Thoma Nagel - Uma Breve Introdução A Filosofia PDF
Thoma Nagel - Uma Breve Introdução A Filosofia PDF
Thoma Nagel - Uma Breve Introdução A Filosofia PDF
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Uma breve introdução
à filosofia
Thomas Nagel
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SILVA.NA VIEIRA
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Revisões arllillcu
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07-3194 CDD-100
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1. Filooolia IOO
l. Introdução........................................................ 1
2. Como sabemos alguma coisa? . .. . .... . .. ... .. ... .. ... 7
j. Outras mentes.................................................. 19
·'t. O problema mente-corpo .. .. .... . .. ............ ... .. ... 27
';. O significado das palavras.............................. 39
(). Livre-arbítrio..................................................... 49
7. Certo e errado.................................................. 63
H. Justiça............................................................... 81
9. Morte................................................................ 93
10. O significado da vida ......... : . .. .. ... .. ... ..... . ... ... .. . 101
1
Introdução
1
L\IA BREVE 1:-.ITRODLJÇ,\O À FILOSOFIA
2
INTRODUÇÃO
3
l ".'.\IA BREVE l:"JTROOLJÇ,\O À FILOSOFIA
4
INTRODUÇÃO
Como sabemos
alguma coisa?
7
CMA BREVE l:\TRODllCÀO À l'ILOSOFIA
8
COMO SABEMOS ALGUMA COISA.'
9
l 'MA BREVE l:'\TROOl 'Ç:\O A FILOSOFIA
10
COMO SABEMOS ALGUMA COISA?
11
l l'IA BHEVE 11\THODl ·çAo À FILOSOFIA
12
COMO SABEMOS ALGUMA COISA?
13
t:MA BREVE l'.\:TRODCÇ..\O À FILOSOFIA
14
COMO SABEMOS ALGUMA COISA?
15
l ~IA BRE\"E l:\TRODLºÇÃO A FILOSOflA
16
COMO SABEMOS ALGUMA COISA?
17
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
18
3
Outras mentes
19
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
20
OUTRAS MENTES
21
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
22
OUTRAS MENTES
23
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
24
OUTRAS MENTES
25
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
26
4
O problema mente-corpo
27
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
28
O PROBLEMA MENTE-CORPO
29
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
30
O PROBLEMA MENTE-CORPO
31
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
32
O PROBLEMA MENTE-CORPO
33
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
34
O PROBLEMA MENTE-CORPO
35
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
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O PROBLEMA ME'.'ITE-CORPO
37
5
39
lJMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
40
O SIGNIFICADO DAS PALAVRAS
41
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
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O SIGNIFICADO DAS PALAVRAS
43
ter em mente algum tipo de imagem quando uso
a palavra: talvez a imagem de uma planta, ou de
folhas secas, ou do interior de um cigarro. Ainda
assim, isso não ajuda a explicar a generalidade
do significado da palavra, pois qualquer imagem
dessas será uma imagem particular. Será a ima-
gem do aspecto ou do cheiro de uma amostra
específica de tabaco. E como isso poderia abar-
car todas as possíveis e reais amostras de taba-
co? Além disso, mesmo que você forme uma cer-
ta imagem em sua mente ao ouvir ou usar a pa-
lavra "tabaco", cada pessoa provavelmente for-
mará uma imagem diferente. Isso, no entanto,
não impede que todos usemos a palavra com o
mesmo significado.
O mistério do significado é que ele, aparen-
temente, não se situa em nenhum lugar - nem na
palavra, nem na mente, nem em nenhum con-
ceito ou idéia pairando entre a palavra, a mente
e as coisas sobre as quais estamos falando. Con-
tudo, usamos a linguagem o tempo todo, e ela
nos permite formular pensamentos complica-
dos, que transpõem grandes distâncias no tem-
po e no espaço. Você pode falar sobre a quanti-
dade de pessoas em Okinawa que têm mais de
1,50 m de altura, ou indagar se há vida em ou-
tras galáxias, e os pequenos ruídos que você emi-
te formarão frases que são verdadeiras ou falsas,
em virtude de fatos complicados acerca de coi-
44
O SIGNIFICADO DAS PALAVRAS
45
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
46
O SIGN!f!CADO DAS PALAVRAS
47
Livre-arbítrio
49
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
50
Ll V l<t:-AIW!tl-(10
51
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÀO À FILOSOFIA
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LIVRE-ARBÍTRIO
53
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
54
LIVRE-ARBÍTRIO
55
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
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LIVRE-ARBÍTRIO
57
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
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LIVRE-ARBÍTRIO
59
UMA BREVE I'.'\TRODLÇÀO À FILOSOFIA
60
LIVRE-ARBÍTRIO
61
7
Certo e errado
63
UMA BREVE INTRODCÇÀO À FILOSOFIA
64
CERTO E ERRADO
65
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
66
CERTO E ERRADO
67
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
68
CERTO E ERRADO
69
UMA BREVE INTRODljÇÀO À FILOSOFIA
70
CERTO E ERRADO
71
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
****
72
CERTO E ERRADO
73
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
74
CERTO E ERRADO
75
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
76
CERTO E ERRADO
77
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
78
CERTO E ERRADO
79
UMA BREVE INTRODCÇÀO À FILOSOFIA
80
8
Justiça
81
UMA I3REVE JNTRODCÇÀO À FILOSOFIA
82
JUSTIÇA
83
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
84
JUSTIÇA
85
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
86
JUSTIÇA
87
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
88
JUSTIÇA
89
UMA BREVE INTRODUÇÃO À FILOSOFIA
90
JUSTIÇA
91
9
Death
Everybody dies, but not everybody agrees about what death
is. Some believe they will survive after the death of their
bodies, going to Heaven or Hell or somewhere else,
becoming a ghost, or returning to Earth in a different body,
perhaps not even as a human
being. Others believe they will cease to exist -- that the self
is snuffed out when the body dies. And among those who
believe they will cease to exist, some think this is a terrible
fact, and others don't.
It is sometimes said that no one can conceive of his own
nonexistence, and that therefore we can't really believe that
our existence will come to an end with our deaths. But this
doesn't seem true. Of course you can't conceive of your own
nonexistence from the inside. You can't conceive
-93-
of what it would be like to be totally annihilated, because
there's nothing it would be like, from the inside. But in that
sense, you can't conceive of what it would be like to be
completely unconscious, even temporarily. The fact that
you can't conceive of that from the inside doesn't mean you
can't conceive of it at all: you just have to think of yourself
from the outside, having been knocked out, or in a deep
sleep. And even though you have to be conscious to think
that, it doesn't mean that you're thinking of yourself as
conscious.
It's the same with death. To imagine your own annihilation
you have to think of it from the outside -- think about the
body of the person you are, with all the life and experience
gone from it. To imagine something it is not necessary to
imagine how it would feel for you to experience it. When
you imagine your own funeral, you are not imagining the
impossible situation of being present at your own funeral:
you're imagining how it would look through someone else's
eyes. Of course you are alive while you think of your own
death, but that is no more of a problem than being conscious
while imagining yourself unconscious.
The question of survival after death is related to the mind-
body problem, which we discussed earlier. If dualism is
true, and each person con-
-94-
sists of a soul and a body connected together, we can
understand how life after death might be possible. The soul
would have to be able to exist on its own and have a mental
life without the help of the body: then it might leave the
body when the body dies, instead of being destroyed. It
wouldn't be able to have the kind of mental life of action
and sensory perception that depends on being attached to
the body (unless it got attached to a new body), but it might
have a different sort of inner life, perhaps depending on
diferente causes and influences -- direct communication
with other souls, for instance.
I say life after death might be possible if dualism were true.
It also might not be possible, because the survival of the
soul, and its continued consciousness, might depend
entirely on the support and stimulation it gets from the body
in which it is housed -- and it might not be able to switch
bodies.
But if dualism is not true, and mental processes go on in the
brain and are entirely dependent on the biological
functioning of the brain and the rest of the organism, then
life after death of the body is not possible. Or to put it more
exactly, mental life after death would require the restoration
of biological, physical life: it would require that the body
come to life again. This might become technically possible
some
-95-
day: It may become possible to freeze people's bodies when
they die, and then later on by advanced medical procedures
to fix whatever was the matter with them, and bring them
back to life. Even if this became possible, there would still
be a question whether the person who was brought to life
several centuries later would be you or somebody else.
Maybe if you were frozen after death and your body was
later revived, you wouldn't wake up, but only
someone very like you, with memories of your past life. But
even if revival after death of the same you in the same body
should become possible, that's not what's ordinarily meant
by life after death. Life after death usually means life
without your old body. It's hard to know how we could
decide whether we have separable souls. All the evidence
is that before death, conscious life depends entirely on what
happens in the nervous system. If we go only by ordinary
observation, rather than religious doctrines or
spiritualist claims to communicate with the dead, there is no
reason to believe in na afterlife. Is that, however, a reason
to believe that there is not an afterlife? I think so, but
others may prefer to remain neutral. Still others may believe
in an afterlife on the basis of faith, in the absence of
evidence. I my-
-96-
self don't fully understand how this kind of faith-inspired
belief is possible, but evidently some people can manage it,
and even find it natural. Let me turn to the other part of the
problem: how we ought to feel about death. Is it a good
thing, a bad thing, or neutral? I am talking about how it's
reasonable to feel about your own death -- not so much
about other people's. Should you look forward to the
prospect of death with terror, sorrow, indifference, or
relief? Obviously it depends on what death is. If there is life
after death, the prospect will be grim or happy depending
on where your soul will end up. But the difficult and most
philosophically interesting question is how we should feel
about death if it's the end. Is it a terrible thing to go out of
existence? People differ about this. Some say that
nonexistence, being nothing at all, can't possibly
be either good or bad for the dead person. Others say that to
be annihilated, to have the possible future course of your
life cut off completely, is the ultimate evil, even if we all
have to face it. Still others say death is a blessing -- not of
course if it comes too early, but eventually -- because it
would be unbearably boring to live forever. If death without
anything after it is either a
-97-
good or a bad thing for the person who dies, it must be a
negative good or evil. Since in itself it is nothing, it can't be
either pleasant or unpleasant. If it's good, that must be
because it is the absence of something bad (like boredom or
pain); if it's bad, that must be because it is the absence of
something good (like interesting or pleasant experiences).
Now it might seem that death can't have any value, positive
or negative, because someone who doesn't exist can't be
either benefited or harmed: after all, even a negative good
or evil has to happen to somebody. But on reflection, this is
not really a problem. We can say that the person who used
to exist has been benefited or harmed by death. For
instance, suppose he is trapped in a burning building, and a
beam falls on his head, killing him instantly. As a result, he
doesn't suffer the agony of being burned to death. It seems
that in that case we can say he was lucky to be killed
painlessly, because it avoided something worse. Death at
that time was a negative good, because it saved him from
the positive evil he would otherwise have suffered for the
next five minutes. And the fact that he's not around to enjoy
that negative good doesn't mean it's not a good for him at
all. "Him" means the person who was alive, and who would
have suffered if he hadn't died.
-98-
The same kind of thing could be said about death as a
negative evil. When you die, all the good things in your life
come to a stop: no more meals, movies, travel,
conversation, love, work, books, music, or anything else. If
those things would be good, their absence is bad. Of course
you won't miss them: death is not like being locked up in
solitary confinement. But the ending of everything good in
life, because of the stopping of life itself, seems clearly to
be a negative evil for the person who was alive and is now
dead.
When someone we know dies, we feel sorry not only for
ourselves but for him, because
he can't see the sun shine today, or smell the bread in the
toaster.
When you think of your own death, the fact that all the good
things in life will come to na end is certainly a reason for
regret. But that doesn't seem to be the whole story. Most
people want there to be more of what they enjoy in life, but
for some people, the prospect of nonexistence is itself
frightening, in a way that isn't adequately explained by what
has been said so far. The thought that the world will go on
without you, that you will become nothing, is very hard to
take in.
It's not clear why. We all accept the fact that there was a
time before we were born, when we didn't yet exist -- so
why should we be so dis-
-99-
turbed at the prospect of nonexistence after our death? But
somehow it doesn't feel the same. The prospect of
nonexistence is frightening, at least to many people, in a
way that past nonexistence cannot be.
The fear of death is very puzzling, in a way that regret about
the end of life is not. It's easy to understand that we might
want to have more life, more of the things it contains, so
that we see death as a negative evil. But how can the
prospect of your own nonexistence be alarming in a positive
way? If we really cease to exist at death, there's nothing to
look forward to, so how can there be anything to be afraid
of? If one thinks about it logically, it seems as though death
should be something to be afraid of only if we will survive
it, and perhaps undergo some terrifying transformation. But
that doesn't prevent many people from thinking that
annihilation is one of the worst things that could happen to
them.
-100-
10
The Meaning of Life
-101-
even a fraction of this sort of immortality. If there's any
point at all to what we do, we have to find it within our own
lives. Why is there any difficulty in that? You can explain
the point of most of the things you do. You work to earn
money to support yourself and perhaps your family. You
eat because you're hungry, sleep because you're tired, go for
a walk or call up a friend because you feel like it, read the
newspaper to find out what's going on in the world. If you
didn't do any of those things you'd be miserable; so what's
the big problem? The problem is that although there are
justifications and explanations for most of the things, big
and small, that we do within life, none of these explanations
explain the point of your life as a whole -- the whole of
which all these activities, successes and failures, strivings
and disappointments are parts. If you think about the whole
thing, there seems to be no point to it at all. Looking at it
from the outside, it wouldn't matter if you had never existed.
And after you have gone out of existence, it won't matter
that you did exist.
Of course your existence matters to other peopleyour
parents and others who care about you -- but taken as a
whole, their lives have no point either, so it ultimately
doesn't matter that you matter to them. You matter to
-102-
them and they matter to you, and that may give your life a
feeling of significance, but you're just taking in each other's
washing, so to speak. Given that any person exists, he has
needs and concerns which make particular things and
people within his life matter to him. But the whole thing
doesn't matter.
But does it matter that it doesn't matter? "So what?" you
might say. "It's enough that it matters whether I get to the
station before my train leaves, or whether I've remembered
to feed the cat. I don't need more than that to keep going."
This is a perfectly good reply.
But it only works if you really can avoid setting your sights
higher, and asking what the point of the whole thing is. For
once you do that, you open yourself to the possibility that
your life is meaningless.
The thought that you'll be dead in two hundred years is just
a way of seeing your life embedded in a larger context, so
that the point of smaller things inside it seems not to be
enough -- seems to leave a larger question unanswered. But
what if your life as a whole did have a point in relation to
something larger? Would that mean that it wasn't
meaningless after all?
There are various ways your life could have a larger
meaning. You might be part of a political or social
movement which changed the world for
-103-
the better, to the benefit of future generations. Or you might
just help provide a good life for your own children and their
descendants. Or your life might be thought to have meaning
in a religious context, so that your time on Earth was just a
preparation for na eternity in direct contact with God.
About the types of meaning that depend on relations to
other people, even people in the distant future, I've already
indicated what the problem is. If one's life has a point as a
part of something larger, it is still possible to ask about that
larger thing, what is the point of it? Either there's an answer
in terms of something still larger or there isn't. If there is,
we simply repeat the question. If there isn't, then our search
for a point has come to an end with something which has no
point. But if that pointlessness is acceptable for the larger
thing of which our life is a part, why shouldn't it be
acceptable already for our life taken as a whole? Why isn't
it all right for your life to be pointless? And if it isn't
acceptable there, why should it be acceptable when we get
to the larger context? Why don't we have to go on to ask,
"But what is the point of all that?" (human history, the
succession of the generations, or whatever).
The appeal to a religious meaning to life is a bit different.
If you believe that the meaning
Of
-104-
your life comes from fulfilling the purpose of God, who
loves you, and seeing Him in eternity, then it doesn't seem
appropriate to ask, "And what is the point of that?" It's
supposed to be something which is its own point, and can't
have a purpose outside itself. But for this very reason it has
its own problems.
The idea of God seems to be the idea of something that can
explain everything else, without having to be explained
itself. But it's very hard to understand how there could be
such a thing. If we ask the question, "Why is the world like
this?" and are offered a religious answer, how can we be
prevented from asking again, "And why is that true?"
What kind of answer would bring all of our "Why?"
questions to a stop, once and for all?
And if they can stop there, why couldn't they have stopped
earlier?
The same problem seems to arise if God and His purposes
are offered as the ultimate explanation of the value and
meaning of our lives. The idea that our lives fulfil God's
purpose is supposed to give them their point, in a way that
doesn't require or admit of any further point. One isn't
supposed to ask "What is the point of God?" any more than
one is supposed to ask, "What is the explanation of God?"
But my problem here, as with the role of God as ultimate
explanation, is that I'm not sure
-105-
I understand the idea. Can there really be something which
gives point to everything else by encompassing it, but
which couldn't have, or need, any point itself? Something
whose point can't be questioned from outside because there
is no outside? If God is supposed to give our lives a
meaning that we can't understand, it's not much of a
consolation. God as ultimate justification, like God as
ultimate explanation, may be na incomprehensible answer
to a question that we can't get rid of. On the other hand,
maybe that's the whole point, and I am just failing to
understand religious ideas. Perhaps the belief in God is the
belief that the universe is intelligible, but not to US.
Leaving that issue aside, let me return to the smaller-scale
dimensions of human life.
Even if life as a whole is meaningless, perhaps that's
nothing to worry about. Perhaps we can recognize it and
just go on as before. The trick is to keep your eyes on what's
in front of you, and allow justifications to come to an end
inside your life, and inside the lives of others to whom you
are connected. If you ever ask yourself the question, "But
what's the point of being alive at all?" -- leading the
particular life of a student or bartender or whatever you
happen to be -- you'll answer "There's no point. It wouldn't
matter if
-106-
I didn't exist at all, or if I didn't care about anything. But I
do. That's all there is to it." Some people find this attitude
perfectly satisfying. Others find it depressing, though
unavoidable. Part of the problem is that some of us have an
incurable tendency to take ourselves seriously. We want to
matter to ourselves "from the outside." If our lives as a
whole seem pointless, then a part of us is dissatisfied -- the
part that is always looking over our shoulders at what we
are doing. Many human efforts, particularly those in the
service of serious ambitions rather than just comfort and
survival, get some of their energy from a sense of
importance -- a sense that what you are doing is not just
importante to you, but important in some larger sense:
important, period. If we have to give this up, it may threaten
to take the wind out of our sails. If life is not real, life is not
earnest, and the grave is its goal, perhaps it's ridiculous to
take ourselves so seriously. On the other hand, if we can't
help taking ourselves so seriously, perhaps we just have to
put up with being ridiculous. Life may be not only
meaningless but absurd.
-107-