Viscous Flow in Ducts
Viscous Flow in Ducts
Viscous Flow in Ducts
Escoamento Multifásico
ii. Em fluxo turbulento, a mistura intensa durante flutuações aleatórias geralmente ofusca os
efeitos da difusão molecular. O comprimento de entrada hidrodinâmico para fluxo turbulento
pode ser aproximado como:
Entrance region
Balanço de forças de um diagrama de corpo livre através de um fluxo de tubo
totalmente desenvolvido .
Balanço de forças de um diagrama de corpo livre em
um escoamento de tubo totalmente desenvolvido.
Esta é uma forma conveniente para o perfil de velocidade, já que V avg pode ser
facilmente determinado a partir das informações da taxa de fluxo. A velocidade
máxima ocorre na linha central e é determinada a partir da equação acima
substituindo r = 0,
Uma vez que a perda de pressão (ou perda de carga) é conhecida, a potência
de bombeamento necessária para superar a perda de pressão é determinada a
partir de
1-D Energy Equation
Volume flow rate
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
Fluxo turbulento e Rugosidade de tubos
Tanto fluxos laminar quanto turbulento satisfazem a equação acima para fluxo laminar,
onde não há flutuações aleatórias
Reynolds’ Time-Averaging
Para o fluxo turbulento, por causa das flutuações, cada termo de velocidade e pressão nas
equações acima é uma função aleatória que varia rapidamente com o tempo e o espaço.
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
Nenhum par único de funções aleatórias V(x, y, z, t) e p(x, y, z, t) é conhecido por ser uma
solução para as equações de continuidade e momento. Além disso, nosso foco como
engenheiros está nos valores médios ou médias de velocidade, pressão, tensão de
cisalhamento, etc."
Let us rewrite the equations in terms of mean or time-averaged turbulent variables.
onde T é um período de média tomado para ser mais longo do que qualquer período
significativo das próprias flutuações. Os valores médios de velocidade turbulenta e
pressão são ilustrados na figura.
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
Nem em geral os produtos médios de flutuação como zero em um fluxo turbulento típico. A ideia de
Reynolds era dividir cada propriedade em média mais variáveis flutuantes.
Substitute these into the continuity equation and taking the time mean of each equation.
The continuity relation reduces to
No entanto, cada componente da equação do momento após a média temporal, conterá valores
médios mais três produtos médios, ou correlações, de velocidades flutuantes.
O mais importante destes é a relação de momento na corrente principal, ou direção x, que assume a
forma.
termos de tensão μ (∂ū/∂x), etc. Na verdade, eles são termos de aceleração convectiva (por isso a
densidade aparece), não tensões, mas eles têm o efeito matemático de tensão e são assim
denominados quase universalmente na literatura."
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
As tensões turbulentas são desconhecidas a priori e devem ser relacionadas por
experimento à geometria e condições de fluxo.
Typical velocity and shear distributions in turbulent flow near a wall: (a)
shear; (b) velocity.
Em fluxo de dutos e camada limite, a tensão -(ρu'v') associada com a direção y normal à
parede é dominante, e podemos aproximar com excelente precisão uma equação de
momento mais simples na direção do fluxo.
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
(Colebrook’s equation)
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
These experimental facts enable us to use a crude but very effective model for the velocity
distribution (y) across a turbulent wall layer.
We have seen in above figure that there are three regions in turbulent flow near a wall:
1. Wall layer: Viscous shear dominates.
2. Outer layer: Turbulent shear dominates.
3. Overlap layer: Both types of shear are important.
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
De agora em diante, vamos concordar em omitir a linha sobre a velocidade uˉ. Deixe τwser a tensão de cisalhamento
na parede, e deixe δ e U representarem a espessura e a velocidade na borda da camada externa y=δ.
Para a camada da parede, Prandtl deduziu em 1930 que u deve ser independente da espessura da camada de
cisalhamento."
This Equation is called the law of the wall, and the quantity u* is termed the friction
velocity because it has dimensions {LT -1}, although it is not actually a flow velocity.
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
Subsequently, Kármán in 1933 deduced that u in the outer layer is independent of
molecular viscosity, but its deviation from the stream velocity U must depend on the
layer thickness δ and the other properties.
where u* has the same meaning for both Equations and the last equation is called the
velocity-defect law for the outer layer.
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
Both the wall law and the defect law are found to be accurate for a wide variety of
experimental turbulent duct and boundary-layer flows.
They are different in form, yet they must overlap smoothly in the intermediate layer.
In 1937 C. B. Millikan showed that this can be true only if the overlap-layer velocity varies
logarithmically with y:
Over the full range of turbulent smooth wall flows, the dimensionless constants k and B
are found to have the approximate values k= 0.41 and B= 5.0. This equation is called the
logarithmic-overlap layer.
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
reduces to
The dimensionless parameter f is called the Darcy friction factor, after Henry Darcy. we
obtain the desired expression for finding pipe head loss
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
Turbulent Flow Solution
For turbulent pipe flow we need not solve a differential equation but instead proceed
with the logarithmic law. Correlates the local mean velocity u(r) all the way across the pipe
(1)
where we have replaced y by R-r. Compute the average velocity from this profile
we obtain, numerically,
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
Turbulent Flow Solution
This looks only marginally interesting until we realize that V/u* is directly related to
the Darcy friction factor
(2)
(3)
Introducing (3) and (2) into Eq. (1), changing to a base-10 logarithm, and rearranging,
we obtain
Turbulent flow and Roughness of pipes
Turbulent Flow Solution
Introducing Q=
Rougt1ness. e
Materia ft
s/D =
f 0.001
l lass,
G mm
O (smooth)
-¡........ s/ D =
........
1 plastíc 0 .003- 0.03 0.9- 9
_. , Concrete 0.00 16 0.5
0.0001 Wood stave
Rulbber, 0 .000033 0 .01
smoott1ed
Copper or
brass tubíng 0.000005 0.0015
Cast iron 0.00085 0.26
Galvanized
iron 0.0005 0.15
Wrought iron 0.00015 0.046
Staínless stee 0.000007 0.002
l
Commerci 0.00015 0.045
O.001 .--.....:............;.. :-......;_ _ ;,... ,;, _ _,;, ...; al steel
* The uncertainty in t hese val ues can be as
. 10 much
104 105 106 107 as 6 0 percent
3 R
108
e
Laminar flow in non-circular pipes
Piping network in an industrial
facility
Minor losses
O fluido em um sistema típico de tubulação passa por diversos acessórios, válvulas,
curvas, cotovelos, tees, entradas, saídas, ampliações e contrações além dos tubos.
Em um sistema típico com tubos longos, essas perdas são menores em comparação com a
perda total de carga nos tubos (as perdas maiores) e são chamadas de perdas menores.
Embora isso geralmente seja verdade, em alguns casos as perdas menores podem ser
maiores que as perdas maiores. Isso ocorre, por exemplo, em sistemas com várias curvas e
válvulas em uma curta distância.
A perda de carga introduzida por uma válvula completamente aberta, por exemplo, pode
ser desprezível. Mas uma válvula parcialmente fechada pode causar a maior perda de
carga no sistema, como evidenciado pela queda na taxa de fluxo.
Minor losses are also expressed in terms of the equivalent length L equiv, defined as
Minor losses
Entrance loss
Other minor losses
K factors
K factors (cont)
Problem
Problem
Instruments
Thermal (Hot-Wire and Hot-Film) Anemometers
A thermal anemometer is called a hot-wire anemometer if the sensing element is a wire, and a hot-
film anemometer if the sensor is a thin metallic film (less than 0.1μm thick) mounted usually on a
relatively thick ceramic support having a diameter of about 50 μm. The hot-wire anemometer is
characterized by its very small sensor wire—usually a few microns in diameter and a couple of
millimeters in length. The sensor is usually made of latinum, tungsten, or platinum–iridium alloys, and
it is attached to the probe through holders. The fine wire sensor of a hot-wire anemometer is very
fragile because of its small size and can easily break if the liquid or gas contains excessive amounts of
contaminants or particulate matter.
Instruments
Thermal (Hot-Wire and Hot-Film) Anemometers
The operating principle of a constant-temperature nemometer (CTA), which is the most common type
and is shown schematically in below figure, is as follows: the sensor is electrically heated to a specified
temperature (typically about 200°C). The sensor tends to cool as it loses heat to the surrounding
flowing fluid, but electronic controls maintain the sensor at a constant temperature by varying the
electric current. The higher the flow velocity, the higher the rate of heat transfer from the sensor, and
thus the larger the voltage that needs to be applied across the sensor to maintain it at constant
temperature.
Instruments
Thermal (Hot-Wire and Hot-Film) Anemometers
The sensor is maintained at a constant temperature during operation, and thus its thermal energy
content remains constant. The conservation of energy principle requires that the electrical Joule
heating Welectrical = I2 Rw = E2/Rw of the sensor must be equal to the total rate of heat loss from the
sensor Q total, Using proper relations for forced convection, the energy balance can be expressed by
King’s law as where a, b and n are constants, they must calibrated by a probe
Instruments
Laser Doppler Velocimetry:
Laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV), also called laser velocimetry (LV) or laser Doppler
anemometry (LDA), is an optical technique to measure flow velocity at any desired point
without disturbing the flow.
The waves of the two laser beams that cross in the measurement volume are shown
schematically in above figure. The waves of the two beams interfere in the measurement
volume, creating a bright fringe where they are in phase and thus support each other, and
creating a dark fringe where they are out of phase and thus cancel each other.
Instruments
The bright and dark fringes form lines parallel to the midplane between the two incident
laser beams. Using trigonometry, the spacing s between the fringe lines, which can be
viewed as the wavelength of fringes, can be shown to be where λ is the
wavelength of the laser beam and α is the angle between the two laser beams.
When a particle traverses these fringe lines at velocity V, the frequency of the scattered
fringe lines is
Instruments
This fundamental relation shows the flow velocity to be proportional to the frequency and
is known as the LDV equation. As a particle passes through the measurement volume, the
reflected light is bright, then dark, then bright, etc., because of the fringe pattern, and the
flow velocity is determined by measuring the frequency of the reflected light. The velocity
profile at a cross section of a pipe can be obtained by mapping the flow across the pipe
Seed the flow with suitable particles in order to trace the fluid motion.
Then a pulse of laser light sheet illuminates a thin slice of the flow field at the desired plane, and
the positions of particles in that plane are determined by detecting the light scattered by particles
on a digital video or photographic camera positioned at right angles to the light sheet.
After a very short time period, the particles are illuminated again by a second pulse of laser light
sheet, and their new positions are recorded.
Instruments
END