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Adrian James

Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool Centre for Advanced Policing Studies, Faculty Member

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Former Scotland Yard detective, Adrian James, is a Reader in Police Studies at the Centre for Advanced Police Studies, Liverpool John Moores University, UK. Awarded his doctorate by the London School of Economics for a study into the origins and development of intelligence-led policing, Adrian has published extensively on investigative policy and practice. His publications include a research monograph on the UK’s National Intelligence Model, which commonly is viewed as the template for intelligence-led policing models that have emerged around the world. He maintains strong links with the policing institution through his research and consultancy work. He has completed studies for the UK’s College of Policing of ‘what works’ in police intelligence practice and for the UK National Police Chiefs Council of fast-track detective recruitment schemes. Currently, he is evaluating the UK’s processes for training and accrediting financial investigators for the Home Office.

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University of Portsmouth

Nicola Singleton

Georgios Antonopoulos

Teesside University

Birkbeck College, University of London

Susanne MacGregor

Cumberland Lodge

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Papers by Adrian James

A rapid evidence assessment of Operation Fortress: a multi-agency initiative to tackle the harm and violence associated with the trade in illicit drugs in Southampton

Operation Fortress is a multi-agency initiative to tackle drugs and violence in Southampton. The ... more Operation Fortress is a multi-agency initiative to tackle drugs and violence in Southampton. The researchers examined similar initiatives to identify 'what works' in reducing the harms associated with drug trafficking and use in communities and critically evaluated Fortress in the light of that analysis. It was found that the initiative had incorporated much of the learning from similar partnership projects and had built on their successes. The purposively chosen research sample was relatively small. Nevertheless, the researchers are satisfied that the findings are representative of the wider population. Research respondents highlighted as key: the expertise of the operation's police leaders; their focus on reducing harm in communities rather than on performance targets; their effective communication with partners and with their communities; and, particularly, the marketing of the operation which firmly established the positive value of the 'Fortress' brand. Fortress should be celebrated as an example of good practice in partnership working. The study also suggests the need for more effective national and regional support for local efforts if successes like this are in future to represent partnership norms.

Intelligence-led policing: comparing national approaches to its regulation and control

Comparative Policing from a Legal Perspective, 2018

‘What works?’ in police intelligence practice?

This paper analyses police intelligence practice in Britain. Initially, the aim was to assess int... more This paper analyses police intelligence practice in Britain. Initially, the aim was to assess intelligence practice through the lens of the ‘what works?’ concept. Dominating public sector policy making today, the idea that evidence-based practice (EBP) may provide the institution with the knowledge it needs to better manage its business, is now is akin to a mantra for British policing but this study suggests that there are limits to the explanatory power of ‘what works’?A review of relevant literature complemented a survey of a self-selected group of intelligence staff; a random sample of their number also was interviewed. Participants reflected on: their skills and abilities; their training; their successes and their failures; and the utility of the structures and processes within which they operated. Data were analysed using standard research tools. Respondents broadly agreed on what contributed to effective practice. Analysts,intelligence officers and managers ranked a skilled wo...

Police intelligence practice in the UK

This submission is based on evidence derived from three empirical studies of police intelligence ... more This submission is based on evidence derived from three empirical studies of police intelligence practice carried out over the last 10 years (see James, 2013, 2016 and 2017). Those studies suggest that even if the amelioration of some long-standing problems in that milieu can be discerned, structural and cultural barriers to the effectiveness of the work remain. Too often in mainstream policing, intelligence practice is seen as ancillary to the business of ‘real’ policing; co-existing in parallel with the operational world but not routinely influencing it in sufficiently meaningful ways. In the last three years, meaningful efforts have been made to professionalise the intelligence function but the extent to which those efforts have yet borne fruit is debatable. Beyond the higher policing units (whose raison d’être is the conversion of intelligence into action against serious and organised crime), there seems to be limited understanding of the value of intelligence and a propensity t...

The Road Not Taken: Understanding Barriers to the Development of Police Intelligence Practice

The International Journal of Intelligence, Security, and Public Affairs, 2017

To better understand police intelligence practice, we examined practitioners' views of their work... more To better understand police intelligence practice, we examined practitioners' views of their work and their relations with the wider law enforcement community. We surveyed intelligence staff (N=110), and interviewed a random sample of respondents (n=12). Our analysis suggested that traditionalism and the dominant action-oriented culture limit the organization's understanding of intelligence practice. Largely, the focus in that context has been on street cops' propensity to reject reflection in favour of action but intelligence practitioners need also look to themselves. Too often, the philosophy of 'need to know', is prioritized over its antithesis 'dare to share'. Though perceived by practitioners as low-risk and consistent with organisational norms, we argue that inappropriately applied, 'need to know' is the enemy of efficiency and real accountability, offering low levels of reward and discouraging the kinds of partnership, reciprocity and multi-directional knowledge transfer that policing needs, to be successful in the information age. We reconceptualised an interactivity/isolationism continuum, used in the natural sciences, to help interpret that phenomenon. We argue that isolationism is but one factor in a complex organisational dynamic but it is a significant one because it can subtly limit the influence and reach of the intelligence milieu in previously unacknowledged ways.

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing

The Path to Enlightenment: Limiting Costs and Maximizing Returns from Intelligence-Led Policy and Practice in Public Policing

Policing, 2017

Intelligence-led policing's (ILP) promise to reform policing has attracted many to its cause. Bas... more Intelligence-led policing's (ILP) promise to reform policing has attracted many to its cause. Based on empirical research, this paper challenges the validity of some of its claims and explains the ways that ILP may most fruitfully be employed. The research found that the success or failure of ILP depends on people and not on the ILP technologies, organizational structures, or processes that routinely receive attention. ILP may make perfect business sense in principle but human factors will always mitigate its prospects. Justifiably, ILP is the preferred strategy for combating organized crime or 'professional' criminals; the cost of investigations and intrusions into privacy can more readily be warranted. In the policing mainstream, an acceptable return on investment in those same methods is unlikely because the professional skills and specialist resources required to service them are in such short supply. Moreover, in liberal democracies their use is much more difficult to justify in social worlds that, properly, lie largely beyond the institutions' control.

Drowning not waving: after 40 years of neglect, what now should be done to develop police intelligence practice in Britain?

I have been studying police intelligence practice for about 16 years (see James, 2016, 2014, 2012... more I have been studying police intelligence practice for about 16 years (see James, 2016, 2014, 2012, and 2003). It has been a fascinating, intriguing, and frustrating journey in almost equal measure. Perhaps the thing I have found most frustrating is that after more than 40 years of scholarly research, police-led research and ‘official’ inquiries into criminal intelligence work, that practice looks very much the same today as it did in 1975.

Intelligence led policing

Policing and Society, Nov 22, 2017

Europol’s Crime Analysis System—Practical Determinants of Its Success

Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice

Threats to modern nation states from organized crime and terrorism create environments in which i... more Threats to modern nation states from organized crime and terrorism create environments in which intelligence becomes a vital component of policing and security plans but the increasing use of personal data for law enforcement purposes can alter the normative relationships between stakeholders and law enforcement agencies and between agencies and citizens. For that reason, police intelligence practice demands critical examination. This paper presents a narrative inquiry, based on the authors’ experiential knowledge and empirical research, into Europol’s Crime Analysis System (ECAS). The study explains Europol’s efforts to develop data collection and analysis systems that meet the needs of EU Member States (MS). Through ECAS, it has created powerful tools intended to deliver intelligence products that help MS identify, localize, and neutralize transnational threats to a degree not witnessed before in Europe. Nevertheless, Europol’s performance in this context seems sub-optimal. Shortc...

Criminal Networks, Illegal Immigration and the Threat to Border Security

This paper considers some of the challenges posed to law enforcement agencies in post-

Does Acpo Know Best: To What Extent May the Pip Programme Provide a Template for the Professionalisation of Policing?

The Police Journal

ABSTRACT

The Advance of Intelligence-Led Policing Strategies: The Emperor's New Clothes?

The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles

Evaluating the NIM: Challenges to the Model

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing, 2013

A Brief History of Investigative and Intelligence Practice in Britain

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing, 2013

Evaluating ILP and the NIM: Urban Case Study

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing, 2013

The Prospects for ILP

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing, 2013

Evaluating the NIM: County Case Study

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing, 2013

Examining intelligence-led policing: developments in research, policy and practice

Book review - ?The Human Factor ? Maximising the Use of Police Informants? by Tim Roberts

International Journal of Police Science and Management, 2003

A rapid evidence assessment of Operation Fortress: a multi-agency initiative to tackle the harm and violence associated with the trade in illicit drugs in Southampton

Operation Fortress is a multi-agency initiative to tackle drugs and violence in Southampton. The ... more Operation Fortress is a multi-agency initiative to tackle drugs and violence in Southampton. The researchers examined similar initiatives to identify 'what works' in reducing the harms associated with drug trafficking and use in communities and critically evaluated Fortress in the light of that analysis. It was found that the initiative had incorporated much of the learning from similar partnership projects and had built on their successes. The purposively chosen research sample was relatively small. Nevertheless, the researchers are satisfied that the findings are representative of the wider population. Research respondents highlighted as key: the expertise of the operation's police leaders; their focus on reducing harm in communities rather than on performance targets; their effective communication with partners and with their communities; and, particularly, the marketing of the operation which firmly established the positive value of the 'Fortress' brand. Fortress should be celebrated as an example of good practice in partnership working. The study also suggests the need for more effective national and regional support for local efforts if successes like this are in future to represent partnership norms.

Intelligence-led policing: comparing national approaches to its regulation and control

Comparative Policing from a Legal Perspective, 2018

‘What works?’ in police intelligence practice?

This paper analyses police intelligence practice in Britain. Initially, the aim was to assess int... more This paper analyses police intelligence practice in Britain. Initially, the aim was to assess intelligence practice through the lens of the ‘what works?’ concept. Dominating public sector policy making today, the idea that evidence-based practice (EBP) may provide the institution with the knowledge it needs to better manage its business, is now is akin to a mantra for British policing but this study suggests that there are limits to the explanatory power of ‘what works’?A review of relevant literature complemented a survey of a self-selected group of intelligence staff; a random sample of their number also was interviewed. Participants reflected on: their skills and abilities; their training; their successes and their failures; and the utility of the structures and processes within which they operated. Data were analysed using standard research tools. Respondents broadly agreed on what contributed to effective practice. Analysts,intelligence officers and managers ranked a skilled wo...

Police intelligence practice in the UK

This submission is based on evidence derived from three empirical studies of police intelligence ... more This submission is based on evidence derived from three empirical studies of police intelligence practice carried out over the last 10 years (see James, 2013, 2016 and 2017). Those studies suggest that even if the amelioration of some long-standing problems in that milieu can be discerned, structural and cultural barriers to the effectiveness of the work remain. Too often in mainstream policing, intelligence practice is seen as ancillary to the business of ‘real’ policing; co-existing in parallel with the operational world but not routinely influencing it in sufficiently meaningful ways. In the last three years, meaningful efforts have been made to professionalise the intelligence function but the extent to which those efforts have yet borne fruit is debatable. Beyond the higher policing units (whose raison d’être is the conversion of intelligence into action against serious and organised crime), there seems to be limited understanding of the value of intelligence and a propensity t...

The Road Not Taken: Understanding Barriers to the Development of Police Intelligence Practice

The International Journal of Intelligence, Security, and Public Affairs, 2017

To better understand police intelligence practice, we examined practitioners' views of their work... more To better understand police intelligence practice, we examined practitioners' views of their work and their relations with the wider law enforcement community. We surveyed intelligence staff (N=110), and interviewed a random sample of respondents (n=12). Our analysis suggested that traditionalism and the dominant action-oriented culture limit the organization's understanding of intelligence practice. Largely, the focus in that context has been on street cops' propensity to reject reflection in favour of action but intelligence practitioners need also look to themselves. Too often, the philosophy of 'need to know', is prioritized over its antithesis 'dare to share'. Though perceived by practitioners as low-risk and consistent with organisational norms, we argue that inappropriately applied, 'need to know' is the enemy of efficiency and real accountability, offering low levels of reward and discouraging the kinds of partnership, reciprocity and multi-directional knowledge transfer that policing needs, to be successful in the information age. We reconceptualised an interactivity/isolationism continuum, used in the natural sciences, to help interpret that phenomenon. We argue that isolationism is but one factor in a complex organisational dynamic but it is a significant one because it can subtly limit the influence and reach of the intelligence milieu in previously unacknowledged ways.

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing

The Path to Enlightenment: Limiting Costs and Maximizing Returns from Intelligence-Led Policy and Practice in Public Policing

Policing, 2017

Intelligence-led policing's (ILP) promise to reform policing has attracted many to its cause. Bas... more Intelligence-led policing's (ILP) promise to reform policing has attracted many to its cause. Based on empirical research, this paper challenges the validity of some of its claims and explains the ways that ILP may most fruitfully be employed. The research found that the success or failure of ILP depends on people and not on the ILP technologies, organizational structures, or processes that routinely receive attention. ILP may make perfect business sense in principle but human factors will always mitigate its prospects. Justifiably, ILP is the preferred strategy for combating organized crime or 'professional' criminals; the cost of investigations and intrusions into privacy can more readily be warranted. In the policing mainstream, an acceptable return on investment in those same methods is unlikely because the professional skills and specialist resources required to service them are in such short supply. Moreover, in liberal democracies their use is much more difficult to justify in social worlds that, properly, lie largely beyond the institutions' control.

Drowning not waving: after 40 years of neglect, what now should be done to develop police intelligence practice in Britain?

I have been studying police intelligence practice for about 16 years (see James, 2016, 2014, 2012... more I have been studying police intelligence practice for about 16 years (see James, 2016, 2014, 2012, and 2003). It has been a fascinating, intriguing, and frustrating journey in almost equal measure. Perhaps the thing I have found most frustrating is that after more than 40 years of scholarly research, police-led research and ‘official’ inquiries into criminal intelligence work, that practice looks very much the same today as it did in 1975.

Intelligence led policing

Policing and Society, Nov 22, 2017

Europol’s Crime Analysis System—Practical Determinants of Its Success

Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice

Threats to modern nation states from organized crime and terrorism create environments in which i... more Threats to modern nation states from organized crime and terrorism create environments in which intelligence becomes a vital component of policing and security plans but the increasing use of personal data for law enforcement purposes can alter the normative relationships between stakeholders and law enforcement agencies and between agencies and citizens. For that reason, police intelligence practice demands critical examination. This paper presents a narrative inquiry, based on the authors’ experiential knowledge and empirical research, into Europol’s Crime Analysis System (ECAS). The study explains Europol’s efforts to develop data collection and analysis systems that meet the needs of EU Member States (MS). Through ECAS, it has created powerful tools intended to deliver intelligence products that help MS identify, localize, and neutralize transnational threats to a degree not witnessed before in Europe. Nevertheless, Europol’s performance in this context seems sub-optimal. Shortc...

Criminal Networks, Illegal Immigration and the Threat to Border Security

This paper considers some of the challenges posed to law enforcement agencies in post-

Does Acpo Know Best: To What Extent May the Pip Programme Provide a Template for the Professionalisation of Policing?

The Police Journal

ABSTRACT

The Advance of Intelligence-Led Policing Strategies: The Emperor's New Clothes?

The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles

Evaluating the NIM: Challenges to the Model

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing, 2013

A Brief History of Investigative and Intelligence Practice in Britain

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing, 2013

Evaluating ILP and the NIM: Urban Case Study

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing, 2013

The Prospects for ILP

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing, 2013

Evaluating the NIM: County Case Study

Examining Intelligence-Led Policing, 2013

Examining intelligence-led policing: developments in research, policy and practice

Book review - ?The Human Factor ? Maximising the Use of Police Informants? by Tim Roberts

International Journal of Police Science and Management, 2003

The path to enlightenment: limiting costs and maximizing returns from intelligence-led policy and practice in public policing

Policing: Journal of Policy of Practice, 2017

Intelligence-led policing's (ILP) promise to reform policing has attracted many to its cause. Bas... more Intelligence-led policing's (ILP) promise to reform policing has attracted many to its cause. Based on empirical research, this paper challenges the validity of some of its claims and explains the ways that ILP may most fruitfully be employed. The research found that the success or failure of ILP depends on people and not on the ILP technologies, organizational structures, or processes that routinely receive attention. ILP may make perfect business sense in principle but human factors will always mitigate its prospects. Justifiably, ILP is the preferred strategy for combating organized crime or 'professional' criminals; the cost of investigations and intrusions into privacy can more readily be warranted. In the policing mainstream, an acceptable return on investment in those same methods is unlikely because the professional skills and specialist resources required to service them are in such short supply. Moreover, in liberal democracies their use is much more difficult to justify in social worlds that, properly, lie largely beyond the institutions' control.

Adrian James - Draft of chapter submitted for Comparative Policing from a Legal Perspective

Comparative Policing from a Legal Perspective - Edward Elgar, 2018

Intelligence-led policing (ILP) strategies are significant elements in modern policing arrangemen... more Intelligence-led policing (ILP) strategies are significant elements in modern policing arrangements. For some, policing’s enthusiasm for ILP is emblematic of ‘surveillance society’ and its attendant iniquities. Others argue that even though some of the strategies commonly associated with the term may be unpalatable; the need for ILP simply is a pragmatic reality. It is a necessary evil justified by the increasing dangerousness of the social world. Policymakers’ enthusiasm for alternative models indicates an international transformation of public policing. Such significant change gives rise to a number of questions. Not least, in this new policing paradigm: do normative checks and balances provide sufficient protection for citizens’ rights; to what extent does this reconfiguration threaten the legitimacy of public policing; and, finally, should there be cross-jurisdictional harmonization of ILP-related law and regulation? ISBN: 978 1 78536 910 0