Identity is a critical developmental task during the transition to adulthood in Western societies... more Identity is a critical developmental task during the transition to adulthood in Western societies. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate an empirically based, cluster-analytic identity status model, to examine whether all four of Marcia's identity statuses (diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement) would emerge empirically, and to identify different patterns of identity formation among American college-attending emerging adults. An ethnically diverse sample of 9,034 emerging-adult students (73% female; mean age 19.73 years) from 30 U.S. universities completed measures of identity exploration (ruminative, in breadth, and in depth) and commitment (commitment making and identification with commitment), identity synthesis and confusion, positive and negative psychosocial functioning, and health-compromising behaviors. The identity status cluster solution that emerged provided an adequate fit to the data and included all four of Marcia's original identity ...
This study represents an investigation of relationships among three sets of identity constructs, ... more This study represents an investigation of relationships among three sets of identity constructs, including the ego identity statuses, the identity styles, and personal expressiveness. The Ego Identity Process Questionnaire was used to assess identity status as conceptualized by J. E. Marcia. The Identity Style Inventory was used to assess identity style as conceptualized by M. D. Berzonsky. The Personally Expressive Activities Questionnaire was used to measure feelings of personal expressiveness as described by A. S. Waterman. Data were collected from two samples of students at two universities. The measures were considered in pairs to examine the convergence among the constructs. Results revealed that these three measures, and perhaps the underlying constructs, are convergent. Associations between measures are discussed in relation to previous research and theory.
The relationship between the fields of humanistic and positive psychology has been marked by cont... more The relationship between the fields of humanistic and positive psychology has been marked by continued tension and ambivalence. This tension can be traced to extensive differences in the philosophical grounding characterizing the two perspectives within psychology. These differences exist with respect to (a) ontology, including the ways in which human nature is conceptualized regarding human potentials and well-being; (b) epistemology, specifically, the choice of research strategies for the empirical study of these concepts; and (c) practical philosophy, particularly the goals and strategies adopted when conducting therapy or undertaking counseling interventions. Because of this philosophical divide, adherents of the two perspectives may best be advised to pursue separately their shared desire to understand and promote human potentials and well-being.
Jorunal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1993
Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia and hedonic enjoyment constitute 2 philosophical conceptions of... more Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia and hedonic enjoyment constitute 2 philosophical conceptions of happiness. Two studies involving combined samples of undergraduate and graduate students (Study 1, N = 209; Study 2, N = 249) were undertaken to identify the convergent and divergent aspects of these constructs. As expected, there was a strong positive correlation between personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Analyses revealed significant differences between the 2 conceptions of happiness experienced in conjunction with activities for the variables of (a) opportunities for satisfaction, (b) strength of cognitive-affective components, (c) level of challenges, (d) level of skills, and (e) importance. It thus appears that the 2 conceptions of happiness are related but distinguishable and that personal expressiveness, but not hedonic enjoyment, is a signifier of success in the process of self-realization.
Ego identity status interviews were conducted with 53 male college seniors who had participated i... more Ego identity status interviews were conducted with 53 male college seniors who had participated in a previous study of identity development during the freshman year. As hypothesized, significant increases in the frequency of students in the identity achiever status were observed for both occupational and ideological identity. Also, as predicted, the achiever status was found to be the most stable status from the end of the freshman year to the senior year, while the moratorium status was the least stable. While the general developmental trend was positive, a substantial proportion of the subjects were completing their college years in the identity diffusion status.
The distinction between hedonic enjoyment and eudaimonia was evaluated in three data sets involvi... more The distinction between hedonic enjoyment and eudaimonia was evaluated in three data sets involving use of the Personally Expressive Activities Questionnaire-Standard Form (PEAQ-S) with college student samples (n > 200 in each sample). Indices of these two conceptions of happiness were strongly and reliably related across the three samples. Differences between these two conceptions of happiness were evaluated in two ways. First, we examined and compared correlations of hedonic enjoyment and eudaimonia with variables related to intrinsic motivation. Zero-order correlations involving hedonic enjoyment were significantly stronger with respect to measures of self-determination and interest than were the corresponding correlations involving feelings of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia). In contrast, correlations involving eudaimonia were significantly stronger with measures of the balance of challenges and skills, self-realization values, effort, and importance than were the corresponding correlations with hedonic enjoyment. Second, we empirically distinguished between activities for which both hedonic enjoyment and eudaimonia are present (intrinsically motivated activities) and activities for which hedonic enjoyment alone is present (hedonically enjoyed activities). Intrinsically motivated activities were judged to be significantly higher with respect to measures of the balance of challenges and skills, self-realization values, effort, importance, interest, and flow experiences. No differences between the two categories of activities were found for self-determination and the frequency with which activities were performed. Given these distinguishable patterns in the two conceptions of happiness, a reconceptualization for the understanding of intrinsic motivation is proposed.
... Adolescent identity formation. Waterman, Alan S. Adams, Gerald R. (Ed); Gullotta, Thomas P. (... more ... Adolescent identity formation. Waterman, Alan S. Adams, Gerald R. (Ed); Gullotta, Thomas P. (Ed); Montemayor, Raymond (Ed), (1992). Adolescent identity formation, Advances in adolescent development, Vol. 4 (pp. 50-72). ...
Since the publication of the Coleman Report , educators and advocates have searched for ways to d... more Since the publication of the Coleman Report , educators and advocates have searched for ways to demonstrate that good urban schools could make a difference, in spite of the overwhelming odds facing them and their students. This seminal report, it should be recalled, marshalled considerable evidence demonstrating that family and social factors, rather than educational inputs, were largely responsible for students' ultimate success or failure.
The value system of individualism underlying many contemporary psychological theories has been cr... more The value system of individualism underlying many contemporary psychological theories has been criticized on grounds that it is antithetical to social interdependence. The critics have developed a philosophical analysis that links individualism to unscrupulous competition, atomistic self-containment, and alienation. In contrast, the principles espoused by the proponents of individualism in psychology are derived from a philosophical orientation defined by eudaimonisrn, freedom of choice, personal responsibility, and ethical universality. Within this framework, the holding of individualistic values is hypothesized to facilitate, not inhibit, helping, cooperation, and other prosocial behaviors. A review of the research literature provides extensive support for this hypothesis.
SECOND ANNUAL EEPOET. The Board of Regents of the Minnesota State University herewith submit to t... more SECOND ANNUAL EEPOET. The Board of Regents of the Minnesota State University herewith submit to the Legislature their SECOND ANNUAL EEPOET. In accordance with a resolution of the Board, the First Annual Report, submitted to the Legislature at its session in 1861, was ...
Those aspects of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development concerning the formation of a sense... more Those aspects of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development concerning the formation of a sense of personal identity are examined in light of research evidence. When the Stage 5 component is considered as a bipolar dimension, the expectation is that the transition from adolescence to adulthood involves a progressive strengthening in the sense of identity. When the identity construct is expanded to include the processes by which an identity is formed, it is hypothesized that over time there will be progressive developmental shifts in identity status, that is, from the identity diffusion status into either the foreclosure or moratorium status, from the foreclosure into the moratorium status, and from the moratorium into the identity achievement status. The circumstances associated with progressive shifts, regressive changes, and reentry into an identity crisis are discussed. The review of the literature focuses on questions of the direction and timing of identity development, sex differences in development, and the identification of antecedent conditions relating to the choice of developmental pathways.
Identity is a critical developmental task during the transition to adulthood in Western societies... more Identity is a critical developmental task during the transition to adulthood in Western societies. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate an empirically based, cluster-analytic identity status model, to examine whether all four of Marcia's identity statuses (diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, and achievement) would emerge empirically, and to identify different patterns of identity formation among American college-attending emerging adults. An ethnically diverse sample of 9,034 emerging-adult students (73% female; mean age 19.73 years) from 30 U.S. universities completed measures of identity exploration (ruminative, in breadth, and in depth) and commitment (commitment making and identification with commitment), identity synthesis and confusion, positive and negative psychosocial functioning, and health-compromising behaviors. The identity status cluster solution that emerged provided an adequate fit to the data and included all four of Marcia's original identity ...
This study represents an investigation of relationships among three sets of identity constructs, ... more This study represents an investigation of relationships among three sets of identity constructs, including the ego identity statuses, the identity styles, and personal expressiveness. The Ego Identity Process Questionnaire was used to assess identity status as conceptualized by J. E. Marcia. The Identity Style Inventory was used to assess identity style as conceptualized by M. D. Berzonsky. The Personally Expressive Activities Questionnaire was used to measure feelings of personal expressiveness as described by A. S. Waterman. Data were collected from two samples of students at two universities. The measures were considered in pairs to examine the convergence among the constructs. Results revealed that these three measures, and perhaps the underlying constructs, are convergent. Associations between measures are discussed in relation to previous research and theory.
The relationship between the fields of humanistic and positive psychology has been marked by cont... more The relationship between the fields of humanistic and positive psychology has been marked by continued tension and ambivalence. This tension can be traced to extensive differences in the philosophical grounding characterizing the two perspectives within psychology. These differences exist with respect to (a) ontology, including the ways in which human nature is conceptualized regarding human potentials and well-being; (b) epistemology, specifically, the choice of research strategies for the empirical study of these concepts; and (c) practical philosophy, particularly the goals and strategies adopted when conducting therapy or undertaking counseling interventions. Because of this philosophical divide, adherents of the two perspectives may best be advised to pursue separately their shared desire to understand and promote human potentials and well-being.
Jorunal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1993
Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia and hedonic enjoyment constitute 2 philosophical conceptions of... more Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia and hedonic enjoyment constitute 2 philosophical conceptions of happiness. Two studies involving combined samples of undergraduate and graduate students (Study 1, N = 209; Study 2, N = 249) were undertaken to identify the convergent and divergent aspects of these constructs. As expected, there was a strong positive correlation between personal expressiveness (eudaimonia) and hedonic enjoyment. Analyses revealed significant differences between the 2 conceptions of happiness experienced in conjunction with activities for the variables of (a) opportunities for satisfaction, (b) strength of cognitive-affective components, (c) level of challenges, (d) level of skills, and (e) importance. It thus appears that the 2 conceptions of happiness are related but distinguishable and that personal expressiveness, but not hedonic enjoyment, is a signifier of success in the process of self-realization.
Ego identity status interviews were conducted with 53 male college seniors who had participated i... more Ego identity status interviews were conducted with 53 male college seniors who had participated in a previous study of identity development during the freshman year. As hypothesized, significant increases in the frequency of students in the identity achiever status were observed for both occupational and ideological identity. Also, as predicted, the achiever status was found to be the most stable status from the end of the freshman year to the senior year, while the moratorium status was the least stable. While the general developmental trend was positive, a substantial proportion of the subjects were completing their college years in the identity diffusion status.
The distinction between hedonic enjoyment and eudaimonia was evaluated in three data sets involvi... more The distinction between hedonic enjoyment and eudaimonia was evaluated in three data sets involving use of the Personally Expressive Activities Questionnaire-Standard Form (PEAQ-S) with college student samples (n > 200 in each sample). Indices of these two conceptions of happiness were strongly and reliably related across the three samples. Differences between these two conceptions of happiness were evaluated in two ways. First, we examined and compared correlations of hedonic enjoyment and eudaimonia with variables related to intrinsic motivation. Zero-order correlations involving hedonic enjoyment were significantly stronger with respect to measures of self-determination and interest than were the corresponding correlations involving feelings of personal expressiveness (eudaimonia). In contrast, correlations involving eudaimonia were significantly stronger with measures of the balance of challenges and skills, self-realization values, effort, and importance than were the corresponding correlations with hedonic enjoyment. Second, we empirically distinguished between activities for which both hedonic enjoyment and eudaimonia are present (intrinsically motivated activities) and activities for which hedonic enjoyment alone is present (hedonically enjoyed activities). Intrinsically motivated activities were judged to be significantly higher with respect to measures of the balance of challenges and skills, self-realization values, effort, importance, interest, and flow experiences. No differences between the two categories of activities were found for self-determination and the frequency with which activities were performed. Given these distinguishable patterns in the two conceptions of happiness, a reconceptualization for the understanding of intrinsic motivation is proposed.
... Adolescent identity formation. Waterman, Alan S. Adams, Gerald R. (Ed); Gullotta, Thomas P. (... more ... Adolescent identity formation. Waterman, Alan S. Adams, Gerald R. (Ed); Gullotta, Thomas P. (Ed); Montemayor, Raymond (Ed), (1992). Adolescent identity formation, Advances in adolescent development, Vol. 4 (pp. 50-72). ...
Since the publication of the Coleman Report , educators and advocates have searched for ways to d... more Since the publication of the Coleman Report , educators and advocates have searched for ways to demonstrate that good urban schools could make a difference, in spite of the overwhelming odds facing them and their students. This seminal report, it should be recalled, marshalled considerable evidence demonstrating that family and social factors, rather than educational inputs, were largely responsible for students' ultimate success or failure.
The value system of individualism underlying many contemporary psychological theories has been cr... more The value system of individualism underlying many contemporary psychological theories has been criticized on grounds that it is antithetical to social interdependence. The critics have developed a philosophical analysis that links individualism to unscrupulous competition, atomistic self-containment, and alienation. In contrast, the principles espoused by the proponents of individualism in psychology are derived from a philosophical orientation defined by eudaimonisrn, freedom of choice, personal responsibility, and ethical universality. Within this framework, the holding of individualistic values is hypothesized to facilitate, not inhibit, helping, cooperation, and other prosocial behaviors. A review of the research literature provides extensive support for this hypothesis.
SECOND ANNUAL EEPOET. The Board of Regents of the Minnesota State University herewith submit to t... more SECOND ANNUAL EEPOET. The Board of Regents of the Minnesota State University herewith submit to the Legislature their SECOND ANNUAL EEPOET. In accordance with a resolution of the Board, the First Annual Report, submitted to the Legislature at its session in 1861, was ...
Those aspects of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development concerning the formation of a sense... more Those aspects of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development concerning the formation of a sense of personal identity are examined in light of research evidence. When the Stage 5 component is considered as a bipolar dimension, the expectation is that the transition from adolescence to adulthood involves a progressive strengthening in the sense of identity. When the identity construct is expanded to include the processes by which an identity is formed, it is hypothesized that over time there will be progressive developmental shifts in identity status, that is, from the identity diffusion status into either the foreclosure or moratorium status, from the foreclosure into the moratorium status, and from the moratorium into the identity achievement status. The circumstances associated with progressive shifts, regressive changes, and reentry into an identity crisis are discussed. The review of the literature focuses on questions of the direction and timing of identity development, sex differences in development, and the identification of antecedent conditions relating to the choice of developmental pathways.
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Papers by Alan Waterman