This paper explores the newly introduced system of “imperial summons”
(召見) as a key method of r... more This paper explores the newly introduced system of “imperial summons” (召見) as a key method of receiving envoys from tributary states during the Yongzheng period of the Qing Dynasty. In the later years of Emperor Kangxi's reign, ceremonial events like the tea rite and the New Year's Day banquet were often omitted, and regular court audiences (常朝) became infrequent. As a result, envoys from tributary states, including Joseon Korea, had fewer opportunities to meet with the emperor. With the accession of Emperor Yongzheng, however, the imperial summons system was restructured and reinstated, and envoys from tributary states once again began to attend regular court audiences. This shift reflects Yongzheng's more proactive approach to engaging with envoys, in contrast to the relatively distant diplomatic relations seen during Kangxi's later years. Yongzheng also implemented a policy favoring envoys from Joseon's royal family, ensuring they had regular opportunities to meet with the emperor, particularly if the special envoy (別使) was a royal family member. During his reign, Yongzheng planned to hold imperial summons for Joseon envoys on four occasions, though one meeting was canceled due to the envoy's illness. In addition to Joseon envoys, he also summoned envoys from other tributary states, such as Ryukyu, Siam, and Annam, a total of seven times. A notable feature of the summoning audiences during the Yongzheng period is that envoys from other tributary states, aside from Joseon, were granted the same level of preferential treatment as Joseon's royal envoys. Even when envoys from Ryukyu, Annam, or Siam were not siblings of kings or crown princes, they were treated according to the rituals applied to Joseon's royal envoys. In addition to strengthening diplomatic ties through summoning audiences, Yongzheng also sought to build amicable relations by presenting special gifts (特賜) to envoys from tributary states, including Joseon. Some of the items gifted to Joseon included imperially commissioned books, enamelware produced at court, stationery, and Western clocks. Under Kangxi, the Qing typically gifted silk, but during Yongzheng's reign, enamelware, stationery, and Western clocks were introduced as gifts for the first time, reflecting the dynasty's growing adoption of Western technology. These special gifts extended beyond Joseon to include envoys from other tributary states, who received items such as imperial calligraphy, books, porcelain, enamelware, jade ware, glassware, and inkstones. Ultimately, Yongzheng aimed to reduce the physical and psychological distance between the emperor and the envoys that had developed in Kangxi's later years. By holding summoning audiences and presenting rare gifts, he worked to strengthen the Qing's diplomatic relations with its tributary states.
Meetings with Joseon Envoys during the Kangxi Era of the Qing Dynasty: New Year's Day Ceremonies,... more Meetings with Joseon Envoys during the Kangxi Era of the Qing Dynasty: New Year's Day Ceremonies, New Year's Day Banquets, Regular Court Audiences, and Imperial Summons
This article examines the diplomatic protocols during Kangxi's reign in the Qing Dynasty, with a particular focus on the reception methods for Joseon envoys. During the first 30 years of Kangxi's reign, he frequently held both New Year's Day ceremonies and New Year's Day banquets. However, in the latter half of his reign, only the New Year's Day ceremonies continued. Consequently, in this latter period, Joseon envoys could meet the emperor solely during these ceremonies. Additionally, the regular court audiences on the 5th, 15th, and 25th of each month, known as Changzhao (常朝), provided crucial opportunities for Joseon envoys, as well as envoys from other tributary states and the Khalkha and Oirat Mongols, to meet the emperor. While some regular envoys (節使) attended these events, most attendees were special envoys (別使). The presence of Joseon envoys at these events was concentrated in the first 30 years of Kangxi's reign, during which he frequently met them through both New Year's Day banquets and ceremonies. However, in the latter half of his reign, Kangxi reduced the frequency of regular court audiences, significantly limiting opportunities for Joseon envoys to meet the emperor. The attendance of envoys from other tributary states and Outer Mongol tribes at these audiences was similarly concentrated in the first 30 years of his reign. In the first half of Kangxi's reign, regular court audiences served to emphasize the emperor's authority and the power of the empire to visiting envoys. In contrast, during the latter half of his reign, several factors led to a significant reduction in these audiences, including the emperor’s desire to reduce court expenditures, the transformation of the Khalkha’s status from an independent polity to an "outer vassal" (外藩) of the Qing state—requiring their regular visits to Beijing at the end of the year for special banquets—and the increased stability of domestic and international order. As a result, the Qing court deemed frequent regular court audiences unnecessary. The article also examines the reception method known as "imperial summons" (召見). The two summons held in Beijing during Kangxi's reign were abruptly notified to the Joseon envoys, were not regulated by pre-prepared written ritual protocols, and did not involve rehearsals. The characteristics of Kangxi's summons offer an interesting comparison with those during and after Yongzheng’s reign in several aspects.
This essay examines Chosŏn monarchs’ patronage of the Nongsŏ Yi clan, a representative Ming desce... more This essay examines Chosŏn monarchs’ patronage of the Nongsŏ Yi clan, a representative Ming descent group in Chosŏn, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The clan claimed its descent from Li Rusong and Rumei, the commanders of the Ming expeditionary forces during the Imjin War. This essay investigates the bureaucratic advancement of Li Rusong and Rumei's descendants, closely analyzing the monarchs’ roles in making the clan a military yangban family and the obstacles that constrained such royal endeavors. It will also illuminate the close relationship between the intensification of Ming loyalism and the surging bureaucratic fortunes of the Nongsŏ Yi clan, placing special emphasis on how the rulers made use of Ming loyalist rituals to nurture the careers of the Nongsŏ Yi. This study also examines the bureaucratic vicissitudes of the Nongsŏ Yi during the nineteenth century, when the rulers exhibited a diminished interest in boosting Ming loyalism. This essay will also shed light on the status of Ming loyalism and the changing nature of rulership in nineteenth-century Chosŏn.
In 1749, King Yŏngjo and his courtiers began to venerate the Ming emperors Hongwu and Chongzhen a... more In 1749, King Yŏngjo and his courtiers began to venerate the Ming emperors Hongwu and Chongzhen at Taebodan in the courtyard of Ch’angdŏk Palace. This was in addition to Wanli, who had been honored since 1704. During the late Chosŏn period, the court regularly held rituals to worship these emperors. This study examines court discussions to assess the impact of this veneration on the image of the emperors. These show that prior to 1749, Chosŏn monarchs and ministers often viewed the emperors negatively, while at the same time lauding their virtues. The study also explores the process through which the court constructed orthodox narratives on the emperors, a process which bestowed the emperors with certain merits and virtues. These images became the only legitimate means through which to view them and were reinforced by regular state rituals. After 1749, the emperors became objects of supreme veneration rather than objective evaluation. Ming loyalism discouraged voices critical of the Ming or disrespectful to the emperors, an approach that supplanted a more critical Confucian interpretation.
During the reigns of Yŏngjo (r. 1724-76) and Chŏngjo (r. 1776-1800), royal audiences and tests we... more During the reigns of Yŏngjo (r. 1724-76) and Chŏngjo (r. 1776-1800), royal audiences and tests were established as important components of the mangbaerye-day events. For the two rulers, the audience was an occasion to use the significance of the rituals to justify bureaucratic promotions for the attendees. The literary and military tests on mangbaerye days were systematized by Yŏngjo and administered by the ruler as a stage in the state examination. By assuming leading ideological roles through rituals, Yŏngjo was able to present the image of a sage-ruler with supreme political and ideological authority. Chŏngjo refrained from bestowing examination privileges in the mangbaerye tests, making the mangbaerye days special occasions for disseminating Ming loyalism. In the nineteenth century, the frequency of Ming loyalist rituals was significantly reduced, and royal audiences came to a complete halt. Moreover, the rituals incrementally lost ground as events for highlighting the importance of the ritual attendees. The mangbaerye-day tests in the nineteenth century served as a venue to promote participating families' political advancement, rather than as an occasion to bolster the monarchical authority and power.
This article examines Chosŏn court’s diplomatic policy toward the Qing during the first few years... more This article examines Chosŏn court’s diplomatic policy toward the Qing during the first few years of King Chŏngjo's reign up until Qianlong Emperor’s seventieth birthday in 1780. Existing studies have stressed the significance of this imperial birthday as a pivotal moment in the relationship between Chosŏn and the Qing. Seldom, however, did they venture to explore the role and importance of Chŏngjo’s early policy toward the Qing prior to 1780.
Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history was introduced forty years ago by Korean scholars in Ch&a... more Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history was introduced forty years ago by Korean scholars in Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i, the former title of the journal Late Imperial China.1 Since then, Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history has grown exponentially. Many articles and books on Ming-Qing history have recently been published in South Korea, but this essay will focus on work on Sino-Korean relations during the Ming-Qing period published in the last twenty years. In the twenty-first century, among Korean scholars of late imperial Chinese history, Sino-Korean relations has been arguably the most important and innovative area of research. The theme of Sino-Korean relations, therefore, provides a useful overview of recent and original contributions of Korean scholars to the understanding of Ming-Qing China. Korean scholars' interest in the theme stems partly from the launch of the "Northeast Project" (Dongbei gongcheng) in the People's Republic of China, a state-sponsored research project to interpret the history of Northeast China from a perspective that emphasizes Chinese claims to ancient kingdoms in the region while stressing unity among different ethnic groups. Subsequent conflicts of historical interpretation between China and Korea triggered Korean scholars' rising interest in the borders and the historical relations between the two countries. Fundamentally, the intensification of interest in this topic resonates with, and is heavily influenced by, global research trends that challenge idealistic, and even mystified perspectives of the political center, and also trends that situate historical events in
Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history was introduced forty years ago by Korean scholars in Ch'i... more Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history was introduced forty years ago by Korean scholars in Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i, the former title of the journal Late Imperial China.1 Since then, Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history has grown exponentially. Many articles and books on Ming-Qing history have recently been published in South Korea, but this essay will focus on work on Sino-Korean relations during the Ming-Qing period published in the last twenty years. In the twenty-first century, among Korean scholars of late imperial Chinese history, Sino-Korean relations has been arguably the most important and innovative area of research. The theme of Sino-Korean relations, therefore, provides a useful overview of recent and original contributions of Korean scholars to the understanding of Ming-Qing China. Korean scholars' interest in the theme stems partly from the launch of the "Northeast Project" (Dongbei gongcheng) in the People's Republic of China, a state-sponsored research project to interpret the history of Northeast China from a perspective that emphasizes Chinese claims to ancient kingdoms in the region while stressing unity among different ethnic groups. Subsequent conflicts of historical interpretation between China and Korea triggered Korean scholars' rising interest in the borders and the historical relations between the two countries. Fundamentally, the intensification of interest in this topic resonates with, and is heavily influenced by, global research trends that challenge idealistic, and even mystified perspectives of the political center, and also trends that situate historical events in
The descendants of Ming loyalists who had migrated to Chosŏn with Prince Pongnim in 1645 were an ... more The descendants of Ming loyalists who had migrated to Chosŏn with Prince Pongnim in 1645 were an integral part of the Ming loyalist ideology advocated by the Chosŏn court during the eighteenth century. The significance of their presence in Chosŏn, however, waned with the weakening of this ideology and the rise of the Northern Learning in the nineteenth century.
China 32-2 400 역사와 현실 117 지역 엘리트 관계는 어떠한 면에서 유사성과 차이점을 노정하고 있었는지 관련 연구 성과를 검토하여 확인해 보려 하는 것이다. 여기... more China 32-2 400 역사와 현실 117 지역 엘리트 관계는 어떠한 면에서 유사성과 차이점을 노정하고 있었는지 관련 연구 성과를 검토하여 확인해 보려 하는 것이다. 여기서 지역 엘리트 라 함은 청의 경우 과거 제도를 통해 형성된 신사층( )을 위주로 하되 경제력 등을 바탕으로 성장한 비( ) 신사 유력층까지도 포괄하는 개념이 다. 조선의 경우 사족( ) 세력을 위시하여 이 시기 새롭게 대두한 요호 부민층( )까지를 포함하여 지칭하기로 한다. 중국사의 경우 18세기에서 19세기로의 전환기에 대한 학계의 관심이 최 근 크게 고조되고 있다. 기존의 청사 연구에서는 19세기 후반 지역 엘리트 들이 지방사회에서 담당하는 공적 역할이 확대되는 양상, 즉 엘리트 활동 주의(elite activism)에 주목한 바 있고 그 계기로서 19세기 중엽의 태평천 국 운동을 강조하였다. 1) 한편 18세기에 관한 연구에서는 이 시기를 황제권 및 중앙집권의 강화, 그리고 국가권력의 지역 사회 침투 증가의 시기로 특 징 지웠으며 이를 국가 활동주의(state activism)라 지칭하였다. 2) 반면 18세
The examination boycott (or riot), known as bakao or zukao, was one of the strategies employed by... more The examination boycott (or riot), known as bakao or zukao, was one of the strategies employed by Ming and Qing examination elites to express their discontent and threaten local officials. When apprentice candidates (tongsheng) or licentiates (shengyuan) gathered for an examination administered by local officials or provincial education commissioners, they would try to force the officials to accede to their demands by withdrawing from the examination. 2 The term examination candidates or elites used in this article refers to these apprentice candidates or lower-level degree-holders. Bakao action appeared often in the late Ming and early Qing periods, and was deemed a serious threat to local administration by early Qing emperors. It was not until the Yongzheng and Qianlong reigns, however, that the alarming surge in examination riots was dealt a serious setback. These two emperors reprimanded and severely punished the examination candidates as well as the magistrates who made conciliatory gestures toward those involved in these examination boycotts. This article attempts to further our understanding of the disciplinary measures directed toward collective protests from the early to mid-Qing period, with a particular focus on the government's policies concerning examination boycotts. This paper argues that the Qing government's approach to these 1 The research for this paper has benefitted from the support provided by the National Science Council in Taiwan (
The Worship of Former Worthies in Early Nineteenth Century Suzhou In the 1820s, the literati of S... more The Worship of Former Worthies in Early Nineteenth Century Suzhou In the 1820s, the literati of Suzhou embarked on a project to build a shrine devoted to the worship of local former worthies and engraved almost six hundred portraits of the latter on the shrine's inner walls. Since the locality already had a paired shrine of eminent officials and local worthies, as had become the case across the empire since the mid-Ming period, why did they need to create a shrine of a similar nature? What was the cultural significance of introducing visual representations of the worthies in the worship? By analyzing the multiple layers of meaning surrounding this shrine building activity, the present study attempts to illuminate an aspect of the changing state-elite relations in the early nineteenth century. Au cours des ann?es 1820 les lettr?s de Suzhou s'engag?rent dans un projet de con struction d'un sanctuaire d?di? au culte des anciennes personnalit?s locales ?minen tes, sur les murs duquel furent grav?s les portraits de pr?s de six cents d'entre elles. Dans la mesure, o? Suzhou poss?dait d?j? deux sanctuaires, l'un pour les fonction naires ?minents et l'autre pour les personnalit?s locales, comme c'?tait le cas partout dans l'Empire depuis le milieu des Ming, pourquoi fut-il jug? n?cessaire d'en cr?er un autre de m?me nature? Que signifiait d'un point de vue culturel le fait d'introduire des repr?sentations visuelles des personnalit?s en question dans les c?l?brations? En analysant les niveaux de sens multiples qui entourent cette activit? de construction, le pr?sent article s'efforce de mettre en lumi?re un aspect particulier du changement dans les relations entre l'Etat et les ?lites au d?but du xixe si?cle.
MEMORIES OF ZHANG SHICHENG 117 unabashedly localist historical understanding orthodox historiogra... more MEMORIES OF ZHANG SHICHENG 117 unabashedly localist historical understanding orthodox historiography and seriously under the fallen Ming.
Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies 15, no. 2 , 2015
Introduction From the Song dynasty (960-1127) on, the Chinese rural landscape saw the emergence o... more Introduction From the Song dynasty (960-1127) on, the Chinese rural landscape saw the emergence of market towns, mid-or small-size cities formed through commerce, industry, and transportation (Kawakatsu 1999, 18-19). Compared with administrative centers, such as county or prefectural seats, these towns generally enjoyed a smaller government presence and leadership was often in the hands of local people and organizations (Faure 2002, 75-79). During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, market towns in Jiangnan, the fertile delta located in the lower reaches of the Yangzi River, including southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang Provinces, proliferated as the silk and cotton textile industries developed and commercial grains and other crops flourished (Liu 1987;
The tributary system in early modern East Asia is a topic that has recently been gathering much s... more The tributary system in early modern East Asia is a topic that has recently been gathering much scholarly interest across disciplines and has thereby greatly expanded the horizon of our knowledge on various aspects of the system and related practices. At the moment, historians are most in need of a theoretical framework that can shed new light on those details and forge them into a larger argument. Ji-Young Lee's China's Hegemony is a timely contribution to the field, as the book exemplifies how an IR scholar can help historians better understand the topic by offering theoretical insights.
This paper explores the newly introduced system of “imperial summons”
(召見) as a key method of r... more This paper explores the newly introduced system of “imperial summons” (召見) as a key method of receiving envoys from tributary states during the Yongzheng period of the Qing Dynasty. In the later years of Emperor Kangxi's reign, ceremonial events like the tea rite and the New Year's Day banquet were often omitted, and regular court audiences (常朝) became infrequent. As a result, envoys from tributary states, including Joseon Korea, had fewer opportunities to meet with the emperor. With the accession of Emperor Yongzheng, however, the imperial summons system was restructured and reinstated, and envoys from tributary states once again began to attend regular court audiences. This shift reflects Yongzheng's more proactive approach to engaging with envoys, in contrast to the relatively distant diplomatic relations seen during Kangxi's later years. Yongzheng also implemented a policy favoring envoys from Joseon's royal family, ensuring they had regular opportunities to meet with the emperor, particularly if the special envoy (別使) was a royal family member. During his reign, Yongzheng planned to hold imperial summons for Joseon envoys on four occasions, though one meeting was canceled due to the envoy's illness. In addition to Joseon envoys, he also summoned envoys from other tributary states, such as Ryukyu, Siam, and Annam, a total of seven times. A notable feature of the summoning audiences during the Yongzheng period is that envoys from other tributary states, aside from Joseon, were granted the same level of preferential treatment as Joseon's royal envoys. Even when envoys from Ryukyu, Annam, or Siam were not siblings of kings or crown princes, they were treated according to the rituals applied to Joseon's royal envoys. In addition to strengthening diplomatic ties through summoning audiences, Yongzheng also sought to build amicable relations by presenting special gifts (特賜) to envoys from tributary states, including Joseon. Some of the items gifted to Joseon included imperially commissioned books, enamelware produced at court, stationery, and Western clocks. Under Kangxi, the Qing typically gifted silk, but during Yongzheng's reign, enamelware, stationery, and Western clocks were introduced as gifts for the first time, reflecting the dynasty's growing adoption of Western technology. These special gifts extended beyond Joseon to include envoys from other tributary states, who received items such as imperial calligraphy, books, porcelain, enamelware, jade ware, glassware, and inkstones. Ultimately, Yongzheng aimed to reduce the physical and psychological distance between the emperor and the envoys that had developed in Kangxi's later years. By holding summoning audiences and presenting rare gifts, he worked to strengthen the Qing's diplomatic relations with its tributary states.
Meetings with Joseon Envoys during the Kangxi Era of the Qing Dynasty: New Year's Day Ceremonies,... more Meetings with Joseon Envoys during the Kangxi Era of the Qing Dynasty: New Year's Day Ceremonies, New Year's Day Banquets, Regular Court Audiences, and Imperial Summons
This article examines the diplomatic protocols during Kangxi's reign in the Qing Dynasty, with a particular focus on the reception methods for Joseon envoys. During the first 30 years of Kangxi's reign, he frequently held both New Year's Day ceremonies and New Year's Day banquets. However, in the latter half of his reign, only the New Year's Day ceremonies continued. Consequently, in this latter period, Joseon envoys could meet the emperor solely during these ceremonies. Additionally, the regular court audiences on the 5th, 15th, and 25th of each month, known as Changzhao (常朝), provided crucial opportunities for Joseon envoys, as well as envoys from other tributary states and the Khalkha and Oirat Mongols, to meet the emperor. While some regular envoys (節使) attended these events, most attendees were special envoys (別使). The presence of Joseon envoys at these events was concentrated in the first 30 years of Kangxi's reign, during which he frequently met them through both New Year's Day banquets and ceremonies. However, in the latter half of his reign, Kangxi reduced the frequency of regular court audiences, significantly limiting opportunities for Joseon envoys to meet the emperor. The attendance of envoys from other tributary states and Outer Mongol tribes at these audiences was similarly concentrated in the first 30 years of his reign. In the first half of Kangxi's reign, regular court audiences served to emphasize the emperor's authority and the power of the empire to visiting envoys. In contrast, during the latter half of his reign, several factors led to a significant reduction in these audiences, including the emperor’s desire to reduce court expenditures, the transformation of the Khalkha’s status from an independent polity to an "outer vassal" (外藩) of the Qing state—requiring their regular visits to Beijing at the end of the year for special banquets—and the increased stability of domestic and international order. As a result, the Qing court deemed frequent regular court audiences unnecessary. The article also examines the reception method known as "imperial summons" (召見). The two summons held in Beijing during Kangxi's reign were abruptly notified to the Joseon envoys, were not regulated by pre-prepared written ritual protocols, and did not involve rehearsals. The characteristics of Kangxi's summons offer an interesting comparison with those during and after Yongzheng’s reign in several aspects.
This essay examines Chosŏn monarchs’ patronage of the Nongsŏ Yi clan, a representative Ming desce... more This essay examines Chosŏn monarchs’ patronage of the Nongsŏ Yi clan, a representative Ming descent group in Chosŏn, during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The clan claimed its descent from Li Rusong and Rumei, the commanders of the Ming expeditionary forces during the Imjin War. This essay investigates the bureaucratic advancement of Li Rusong and Rumei's descendants, closely analyzing the monarchs’ roles in making the clan a military yangban family and the obstacles that constrained such royal endeavors. It will also illuminate the close relationship between the intensification of Ming loyalism and the surging bureaucratic fortunes of the Nongsŏ Yi clan, placing special emphasis on how the rulers made use of Ming loyalist rituals to nurture the careers of the Nongsŏ Yi. This study also examines the bureaucratic vicissitudes of the Nongsŏ Yi during the nineteenth century, when the rulers exhibited a diminished interest in boosting Ming loyalism. This essay will also shed light on the status of Ming loyalism and the changing nature of rulership in nineteenth-century Chosŏn.
In 1749, King Yŏngjo and his courtiers began to venerate the Ming emperors Hongwu and Chongzhen a... more In 1749, King Yŏngjo and his courtiers began to venerate the Ming emperors Hongwu and Chongzhen at Taebodan in the courtyard of Ch’angdŏk Palace. This was in addition to Wanli, who had been honored since 1704. During the late Chosŏn period, the court regularly held rituals to worship these emperors. This study examines court discussions to assess the impact of this veneration on the image of the emperors. These show that prior to 1749, Chosŏn monarchs and ministers often viewed the emperors negatively, while at the same time lauding their virtues. The study also explores the process through which the court constructed orthodox narratives on the emperors, a process which bestowed the emperors with certain merits and virtues. These images became the only legitimate means through which to view them and were reinforced by regular state rituals. After 1749, the emperors became objects of supreme veneration rather than objective evaluation. Ming loyalism discouraged voices critical of the Ming or disrespectful to the emperors, an approach that supplanted a more critical Confucian interpretation.
During the reigns of Yŏngjo (r. 1724-76) and Chŏngjo (r. 1776-1800), royal audiences and tests we... more During the reigns of Yŏngjo (r. 1724-76) and Chŏngjo (r. 1776-1800), royal audiences and tests were established as important components of the mangbaerye-day events. For the two rulers, the audience was an occasion to use the significance of the rituals to justify bureaucratic promotions for the attendees. The literary and military tests on mangbaerye days were systematized by Yŏngjo and administered by the ruler as a stage in the state examination. By assuming leading ideological roles through rituals, Yŏngjo was able to present the image of a sage-ruler with supreme political and ideological authority. Chŏngjo refrained from bestowing examination privileges in the mangbaerye tests, making the mangbaerye days special occasions for disseminating Ming loyalism. In the nineteenth century, the frequency of Ming loyalist rituals was significantly reduced, and royal audiences came to a complete halt. Moreover, the rituals incrementally lost ground as events for highlighting the importance of the ritual attendees. The mangbaerye-day tests in the nineteenth century served as a venue to promote participating families' political advancement, rather than as an occasion to bolster the monarchical authority and power.
This article examines Chosŏn court’s diplomatic policy toward the Qing during the first few years... more This article examines Chosŏn court’s diplomatic policy toward the Qing during the first few years of King Chŏngjo's reign up until Qianlong Emperor’s seventieth birthday in 1780. Existing studies have stressed the significance of this imperial birthday as a pivotal moment in the relationship between Chosŏn and the Qing. Seldom, however, did they venture to explore the role and importance of Chŏngjo’s early policy toward the Qing prior to 1780.
Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history was introduced forty years ago by Korean scholars in Ch&a... more Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history was introduced forty years ago by Korean scholars in Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i, the former title of the journal Late Imperial China.1 Since then, Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history has grown exponentially. Many articles and books on Ming-Qing history have recently been published in South Korea, but this essay will focus on work on Sino-Korean relations during the Ming-Qing period published in the last twenty years. In the twenty-first century, among Korean scholars of late imperial Chinese history, Sino-Korean relations has been arguably the most important and innovative area of research. The theme of Sino-Korean relations, therefore, provides a useful overview of recent and original contributions of Korean scholars to the understanding of Ming-Qing China. Korean scholars' interest in the theme stems partly from the launch of the "Northeast Project" (Dongbei gongcheng) in the People's Republic of China, a state-sponsored research project to interpret the history of Northeast China from a perspective that emphasizes Chinese claims to ancient kingdoms in the region while stressing unity among different ethnic groups. Subsequent conflicts of historical interpretation between China and Korea triggered Korean scholars' rising interest in the borders and the historical relations between the two countries. Fundamentally, the intensification of interest in this topic resonates with, and is heavily influenced by, global research trends that challenge idealistic, and even mystified perspectives of the political center, and also trends that situate historical events in
Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history was introduced forty years ago by Korean scholars in Ch'i... more Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history was introduced forty years ago by Korean scholars in Ch'ing-shih wen-t'i, the former title of the journal Late Imperial China.1 Since then, Korean scholarship on Ming-Qing history has grown exponentially. Many articles and books on Ming-Qing history have recently been published in South Korea, but this essay will focus on work on Sino-Korean relations during the Ming-Qing period published in the last twenty years. In the twenty-first century, among Korean scholars of late imperial Chinese history, Sino-Korean relations has been arguably the most important and innovative area of research. The theme of Sino-Korean relations, therefore, provides a useful overview of recent and original contributions of Korean scholars to the understanding of Ming-Qing China. Korean scholars' interest in the theme stems partly from the launch of the "Northeast Project" (Dongbei gongcheng) in the People's Republic of China, a state-sponsored research project to interpret the history of Northeast China from a perspective that emphasizes Chinese claims to ancient kingdoms in the region while stressing unity among different ethnic groups. Subsequent conflicts of historical interpretation between China and Korea triggered Korean scholars' rising interest in the borders and the historical relations between the two countries. Fundamentally, the intensification of interest in this topic resonates with, and is heavily influenced by, global research trends that challenge idealistic, and even mystified perspectives of the political center, and also trends that situate historical events in
The descendants of Ming loyalists who had migrated to Chosŏn with Prince Pongnim in 1645 were an ... more The descendants of Ming loyalists who had migrated to Chosŏn with Prince Pongnim in 1645 were an integral part of the Ming loyalist ideology advocated by the Chosŏn court during the eighteenth century. The significance of their presence in Chosŏn, however, waned with the weakening of this ideology and the rise of the Northern Learning in the nineteenth century.
China 32-2 400 역사와 현실 117 지역 엘리트 관계는 어떠한 면에서 유사성과 차이점을 노정하고 있었는지 관련 연구 성과를 검토하여 확인해 보려 하는 것이다. 여기... more China 32-2 400 역사와 현실 117 지역 엘리트 관계는 어떠한 면에서 유사성과 차이점을 노정하고 있었는지 관련 연구 성과를 검토하여 확인해 보려 하는 것이다. 여기서 지역 엘리트 라 함은 청의 경우 과거 제도를 통해 형성된 신사층( )을 위주로 하되 경제력 등을 바탕으로 성장한 비( ) 신사 유력층까지도 포괄하는 개념이 다. 조선의 경우 사족( ) 세력을 위시하여 이 시기 새롭게 대두한 요호 부민층( )까지를 포함하여 지칭하기로 한다. 중국사의 경우 18세기에서 19세기로의 전환기에 대한 학계의 관심이 최 근 크게 고조되고 있다. 기존의 청사 연구에서는 19세기 후반 지역 엘리트 들이 지방사회에서 담당하는 공적 역할이 확대되는 양상, 즉 엘리트 활동 주의(elite activism)에 주목한 바 있고 그 계기로서 19세기 중엽의 태평천 국 운동을 강조하였다. 1) 한편 18세기에 관한 연구에서는 이 시기를 황제권 및 중앙집권의 강화, 그리고 국가권력의 지역 사회 침투 증가의 시기로 특 징 지웠으며 이를 국가 활동주의(state activism)라 지칭하였다. 2) 반면 18세
The examination boycott (or riot), known as bakao or zukao, was one of the strategies employed by... more The examination boycott (or riot), known as bakao or zukao, was one of the strategies employed by Ming and Qing examination elites to express their discontent and threaten local officials. When apprentice candidates (tongsheng) or licentiates (shengyuan) gathered for an examination administered by local officials or provincial education commissioners, they would try to force the officials to accede to their demands by withdrawing from the examination. 2 The term examination candidates or elites used in this article refers to these apprentice candidates or lower-level degree-holders. Bakao action appeared often in the late Ming and early Qing periods, and was deemed a serious threat to local administration by early Qing emperors. It was not until the Yongzheng and Qianlong reigns, however, that the alarming surge in examination riots was dealt a serious setback. These two emperors reprimanded and severely punished the examination candidates as well as the magistrates who made conciliatory gestures toward those involved in these examination boycotts. This article attempts to further our understanding of the disciplinary measures directed toward collective protests from the early to mid-Qing period, with a particular focus on the government's policies concerning examination boycotts. This paper argues that the Qing government's approach to these 1 The research for this paper has benefitted from the support provided by the National Science Council in Taiwan (
The Worship of Former Worthies in Early Nineteenth Century Suzhou In the 1820s, the literati of S... more The Worship of Former Worthies in Early Nineteenth Century Suzhou In the 1820s, the literati of Suzhou embarked on a project to build a shrine devoted to the worship of local former worthies and engraved almost six hundred portraits of the latter on the shrine's inner walls. Since the locality already had a paired shrine of eminent officials and local worthies, as had become the case across the empire since the mid-Ming period, why did they need to create a shrine of a similar nature? What was the cultural significance of introducing visual representations of the worthies in the worship? By analyzing the multiple layers of meaning surrounding this shrine building activity, the present study attempts to illuminate an aspect of the changing state-elite relations in the early nineteenth century. Au cours des ann?es 1820 les lettr?s de Suzhou s'engag?rent dans un projet de con struction d'un sanctuaire d?di? au culte des anciennes personnalit?s locales ?minen tes, sur les murs duquel furent grav?s les portraits de pr?s de six cents d'entre elles. Dans la mesure, o? Suzhou poss?dait d?j? deux sanctuaires, l'un pour les fonction naires ?minents et l'autre pour les personnalit?s locales, comme c'?tait le cas partout dans l'Empire depuis le milieu des Ming, pourquoi fut-il jug? n?cessaire d'en cr?er un autre de m?me nature? Que signifiait d'un point de vue culturel le fait d'introduire des repr?sentations visuelles des personnalit?s en question dans les c?l?brations? En analysant les niveaux de sens multiples qui entourent cette activit? de construction, le pr?sent article s'efforce de mettre en lumi?re un aspect particulier du changement dans les relations entre l'Etat et les ?lites au d?but du xixe si?cle.
MEMORIES OF ZHANG SHICHENG 117 unabashedly localist historical understanding orthodox historiogra... more MEMORIES OF ZHANG SHICHENG 117 unabashedly localist historical understanding orthodox historiography and seriously under the fallen Ming.
Sungkyun Journal of East Asian Studies 15, no. 2 , 2015
Introduction From the Song dynasty (960-1127) on, the Chinese rural landscape saw the emergence o... more Introduction From the Song dynasty (960-1127) on, the Chinese rural landscape saw the emergence of market towns, mid-or small-size cities formed through commerce, industry, and transportation (Kawakatsu 1999, 18-19). Compared with administrative centers, such as county or prefectural seats, these towns generally enjoyed a smaller government presence and leadership was often in the hands of local people and organizations (Faure 2002, 75-79). During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, market towns in Jiangnan, the fertile delta located in the lower reaches of the Yangzi River, including southern Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang Provinces, proliferated as the silk and cotton textile industries developed and commercial grains and other crops flourished (Liu 1987;
The tributary system in early modern East Asia is a topic that has recently been gathering much s... more The tributary system in early modern East Asia is a topic that has recently been gathering much scholarly interest across disciplines and has thereby greatly expanded the horizon of our knowledge on various aspects of the system and related practices. At the moment, historians are most in need of a theoretical framework that can shed new light on those details and forge them into a larger argument. Ji-Young Lee's China's Hegemony is a timely contribution to the field, as the book exemplifies how an IR scholar can help historians better understand the topic by offering theoretical insights.
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Papers by Seunghyun Han
(召見) as a key method of receiving envoys from tributary states during the
Yongzheng period of the Qing Dynasty. In the later years of Emperor
Kangxi's reign, ceremonial events like the tea rite and the New Year's Day
banquet were often omitted, and regular court audiences (常朝) became
infrequent. As a result, envoys from tributary states, including Joseon Korea, had fewer opportunities to meet with the emperor.
With the accession of Emperor Yongzheng, however, the imperial summons system was restructured and reinstated, and envoys from tributary states once again began to attend regular court audiences. This shift reflects Yongzheng's more proactive approach to engaging with envoys, in contrast to the relatively distant diplomatic relations seen during Kangxi's later years.
Yongzheng also implemented a policy favoring envoys from Joseon's royal family, ensuring they had regular opportunities to meet with the emperor, particularly if the special envoy (別使) was a royal family member. During his reign, Yongzheng planned to hold imperial summons for Joseon envoys on four occasions, though one meeting was canceled due to the envoy's illness. In addition to Joseon envoys, he also summoned envoys from other tributary states, such as Ryukyu, Siam, and Annam, a total of seven times. A notable feature of the summoning audiences during the Yongzheng period is that envoys from other tributary states, aside from Joseon, were granted the same level of preferential treatment as Joseon's royal envoys. Even when envoys from Ryukyu, Annam, or Siam were not siblings of kings or crown princes, they were treated according to the rituals applied to Joseon's royal envoys.
In addition to strengthening diplomatic ties through summoning audiences, Yongzheng also sought to build amicable relations by presenting special gifts (特賜) to envoys from tributary states, including Joseon. Some of the items gifted to Joseon included imperially commissioned books, enamelware produced at court, stationery, and Western clocks. Under Kangxi, the Qing typically gifted silk, but during Yongzheng's reign, enamelware, stationery, and Western clocks were introduced as gifts for the first time, reflecting the dynasty's growing adoption of Western technology. These special gifts extended beyond
Joseon to include envoys from other tributary states, who received items such as imperial calligraphy, books, porcelain, enamelware, jade ware, glassware, and inkstones. Ultimately, Yongzheng aimed to reduce the physical and psychological distance between the emperor and the envoys that had developed in Kangxi's later years. By holding summoning audiences and presenting rare gifts, he worked to strengthen the Qing's diplomatic relations with its tributary states.
This article examines the diplomatic protocols during Kangxi's reign in the Qing Dynasty, with a particular focus on the reception methods for Joseon envoys. During the first 30 years of Kangxi's reign, he frequently held both New Year's Day ceremonies and New Year's Day banquets. However, in the latter half of his reign, only the New Year's Day ceremonies continued. Consequently, in this latter period, Joseon envoys could meet the emperor solely during these ceremonies.
Additionally, the regular court audiences on the 5th, 15th, and 25th of each month, known as Changzhao (常朝), provided crucial opportunities for Joseon envoys, as well as envoys from other tributary states and the Khalkha and Oirat Mongols, to meet the emperor. While some regular envoys (節使) attended these events, most attendees were special envoys (別使). The presence of Joseon envoys at these events was concentrated in the first 30 years of Kangxi's reign, during which he frequently met them through both New Year's Day banquets and ceremonies. However, in the latter half of his reign, Kangxi reduced the frequency of regular court audiences, significantly limiting opportunities for Joseon envoys to meet the emperor. The attendance of envoys from other tributary states and Outer Mongol tribes at these audiences was similarly concentrated in the first 30 years of his reign.
In the first half of Kangxi's reign, regular court audiences served to emphasize the emperor's authority and the power of the empire to visiting envoys. In contrast, during the latter half of his reign, several factors led to a significant reduction in these audiences, including the emperor’s desire to reduce court expenditures, the transformation of the Khalkha’s status from an independent polity to an "outer vassal" (外藩) of the Qing state—requiring their regular visits to Beijing at the end of the year for special banquets—and the increased stability of domestic and international order. As a result, the Qing court deemed frequent regular court audiences unnecessary.
The article also examines the reception method known as "imperial summons" (召見). The two summons held in Beijing during Kangxi's reign were abruptly notified to the Joseon envoys, were not regulated by pre-prepared written ritual protocols, and did not involve rehearsals. The characteristics of Kangxi's summons offer an interesting comparison with those during and after Yongzheng’s reign in several aspects.
(召見) as a key method of receiving envoys from tributary states during the
Yongzheng period of the Qing Dynasty. In the later years of Emperor
Kangxi's reign, ceremonial events like the tea rite and the New Year's Day
banquet were often omitted, and regular court audiences (常朝) became
infrequent. As a result, envoys from tributary states, including Joseon Korea, had fewer opportunities to meet with the emperor.
With the accession of Emperor Yongzheng, however, the imperial summons system was restructured and reinstated, and envoys from tributary states once again began to attend regular court audiences. This shift reflects Yongzheng's more proactive approach to engaging with envoys, in contrast to the relatively distant diplomatic relations seen during Kangxi's later years.
Yongzheng also implemented a policy favoring envoys from Joseon's royal family, ensuring they had regular opportunities to meet with the emperor, particularly if the special envoy (別使) was a royal family member. During his reign, Yongzheng planned to hold imperial summons for Joseon envoys on four occasions, though one meeting was canceled due to the envoy's illness. In addition to Joseon envoys, he also summoned envoys from other tributary states, such as Ryukyu, Siam, and Annam, a total of seven times. A notable feature of the summoning audiences during the Yongzheng period is that envoys from other tributary states, aside from Joseon, were granted the same level of preferential treatment as Joseon's royal envoys. Even when envoys from Ryukyu, Annam, or Siam were not siblings of kings or crown princes, they were treated according to the rituals applied to Joseon's royal envoys.
In addition to strengthening diplomatic ties through summoning audiences, Yongzheng also sought to build amicable relations by presenting special gifts (特賜) to envoys from tributary states, including Joseon. Some of the items gifted to Joseon included imperially commissioned books, enamelware produced at court, stationery, and Western clocks. Under Kangxi, the Qing typically gifted silk, but during Yongzheng's reign, enamelware, stationery, and Western clocks were introduced as gifts for the first time, reflecting the dynasty's growing adoption of Western technology. These special gifts extended beyond
Joseon to include envoys from other tributary states, who received items such as imperial calligraphy, books, porcelain, enamelware, jade ware, glassware, and inkstones. Ultimately, Yongzheng aimed to reduce the physical and psychological distance between the emperor and the envoys that had developed in Kangxi's later years. By holding summoning audiences and presenting rare gifts, he worked to strengthen the Qing's diplomatic relations with its tributary states.
This article examines the diplomatic protocols during Kangxi's reign in the Qing Dynasty, with a particular focus on the reception methods for Joseon envoys. During the first 30 years of Kangxi's reign, he frequently held both New Year's Day ceremonies and New Year's Day banquets. However, in the latter half of his reign, only the New Year's Day ceremonies continued. Consequently, in this latter period, Joseon envoys could meet the emperor solely during these ceremonies.
Additionally, the regular court audiences on the 5th, 15th, and 25th of each month, known as Changzhao (常朝), provided crucial opportunities for Joseon envoys, as well as envoys from other tributary states and the Khalkha and Oirat Mongols, to meet the emperor. While some regular envoys (節使) attended these events, most attendees were special envoys (別使). The presence of Joseon envoys at these events was concentrated in the first 30 years of Kangxi's reign, during which he frequently met them through both New Year's Day banquets and ceremonies. However, in the latter half of his reign, Kangxi reduced the frequency of regular court audiences, significantly limiting opportunities for Joseon envoys to meet the emperor. The attendance of envoys from other tributary states and Outer Mongol tribes at these audiences was similarly concentrated in the first 30 years of his reign.
In the first half of Kangxi's reign, regular court audiences served to emphasize the emperor's authority and the power of the empire to visiting envoys. In contrast, during the latter half of his reign, several factors led to a significant reduction in these audiences, including the emperor’s desire to reduce court expenditures, the transformation of the Khalkha’s status from an independent polity to an "outer vassal" (外藩) of the Qing state—requiring their regular visits to Beijing at the end of the year for special banquets—and the increased stability of domestic and international order. As a result, the Qing court deemed frequent regular court audiences unnecessary.
The article also examines the reception method known as "imperial summons" (召見). The two summons held in Beijing during Kangxi's reign were abruptly notified to the Joseon envoys, were not regulated by pre-prepared written ritual protocols, and did not involve rehearsals. The characteristics of Kangxi's summons offer an interesting comparison with those during and after Yongzheng’s reign in several aspects.