Books by Silvia Scarpa
Articles & Book Chapters by Silvia Scarpa
Giovanna Gnerre Landini (ed), CHILDREN IN ARMED CONFLICT: HOW CAN THEY BE PROTECTED IN A MULTILEVEL INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK?, Gambini Editor, 2024
Children displaced during an armed conflict are at a high risk of being trafficked for various ex... more Children displaced during an armed conflict are at a high risk of being trafficked for various exploitative purposes or might end up in the hands of ruthless smugglers of migrants. The aim of this brief study is to understand if transnational human trafficking and smuggling of migrants’ standards existing at the universal level, i.e. the two Additional Protocols to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, in Particular Women and Children, and Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Supple- menting the Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, are adequate supplementary standards to guarantee the protection of children escaping from the violence of armed conflicts. While their importance is certainly to be acknowledged, their implemen- tation is to be promoted side by side with the one of a combination of international norms existing inter alia in the areas of interna- tional humanitarian law, international human rights law, and in- ternational refugee law. Therefore, while the relevance of these branches of international law in a vision of complementarity is fully recognized in this study, the focus is only on understanding the (limited) added value of the two above-mentioned treaties in- cluded in transnational criminal law.
Groningen Journal of International Law (GJIL), 2013
The article discusses the problems determined by the interpretation of the definition of traffick... more The article discusses the problems determined by the interpretation of the definition of trafficking in adult persons contained in Article 3(a) of the UN Trafficking Protocol as including the element of the improper means and vitiated consent. In particular, it examines whether consent is an issue in the definitional frameworks related to the forms of exploitation associated with trafficking and formulates a recommendation to take eventual definitional conflicts into consideration.
G. M. Bonaviri and M. M. Sadowski (eds), Heritage in War and Peace, Springer, Cham, 2024, 2024
The aim of this chapter is to demonstrate that a new inclusive strategy is needed to guarantee th... more The aim of this chapter is to demonstrate that a new inclusive strategy is needed to guarantee that the human rights of indigenous peoples are promoted while guaranteeing the protection of cultural and natural heritage to favor coexistence among local communities and relevant endangered species in national parks and other protected areas worldwide. The 2019 allegations against the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) that it promoted anti-poaching activities by national rangers in various national parks, most of which are World Heritage sites located in six Asian and African states, thus contributing to serious human rights violations and abuses against indigenous peoples living in or near these sites, constitute the reason for an analysis of the international framework related to, on the one hand, the human rights of indigenous peoples living in or near protected areas and, on the other hand, the protection of cultural and natural heritage.
The conclusions reached and recommendations formulated by the Independent Panel of Experts that reviewed the work of the WWF in 2020 are, in the opinion of this author, very much relevant when promoting a human rights consistent involvement of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in environmental protection efforts. Nonetheless, the example at hand demonstrates that NGOs, as other non-State actors, shall abide to sound human rights regulatory frameworks, whose further development would be considered an important milestone, and that only a coordinated strategy involving all relevant actors and stakeholders, including in particular State authorities, relevant international organizations such as UNESCO, nongovernmental organizations, and indigenous peoples may advance a more balanced approach that equally promotes, on the one hand, fundamental wildlife protection activities and, on the other hand, furthers the respect and mainstreaming of the rights of indigenous peoples.
EU LAW Live, 2023
On 30 March 2023, the First Chamber of the Court of Justice delivered its judgement in Staatssec... more On 30 March 2023, the First Chamber of the Court of Justice delivered its judgement in Staatssecretaris van Justitie en Veiligheid (State Secretary for Justice and Security of the Netherlands) v. S.S., N.Z., and S.S. (C-338/21), a preliminary ruling case formulated by the Raad van State (Council of State of the Netherlands). The case regards the interpretation of Articles 27(3) and 29 of Regulation No 604/2013, known as the Dublin III Regulation, read in conjunction with EU law granting protection to victims of trafficking in human beings. The judgment is intertwined with another preliminary ruling in Staatssecretaris van Justitie en Veiligheid v. E.N., S.S. and J.Y (C-556/21), concerning the interpretation of the above-mentioned provisions of the Dublin III Regulation. However, this brief Op-Ed only analyses some relevant legal issues arising by the intersection of the asylum and trafficking procedures in case C-338/21.
Revue Internationale De Droit Penal, May 1, 2011
The purpose of this article will be to examine the initiatives developed by Western European Stat... more The purpose of this article will be to examine the initiatives developed by Western European States1 to fight against human trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation, to prevent the phenomenon and to protect the victims. It will initially define human trafficking on the basis of the definition given by the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children adopted in Palermo in 2000, and recognize that the commercial sexual exploitation of the victims is only one of a variety of forms of exploitation that are included within the phenomenon, even if it is the one that in the last years has received more attention, being studied extensively worldwide. Then, the main characteristics of human trafficking for commercial sexual exploitation in Western Europe will be analysed and the actions developed by the Council of Europe and the European Union at the regional level will be analysed. Finally, the fact that all the countries in Western Europe have adopted specific laws or amended existing ones to fight against human trafficking and that - on the basis of recent studies conducted on those who buy sexual services - some of them are even re-opening the debate on the distinction between “free” and “forced” prostitution will be assessed.
Affari Sociali Internazionali, 2005
Sono passati ormai ventitré anni da quando nel 1981 la Mauritania è stata l'ultimo paese al m... more Sono passati ormai ventitré anni da quando nel 1981 la Mauritania è stata l'ultimo paese al mondo ad aver ufficialmente abolito la schiavitù. Tuttavia, se il fenomeno tradizionale può dirsi quasi scomparso, riemerge oggi sempre più preoccupantemente una nuova tratta di ...
Diritto Immigrazione E Cittadinanza, 2005
La tutela dei diritti delle vittime di tratta degli esseri umani ed il sistema premiale previsto ... more La tutela dei diritti delle vittime di tratta degli esseri umani ed il sistema premiale previsto dalla direttiva comunitaria 2004/81/CE
Girls Children in Armed Conflict: A Study Conducted by the Universities Network for Children in Armed Conflict, Apes Publishing House, p. 49 – 64, ISBN: 9788872331682., 2022
Notwithstanding evidence of their widespread nature, child, early and forced marriages (CEFM) of ... more Notwithstanding evidence of their widespread nature, child, early and forced marriages (CEFM) of girls during armed conflicts are often an overlooked issue. Moreover, while there are some recent important international legal and judicial developments in this field, the fragmented nature of the international legal system protecting girls from CEFM during armed conflicts and offering judicial redress is also to be noted. At least five branches of international law, including international human rights law (IHRL), international slavery law (ISL), international humanitarian law (IHL) and international criminal law (ICL), as well as rules in the field of transnational criminal law (TCL), contain provisions that are relevant to CEFM of girls during armed conflicts. As generally emphasized by the Study Group of the International Law Commission in 2006, the problem with the fragmentation of international law lies in the potential conflicts between rules belonging to different systems, as well as “the loss of an overall perspective on the law”. A recognition that CEFM of girls during armed conflicts are often overlooked and that the international legal rules applicable in this field belong to various branches of international law allows for a re-consideration on how to guarantee a comprehensive approach for tackling the problem. Therefore, this chapter is aimed at commenting on the general lack of data on CEFM of girls during armed conflicts, at pointing out their relevant characteristics that are worth of legal consideration, and at analyzing how a better understanding of the fragmentation of international law in this field may help in overcoming this odious practice.
Liber Amicorum Sergio Marchisio - Il Diritto della Comunità Internazionale tra Caratteristiche Strutturali e Tendenze Innovative, Volume II, Editoriale Scientifica, Napoli, p. 1571-1584, ISBN: 979-12-5976-288-7., 2022
Questo scritto si propone di rendere omaggio al Prof. Sergio Marchisio analizzando il disarmo, in... more Questo scritto si propone di rendere omaggio al Prof. Sergio Marchisio analizzando il disarmo, in particolare quello nucleare, in una prospettiva umanitaria, di sicurezza umana e di diritti umani. Pur nella consapevolezza dell’intima connessione tra non proliferazione delle armi nucleari, disarmo e divieto di test nucleari, esso esamina principalmente le questioni attinenti al disarmo nucleare completo. In tal senso, si analizza lo stallo determinatosi all’interno della Comunità internazionale negli ultimi cinquant’anni a causa del sistema di norme internazionali in materia di disarmo nucleare completo, che ha il suo fulcro nell’articolo VI del Trattato di non-proliferazione nucleare (NPT), per poi considerare lo stravolgimento della prospettiva determinato dall’inserimento di considerazioni umanitarie, di sicurezza umana e basate sui diritti umani all’interno della narrativa del settore, e concludere con alcune considerazioni sul Trattato sulla proibizione delle armi nucleari (TPNW),
recentemente entrato in vigore.
EU Law Live, 2022
On 1 August 2022 the Grand Chamber delivered its judgment in Sea Watch E.V. v Ministero delle Inf... more On 1 August 2022 the Grand Chamber delivered its judgment in Sea Watch E.V. v Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti and Capitaneria di Porto di Palermo and Sea Watch E.V. v Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti and Capitaneria di Porto Empedocle (Joined Cases C-14/21 and C-15/21), regarding the extent of the powers conferred on port State authorities under Directive 2009/16/EC on Port State Control (Recast). The judgment was rendered pursuant to the preliminary rulings’ procedure contained in Article 267 TFEU and upon requests from the Regional Administrative Court of Sicily (Tribunale Amministrativo per la Sicilia, TAR) made in two sets of proceedings initiated by the non-governmental organisation (NGO) Sea Watch. The trials are aimed at obtaining the annulment of the detention orders of the private humanitarian assistance ships Sea Watch 3 and Sea Watch 4, run by Sea Watch, which were ordered in the summer of 2020 by the Port State Authorities of Port Empedocle and Palermo.
The judgment follows the adoption on 22 February 2022 of Advocate General (AG) Athanasios Rantos’ Opinion. The issues that led the TAR to request the Court of Justice’s interpretation of relevant provisions of Directive 2009/16 as well as the AG’s Opinion are examined in the previous Op-Ed by this author.
This judgment is not only relevant for its interpretation of specific provisions of Directive 2009/16, but also because it adds to fair legal arguments in a highly politicised debate on the role of private humanitarian assistance ships in SAR activities in the Mediterranean Sea. Actually, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) regularly collects data on SAR activities in the Mediterranean Sea and on administrative and criminal proceedings against ships and their crew. Data on proceedings show that since 2018 more than 60 criminal and administrative proceedings were initiated in Germany, Greece, Italy, Malta, the Netherlands and Spain, thus creating conspicuous problems to vessels and crew involved in such SAR activities. According to the Missing Migrants project of the International Organization for Migration (IOM), 24,674 migrants have gone missing since 2014 in the Mediterranean Sea, with the central Mediterranean route being the deadliest known migration route in the world.
EU Law Live, 2022
On 22 February 2022 Advocate General (AG) Athanasios Rantos delivered his Opinion in Joined Sea W... more On 22 February 2022 Advocate General (AG) Athanasios Rantos delivered his Opinion in Joined Sea Watch E.V. v Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti, Capitaneria di Porto di Porto Empedocle (Cases C-14/21 and C-15/21), regarding the extent of the powers conferred on port State authorities under Directive 2009/16/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on Port State Control (Recast). He examines the legal issues identified by the Tribunale Amministrativo Regionale (TAR) per la Sicilia (the Regional Administrative Court of Sicily) that, on the basis of the preliminary ruling procedure provided by Article 267 TFEU, adopted Court Order n. 2974 on 23 December 2020 requesting clarifications to the Court of Justice on the interpretation of European Union law in this field.
The two cases C-14/21 and C-15/21 originated in the detention of two Sea Watch ships – namely Sea Watch 3 and Sea Watch 4 – decided by the Port State Authorities of Port Empedocles and Palermo in the summer of 2020. In particular, the ship Sea Watch 3 had been placed under detention in Port Empedocles in July 2020 after having rescued 211 persons. The ship Sea Watch 4, having rescued 354 persons two weeks earlier, was placed under administrative detention by the port State Authorities of Palermo on 19 September 2020 after an 11-hours inspection.
Sea Watch is an independent non-governmental organization headquartered in Berlin (Germany) that has been operating in the Central Mediterranean Sea route since 2014, rescuing more than 35 000 migrants in distress at sea. The Missing Migrants Project run by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) considers the Central Mediterranean route as the deadliest in the world, with more than 17 000 deaths and disappearances since 2014.
The two cases are important because the practice of Italian port State authorities to place private ships involved in SAR activities under detention has been a regular tenet since 2020 and the problem persists, in particular, in respect of ships flying a German flag, given the German authorities reluctance both to adopt specific legislation for private ships involved in SAR operations and to certify the ships for this specific activity that they perform (Merli).
Coherence and Incoherence in Migration Management and Integration, 2017
ISBN 978-2-89400-389-3
Questions of International Law (QIL), 2019
The aim of this article is twofold: first, it analyses the international concept of human dignity... more The aim of this article is twofold: first, it analyses the international concept of human dignity and assesses the role it might play in the field of contemporary forms of slavery; second, it formulates some proposals for redirecting the debate on the relevant international legal definitions in this field. The article argues that the operationalization of the concept of dignity as a general principle of law relevant to the suppression of contemporary forms of slavery might serve certain legal purposes that are examined in this study. However, a number of additional actions would be needed in order to clear the muddy waters in the field of ‘contemporary forms of slavery’. As recently recognized by the present author in a Report requested by the Sub-Committee on Human Rights of the Euro- pean Parliament, the concept of ‘contemporary forms of slavery’ – as well as similar concepts, such as modern forms of slavery, modern slavery, and contemporary slavery – is frequently used as a non-legal umbrella term, covering multiple exploitative practices ‘while avoiding a careful scrutiny on whether or not they fit the legal concept of slavery as defined by the outdated 1926 Slavery Convention or those of some others exploitative practices defined under international treaty law’.
Such actions include, first, assessing the existence under international customary law of a minimum core of practices constituting ‘contemporary forms of slavery’, second, redirecting the focus on the interpretation of the peremptory (jus cogens) norm prohibiting slavery, which so far has not received adequate attention by international law scholars who have instead dedicated much attention to interpreting the definition of slavery included in the 1926 Slavery Convention, and, third, promoting the adoption of a new treaty on contemporary forms of slavery that would fill in any remaining loopholes.
Winterdyk J., Jones J. (eds) The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking. Palgrave Macmillan, 2019
The aim of the chapter is to clarify the contours of the definition of slavery. Special attention... more The aim of the chapter is to clarify the contours of the definition of slavery. Special attention is placed in understanding the blurred lines between the international legal definitions of slavery and of other exploitative practices, including the practices labeled as similar to slavery, as well as servitude and forced labor, and its relationship with trafficking in persons. A distinction is subsequently made between the international legal definition contained in the 1926 Slavery Convention adopted by the League of Nations and sociological ones developed by various scholars such as K. Bales, O. Patterson, and A. Honoré. Elements included in these definitions are analyzed and discussed in light of the 1926 definition of slavery. In this respect, the recent reorientation of international attention toward (forms of) contemporary, modern, or modern-day slavery is discussed, thus concluding that it offers a way to avoid careful scrutiny on whether exploitative practices fit the 1926 legal definition of slavery.
Winterdyk J., Jones J. (eds) The Palgrave International Handbook of Human Trafficking. Palgrave Macmillan, 2019
The chapter describes the process that led to the adoption of the UN Trafficking Protocol as an i... more The chapter describes the process that led to the adoption of the UN Trafficking Protocol as an instrument of transnational criminal law and comments on its most debated aspects, including the adoption of the first definition of trafficking in persons in an international treaty, the thin line separating trafficking in persons from the smuggling of migrants and the scarce measures aimed at protecting victims. The problematic aspects, loopholes, and lack of effectiveness and consistency in the UN Trafficking Protocol are discussed.
STUDI SULL’INTEGRAZIONE EUROPEA, 2018
Istituito nel 1996, il Consiglio artico è il più importante foro intergovernativo della regione a... more Istituito nel 1996, il Consiglio artico è il più importante foro intergovernativo della regione artica1; di esso fanno parte gli otto Stati artici2 e sei organizzazioni dei popoli indigeni, riconosciute come partecipanti permanenti3. Per quanto riguarda poi la partecipazione al Consiglio artico di organizzazioni intergovernative, è noto che l’Unione europea (UE) ha presentato domanda di ammissione in qualità di osservatore nel 2008 e, pur essendo stata ammessa a seguire i lavori in maniera provvisoria dal 2013, non è ancora riuscita ad ottenere il riconoscimento definitivo4. Infatti, durante la riunione ministeriale di Kiruna, la decisione di concedere lo status provvisorio di osser- vatore de facto all’UE è stata determinata dal veto canadese posto contro il riconosci- mento definitivo, a causa del divieto inserito nella normativa UE di importare prodotti derivati dalla caccia alla foca. Successivamente, nonostante la soluzione della questione con il Canada, durante la riunione ministeriale di Iqaluit (Canada) dell’aprile 2015, è stata la Russia a porre il veto al pieno riconoscimento del ruolo di osservatore dell’UE. È probabile che proprio la difficoltà di essere accettata a pieno titolo nel Consiglio artico sia all’origine della formulazione ancora incompleta di una politica integrata per l’Artico da parte dell’UE, anche se essa ha iniziato ad occuparsi di tale area geografica dagli anni Novanta. In tali anni, infatti, ha cominciato a partecipare ai lavori del Consiglio euro-artico di Barents6, del Consiglio degli Stati del Mar Baltico (CBSS)7 e ha lanciato la Dimensione settentrionale (ND)8 – foro intergover- nativo volto allo sviluppo di azioni concertate – senza, però, riuscire a sviluppare
una vera e propria politica comune per l’Artico9.
Una più attenta considerazione dei problemi dell’Artico si osserva a seguito del
tentativo della Norvegia di condizionare la politica marittima dell’UE includendovi l’Artico10 e dell’invio da parte della Federazione russa di una missione esplorativa dei fondali marini artici11, volta a stabilire il limite esterno della sua piattaforma continen- tale posto al di là delle 200 miglia marine, secondo i criteri stabiliti dall’art. 76 della Convenzione delle Nazioni Unite sul diritto del mare (UNCLOS). Proprio quest’ultimo evento – considerato il grande risalto mediatico dato all’esplorazione dei due sommer- gibili russi Mir I e Mir II, che hanno piantato una bandiera russa sul fondale marino posto sotto il Polo Nord geografico – ha aperto una stagione, definita da molti studiosi come di vera e propria “corsa all’Artico”, diretta ad accaparrarsi le sue risorse12.
Nell’esame dei problemi della zona, va peraltro tenuto conto che, geografica- mente, i limiti esterni del territorio dell’UE arrivano fino all’Artico, in quanto il terri- torio di tre dei suoi Stati membri – Danimarca, Finlandia e Svezia13 – si estende oltre il circolo polare artico e che altri due Stati artici, Norvegia e Islanda, pur non essendo membri UE, fanno parte dell’Accordo di Schengen. Oltre all’estensione territoriale, l’attuale maggiore interesse dell’UE per l’Artico è dovuto alla volontà di contribuire alla lotta ai cambiamenti climatici14 e all’intento di favorire la ricerca scientifica e lo sviluppo sostenibile della zona. A tale proposito, tra gli impegni al riguardo finora presi si possono ricordare, tra gli altri, la ratifica insieme ai suoi Stati membri della Convenzione-quadro ONU sui cambiamenti climatici e dell’Accordo di Parigi15, la volontà di raggiungere entro il 2030 gli obiettivi di sviluppo sostenibile e il ruolo di primo piano assunto nel finanziamento di progetti di ricerca scientifica nell’Artico.
Per il raggiungimento di questi ed altri obiettivi, l’Unione europea esercita innu- merevoli competenze esclusive, concorrenti e di sostegno, coordinamento o comple- tamento in settori rilevanti per l’Artico16. In particolare, questioni di fondamentale importanza per l’Artico, quali ad esempio la navigazione marittima, la pesca, la lotta ai cambiamenti climatici e lo sfruttamento degli idrocarburi, figurano tra le compe- tenze concorrenti dell’UE (art. 4 TFUE), mentre la conservazione delle risorse biolo- giche marine nell’ambito della politica comune della pesca, la politica commerciale comune e le regole connesse alla concorrenza non falsata nel mercato interno appar- tengono, invece, a quelle esclusive (art. 3 TFUE) esercitate da Bruxelles17. Infine, la tutela ed il miglioramento della salute umana, l’industria, la cultura e il turismo fanno parte delle competenze di sostegno, coordinamento o completamento (art. 6 TFUE).
La Comunità Internazionale, 2018
Some Remarks on the Protection of the Environment and the Creation of Marine Protected Areas in t... more Some Remarks on the Protection of the Environment and the Creation of Marine Protected Areas in the Arctic Ocean
As Polar sea ice melts on an unprecedented scale, the Arctic marine biodiversity is threatened, inter alia, by shipping and offshore oil and gas drilling. While considerable progress in the protection of the marine environment was made thanks to the adoption of the Polar Code by the IMO, the entry into force of the MOSPA in Arctic States and, finally, the scientific work of the Arctic Council Working Groups CAFF and PAME – aimed at promoting the establishment of marine protected areas, their connection in a pan-arctic network and the identification of the most appropriate international instruments for new designations – their effectiveness depends on the proper implementation – in light of the principle of the common concern of humankind – of relevant international standards.
GIURISPRUDENZA ITALIANA, 2017
SCARPA S. (2017) “Immunità dello Stato straniero, licenziamento e discriminazione della lavoratri... more SCARPA S. (2017) “Immunità dello Stato straniero, licenziamento e discriminazione della lavoratrice” in GIURISPRUDENZA ITALIANA, vol. 12, pp. 2707 – 2714.
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Books by Silvia Scarpa
Articles & Book Chapters by Silvia Scarpa
The conclusions reached and recommendations formulated by the Independent Panel of Experts that reviewed the work of the WWF in 2020 are, in the opinion of this author, very much relevant when promoting a human rights consistent involvement of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in environmental protection efforts. Nonetheless, the example at hand demonstrates that NGOs, as other non-State actors, shall abide to sound human rights regulatory frameworks, whose further development would be considered an important milestone, and that only a coordinated strategy involving all relevant actors and stakeholders, including in particular State authorities, relevant international organizations such as UNESCO, nongovernmental organizations, and indigenous peoples may advance a more balanced approach that equally promotes, on the one hand, fundamental wildlife protection activities and, on the other hand, furthers the respect and mainstreaming of the rights of indigenous peoples.
recentemente entrato in vigore.
The judgment follows the adoption on 22 February 2022 of Advocate General (AG) Athanasios Rantos’ Opinion. The issues that led the TAR to request the Court of Justice’s interpretation of relevant provisions of Directive 2009/16 as well as the AG’s Opinion are examined in the previous Op-Ed by this author.
This judgment is not only relevant for its interpretation of specific provisions of Directive 2009/16, but also because it adds to fair legal arguments in a highly politicised debate on the role of private humanitarian assistance ships in SAR activities in the Mediterranean Sea. Actually, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) regularly collects data on SAR activities in the Mediterranean Sea and on administrative and criminal proceedings against ships and their crew. Data on proceedings show that since 2018 more than 60 criminal and administrative proceedings were initiated in Germany, Greece, Italy, Malta, the Netherlands and Spain, thus creating conspicuous problems to vessels and crew involved in such SAR activities. According to the Missing Migrants project of the International Organization for Migration (IOM), 24,674 migrants have gone missing since 2014 in the Mediterranean Sea, with the central Mediterranean route being the deadliest known migration route in the world.
The two cases C-14/21 and C-15/21 originated in the detention of two Sea Watch ships – namely Sea Watch 3 and Sea Watch 4 – decided by the Port State Authorities of Port Empedocles and Palermo in the summer of 2020. In particular, the ship Sea Watch 3 had been placed under detention in Port Empedocles in July 2020 after having rescued 211 persons. The ship Sea Watch 4, having rescued 354 persons two weeks earlier, was placed under administrative detention by the port State Authorities of Palermo on 19 September 2020 after an 11-hours inspection.
Sea Watch is an independent non-governmental organization headquartered in Berlin (Germany) that has been operating in the Central Mediterranean Sea route since 2014, rescuing more than 35 000 migrants in distress at sea. The Missing Migrants Project run by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) considers the Central Mediterranean route as the deadliest in the world, with more than 17 000 deaths and disappearances since 2014.
The two cases are important because the practice of Italian port State authorities to place private ships involved in SAR activities under detention has been a regular tenet since 2020 and the problem persists, in particular, in respect of ships flying a German flag, given the German authorities reluctance both to adopt specific legislation for private ships involved in SAR operations and to certify the ships for this specific activity that they perform (Merli).
Such actions include, first, assessing the existence under international customary law of a minimum core of practices constituting ‘contemporary forms of slavery’, second, redirecting the focus on the interpretation of the peremptory (jus cogens) norm prohibiting slavery, which so far has not received adequate attention by international law scholars who have instead dedicated much attention to interpreting the definition of slavery included in the 1926 Slavery Convention, and, third, promoting the adoption of a new treaty on contemporary forms of slavery that would fill in any remaining loopholes.
una vera e propria politica comune per l’Artico9.
Una più attenta considerazione dei problemi dell’Artico si osserva a seguito del
tentativo della Norvegia di condizionare la politica marittima dell’UE includendovi l’Artico10 e dell’invio da parte della Federazione russa di una missione esplorativa dei fondali marini artici11, volta a stabilire il limite esterno della sua piattaforma continen- tale posto al di là delle 200 miglia marine, secondo i criteri stabiliti dall’art. 76 della Convenzione delle Nazioni Unite sul diritto del mare (UNCLOS). Proprio quest’ultimo evento – considerato il grande risalto mediatico dato all’esplorazione dei due sommer- gibili russi Mir I e Mir II, che hanno piantato una bandiera russa sul fondale marino posto sotto il Polo Nord geografico – ha aperto una stagione, definita da molti studiosi come di vera e propria “corsa all’Artico”, diretta ad accaparrarsi le sue risorse12.
Nell’esame dei problemi della zona, va peraltro tenuto conto che, geografica- mente, i limiti esterni del territorio dell’UE arrivano fino all’Artico, in quanto il terri- torio di tre dei suoi Stati membri – Danimarca, Finlandia e Svezia13 – si estende oltre il circolo polare artico e che altri due Stati artici, Norvegia e Islanda, pur non essendo membri UE, fanno parte dell’Accordo di Schengen. Oltre all’estensione territoriale, l’attuale maggiore interesse dell’UE per l’Artico è dovuto alla volontà di contribuire alla lotta ai cambiamenti climatici14 e all’intento di favorire la ricerca scientifica e lo sviluppo sostenibile della zona. A tale proposito, tra gli impegni al riguardo finora presi si possono ricordare, tra gli altri, la ratifica insieme ai suoi Stati membri della Convenzione-quadro ONU sui cambiamenti climatici e dell’Accordo di Parigi15, la volontà di raggiungere entro il 2030 gli obiettivi di sviluppo sostenibile e il ruolo di primo piano assunto nel finanziamento di progetti di ricerca scientifica nell’Artico.
Per il raggiungimento di questi ed altri obiettivi, l’Unione europea esercita innu- merevoli competenze esclusive, concorrenti e di sostegno, coordinamento o comple- tamento in settori rilevanti per l’Artico16. In particolare, questioni di fondamentale importanza per l’Artico, quali ad esempio la navigazione marittima, la pesca, la lotta ai cambiamenti climatici e lo sfruttamento degli idrocarburi, figurano tra le compe- tenze concorrenti dell’UE (art. 4 TFUE), mentre la conservazione delle risorse biolo- giche marine nell’ambito della politica comune della pesca, la politica commerciale comune e le regole connesse alla concorrenza non falsata nel mercato interno appar- tengono, invece, a quelle esclusive (art. 3 TFUE) esercitate da Bruxelles17. Infine, la tutela ed il miglioramento della salute umana, l’industria, la cultura e il turismo fanno parte delle competenze di sostegno, coordinamento o completamento (art. 6 TFUE).
As Polar sea ice melts on an unprecedented scale, the Arctic marine biodiversity is threatened, inter alia, by shipping and offshore oil and gas drilling. While considerable progress in the protection of the marine environment was made thanks to the adoption of the Polar Code by the IMO, the entry into force of the MOSPA in Arctic States and, finally, the scientific work of the Arctic Council Working Groups CAFF and PAME – aimed at promoting the establishment of marine protected areas, their connection in a pan-arctic network and the identification of the most appropriate international instruments for new designations – their effectiveness depends on the proper implementation – in light of the principle of the common concern of humankind – of relevant international standards.
The conclusions reached and recommendations formulated by the Independent Panel of Experts that reviewed the work of the WWF in 2020 are, in the opinion of this author, very much relevant when promoting a human rights consistent involvement of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in environmental protection efforts. Nonetheless, the example at hand demonstrates that NGOs, as other non-State actors, shall abide to sound human rights regulatory frameworks, whose further development would be considered an important milestone, and that only a coordinated strategy involving all relevant actors and stakeholders, including in particular State authorities, relevant international organizations such as UNESCO, nongovernmental organizations, and indigenous peoples may advance a more balanced approach that equally promotes, on the one hand, fundamental wildlife protection activities and, on the other hand, furthers the respect and mainstreaming of the rights of indigenous peoples.
recentemente entrato in vigore.
The judgment follows the adoption on 22 February 2022 of Advocate General (AG) Athanasios Rantos’ Opinion. The issues that led the TAR to request the Court of Justice’s interpretation of relevant provisions of Directive 2009/16 as well as the AG’s Opinion are examined in the previous Op-Ed by this author.
This judgment is not only relevant for its interpretation of specific provisions of Directive 2009/16, but also because it adds to fair legal arguments in a highly politicised debate on the role of private humanitarian assistance ships in SAR activities in the Mediterranean Sea. Actually, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) regularly collects data on SAR activities in the Mediterranean Sea and on administrative and criminal proceedings against ships and their crew. Data on proceedings show that since 2018 more than 60 criminal and administrative proceedings were initiated in Germany, Greece, Italy, Malta, the Netherlands and Spain, thus creating conspicuous problems to vessels and crew involved in such SAR activities. According to the Missing Migrants project of the International Organization for Migration (IOM), 24,674 migrants have gone missing since 2014 in the Mediterranean Sea, with the central Mediterranean route being the deadliest known migration route in the world.
The two cases C-14/21 and C-15/21 originated in the detention of two Sea Watch ships – namely Sea Watch 3 and Sea Watch 4 – decided by the Port State Authorities of Port Empedocles and Palermo in the summer of 2020. In particular, the ship Sea Watch 3 had been placed under detention in Port Empedocles in July 2020 after having rescued 211 persons. The ship Sea Watch 4, having rescued 354 persons two weeks earlier, was placed under administrative detention by the port State Authorities of Palermo on 19 September 2020 after an 11-hours inspection.
Sea Watch is an independent non-governmental organization headquartered in Berlin (Germany) that has been operating in the Central Mediterranean Sea route since 2014, rescuing more than 35 000 migrants in distress at sea. The Missing Migrants Project run by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) considers the Central Mediterranean route as the deadliest in the world, with more than 17 000 deaths and disappearances since 2014.
The two cases are important because the practice of Italian port State authorities to place private ships involved in SAR activities under detention has been a regular tenet since 2020 and the problem persists, in particular, in respect of ships flying a German flag, given the German authorities reluctance both to adopt specific legislation for private ships involved in SAR operations and to certify the ships for this specific activity that they perform (Merli).
Such actions include, first, assessing the existence under international customary law of a minimum core of practices constituting ‘contemporary forms of slavery’, second, redirecting the focus on the interpretation of the peremptory (jus cogens) norm prohibiting slavery, which so far has not received adequate attention by international law scholars who have instead dedicated much attention to interpreting the definition of slavery included in the 1926 Slavery Convention, and, third, promoting the adoption of a new treaty on contemporary forms of slavery that would fill in any remaining loopholes.
una vera e propria politica comune per l’Artico9.
Una più attenta considerazione dei problemi dell’Artico si osserva a seguito del
tentativo della Norvegia di condizionare la politica marittima dell’UE includendovi l’Artico10 e dell’invio da parte della Federazione russa di una missione esplorativa dei fondali marini artici11, volta a stabilire il limite esterno della sua piattaforma continen- tale posto al di là delle 200 miglia marine, secondo i criteri stabiliti dall’art. 76 della Convenzione delle Nazioni Unite sul diritto del mare (UNCLOS). Proprio quest’ultimo evento – considerato il grande risalto mediatico dato all’esplorazione dei due sommer- gibili russi Mir I e Mir II, che hanno piantato una bandiera russa sul fondale marino posto sotto il Polo Nord geografico – ha aperto una stagione, definita da molti studiosi come di vera e propria “corsa all’Artico”, diretta ad accaparrarsi le sue risorse12.
Nell’esame dei problemi della zona, va peraltro tenuto conto che, geografica- mente, i limiti esterni del territorio dell’UE arrivano fino all’Artico, in quanto il terri- torio di tre dei suoi Stati membri – Danimarca, Finlandia e Svezia13 – si estende oltre il circolo polare artico e che altri due Stati artici, Norvegia e Islanda, pur non essendo membri UE, fanno parte dell’Accordo di Schengen. Oltre all’estensione territoriale, l’attuale maggiore interesse dell’UE per l’Artico è dovuto alla volontà di contribuire alla lotta ai cambiamenti climatici14 e all’intento di favorire la ricerca scientifica e lo sviluppo sostenibile della zona. A tale proposito, tra gli impegni al riguardo finora presi si possono ricordare, tra gli altri, la ratifica insieme ai suoi Stati membri della Convenzione-quadro ONU sui cambiamenti climatici e dell’Accordo di Parigi15, la volontà di raggiungere entro il 2030 gli obiettivi di sviluppo sostenibile e il ruolo di primo piano assunto nel finanziamento di progetti di ricerca scientifica nell’Artico.
Per il raggiungimento di questi ed altri obiettivi, l’Unione europea esercita innu- merevoli competenze esclusive, concorrenti e di sostegno, coordinamento o comple- tamento in settori rilevanti per l’Artico16. In particolare, questioni di fondamentale importanza per l’Artico, quali ad esempio la navigazione marittima, la pesca, la lotta ai cambiamenti climatici e lo sfruttamento degli idrocarburi, figurano tra le compe- tenze concorrenti dell’UE (art. 4 TFUE), mentre la conservazione delle risorse biolo- giche marine nell’ambito della politica comune della pesca, la politica commerciale comune e le regole connesse alla concorrenza non falsata nel mercato interno appar- tengono, invece, a quelle esclusive (art. 3 TFUE) esercitate da Bruxelles17. Infine, la tutela ed il miglioramento della salute umana, l’industria, la cultura e il turismo fanno parte delle competenze di sostegno, coordinamento o completamento (art. 6 TFUE).
As Polar sea ice melts on an unprecedented scale, the Arctic marine biodiversity is threatened, inter alia, by shipping and offshore oil and gas drilling. While considerable progress in the protection of the marine environment was made thanks to the adoption of the Polar Code by the IMO, the entry into force of the MOSPA in Arctic States and, finally, the scientific work of the Arctic Council Working Groups CAFF and PAME – aimed at promoting the establishment of marine protected areas, their connection in a pan-arctic network and the identification of the most appropriate international instruments for new designations – their effectiveness depends on the proper implementation – in light of the principle of the common concern of humankind – of relevant international standards.