and Tibetan plate, the young and fragile sedimentary rock of the Siwaliks area are highly weathered and highly deformed. The Siwaliks range is made up of geologically very young sedimentary rocks such as mudstones, shale, sandstones, siltstones and conglomerates, due to such young and weak geological condition, trend of occurring different types of landslide is higher in the Siwaliks zone. Present study was conducted in Babai Khola watershed of Mid-Western Nepal to find the landslide distribution in different geological formations and to identify the lithistratigraphic control for landslide occurrence. Landslide inventory map was prepared by using Google Earth pro, 2017 and Arc. GIS 10.3, and it was verified by several field survey. Geological map was prepared in the field by de...
The relationship of the amplification of vibration on the surface with the slope geometry, earthq... more The relationship of the amplification of vibration on the surface with the slope geometry, earthquake input signal (mainly frequency of the wave) and the material property of the slope is studied using the finite difference program FLAC. A sinusoidal wave with acceleration of 1 m/s2 is applied for the duration of 0.25 sec. The influence of varying input frequency is investigated applying the frequencies in the range of 3 Hz to 15 Hz. The variation of amplification due to the change in shear modulus of the material in the slope and that due to slope height is also investigated. It is found that the crests of the higher slopes are amplified most by the lower input frequency and smaller slopes are amplified most by the higher input frequency. The overall magnitude of the amplification is maximum for smaller slopes when input signals of higher frequency are applied. The generation of standing waves at certain harmonic frequencies could be the reason behind such a high amplification. It ...
The Siwalik zone of the Nepal Himalaya is highly sensitive to landslides. The study of landslides... more The Siwalik zone of the Nepal Himalaya is highly sensitive to landslides. The study of landslides in the catchment scale gives the basic concept of the overall landslides of the typical zone. In this study, the decadal evolution trend of the four largest landslides of the Babai River watershed was evaluated. The Landsat, Sentinel-2, and Google Earth imageries were used to obtain the physical data of the landslide from 2010 to 2019. The area, total length, and width of scar toe, and the body of landslides were obtained from the images. The rainfall data of two stations was used to evaluate the role of rainfall in the landslide development and evolution process. The trend of rainfall and area of landslides was not the same but the development process of all four landslides was more or less similar. The area of landslides fluctuated till 2014 but suddenly increased after 2015. The landslide area was highest in 2017 and moderately changed in 2018 and 2019. The landslides showed dynamic ...
The present study focuses on the compositional analysis and phase relationship of soil mass and t... more The present study focuses on the compositional analysis and phase relationship of soil mass and their role to trigger landslides in the Babai River watershed, Siwalik zone of Nepal. A total of 76 landslides are selected for sampling and further analysis among 769 active landslides from the total study area. For the classification of soil, the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) is adopted by using both the sieve and hydrometer analysis. The centered log-ratio (clr) and mean component fraction of sand, silt, and clay are obtained from the compositional analysis by using R and CoDapac v.2.02.21 software. Correlation of phase relationships like moisture content, unit weight, specific gravity, void ratio, porosity, and degree of saturation of each soil samples are obtained. The results indicate that the degree of saturation is highly correlated with moisture content and void ratio but less correlated with the specific gravity and dry density. Furthermore, the highly correlated var...
Due to natural conditions or manmade actions, landslides have produced multiple human and economi... more Due to natural conditions or manmade actions, landslides have produced multiple human and economic losses (Fleming 1980, Guzzetti 2007). Earthquakes are one of the main triggering factors of landslides and rapidly changes of surface with generate landslides. Largest earthquakes have capable to trigger thousands of landslides throughout areas of more than 100,000 km2 (Keefer, 1984). Earthquake induced landslides have been documented from at least as early as 1789 BC in China (Hansen and Franks, 1991) and 372 BC in Greece (Seed, 1968). The first scientific identification of earthquake induced landslides and their systematic documentation was undertaken in the Calabria region of Italy after the 1783 earthquake swarm and first basic inventory for earthquake induced landslides accomplished in 1957 for Daly City after the California earthquake (Keefer, 1994). On the other hand the first large inventory attempt done by Harp et al. in 1981 for Ms 7.5 Guatemala earthquake (1976). According t...
Global warming leading to climate change is a rapidly growing global threat to humanity and envir... more Global warming leading to climate change is a rapidly growing global threat to humanity and environment of the world. The present research in the Langtang Valley, Central Nepal attempts to find out the impact of climate change on glacier retreat and local community based on the studies of available long-term hydrological-meteorological data, satellite image analysis of glaciers from 1979 to 2009, and observation of local people and their experience on climate change issues. The high altitude areas of the Langtang Valley show a consistent trend of increase in temperature, a clear evidence of the global warming that has resulted in the fast melting of glaciers with both horizontal and vertical retreats . The Lirung Glacier and the Kimjung Glacier have retreated for over 900 metre and 400 metre, respectively, with an average retreat of about 40 metre/year and total vertical retreat in the snout position is 100 metre for both. The study also reveals that this glacier retreat is due to a...
This book entitled “Impact of Climate Change and Adaptation Practices in Central Nepal: A case of... more This book entitled “Impact of Climate Change and Adaptation Practices in Central Nepal: A case of Salyantar” has tried to depict the status of climate change, its impact and adaptation strategies of the local people to cope with it especially in the sector of water resources. With the view of assessing the impacts and identifying adaptation means, people’s perception was studied through Participatory Rural Appraisal tools which was supplemented by scientific means where appropriate. The meteorological data was analysed followed by the Mann-Kendall Test to assign the statistical significance to the trend. Present scenario of water resources was found by discharge and water level measurement along with the analysis of landsat images for last three decades. Similarly, temperature vegetation dryness index and laboratory analysis of soil samples was used to identify soil moisture. The research revealed that the study area, which was already stuck in the grip of water stress because of it...
Topographical, geological and hydrological attributes of mountainous region play significant role... more Topographical, geological and hydrological attributes of mountainous region play significant role for landslide occurrence. In this study, the spatial and temporal behaviors of landslides in the Siwalik zone of Babai watershed are evaluated on the basis of topographical, geological and hydrological attributes. For this work, polygon based landslide spatial inventory and spatio-temporal inventory from the years 2010 to 2019 were prepared by using Santeniel-2, USGS and temporal series of Google earth images. Further analysis of landslides including the numbers, area and other geometrical parameters were carried out using Q-GIS. The geological map prepared by the Department of Mines and Geology of Nepal government was referred and validated from the field. The precipitation data was obtained from department of hydrology and meteorology, Government of Nepal. The state of activity of landslides was evaluated in different geological formations in temporal basis. The result shows that the landslides in study area are highly dynamic in nature showing reactivation, expansion and even self stabilization in some parts. The new and active landslides are identified every year in every geological formation since a decade. It is also found that the hanging wall of the thrust zone is more sensitive for the distribution of medium to large scale landslides. The total annual rainfall shows positive correlation with the landslide frequency. The study will be useful for the researchers and policy makers to understand landslide mechanics and to manage the safe settlements in the area.
As a youngest Mountain of the world, Siwalik region of Nepal is facing several mass movements lik... more As a youngest Mountain of the world, Siwalik region of Nepal is facing several mass movements like landslide and debris flow in monsoon period every year. Debris flow is very common in the steep slope of weak and fragile sedimentary rocks. This paper used remote sensing data and GIS to evaluate evolutional characteristics of debris flow hazard in the Siwalik hill of Babai watershed based on the geological, topographical and hydrological factors. All together 101 debris flow polygons were made by using Google Earth and by field verification. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) was used to analyze debris flow distribution and topographical features. Lithostratigraphy was studied to evaluate geological characters and rainfall data was used to evaluate hydrological character. Average slope for debris flow evolution in Lower, Middle and Upper Siwalik is 34˚, 50˚ and 30˚ respectively. The average 24 hours rainfall to occur debris flow is found 160.67 mm. The area and length of debris flow channel are significantly different in three geological formations. The temporal distribution of debris flow from 2001 to 2018 shows that the trend of debris flow generation is higher in Middle Siwalik rocks with slope greater than 30˚. Three major sources of debris flows were evaluated namely slide induced debris flow, fall induced debris flow and erosion induced debris flow where the slide induced debris flow is predominant. This study can be better source to understand the general mechanism of debris flow generation to the policy makers for reducing the future impact of debris flow in the overall Siwalik zone of Nepal.
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