Zooarchaeology in China has consistently enhanced our understanding of past environments and huma... more Zooarchaeology in China has consistently enhanced our understanding of past environments and human–animal interactions. However, this research has predominantly focused on prehistoric contexts. Our knowledge of animal exploitation strategies in historical periods remains largely reliant on written and iconographic sources, lacking direct and quantifiable faunal evidence. This paper examines the animal remains found in the residential district of Xiajiazhuang to better understand faunal exploitation strategies, dietary habits, and meat procurement patterns in Chang'an (Xi'an, China) during the Tang dynasty period (618–907 ce). Zooarchaeological evidence identifies caprines as the primary meat source, supplemented by cattle, dogs, pigs, and poultry. Our findings indicate a targeted meat procurement strategy, with animals selected based on their age to secure highquality meat, thereby hinting at the potential high status of Xiajiazhuang's residents. Along with other lines of evidence, our results suggest that interactions within the city and between the capital and its surrounding areas could have played a significant role in shaping faunal resource management strategies in Xiajiazhuang during the Tang dynasty.
Prehistoric settlement patterns on the Tibetan Plateau, particularly in the Qaidam Basin, have dr... more Prehistoric settlement patterns on the Tibetan Plateau, particularly in the Qaidam Basin, have drawn significant scholarly interest. Yet, limited data have hindered a comprehensive understanding the Bronze Age chronology and landscape exploitation in this region. This paper presents 24 newly obtained radiocarbon dates from eight archaeological sites within the Qaidam Basin on the Tibetan Plateau. Integrated with existing 14 C data and spatial analysis, these findings reveal an overall continuous occupation of the basin from ca. 3600–2500 calBP, with a gradual shift from expansive lowland settlements to smaller, ephemeral high-altitude structures, identified around 3350 calBP. This change is consistent with demonstrated periods of climate degradation which likely drove strategic adaptations in landscape management and subsistence methods. Overall, this research not only establishes a more robust chronology for the Qaidam Basin’s Bronze Age, but also advances the discussion on human-environment interactions in high-altitude areas during late prehistory.
The jiandiping 尖底瓶 amphora is a distinctive pottery type of the Yangshao culture (5000 − 3000 BCE... more The jiandiping 尖底瓶 amphora is a distinctive pottery type of the Yangshao culture (5000 − 3000 BCE), predominantly found along the middle course of the Yellow River, with a significant concentration in the Wei River Valley. Despite its widespread presence, the function of this vessel has remained elusive in scholarly discourse. This article investigates the amphora’s spatial relationship to salt deposits and examines its physical characteristics, evaluating these aspects within the context of the Yangshao population’s lifestyle in the Wei River Valley. By incorporating evidence from Shang dynasty oracle bone inscriptions and various ethnoarchaeological studies, we propose a new interpretation of the jiandiping amphora as a tool for salt processing. This study prompts a reevaluation of Neolithic cultural and technological practices, highlighting the Yangshao society’s potential involvement in salt exploitation in the Wei River Valley.
The spatial organization within ancient settlements offers valuable insights into the evolution o... more The spatial organization within ancient settlements offers valuable insights into the evolution of social complexity. This paper examines spatially and chronologically contextualized architectural structures and artifacts uncovered at the Late Bronze Age Shirenzigou site to explore the relationship between the use of space and underlying social dynamics in the Eastern Tianshan Mountains of Xinjiang (China). Central to our findings is a distinctive centripetal compound structure, consisting of a larger non‑domestic building surrounded by smaller dwellings. This arrangement, along with the variety and distribution of the artifacts, reveals a complex interplay between private and communal spaces at the site, reflecting a growing complexity within the social fabric of the community. The formation of conglomerates of houses around a central communal structure which occurs across the Tianshan Mountains appears to be a strategic adaptation in response to environmental challenges and socio‑political transformations across this region at the end of the second millennium BCE.
Using zooarchaeological methods, this article examines and discusses the faunal remains recovered... more Using zooarchaeological methods, this article examines and discusses the faunal remains recovered from a Han dynasty non-elite residential site in Yishengci, situated in the southeastern corner of the ancient city of Wan (Nanyang, Henan Province). Despite its limited size, the assemblage provides valuable insights into the local economy, which the relative taxonomy suggests was predominantly agricultural, with pigs, cattle, and dogs being the most prevalent species. Pigs played a crucial role as meat producers, with cattle and dogs also contributing to a lesser extent. The evidence points to the exploitation of animals for traction in addition to the manufacture of animal-derived products including the use of horns and antlers for tool-making. Patterns in faunal mortality and biometry suggest that animals served as a meat source for the urban population and supported intensive smallscale agriculture in the surrounding area. Population size, land management and high-yield farming production were important factors that shaped, and were shaped by animal use at Yishengci. This research contributes to a better understanding of the subsistence strategies that supported the increasing urbanization during the early empire, supplementing what is predominantly known from historical texts and iconography.
Mobile pastoralism was a key lifeway in the Late Bronze and Iron Age of Northwest China and playe... more Mobile pastoralism was a key lifeway in the Late Bronze and Iron Age of Northwest China and played a crucial role in the regional socio-cultural development, as well as the formation of transregional networks. In this paper we analyse the complete faunal assemblage from House F2 in Shirenzigou, on the Eastern Tianshan Mountains, in combination with radiocarbon dating and spatial analysis, to explore local animal resources exploitation strategies and related socio-economic implications. Our results show an intensive multipurpose caprine management, while the exploitation of other domestic taxa, cattle, horses and dogs, was limited. This pastoral economy was supplemented with some hunting. The differentiated use of space in F2 indicates that basic domestic tasks were carried out in the structure, however its position within the landscape and the predominance of bone tools related to warfare and socialization activities, suggests that it was not an ordinary dwelling, it may also have served as a watch post for the summer encampment within the gully. Our findings constitute an important contribution on the discussion on animal resources exploitation strategies and their relationship with evolving socio-economic complexity in the Eastern Tianshan region in the late first millennium BCE.
This study examines faunal assemblages from the Proto-Zhou sites of Sunjia and Xitou, in the Jing... more This study examines faunal assemblages from the Proto-Zhou sites of Sunjia and Xitou, in the Jing River Valley (Central Shaanxi Province), to address questions concerning the exploitation of different animal resources in the context of the Shang-Zhou dynastic transition in the 11th century BCE. Although the assemblages from Sunjia and Xitou were small and suboptimally preserved, this study demonstrates that the inclusion of such assemblages is essential to building upon our understanding of the human exploitation of animal resources. Our zooarchaeological analysis shows an increase in husbandry, with pig farming being complemented by extensive caprine and cattle herding. A diversified use of animal resources, and especially the larger number of bovids, could have been prompted by the need for a wider and more efficient exploitation of the immediate environment, in response to growing climatic deterioration, in addition to an increase in interactions with northern pastoral communities. Identified patterns of livestock biometry and relative taxonomic abundance show various degrees of agricultural engagement and a relatively complex livestock economy, suggesting the development of socioeconomic complexity in the Jing River Valley in the late second millennium BCE.
Transitions in animal exploitation patterns are caused by topographical and climatic varia- tions... more Transitions in animal exploitation patterns are caused by topographical and climatic varia- tions on both macro and micro scales. This paper presents temporally and spatially contextualized faunal profiles from 27 sites in the Guanzhong (关中) region of Shaanxi province (陕西省), PRC which date from the Early Neolithic to the Bronze Age (ca. 6000–1000 BCE). Climatic and environmental data was cross-referenced with archaeological, archaeobotanical and (where appropriate) historical sources to examine the reasons for the clear micro-transitions observed. Faunal profiles from sites in the Wei River plain (渭河盆地), loess plateau, and the transitional zone between them were ana- lyzed. Animal utilization was found to vary substantially between different zones during the period under analysis. The transition in praxis between the Wei River valley and the loess plateau was not gradual. The hilly transition zone was found to have its own distinct animal exploitation pattern. These spatio-temporal differences in animal exploitation were caused by changes in both the local microclimates and the topography of the landscape in which the communities were living. Some regions apparently reverted to ‘earlier’ animal exploitation patterns in response to climatic changes. These environmental factors were also augmented by internal social developments and interactions with neighboring communities.
The nature of economies and the movement of agricultural crops across Eurasia in the Bronze Age h... more The nature of economies and the movement of agricultural crops across Eurasia in the Bronze Age have been the subject of significant research interest in recent years. This study presents and discusses new results of flotation, radiocarbon and carbon stable isotope analyses from the seed assemblage at the Adunqiaolu site (northwestern Xinjiang), in combination with archaeological evidence. Archaeobotanical evidence, including carbonized foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, and naked barley, documents the diversity of local cereal consumption during the mid-second millennium BC. Our results suggest that crops were not grown locally, however, but in the lower Boertala Valley, supporting the argument that Adunqiaolu was a winter camp. These new sets of data constitute an important contribution to the discussion on cereal dispersal across the Tianshan Mountains in the Bronze Age.
Archaeological research conducted in the Ili River Valley over the last century has revealed that... more Archaeological research conducted in the Ili River Valley over the last century has revealed that the region was a crossroads in an early system of exchange throughout Eurasia. Relationships have been shown between findings in the area with the Andronovo (ca. 1900–1200 B.C.) and Saka (ca. first millennium B.C.) cultures from the prehistoric Bronze Age (ca. 1500–1000 B.C.) and Early Iron Age (ca. 1000–300 B.C.), respectively. The region has been intensively excavated by Chinese archaeologists in recent decades and an increasing number of cultural and spatial-temporal frameworks have been put forward to organize the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age finds since the late 1970s. A growing body of research has also addressed cultural change and contact. These studies and related debates are almost unknown to international scholars and need to be evaluated in greater detail. This article surveys the archaeological evidence and critically reviews the main data from Chinese research. In discussing the development of archaeology in the Ili region, the article provides a deeper understanding of the current state of research in Northwest China and a solid backdrop against which further studies can be conducted. Pointing out some of the main unsolved questions and obscure areas yet to be addressed, the article suggests future directions for research. KEYWORDS: Ili Valley, Xinjiang prehistory, Xinjiang archaeology.
Andronovo has been regarded as one of the most powerful cultures in Central Asia, which reflected... more Andronovo has been regarded as one of the most powerful cultures in Central Asia, which reflected frequent cultural interflow, people migration, and technique diffusion on the Bronze Age Eurasian steppes. In the past decade, many new discoveries in Xinjiang, such as Adunqiaolu and Jartai, have drawn broad attention to the communication of the Andronovo culture in the central Tianshan Mountains. However, systematic study is still insufficient on the communication and influence of the Andronovo culture or the “Andronovo phenomenon” along the Tianshan Mountains. Based on our comprehensive investigation of tomb structure, funeral rituals and assemblages, this article reclassifies relevant Andronovo remains in Xinjiang into five categories. Two categories represented by the Xiabandi cemetery and the Adunqiaolu show clear resemblance to those at Semirech’ye in all aspects, which indicated people in these regions may have maintained close and consistent interaction. Other three categories in the Kuokesuxi and Tangbalesayi cemetery have different tomb structures and funeral rituals from those typical discoveries of the Andronovo cultures in Central Asia in spite of the their similarity in pottery and bronze ornaments, which can be considered as the result of product exchange or technical communication, rather than population migration. New discovery of the Baigetuobie cemetery with evidence of tomb structure, dating, and human genetic features in the Balikun grassland suggested that there might be a small group of people, probably came from the central Tianshan Mountains or Semirech’ye or further west, had migrated to the Eastern Tianshan Mountains about 1600 BC, which was likely facilitated by the relatively warm and humid environment. They had preserved their traditional tomb architecture and were not active in cultural interaction and population fusion with people of Hami Oasis in the south. Due to some reason unknown, people of Baigetuobie had faded away from Balikun grassland after a short time.
Archaeological research conducted in the Ili River Valley over the last century has revealed that... more Archaeological research conducted in the Ili River Valley over the last century has revealed that the region was a crossroads in an early system of exchange throughout Eurasia. Relationships have been shown between findings in the area with the Andronovo (ca. 1900–1200 B.C.) and Saka (ca. first millennium B.C.) cultures from the prehistoric Bronze Age (ca. 1500–1000 B.C.) and Early Iron Age (ca. 1000–300 B.C.), respectively. The region has been intensively excavated by Chinese archaeologists in recent decades and an increasing number of cultural and spatial-temporal frameworks have been put forward to organize the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age finds since the late 1970s. A growing body of research has also addressed cultural change and contact. These studies and related debates are almost unknown to international scholars and need to be evaluated in greater detail. This article surveys the archaeological evidence and critically reviews the main data from Chinese research. In discussing the development of archaeology in the Ili region, the article provides a deeper understanding of the current state of research in Northwest China and a solid backdrop against which further studies can be conducted. Pointing out some of the main unsolved questions and obscure areas yet to be addressed, the article suggests future directions for research. KEYWORDS: Ili Valley, Xinjiang prehistory, Xinjiang archaeology.
Chinese Xinjiang, located on the "Silk Road" has played a pivotal role as a crossroad of east-wes... more Chinese Xinjiang, located on the "Silk Road" has played a pivotal role as a crossroad of east-west exchanges since prehistory. The oases on the southern rim of the Tarim Basin have been especially important in this system of interactions, as demonstrated by archaeological remains of early cultures, whose indigenous developments and external influences are often difficult to distinguish. Specifically, funerary evidence dating back to the Bronze Age shows similarities not only with neighbouring cultural groups in Xinjiang, but also with the steppe cultures and the farming traditions of Central Asia. Thus, despite the relatively low number of the excavated sites, Bronze Age remains found in the oases in southern Xinjiang are of great interests and high significance for the understanding of the prehistory of Xinjiang and Central Asia. By taking a omni-comprehensive approach, including paleo enviromental surveys, typological studies on the archaeological remains, metallurgical analysis and anthropological examinations, the purpose of this paper is to study the evidence from the southern rim of the Tarim Basin in greater detail than has yet been attempted. Moreover, by re-examining the information within a broader Eurasian context this paper intends to give a contribution to the understanding of the prehistoric interactions among various regions.
Archaeological researches in Xinjiang in the last century have revealed that the region was a cro... more Archaeological researches in Xinjiang in the last century have revealed that the region was a crossroad of cultures as early as prehistory, but it is only in the last thirty years that its crucial importance has come to be recognized. From the 1980s an increasing number of studies have put forward cultural categories and spatial-temporal frameworks to organize Bronze Age and Iron Age remains in Xinjiang but due to several problems, such as scarce publications and scant reliable dating, there is still a lack of clear standards for establishing the cultural and temporal attributions of the sites. Nevertheless, the contribution given by debates among scholars on the subject is remarkable and needs to be evaluated in greater detail, in order to gain a clearer understanding of early Xinjiang. This paper aims to be a qualitative study on the current research on Bronze Age and Iron Age cultures in Xinjiang. It provides a retrospective review of the studies on the subject with special reference to selected works since the 1980s, in the hope of enhancing the understanding of Xinjiang and Eurasian prehistory.
Zooarchaeology in China has consistently enhanced our understanding of past environments and huma... more Zooarchaeology in China has consistently enhanced our understanding of past environments and human–animal interactions. However, this research has predominantly focused on prehistoric contexts. Our knowledge of animal exploitation strategies in historical periods remains largely reliant on written and iconographic sources, lacking direct and quantifiable faunal evidence. This paper examines the animal remains found in the residential district of Xiajiazhuang to better understand faunal exploitation strategies, dietary habits, and meat procurement patterns in Chang'an (Xi'an, China) during the Tang dynasty period (618–907 ce). Zooarchaeological evidence identifies caprines as the primary meat source, supplemented by cattle, dogs, pigs, and poultry. Our findings indicate a targeted meat procurement strategy, with animals selected based on their age to secure highquality meat, thereby hinting at the potential high status of Xiajiazhuang's residents. Along with other lines of evidence, our results suggest that interactions within the city and between the capital and its surrounding areas could have played a significant role in shaping faunal resource management strategies in Xiajiazhuang during the Tang dynasty.
Prehistoric settlement patterns on the Tibetan Plateau, particularly in the Qaidam Basin, have dr... more Prehistoric settlement patterns on the Tibetan Plateau, particularly in the Qaidam Basin, have drawn significant scholarly interest. Yet, limited data have hindered a comprehensive understanding the Bronze Age chronology and landscape exploitation in this region. This paper presents 24 newly obtained radiocarbon dates from eight archaeological sites within the Qaidam Basin on the Tibetan Plateau. Integrated with existing 14 C data and spatial analysis, these findings reveal an overall continuous occupation of the basin from ca. 3600–2500 calBP, with a gradual shift from expansive lowland settlements to smaller, ephemeral high-altitude structures, identified around 3350 calBP. This change is consistent with demonstrated periods of climate degradation which likely drove strategic adaptations in landscape management and subsistence methods. Overall, this research not only establishes a more robust chronology for the Qaidam Basin’s Bronze Age, but also advances the discussion on human-environment interactions in high-altitude areas during late prehistory.
The jiandiping 尖底瓶 amphora is a distinctive pottery type of the Yangshao culture (5000 − 3000 BCE... more The jiandiping 尖底瓶 amphora is a distinctive pottery type of the Yangshao culture (5000 − 3000 BCE), predominantly found along the middle course of the Yellow River, with a significant concentration in the Wei River Valley. Despite its widespread presence, the function of this vessel has remained elusive in scholarly discourse. This article investigates the amphora’s spatial relationship to salt deposits and examines its physical characteristics, evaluating these aspects within the context of the Yangshao population’s lifestyle in the Wei River Valley. By incorporating evidence from Shang dynasty oracle bone inscriptions and various ethnoarchaeological studies, we propose a new interpretation of the jiandiping amphora as a tool for salt processing. This study prompts a reevaluation of Neolithic cultural and technological practices, highlighting the Yangshao society’s potential involvement in salt exploitation in the Wei River Valley.
The spatial organization within ancient settlements offers valuable insights into the evolution o... more The spatial organization within ancient settlements offers valuable insights into the evolution of social complexity. This paper examines spatially and chronologically contextualized architectural structures and artifacts uncovered at the Late Bronze Age Shirenzigou site to explore the relationship between the use of space and underlying social dynamics in the Eastern Tianshan Mountains of Xinjiang (China). Central to our findings is a distinctive centripetal compound structure, consisting of a larger non‑domestic building surrounded by smaller dwellings. This arrangement, along with the variety and distribution of the artifacts, reveals a complex interplay between private and communal spaces at the site, reflecting a growing complexity within the social fabric of the community. The formation of conglomerates of houses around a central communal structure which occurs across the Tianshan Mountains appears to be a strategic adaptation in response to environmental challenges and socio‑political transformations across this region at the end of the second millennium BCE.
Using zooarchaeological methods, this article examines and discusses the faunal remains recovered... more Using zooarchaeological methods, this article examines and discusses the faunal remains recovered from a Han dynasty non-elite residential site in Yishengci, situated in the southeastern corner of the ancient city of Wan (Nanyang, Henan Province). Despite its limited size, the assemblage provides valuable insights into the local economy, which the relative taxonomy suggests was predominantly agricultural, with pigs, cattle, and dogs being the most prevalent species. Pigs played a crucial role as meat producers, with cattle and dogs also contributing to a lesser extent. The evidence points to the exploitation of animals for traction in addition to the manufacture of animal-derived products including the use of horns and antlers for tool-making. Patterns in faunal mortality and biometry suggest that animals served as a meat source for the urban population and supported intensive smallscale agriculture in the surrounding area. Population size, land management and high-yield farming production were important factors that shaped, and were shaped by animal use at Yishengci. This research contributes to a better understanding of the subsistence strategies that supported the increasing urbanization during the early empire, supplementing what is predominantly known from historical texts and iconography.
Mobile pastoralism was a key lifeway in the Late Bronze and Iron Age of Northwest China and playe... more Mobile pastoralism was a key lifeway in the Late Bronze and Iron Age of Northwest China and played a crucial role in the regional socio-cultural development, as well as the formation of transregional networks. In this paper we analyse the complete faunal assemblage from House F2 in Shirenzigou, on the Eastern Tianshan Mountains, in combination with radiocarbon dating and spatial analysis, to explore local animal resources exploitation strategies and related socio-economic implications. Our results show an intensive multipurpose caprine management, while the exploitation of other domestic taxa, cattle, horses and dogs, was limited. This pastoral economy was supplemented with some hunting. The differentiated use of space in F2 indicates that basic domestic tasks were carried out in the structure, however its position within the landscape and the predominance of bone tools related to warfare and socialization activities, suggests that it was not an ordinary dwelling, it may also have served as a watch post for the summer encampment within the gully. Our findings constitute an important contribution on the discussion on animal resources exploitation strategies and their relationship with evolving socio-economic complexity in the Eastern Tianshan region in the late first millennium BCE.
This study examines faunal assemblages from the Proto-Zhou sites of Sunjia and Xitou, in the Jing... more This study examines faunal assemblages from the Proto-Zhou sites of Sunjia and Xitou, in the Jing River Valley (Central Shaanxi Province), to address questions concerning the exploitation of different animal resources in the context of the Shang-Zhou dynastic transition in the 11th century BCE. Although the assemblages from Sunjia and Xitou were small and suboptimally preserved, this study demonstrates that the inclusion of such assemblages is essential to building upon our understanding of the human exploitation of animal resources. Our zooarchaeological analysis shows an increase in husbandry, with pig farming being complemented by extensive caprine and cattle herding. A diversified use of animal resources, and especially the larger number of bovids, could have been prompted by the need for a wider and more efficient exploitation of the immediate environment, in response to growing climatic deterioration, in addition to an increase in interactions with northern pastoral communities. Identified patterns of livestock biometry and relative taxonomic abundance show various degrees of agricultural engagement and a relatively complex livestock economy, suggesting the development of socioeconomic complexity in the Jing River Valley in the late second millennium BCE.
Transitions in animal exploitation patterns are caused by topographical and climatic varia- tions... more Transitions in animal exploitation patterns are caused by topographical and climatic varia- tions on both macro and micro scales. This paper presents temporally and spatially contextualized faunal profiles from 27 sites in the Guanzhong (关中) region of Shaanxi province (陕西省), PRC which date from the Early Neolithic to the Bronze Age (ca. 6000–1000 BCE). Climatic and environmental data was cross-referenced with archaeological, archaeobotanical and (where appropriate) historical sources to examine the reasons for the clear micro-transitions observed. Faunal profiles from sites in the Wei River plain (渭河盆地), loess plateau, and the transitional zone between them were ana- lyzed. Animal utilization was found to vary substantially between different zones during the period under analysis. The transition in praxis between the Wei River valley and the loess plateau was not gradual. The hilly transition zone was found to have its own distinct animal exploitation pattern. These spatio-temporal differences in animal exploitation were caused by changes in both the local microclimates and the topography of the landscape in which the communities were living. Some regions apparently reverted to ‘earlier’ animal exploitation patterns in response to climatic changes. These environmental factors were also augmented by internal social developments and interactions with neighboring communities.
The nature of economies and the movement of agricultural crops across Eurasia in the Bronze Age h... more The nature of economies and the movement of agricultural crops across Eurasia in the Bronze Age have been the subject of significant research interest in recent years. This study presents and discusses new results of flotation, radiocarbon and carbon stable isotope analyses from the seed assemblage at the Adunqiaolu site (northwestern Xinjiang), in combination with archaeological evidence. Archaeobotanical evidence, including carbonized foxtail millet, broomcorn millet, and naked barley, documents the diversity of local cereal consumption during the mid-second millennium BC. Our results suggest that crops were not grown locally, however, but in the lower Boertala Valley, supporting the argument that Adunqiaolu was a winter camp. These new sets of data constitute an important contribution to the discussion on cereal dispersal across the Tianshan Mountains in the Bronze Age.
Archaeological research conducted in the Ili River Valley over the last century has revealed that... more Archaeological research conducted in the Ili River Valley over the last century has revealed that the region was a crossroads in an early system of exchange throughout Eurasia. Relationships have been shown between findings in the area with the Andronovo (ca. 1900–1200 B.C.) and Saka (ca. first millennium B.C.) cultures from the prehistoric Bronze Age (ca. 1500–1000 B.C.) and Early Iron Age (ca. 1000–300 B.C.), respectively. The region has been intensively excavated by Chinese archaeologists in recent decades and an increasing number of cultural and spatial-temporal frameworks have been put forward to organize the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age finds since the late 1970s. A growing body of research has also addressed cultural change and contact. These studies and related debates are almost unknown to international scholars and need to be evaluated in greater detail. This article surveys the archaeological evidence and critically reviews the main data from Chinese research. In discussing the development of archaeology in the Ili region, the article provides a deeper understanding of the current state of research in Northwest China and a solid backdrop against which further studies can be conducted. Pointing out some of the main unsolved questions and obscure areas yet to be addressed, the article suggests future directions for research. KEYWORDS: Ili Valley, Xinjiang prehistory, Xinjiang archaeology.
Andronovo has been regarded as one of the most powerful cultures in Central Asia, which reflected... more Andronovo has been regarded as one of the most powerful cultures in Central Asia, which reflected frequent cultural interflow, people migration, and technique diffusion on the Bronze Age Eurasian steppes. In the past decade, many new discoveries in Xinjiang, such as Adunqiaolu and Jartai, have drawn broad attention to the communication of the Andronovo culture in the central Tianshan Mountains. However, systematic study is still insufficient on the communication and influence of the Andronovo culture or the “Andronovo phenomenon” along the Tianshan Mountains. Based on our comprehensive investigation of tomb structure, funeral rituals and assemblages, this article reclassifies relevant Andronovo remains in Xinjiang into five categories. Two categories represented by the Xiabandi cemetery and the Adunqiaolu show clear resemblance to those at Semirech’ye in all aspects, which indicated people in these regions may have maintained close and consistent interaction. Other three categories in the Kuokesuxi and Tangbalesayi cemetery have different tomb structures and funeral rituals from those typical discoveries of the Andronovo cultures in Central Asia in spite of the their similarity in pottery and bronze ornaments, which can be considered as the result of product exchange or technical communication, rather than population migration. New discovery of the Baigetuobie cemetery with evidence of tomb structure, dating, and human genetic features in the Balikun grassland suggested that there might be a small group of people, probably came from the central Tianshan Mountains or Semirech’ye or further west, had migrated to the Eastern Tianshan Mountains about 1600 BC, which was likely facilitated by the relatively warm and humid environment. They had preserved their traditional tomb architecture and were not active in cultural interaction and population fusion with people of Hami Oasis in the south. Due to some reason unknown, people of Baigetuobie had faded away from Balikun grassland after a short time.
Archaeological research conducted in the Ili River Valley over the last century has revealed that... more Archaeological research conducted in the Ili River Valley over the last century has revealed that the region was a crossroads in an early system of exchange throughout Eurasia. Relationships have been shown between findings in the area with the Andronovo (ca. 1900–1200 B.C.) and Saka (ca. first millennium B.C.) cultures from the prehistoric Bronze Age (ca. 1500–1000 B.C.) and Early Iron Age (ca. 1000–300 B.C.), respectively. The region has been intensively excavated by Chinese archaeologists in recent decades and an increasing number of cultural and spatial-temporal frameworks have been put forward to organize the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age finds since the late 1970s. A growing body of research has also addressed cultural change and contact. These studies and related debates are almost unknown to international scholars and need to be evaluated in greater detail. This article surveys the archaeological evidence and critically reviews the main data from Chinese research. In discussing the development of archaeology in the Ili region, the article provides a deeper understanding of the current state of research in Northwest China and a solid backdrop against which further studies can be conducted. Pointing out some of the main unsolved questions and obscure areas yet to be addressed, the article suggests future directions for research. KEYWORDS: Ili Valley, Xinjiang prehistory, Xinjiang archaeology.
Chinese Xinjiang, located on the "Silk Road" has played a pivotal role as a crossroad of east-wes... more Chinese Xinjiang, located on the "Silk Road" has played a pivotal role as a crossroad of east-west exchanges since prehistory. The oases on the southern rim of the Tarim Basin have been especially important in this system of interactions, as demonstrated by archaeological remains of early cultures, whose indigenous developments and external influences are often difficult to distinguish. Specifically, funerary evidence dating back to the Bronze Age shows similarities not only with neighbouring cultural groups in Xinjiang, but also with the steppe cultures and the farming traditions of Central Asia. Thus, despite the relatively low number of the excavated sites, Bronze Age remains found in the oases in southern Xinjiang are of great interests and high significance for the understanding of the prehistory of Xinjiang and Central Asia. By taking a omni-comprehensive approach, including paleo enviromental surveys, typological studies on the archaeological remains, metallurgical analysis and anthropological examinations, the purpose of this paper is to study the evidence from the southern rim of the Tarim Basin in greater detail than has yet been attempted. Moreover, by re-examining the information within a broader Eurasian context this paper intends to give a contribution to the understanding of the prehistoric interactions among various regions.
Archaeological researches in Xinjiang in the last century have revealed that the region was a cro... more Archaeological researches in Xinjiang in the last century have revealed that the region was a crossroad of cultures as early as prehistory, but it is only in the last thirty years that its crucial importance has come to be recognized. From the 1980s an increasing number of studies have put forward cultural categories and spatial-temporal frameworks to organize Bronze Age and Iron Age remains in Xinjiang but due to several problems, such as scarce publications and scant reliable dating, there is still a lack of clear standards for establishing the cultural and temporal attributions of the sites. Nevertheless, the contribution given by debates among scholars on the subject is remarkable and needs to be evaluated in greater detail, in order to gain a clearer understanding of early Xinjiang. This paper aims to be a qualitative study on the current research on Bronze Age and Iron Age cultures in Xinjiang. It provides a retrospective review of the studies on the subject with special reference to selected works since the 1980s, in the hope of enhancing the understanding of Xinjiang and Eurasian prehistory.
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Papers by Marcella Festa
obtained radiocarbon dates from eight archaeological sites within the Qaidam Basin on the Tibetan Plateau. Integrated with existing 14 C data and spatial analysis, these findings reveal an overall continuous occupation of the basin from ca. 3600–2500 calBP, with a gradual shift from expansive lowland settlements to smaller, ephemeral high-altitude structures, identified around 3350 calBP. This change is consistent with demonstrated periods of climate degradation which likely drove
strategic adaptations in landscape management and subsistence methods. Overall, this research not only establishes a more robust chronology for the Qaidam Basin’s Bronze Age, but also advances the
discussion on human-environment interactions in high-altitude areas during late prehistory.
the relationship between the use of space and underlying social dynamics in the Eastern Tianshan Mountains of Xinjiang (China). Central to our findings is a distinctive centripetal compound structure, consisting of a larger non‑domestic building surrounded by smaller dwellings. This arrangement, along with the variety and distribution of the artifacts, reveals a complex interplay between private and communal spaces at the site, reflecting a growing complexity within the social fabric of the community. The formation of conglomerates of houses around a central communal structure which occurs across the Tianshan Mountains appears to be a strategic adaptation in response to environmental challenges and socio‑political transformations across this region at the end of the second millennium BCE.
(Nanyang, Henan Province). Despite its limited size, the assemblage provides valuable insights into the local economy, which the relative taxonomy suggests was predominantly agricultural, with pigs, cattle, and dogs being the most prevalent species. Pigs played a crucial role as meat producers, with cattle and dogs also contributing to a lesser extent. The evidence points to the exploitation of animals for traction in addition to the manufacture of animal-derived products including the use of horns and antlers for tool-making. Patterns in faunal mortality and biometry suggest that animals served as a meat source for the urban population and supported intensive smallscale agriculture in the surrounding area. Population size, land management and high-yield farming production were important factors that shaped, and were shaped by animal use at Yishengci. This research contributes to a better understanding of the subsistence strategies that supported the increasing urbanization during the early empire, supplementing what is predominantly known from historical texts and iconography.
to explore local animal resources exploitation strategies and related socio-economic implications.
Our results show an intensive multipurpose caprine management, while the exploitation of other domestic taxa, cattle, horses and dogs, was limited. This pastoral economy was supplemented with some hunting. The differentiated use of space in F2 indicates that basic domestic tasks were carried out in the structure, however its position within the landscape and the predominance of bone tools related to warfare and socialization activities, suggests that it was not an ordinary dwelling, it may also have served as a watch post for the summer encampment within the gully. Our findings constitute an important contribution on the discussion on animal resources exploitation strategies and their relationship with evolving socio-economic complexity in the Eastern Tianshan region in the late first millennium BCE.
苏联解体和中国改革开放之前,除有限的俄文和中文材料外,西方学者对于中亚和新疆的考 古发掘工作知之甚少#由于研究材料的缺乏,西方学者在研究世界史前史时,常将中亚与新疆排 除在外#1# 世纪 "# 年代以来,这一情况开始改变#有关欧亚草原的考古发掘与研究资料逐渐开 始向西方开放,这一切也有利于东西方之间展开更好的合作研究#克服语言障碍使得获取信息变 得更为容易,但有关考古学理论与方法上的分歧却是在短时间内无法消除的#
事实上,这种理论和方法上的思想碰撞不但引起了学者间的激烈辩论,同时也有助于我们更 全面地诠释欧亚史前史#在这一方面,联合研究项目起到了重要作用: 在石器时代考古方面,中 国$俄罗斯与西方团队的合作研究早已轻车熟路,这也为双方共同研究新问题和创造新理论奠定 了良好基础
obtained radiocarbon dates from eight archaeological sites within the Qaidam Basin on the Tibetan Plateau. Integrated with existing 14 C data and spatial analysis, these findings reveal an overall continuous occupation of the basin from ca. 3600–2500 calBP, with a gradual shift from expansive lowland settlements to smaller, ephemeral high-altitude structures, identified around 3350 calBP. This change is consistent with demonstrated periods of climate degradation which likely drove
strategic adaptations in landscape management and subsistence methods. Overall, this research not only establishes a more robust chronology for the Qaidam Basin’s Bronze Age, but also advances the
discussion on human-environment interactions in high-altitude areas during late prehistory.
the relationship between the use of space and underlying social dynamics in the Eastern Tianshan Mountains of Xinjiang (China). Central to our findings is a distinctive centripetal compound structure, consisting of a larger non‑domestic building surrounded by smaller dwellings. This arrangement, along with the variety and distribution of the artifacts, reveals a complex interplay between private and communal spaces at the site, reflecting a growing complexity within the social fabric of the community. The formation of conglomerates of houses around a central communal structure which occurs across the Tianshan Mountains appears to be a strategic adaptation in response to environmental challenges and socio‑political transformations across this region at the end of the second millennium BCE.
(Nanyang, Henan Province). Despite its limited size, the assemblage provides valuable insights into the local economy, which the relative taxonomy suggests was predominantly agricultural, with pigs, cattle, and dogs being the most prevalent species. Pigs played a crucial role as meat producers, with cattle and dogs also contributing to a lesser extent. The evidence points to the exploitation of animals for traction in addition to the manufacture of animal-derived products including the use of horns and antlers for tool-making. Patterns in faunal mortality and biometry suggest that animals served as a meat source for the urban population and supported intensive smallscale agriculture in the surrounding area. Population size, land management and high-yield farming production were important factors that shaped, and were shaped by animal use at Yishengci. This research contributes to a better understanding of the subsistence strategies that supported the increasing urbanization during the early empire, supplementing what is predominantly known from historical texts and iconography.
to explore local animal resources exploitation strategies and related socio-economic implications.
Our results show an intensive multipurpose caprine management, while the exploitation of other domestic taxa, cattle, horses and dogs, was limited. This pastoral economy was supplemented with some hunting. The differentiated use of space in F2 indicates that basic domestic tasks were carried out in the structure, however its position within the landscape and the predominance of bone tools related to warfare and socialization activities, suggests that it was not an ordinary dwelling, it may also have served as a watch post for the summer encampment within the gully. Our findings constitute an important contribution on the discussion on animal resources exploitation strategies and their relationship with evolving socio-economic complexity in the Eastern Tianshan region in the late first millennium BCE.
苏联解体和中国改革开放之前,除有限的俄文和中文材料外,西方学者对于中亚和新疆的考 古发掘工作知之甚少#由于研究材料的缺乏,西方学者在研究世界史前史时,常将中亚与新疆排 除在外#1# 世纪 "# 年代以来,这一情况开始改变#有关欧亚草原的考古发掘与研究资料逐渐开 始向西方开放,这一切也有利于东西方之间展开更好的合作研究#克服语言障碍使得获取信息变 得更为容易,但有关考古学理论与方法上的分歧却是在短时间内无法消除的#
事实上,这种理论和方法上的思想碰撞不但引起了学者间的激烈辩论,同时也有助于我们更 全面地诠释欧亚史前史#在这一方面,联合研究项目起到了重要作用: 在石器时代考古方面,中 国$俄罗斯与西方团队的合作研究早已轻车熟路,这也为双方共同研究新问题和创造新理论奠定 了良好基础