Strategies for Facilitating Inclusive Campuses in Higher Education: International Perspectives on Equity and Inclusion
This chapter describes an undergraduate peer-to-peer mentoring program, UniMentor, at a regional ... more This chapter describes an undergraduate peer-to-peer mentoring program, UniMentor, at a regional Australian university, which aims to support students in equity groups. Key benefits identified are: enhanced retention rates; improved academic performance; and strengthened social networks. While the focus is on commencing students (mentees), significant positive outcomes for third-year mentors are also apparent. Internal and external challenges that may influence access to mentoring among students include shifting institutional support and roles and curriculum change. Enablers include training, clarity of purpose, strong support networks, and fostering student sense of ownership. The effect of disciplinary culture on uptake and effectiveness of mentoring is also important. Overall, the program compares well against published frameworks of successful student mentoring. Nevertheless, critical questions remain regarding the effectiveness of general versus targeted mentoring programs for students in equity groups.
This article reports on original research investigating teacher wellbeing while teaching mathemat... more This article reports on original research investigating teacher wellbeing while teaching mathematics in relation to teacher identity. Using survey data from mathematics teachers (N = 402) participating in a teacher of mathematics support initiative, teacher wellbeing was operationally defined as the experience of wellbeing whilst teaching, allowing an applied understanding of wellbeing in relation to the activity of teaching. Teacher identity was construed from prior research by the authors (Willis et al., in: Math Educ Res J, 10.1007/s13394-021-00391-w, 2021) and operationalised for the current study in terms of a specific teacher of mathematics identity (ToMI) construct. The main research question for this investigation was directed at how well the ToMI construct, as a wellbeing variable, was able to predict teacher wellbeing while teaching, viewed as an ‘in situ’ or ‘active’ (applied) measure of wellbeing. Identity-Based Motivation (IBM) theory was used to frame the research, as ...
This thesis focuses on the enhancement of higher order thinking in higher education, through the ... more This thesis focuses on the enhancement of higher order thinking in higher education, through the development of a feedback model designed to enhance student learning processes and student learning outcomes. This thesis by publication which engaged over 1,000 students, uses a case study approach to investigate real-time point-of-contact feedback through the scholarship of teaching and learning. The study identified that real-time point-of-contact feedback offers an important model for teachers to frame content knowledge and to apply their experience about common student problem areas to a feedback delivery platform that delivers evaluative and/or educative information in combination with other learning tasks.
elements of undertaking a systematic review or metaanalysis (Booth et al., 2012; Durlak, 2008; Go... more elements of undertaking a systematic review or metaanalysis (Booth et al., 2012; Durlak, 2008; Gough et al., 2012; Littell et al., 2008; Machi & McEvoy, 2012; Ridley, 2012), few publications discuss the practical elements, especially when undertaking such a process for the first time, and with a hybrid team. During 2015, a multidisciplinary team at a regional Australian university undertook a funded research project, using a systematic review framework. While the results of that review have been published (Lake et al., 2017), this article documents and shares discoveries made by the team about practical elements, in the hope of supporting others who may be contemplating such an activity. The core elements of a systematic review underpinned a research project that investigated alternative mathematics pedagogies for students with poor mathematics skills, in a higher education setting. The multidisciplinary project team comprised five academics from both the School of Education and the...
Journal of Perspectives in Applied Academic Practice, 2020
Student perceptions of their studies and learning are important influencers of academic performan... more Student perceptions of their studies and learning are important influencers of academic performance and outcome. Here we find that the grades students anticipate obtaining may differ significantly from grades awarded: students’ perceptions of their studies appear to be at odds with the university’s assessment of their academic worth. A previous study introduced students to the concept of self-efficacy and its effects on academic performance and outcome; we demonstrate that students’ self-efficacy can be raised. Importantly, the focus is not on the validity of the concept of self-efficacy as the guiding or defining principle in this research, but rather a means to potentially identify important student perceptions that may influence academic performance. Moreover, the effect, emphasises a mismatch between student and university expectations of the measure of achievement: students overestimate their anticipated grades against grades awarded. By encouraging improved self-efficacy are w...
Just another student survey?-Point-of-contact survey feedback enhances the student experience and... more Just another student survey?-Point-of-contact survey feedback enhances the student experience and 83 lets researchers gather data that was once exclusively researcher focused to be oriented towards current students, introducing an additional layer of feedback, which directly benefits the current student, whilst retaining its usefulness as a diagnostic research tool.
Teaching and learning research since the 1980s has established a trend in students' learning ... more Teaching and learning research since the 1980s has established a trend in students' learning approach tendencies, characterised by decreasing surface learning and increasing deep learning with increasing age. This is an important trend in higher education, especially at a time of increasing numbers of older students: are we graduating more deep learners? In revisiting these trends, our study elaborates on the past model by using the revised two-factor questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F). The current study suggests that trends in the shift between surface and deep learning approaches are more related to other factors rather than to age per se. Importantly, school leavers do not exhibit significantly weaker trends towards deep learning approaches than do mature-age students.
Except where otherwise indicated, and save for any material protected by a trade mark, the Depart... more Except where otherwise indicated, and save for any material protected by a trade mark, the Department of Education and Training, acting on behalf of the Commonwealth, has applied the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. Modifications: Changed to meet WCAG 2.0 accessibility requirements. Alternate text inserted for all images. Minor typographical errors corrected.
Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice, 2018
A core indicator of success at University is the grade a student achieves following a period of s... more A core indicator of success at University is the grade a student achieves following a period of study. A student’s ability to achieve expected grades is often understood in terms of learning and study processes that the student is capable of, chooses to adopt, or masters. However, psychology tells us that our selfefficacy is a major determinant of how we select activities, how much effort we expend on them, and how long we sustain effort. The importance of self-efficacy in supporting a student’s study choices, effort and sustainability – and hence in the student’s capacity for success – is clear. Providing students with an understanding of the role of self-efficacy provides a transformative moment in the student’s growth as a university student. This paper examines the effectiveness of a specific method, point-of-contact feedback, in lifting students’ awareness of self-efficacy. The ability of the survey to support student metacognition through a social persuasion design, particular...
European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 2019
This paper describes a design-based implementation research (DBIR) approach to the development an... more This paper describes a design-based implementation research (DBIR) approach to the development and trialling of a new generation massive open online course (ngMOOC) situated in an instructional setting of undergraduate mathematics at a regional Australian university. This process is underscored by two important innovations: (a) a basis in a well-established human cognitive architecture in terms of cognitive load theory; and (b) point-of-contact feedback based in a well-tested online system dedicated to enhancing the learning process. Analysis of preliminary trials suggests that the DBIR approach to the ngMOOC construction and development supports theoretical standpoints that argue for an understanding of how design for optimal learning can utilise conditions, such as differing online or blended educational contexts, in order to be effective and scalable. The ngMOOC development described in this paper marks the adoption of a cognitive architecture in conjunction with feedback systems...
International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2017
When a researcher encounters the term 'learning styles', its meaning, rather than being explicitl... more When a researcher encounters the term 'learning styles', its meaning, rather than being explicitly obvious, is dependent on the tradition and therefore the context from which the term has originated. For a new researcher, in particular, it can be a confusing and potentially time consuming process to correctly identify the differences the terminology. Importantly, it has been recognized that different researchers may use the same term, yet may not be referring to the same concept, as is particularly the case with the term 'learning style'. The confusion generated by the use of similar yet unrelated terminologies from different research traditions poses an ongoing important question: should the term 'learning style' be considered as the overall generic term that researchers use to define student learning dimensions? Therefore, the review of terminology in learning style/ s related fields could benefit from the acceptance of an overarching terminology, whether it be 'learning styles', 'learning patterns' , or 'learning dimensions'. Furthermore, and far more importantly, research related to this terminology could benefit from an extended explanation of the links to other research, making clear, the basis of current and future research to other researchers.
The Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) continues to be applied in a wide range of pedagogical situ... more The Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) continues to be applied in a wide range of pedagogical situations. However, the question remains as to how well a researcher understands the conceptual basis behind the tool they choose. This essay provides a compact and comprehensive view of the conceptual basis for the development of the original SPQ, and the later revised version (R-SPQ-2F), and offers a way for a researcher to quickly be informed on the concepts underpinning the tool, enabling the opportunity to quickly assess whether the R-SPQ-2F is an appropriate tool to be using in there study. In this essay we look at the earliest stages in the development of the SPQ, through to the development of the revised Study Process Questionnaire unpacking the underlying conceptual model.
The propensity of science students towards surface and deep learning approaches was investigated ... more The propensity of science students towards surface and deep learning approaches was investigated to determine whether they were more likely to be encouraged toward a surface rather than deep approach to learning: more specifically do undergraduate environmental science students favour a surface approach to a greater extent than students in other disciplines such as the arts. Examining whether a discipline favours towards students adopting a particular approach to learning, this study surveyed over 500 undergraduate students across seven discipline areas at one university to examine patterns of learning approaches. Analysis of scores reflected tendencies towards surface and deep approaches: motivations and strategies indicated that environmental science students do not adopt a significantly different overall approach compared to students in all other disciplines, apart from a greater tendency towards a surface approach on the main scale and surface strategy subscale compared, specifically, to arts and social science. The findings appear to indicate that both the Schools of Arts & Social Science and Environment, Science & Engineering, while multidisciplinary in nature, may still show apparent remnants of "two cultures".
This study examines primary and early childhood pre-service teachers' strategies on a written tas... more This study examines primary and early childhood pre-service teachers' strategies on a written task that promotes 3D geometric thinking and visualization processes. Visualization and conceptualisation of 3D objects are complex cognitive processes, and both require the development of students' abilities to decode and encode spatial information. The analysis of 289 pre-service teachers' written responses resulted in identifying students' difficulties in decoding and encoding visual information. The visual information dominated student thinking, and they found it hard to identify relationships between the 2D representation and the 3D mental construction of the solids. Most made incorrect claims regarding relative volumes. Neither spatial visualisation nor formuladriven computation provided adequate engagement with the task. Visualization and conceptualisation of 3D objects are complex cognitive processes, and pre-service teachers need to engage with a variety of learning activities to help them develop their abilities to decode and encode spatial information and, it is hoped, develop their 3D geometric thinking. However, from a learning approach perspective, the results indicate a dominant surface learning approach; this may arise from prior inadequate learning. The best lesson the student may get, therefore, from this task is not the mastery of a mathematical computation, but awareness of the importance of teaching design and aligned teaching methods.
International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 2016
Applying an alternative mathematics pedagogy for students with weak mathematics: Meta-analysis of... more Applying an alternative mathematics pedagogy for students with weak mathematics: Meta-analysis of alternative pedagogies Student mathematics performance and the need for work-ready graduates to be mathematicscompetent is a core issue for many universities. While both student and teacher are responsible for learning outcomes, there is a need to explicitly acknowledge the weak mathematics foundation of many university students. A systematic literature review was undertaken of identified innovations and/or interventions that may lead to improvement in student outcomes for university mathematics-based units of study. The review revealed the importance of understanding the foundations of student performance in higher education mathematics learning, especially in first year. Pre-university mathematics skills were identified as significant in student retention and mathematics success at university, and a specific focus on student pre-university mathematics skill level was found to be more effective in providing help, rather than simply focusing on a particular at-risk group. Diagnostics tools were found to be important in identifying (1) student background and (2) appropriate intervention. The studies highlighted the importance of appropriate and validated interventions in mathematics teaching and learning, and the need to improve the learning model for mathematics-based subjects, communication and technology innovations.
The approach that a student takes towards their study has a substantial impact on the quality of ... more The approach that a student takes towards their study has a substantial impact on the quality of their learning and academic success-a deep rather than surface approach more likely to be associated with academic success. Using the validated study processes questionnaire developed by Biggs et al. (2001), this study surveys over 500 undergraduate students across one university to examine patterns of learning approaches against age, maturity and gender. Analysis indicates that age is important in terms of the tendency towards adopting a deep or surface learning approach; mature age students are more likely to adopt a deep learning approach and less likely to adopt a surface approach. There are no significant differences in deep or surface approach scores between genders. However, in relation to maturity, both mature age males and females score a statistically higher score on deep motive compared to usual age females. However, this is not the case for usual age males, with no significant difference found. This same pattern also occurred for the deep strategy subscale component. Mature males and females, as well being more motivated to adopt deep learning approaches, undertake strategies that are more likely to lead to a higher scale scores compared to usual age females but not usual age males.
Strategies for Facilitating Inclusive Campuses in Higher Education: International Perspectives on Equity and Inclusion
This chapter describes an undergraduate peer-to-peer mentoring program, UniMentor, at a regional ... more This chapter describes an undergraduate peer-to-peer mentoring program, UniMentor, at a regional Australian university, which aims to support students in equity groups. Key benefits identified are: enhanced retention rates; improved academic performance; and strengthened social networks. While the focus is on commencing students (mentees), significant positive outcomes for third-year mentors are also apparent. Internal and external challenges that may influence access to mentoring among students include shifting institutional support and roles and curriculum change. Enablers include training, clarity of purpose, strong support networks, and fostering student sense of ownership. The effect of disciplinary culture on uptake and effectiveness of mentoring is also important. Overall, the program compares well against published frameworks of successful student mentoring. Nevertheless, critical questions remain regarding the effectiveness of general versus targeted mentoring programs for students in equity groups.
This article reports on original research investigating teacher wellbeing while teaching mathemat... more This article reports on original research investigating teacher wellbeing while teaching mathematics in relation to teacher identity. Using survey data from mathematics teachers (N = 402) participating in a teacher of mathematics support initiative, teacher wellbeing was operationally defined as the experience of wellbeing whilst teaching, allowing an applied understanding of wellbeing in relation to the activity of teaching. Teacher identity was construed from prior research by the authors (Willis et al., in: Math Educ Res J, 10.1007/s13394-021-00391-w, 2021) and operationalised for the current study in terms of a specific teacher of mathematics identity (ToMI) construct. The main research question for this investigation was directed at how well the ToMI construct, as a wellbeing variable, was able to predict teacher wellbeing while teaching, viewed as an ‘in situ’ or ‘active’ (applied) measure of wellbeing. Identity-Based Motivation (IBM) theory was used to frame the research, as ...
This thesis focuses on the enhancement of higher order thinking in higher education, through the ... more This thesis focuses on the enhancement of higher order thinking in higher education, through the development of a feedback model designed to enhance student learning processes and student learning outcomes. This thesis by publication which engaged over 1,000 students, uses a case study approach to investigate real-time point-of-contact feedback through the scholarship of teaching and learning. The study identified that real-time point-of-contact feedback offers an important model for teachers to frame content knowledge and to apply their experience about common student problem areas to a feedback delivery platform that delivers evaluative and/or educative information in combination with other learning tasks.
elements of undertaking a systematic review or metaanalysis (Booth et al., 2012; Durlak, 2008; Go... more elements of undertaking a systematic review or metaanalysis (Booth et al., 2012; Durlak, 2008; Gough et al., 2012; Littell et al., 2008; Machi & McEvoy, 2012; Ridley, 2012), few publications discuss the practical elements, especially when undertaking such a process for the first time, and with a hybrid team. During 2015, a multidisciplinary team at a regional Australian university undertook a funded research project, using a systematic review framework. While the results of that review have been published (Lake et al., 2017), this article documents and shares discoveries made by the team about practical elements, in the hope of supporting others who may be contemplating such an activity. The core elements of a systematic review underpinned a research project that investigated alternative mathematics pedagogies for students with poor mathematics skills, in a higher education setting. The multidisciplinary project team comprised five academics from both the School of Education and the...
Journal of Perspectives in Applied Academic Practice, 2020
Student perceptions of their studies and learning are important influencers of academic performan... more Student perceptions of their studies and learning are important influencers of academic performance and outcome. Here we find that the grades students anticipate obtaining may differ significantly from grades awarded: students’ perceptions of their studies appear to be at odds with the university’s assessment of their academic worth. A previous study introduced students to the concept of self-efficacy and its effects on academic performance and outcome; we demonstrate that students’ self-efficacy can be raised. Importantly, the focus is not on the validity of the concept of self-efficacy as the guiding or defining principle in this research, but rather a means to potentially identify important student perceptions that may influence academic performance. Moreover, the effect, emphasises a mismatch between student and university expectations of the measure of achievement: students overestimate their anticipated grades against grades awarded. By encouraging improved self-efficacy are w...
Just another student survey?-Point-of-contact survey feedback enhances the student experience and... more Just another student survey?-Point-of-contact survey feedback enhances the student experience and 83 lets researchers gather data that was once exclusively researcher focused to be oriented towards current students, introducing an additional layer of feedback, which directly benefits the current student, whilst retaining its usefulness as a diagnostic research tool.
Teaching and learning research since the 1980s has established a trend in students' learning ... more Teaching and learning research since the 1980s has established a trend in students' learning approach tendencies, characterised by decreasing surface learning and increasing deep learning with increasing age. This is an important trend in higher education, especially at a time of increasing numbers of older students: are we graduating more deep learners? In revisiting these trends, our study elaborates on the past model by using the revised two-factor questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F). The current study suggests that trends in the shift between surface and deep learning approaches are more related to other factors rather than to age per se. Importantly, school leavers do not exhibit significantly weaker trends towards deep learning approaches than do mature-age students.
Except where otherwise indicated, and save for any material protected by a trade mark, the Depart... more Except where otherwise indicated, and save for any material protected by a trade mark, the Department of Education and Training, acting on behalf of the Commonwealth, has applied the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. Modifications: Changed to meet WCAG 2.0 accessibility requirements. Alternate text inserted for all images. Minor typographical errors corrected.
Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice, 2018
A core indicator of success at University is the grade a student achieves following a period of s... more A core indicator of success at University is the grade a student achieves following a period of study. A student’s ability to achieve expected grades is often understood in terms of learning and study processes that the student is capable of, chooses to adopt, or masters. However, psychology tells us that our selfefficacy is a major determinant of how we select activities, how much effort we expend on them, and how long we sustain effort. The importance of self-efficacy in supporting a student’s study choices, effort and sustainability – and hence in the student’s capacity for success – is clear. Providing students with an understanding of the role of self-efficacy provides a transformative moment in the student’s growth as a university student. This paper examines the effectiveness of a specific method, point-of-contact feedback, in lifting students’ awareness of self-efficacy. The ability of the survey to support student metacognition through a social persuasion design, particular...
European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 2019
This paper describes a design-based implementation research (DBIR) approach to the development an... more This paper describes a design-based implementation research (DBIR) approach to the development and trialling of a new generation massive open online course (ngMOOC) situated in an instructional setting of undergraduate mathematics at a regional Australian university. This process is underscored by two important innovations: (a) a basis in a well-established human cognitive architecture in terms of cognitive load theory; and (b) point-of-contact feedback based in a well-tested online system dedicated to enhancing the learning process. Analysis of preliminary trials suggests that the DBIR approach to the ngMOOC construction and development supports theoretical standpoints that argue for an understanding of how design for optimal learning can utilise conditions, such as differing online or blended educational contexts, in order to be effective and scalable. The ngMOOC development described in this paper marks the adoption of a cognitive architecture in conjunction with feedback systems...
International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2017
When a researcher encounters the term 'learning styles', its meaning, rather than being explicitl... more When a researcher encounters the term 'learning styles', its meaning, rather than being explicitly obvious, is dependent on the tradition and therefore the context from which the term has originated. For a new researcher, in particular, it can be a confusing and potentially time consuming process to correctly identify the differences the terminology. Importantly, it has been recognized that different researchers may use the same term, yet may not be referring to the same concept, as is particularly the case with the term 'learning style'. The confusion generated by the use of similar yet unrelated terminologies from different research traditions poses an ongoing important question: should the term 'learning style' be considered as the overall generic term that researchers use to define student learning dimensions? Therefore, the review of terminology in learning style/ s related fields could benefit from the acceptance of an overarching terminology, whether it be 'learning styles', 'learning patterns' , or 'learning dimensions'. Furthermore, and far more importantly, research related to this terminology could benefit from an extended explanation of the links to other research, making clear, the basis of current and future research to other researchers.
The Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) continues to be applied in a wide range of pedagogical situ... more The Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) continues to be applied in a wide range of pedagogical situations. However, the question remains as to how well a researcher understands the conceptual basis behind the tool they choose. This essay provides a compact and comprehensive view of the conceptual basis for the development of the original SPQ, and the later revised version (R-SPQ-2F), and offers a way for a researcher to quickly be informed on the concepts underpinning the tool, enabling the opportunity to quickly assess whether the R-SPQ-2F is an appropriate tool to be using in there study. In this essay we look at the earliest stages in the development of the SPQ, through to the development of the revised Study Process Questionnaire unpacking the underlying conceptual model.
The propensity of science students towards surface and deep learning approaches was investigated ... more The propensity of science students towards surface and deep learning approaches was investigated to determine whether they were more likely to be encouraged toward a surface rather than deep approach to learning: more specifically do undergraduate environmental science students favour a surface approach to a greater extent than students in other disciplines such as the arts. Examining whether a discipline favours towards students adopting a particular approach to learning, this study surveyed over 500 undergraduate students across seven discipline areas at one university to examine patterns of learning approaches. Analysis of scores reflected tendencies towards surface and deep approaches: motivations and strategies indicated that environmental science students do not adopt a significantly different overall approach compared to students in all other disciplines, apart from a greater tendency towards a surface approach on the main scale and surface strategy subscale compared, specifically, to arts and social science. The findings appear to indicate that both the Schools of Arts & Social Science and Environment, Science & Engineering, while multidisciplinary in nature, may still show apparent remnants of "two cultures".
This study examines primary and early childhood pre-service teachers' strategies on a written tas... more This study examines primary and early childhood pre-service teachers' strategies on a written task that promotes 3D geometric thinking and visualization processes. Visualization and conceptualisation of 3D objects are complex cognitive processes, and both require the development of students' abilities to decode and encode spatial information. The analysis of 289 pre-service teachers' written responses resulted in identifying students' difficulties in decoding and encoding visual information. The visual information dominated student thinking, and they found it hard to identify relationships between the 2D representation and the 3D mental construction of the solids. Most made incorrect claims regarding relative volumes. Neither spatial visualisation nor formuladriven computation provided adequate engagement with the task. Visualization and conceptualisation of 3D objects are complex cognitive processes, and pre-service teachers need to engage with a variety of learning activities to help them develop their abilities to decode and encode spatial information and, it is hoped, develop their 3D geometric thinking. However, from a learning approach perspective, the results indicate a dominant surface learning approach; this may arise from prior inadequate learning. The best lesson the student may get, therefore, from this task is not the mastery of a mathematical computation, but awareness of the importance of teaching design and aligned teaching methods.
International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science and Technology, 2016
Applying an alternative mathematics pedagogy for students with weak mathematics: Meta-analysis of... more Applying an alternative mathematics pedagogy for students with weak mathematics: Meta-analysis of alternative pedagogies Student mathematics performance and the need for work-ready graduates to be mathematicscompetent is a core issue for many universities. While both student and teacher are responsible for learning outcomes, there is a need to explicitly acknowledge the weak mathematics foundation of many university students. A systematic literature review was undertaken of identified innovations and/or interventions that may lead to improvement in student outcomes for university mathematics-based units of study. The review revealed the importance of understanding the foundations of student performance in higher education mathematics learning, especially in first year. Pre-university mathematics skills were identified as significant in student retention and mathematics success at university, and a specific focus on student pre-university mathematics skill level was found to be more effective in providing help, rather than simply focusing on a particular at-risk group. Diagnostics tools were found to be important in identifying (1) student background and (2) appropriate intervention. The studies highlighted the importance of appropriate and validated interventions in mathematics teaching and learning, and the need to improve the learning model for mathematics-based subjects, communication and technology innovations.
The approach that a student takes towards their study has a substantial impact on the quality of ... more The approach that a student takes towards their study has a substantial impact on the quality of their learning and academic success-a deep rather than surface approach more likely to be associated with academic success. Using the validated study processes questionnaire developed by Biggs et al. (2001), this study surveys over 500 undergraduate students across one university to examine patterns of learning approaches against age, maturity and gender. Analysis indicates that age is important in terms of the tendency towards adopting a deep or surface learning approach; mature age students are more likely to adopt a deep learning approach and less likely to adopt a surface approach. There are no significant differences in deep or surface approach scores between genders. However, in relation to maturity, both mature age males and females score a statistically higher score on deep motive compared to usual age females. However, this is not the case for usual age males, with no significant difference found. This same pattern also occurred for the deep strategy subscale component. Mature males and females, as well being more motivated to adopt deep learning approaches, undertake strategies that are more likely to lead to a higher scale scores compared to usual age females but not usual age males.
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