Kant's philosophy has in it some bases of moral actions which he outlines as categorical imperati... more Kant's philosophy has in it some bases of moral actions which he outlines as categorical imperatives. This philosophical base advocates for moral duties for duty sake and not for exterior motives. Many moral problems have been identified in Nigerian society as ensuing from actions or behaviours arising from exterior motives as the bases for actions. Testing Kant's moral principle against the moral requirements in the context of Social Studies Education, it has been found out that Kant's moral imperative if adopted in Social Studies Education as a philosophical base will enhance effectiveness of Social Studies as a discipline aimed at producing morally positive citizens in the multicultural and multidimensional actions that can be found in Nigeria. From the above study, some recommendations were made. Introduction Kant's moral philosophy is based on his metaphysics. Kant draws heavily on his observations and ideas about human nature to formulate his normative ethics. He makes explicit that the supreme moral principle itself must be discovered a priori, through a method of pure moral philosophy (G 4:387-92). Such must be inherent in and revealed through the operations of reason. This is contrary to empirical moral philosophy grounded in a posteriori principles inferred through observation or experience since they can tell us how people do act and cannot tell us how we ought to act. Kant then favors moral principles that are the most fundamental, authoritative and normative rather than descriptive. According to Kant(1952) then moral commands are unconditional. For him, we should not confuse conditional truths, such as what is prudentially good for certain individuals or species, with unconditional truths about fundamental moral requirements (G 4:389-90). Kant's notion of autonomy is one of the most central, distinctive, and influential aspects of his moral philosophy. Kant (1952) defines autonomy principally as the property of the will by which it is a law to itself being independent of any property of the objects of volition since it both gives itself the moral law (it is self-legislating) and can constrain or motivate itself to follow the law (it is self-constraining or self-motivating)(G 4:440). In this case then the source of the moral law is not in the agent's feelings, natural impulses or inclinations, but in her pure, rational will or noumenal self, which Kant identifies as the proper self(G 4:461). This is contrary to heteronomous wills governed by nature through their instincts, impulses, and empirical desires (G 4:444, CPrR 5:61). Kant (1952) conceives of the human agent as having both noumenal and phenomenal aspect being members of both the intelligible world and the sensible world. As members of the intellectual world we are free .As members of both intellectual and sensible world we are both free and determined. (G 4:451-52, 454; CPrR 5:43). Consequently, Kant (1952) then believes that morality presents itself to human agents as a categorical imperative and our all specific moral duties are derived from it. It is a categorical imperative because it commands and constrains us absolutely, with ultimate authority and without regard to our preferences or empirical features or circumstances. Contrary to this is the hypothetical imperative which can only express a command of reason, but only in relation to an end already set by the agent in form of objects of inclinations (G 4:413-20). Perhaps the two best known formulations of Kant's categorical imperatives are (1) act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law (G 4:421), (2) So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means (G 4:429) (Kant:1952). It is from these that he believes the highest good can be obtained. Kant believes that morality gives rise to a notion of the highest good. Although the end that Kant's ethics most closely concerns is rational in nature (the "end in itself" which grounds moral duties), Kant's ethics also contains a different sort of ultimate end: the complete object of practical reason, which we can think of all moral action as pointing toward. The highest good consists in a world of universal, maximal virtue, guaranteeing universal and maximal happiness (CPrR 5:10-111). One reason that makes Kant's account of the highest good important is that it emphasizes that virtue is unconditionally good, whereas happiness is conditionally good; happiness is good when and only when it is pursued and enjoyed virtuously. These two components of the highest good are heterogeneous. No amount of happiness can make up for a deficit of virtue, and no amount of virtue, despite its unconditioned goodness, can make up for a deficit of happiness. The highest good requires both. Another reason why Kant's account of the highest good is important is that Kant often portrays the highest good as a social good for us to strive for collectively and which history may be viewed as leading towards. This presents Kant's ethics to be less abstract and individualistic and more concerned with social and political progress than some of his more foundational writings suggest it is. A final reason why Kant's account of the highest good is important is that it is through his account of the highest good that Kant argues for the rationality of belief in God and immortality. For example in the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant argues that because reason sets forth the idea of happiness conditioned by virtue as
Within the background of perceived decrease in students? interest in learning, the research on In... more Within the background of perceived decrease in students? interest in learning, the research on Influence of Teachers? competence in subject matter on students? interest the learning of social studies Education in Akwa Ibom State in Nigeria will be aimed at determining the contributions of students? perception of teachers? competence in subject matter on students? interest in learning with particular attention to Social Studies Education. The ex-post facto research design was adopted for the study. Null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The data for the work were collected with the help of a ITCSMSILS (Influence of Teachers? competence in subject matter on students? interest the learning of social studies) questionnaire as the working instrument. The stratified random sampling technique and the simple random sampling technique were adopted for the choice of samples from the population which consisted of all Social Studies Education Students in Akwa Ibom State. The face a...
The experience of the researchers as classroom teachers in secondary schools in Akwa Ibom and Cro... more The experience of the researchers as classroom teachers in secondary schools in Akwa Ibom and Cross River States of Nigeria and as lecturers and researchers over the years, where they observed that students’ academic achievement in Social Studies is relatively poor. The little output in education does not give much hope for the expected national and individual development. It is this poor achievement in the subject that necessitated this present study which sought to examine the influence of cultural inhibitions and students’ academic achievement in Social Studies in Colleges of Education in Cross River State, Nigeria. To achieve the purpose of this study one hypothesis was formulated to direct the study. Literature review was done according to the variable under study. Ex-post facto research design was adopted for the study. A sample of seven hundred and fifty-three (753) students were randomly selected for the study. The selection was done through simple random sampling technique....
The main thrust of this study was to find out factors influencing cheating tendency in examinatio... more The main thrust of this study was to find out factors influencing cheating tendency in examination among undergraduate students of the University Of Calabar. To give the study it's direction, four hypotheses were formulated. Related literatures were reviewed based on the major variables of the study. Ex-post- facto research design was adopted for the study. The major instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire. The instrument was designed by the researchers with the help of some major experts in measurement and evaluation which give the face and content validity of the instrument. 200 students were randomly selected from Faculty of Education, University of Calabar for the study. The hypotheses formulated were tested using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient analytical technique. The result of the analysis revealed that self-concept, Intelligence, moral value and test anxiety significantly influence students' tendency to be involved in examination...
This investigation examined materialistic value orientation and attitude toward environmental man... more This investigation examined materialistic value orientation and attitude toward environmental management in Yakurr Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria. A single theory was generated to control the examination. Review of initial researches was utilized. Survey blue print was utilized. An accidental sampling technique was used in choosing the 150 persons examined for the investigation. An approved 20 items four point adjusted likert scale poll was the instrument utilized for data assortment. The unwavering quality gauge of the tool for information accumulation was 0.80 utilizing Cronbach Alpha dependability technique. The information was dissected utilizing the simple and multiple linear regression statistical tools. The result of the study revealed that there is a significant influence of materialistic value orientation and attitude toward environmental management in Yakurr Local Government Area. It was recommended that People limit their rate of materialism, it is co...
Political stability arising from individual and collective actions are some of Nigeria’s current ... more Political stability arising from individual and collective actions are some of Nigeria’s current challenges. The researcher set out to study possible philosophical means of enhancing in learners the skills to contribute to political stability in Nigeria. The researcher speculated that related ineffectiveness of our education arises from exclusive democratic approaches to curriculum implementations in attempt to be learner centered. Research questions were raised. Multiple philosophical research methods of speculation, analyses and prescription were used in the study. A philosophical study of possible exclusive democratic approaches in classroom practices revealed the need to complement our education processes with appropriate level of content centered approaches to enhance learners’ skills to perform action that bring about political stability. The study gave some guides for inclusive democratic education theory formulation and classroom practices. Conclusions were drawn and consequ...
Within the background of perceived decrease in students' interest in learning, the research o... more Within the background of perceived decrease in students' interest in learning, the research on Influence of Teachers' competence in subject matter on students' interest the learning of social studies Education in Akwa Ibom State in Nigeria will be aimed at determining the contributions of students' perception of teachers' competence in subject matter on students' interest in learning with particular attention to Social Studies Education. The ex-post facto research design was adopted for the study. Null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The data for the work were collected with the help of a ITCSMSILS (Influence of Teachers' competence in subject matter on students' interest the learning of social studies) questionnaire as the working instrument. The stratified random sampling technique and the simple random sampling technique were adopted for the choice of samples from the population which consisted of all Social Studies Education Student...
Nigeria still needs an education that can respond effectively to her challenges. Proper linguisti... more Nigeria still needs an education that can respond effectively to her challenges. Proper linguistic culture applied in education process can help in this regard. Though the importance of language is already recognized in our education policy, this study aims at complimenting such efforts for more effectiveness of the system. Using the philosophical method of analysis, the study sought to provide answers to the following relevant questions: What is the importance of language in education? How do linguistic symbols contribute to effectiveness in learning experiences? What are the factors that can contribute to low efficiency of language in education process in the Nigerian context of educational policy? It was concluded that: 1. language assists the learners to be connected to the holistic experiences of their cultural challenges and options. 2. Symbols adapted from language can assist learners in concepts and ideas constructions that are effectively responsive to their interests and c...
Kant's philosophy has in it some bases of moral actions which he outlines as categorical imperati... more Kant's philosophy has in it some bases of moral actions which he outlines as categorical imperatives. This philosophical base advocates for moral duties for duty sake and not for exterior motives. Many moral problems have been identified in Nigerian society as ensuing from actions or behaviours arising from exterior motives as the bases for actions. Testing Kant's moral principle against the moral requirements in the context of Social Studies Education, it has been found out that Kant's moral imperative if adopted in Social Studies Education as a philosophical base will enhance effectiveness of Social Studies as a discipline aimed at producing morally positive citizens in the multicultural and multidimensional actions that can be found in Nigeria. From the above study, some recommendations were made. Introduction Kant's moral philosophy is based on his metaphysics. Kant draws heavily on his observations and ideas about human nature to formulate his normative ethics. He makes explicit that the supreme moral principle itself must be discovered a priori, through a method of pure moral philosophy (G 4:387-92). Such must be inherent in and revealed through the operations of reason. This is contrary to empirical moral philosophy grounded in a posteriori principles inferred through observation or experience since they can tell us how people do act and cannot tell us how we ought to act. Kant then favors moral principles that are the most fundamental, authoritative and normative rather than descriptive. According to Kant(1952) then moral commands are unconditional. For him, we should not confuse conditional truths, such as what is prudentially good for certain individuals or species, with unconditional truths about fundamental moral requirements (G 4:389-90). Kant's notion of autonomy is one of the most central, distinctive, and influential aspects of his moral philosophy. Kant (1952) defines autonomy principally as the property of the will by which it is a law to itself being independent of any property of the objects of volition since it both gives itself the moral law (it is self-legislating) and can constrain or motivate itself to follow the law (it is self-constraining or self-motivating)(G 4:440). In this case then the source of the moral law is not in the agent's feelings, natural impulses or inclinations, but in her pure, rational will or noumenal self, which Kant identifies as the proper self(G 4:461). This is contrary to heteronomous wills governed by nature through their instincts, impulses, and empirical desires (G 4:444, CPrR 5:61). Kant (1952) conceives of the human agent as having both noumenal and phenomenal aspect being members of both the intelligible world and the sensible world. As members of the intellectual world we are free .As members of both intellectual and sensible world we are both free and determined. (G 4:451-52, 454; CPrR 5:43). Consequently, Kant (1952) then believes that morality presents itself to human agents as a categorical imperative and our all specific moral duties are derived from it. It is a categorical imperative because it commands and constrains us absolutely, with ultimate authority and without regard to our preferences or empirical features or circumstances. Contrary to this is the hypothetical imperative which can only express a command of reason, but only in relation to an end already set by the agent in form of objects of inclinations (G 4:413-20). Perhaps the two best known formulations of Kant's categorical imperatives are (1) act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law (G 4:421), (2) So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means (G 4:429) (Kant:1952). It is from these that he believes the highest good can be obtained. Kant believes that morality gives rise to a notion of the highest good. Although the end that Kant's ethics most closely concerns is rational in nature (the "end in itself" which grounds moral duties), Kant's ethics also contains a different sort of ultimate end: the complete object of practical reason, which we can think of all moral action as pointing toward. The highest good consists in a world of universal, maximal virtue, guaranteeing universal and maximal happiness (CPrR 5:10-111). One reason that makes Kant's account of the highest good important is that it emphasizes that virtue is unconditionally good, whereas happiness is conditionally good; happiness is good when and only when it is pursued and enjoyed virtuously. These two components of the highest good are heterogeneous. No amount of happiness can make up for a deficit of virtue, and no amount of virtue, despite its unconditioned goodness, can make up for a deficit of happiness. The highest good requires both. Another reason why Kant's account of the highest good is important is that Kant often portrays the highest good as a social good for us to strive for collectively and which history may be viewed as leading towards. This presents Kant's ethics to be less abstract and individualistic and more concerned with social and political progress than some of his more foundational writings suggest it is. A final reason why Kant's account of the highest good is important is that it is through his account of the highest good that Kant argues for the rationality of belief in God and immortality. For example in the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant argues that because reason sets forth the idea of happiness conditioned by virtue as
Kant's philosophy has in it some bases of moral actions which he outlines as categorical imperati... more Kant's philosophy has in it some bases of moral actions which he outlines as categorical imperatives. This philosophical base advocates for moral duties for duty sake and not for exterior motives. Many moral problems have been identified in Nigerian society as ensuing from actions or behaviours arising from exterior motives as the bases for actions. Testing Kant's moral principle against the moral requirements in the context of Social Studies Education, it has been found out that Kant's moral imperative if adopted in Social Studies Education as a philosophical base will enhance effectiveness of Social Studies as a discipline aimed at producing morally positive citizens in the multicultural and multidimensional actions that can be found in Nigeria. From the above study, some recommendations were made. Introduction Kant's moral philosophy is based on his metaphysics. Kant draws heavily on his observations and ideas about human nature to formulate his normative ethics. He makes explicit that the supreme moral principle itself must be discovered a priori, through a method of pure moral philosophy (G 4:387-92). Such must be inherent in and revealed through the operations of reason. This is contrary to empirical moral philosophy grounded in a posteriori principles inferred through observation or experience since they can tell us how people do act and cannot tell us how we ought to act. Kant then favors moral principles that are the most fundamental, authoritative and normative rather than descriptive. According to Kant(1952) then moral commands are unconditional. For him, we should not confuse conditional truths, such as what is prudentially good for certain individuals or species, with unconditional truths about fundamental moral requirements (G 4:389-90). Kant's notion of autonomy is one of the most central, distinctive, and influential aspects of his moral philosophy. Kant (1952) defines autonomy principally as the property of the will by which it is a law to itself being independent of any property of the objects of volition since it both gives itself the moral law (it is self-legislating) and can constrain or motivate itself to follow the law (it is self-constraining or self-motivating)(G 4:440). In this case then the source of the moral law is not in the agent's feelings, natural impulses or inclinations, but in her pure, rational will or noumenal self, which Kant identifies as the proper self(G 4:461). This is contrary to heteronomous wills governed by nature through their instincts, impulses, and empirical desires (G 4:444, CPrR 5:61). Kant (1952) conceives of the human agent as having both noumenal and phenomenal aspect being members of both the intelligible world and the sensible world. As members of the intellectual world we are free .As members of both intellectual and sensible world we are both free and determined. (G 4:451-52, 454; CPrR 5:43). Consequently, Kant (1952) then believes that morality presents itself to human agents as a categorical imperative and our all specific moral duties are derived from it. It is a categorical imperative because it commands and constrains us absolutely, with ultimate authority and without regard to our preferences or empirical features or circumstances. Contrary to this is the hypothetical imperative which can only express a command of reason, but only in relation to an end already set by the agent in form of objects of inclinations (G 4:413-20). Perhaps the two best known formulations of Kant's categorical imperatives are (1) act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law (G 4:421), (2) So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means (G 4:429) (Kant:1952). It is from these that he believes the highest good can be obtained. Kant believes that morality gives rise to a notion of the highest good. Although the end that Kant's ethics most closely concerns is rational in nature (the "end in itself" which grounds moral duties), Kant's ethics also contains a different sort of ultimate end: the complete object of practical reason, which we can think of all moral action as pointing toward. The highest good consists in a world of universal, maximal virtue, guaranteeing universal and maximal happiness (CPrR 5:10-111). One reason that makes Kant's account of the highest good important is that it emphasizes that virtue is unconditionally good, whereas happiness is conditionally good; happiness is good when and only when it is pursued and enjoyed virtuously. These two components of the highest good are heterogeneous. No amount of happiness can make up for a deficit of virtue, and no amount of virtue, despite its unconditioned goodness, can make up for a deficit of happiness. The highest good requires both. Another reason why Kant's account of the highest good is important is that Kant often portrays the highest good as a social good for us to strive for collectively and which history may be viewed as leading towards. This presents Kant's ethics to be less abstract and individualistic and more concerned with social and political progress than some of his more foundational writings suggest it is. A final reason why Kant's account of the highest good is important is that it is through his account of the highest good that Kant argues for the rationality of belief in God and immortality. For example in the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant argues that because reason sets forth the idea of happiness conditioned by virtue as
Within the background of perceived decrease in students? interest in learning, the research on In... more Within the background of perceived decrease in students? interest in learning, the research on Influence of Teachers? competence in subject matter on students? interest the learning of social studies Education in Akwa Ibom State in Nigeria will be aimed at determining the contributions of students? perception of teachers? competence in subject matter on students? interest in learning with particular attention to Social Studies Education. The ex-post facto research design was adopted for the study. Null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The data for the work were collected with the help of a ITCSMSILS (Influence of Teachers? competence in subject matter on students? interest the learning of social studies) questionnaire as the working instrument. The stratified random sampling technique and the simple random sampling technique were adopted for the choice of samples from the population which consisted of all Social Studies Education Students in Akwa Ibom State. The face a...
The experience of the researchers as classroom teachers in secondary schools in Akwa Ibom and Cro... more The experience of the researchers as classroom teachers in secondary schools in Akwa Ibom and Cross River States of Nigeria and as lecturers and researchers over the years, where they observed that students’ academic achievement in Social Studies is relatively poor. The little output in education does not give much hope for the expected national and individual development. It is this poor achievement in the subject that necessitated this present study which sought to examine the influence of cultural inhibitions and students’ academic achievement in Social Studies in Colleges of Education in Cross River State, Nigeria. To achieve the purpose of this study one hypothesis was formulated to direct the study. Literature review was done according to the variable under study. Ex-post facto research design was adopted for the study. A sample of seven hundred and fifty-three (753) students were randomly selected for the study. The selection was done through simple random sampling technique....
The main thrust of this study was to find out factors influencing cheating tendency in examinatio... more The main thrust of this study was to find out factors influencing cheating tendency in examination among undergraduate students of the University Of Calabar. To give the study it's direction, four hypotheses were formulated. Related literatures were reviewed based on the major variables of the study. Ex-post- facto research design was adopted for the study. The major instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire. The instrument was designed by the researchers with the help of some major experts in measurement and evaluation which give the face and content validity of the instrument. 200 students were randomly selected from Faculty of Education, University of Calabar for the study. The hypotheses formulated were tested using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient analytical technique. The result of the analysis revealed that self-concept, Intelligence, moral value and test anxiety significantly influence students' tendency to be involved in examination...
This investigation examined materialistic value orientation and attitude toward environmental man... more This investigation examined materialistic value orientation and attitude toward environmental management in Yakurr Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria. A single theory was generated to control the examination. Review of initial researches was utilized. Survey blue print was utilized. An accidental sampling technique was used in choosing the 150 persons examined for the investigation. An approved 20 items four point adjusted likert scale poll was the instrument utilized for data assortment. The unwavering quality gauge of the tool for information accumulation was 0.80 utilizing Cronbach Alpha dependability technique. The information was dissected utilizing the simple and multiple linear regression statistical tools. The result of the study revealed that there is a significant influence of materialistic value orientation and attitude toward environmental management in Yakurr Local Government Area. It was recommended that People limit their rate of materialism, it is co...
Political stability arising from individual and collective actions are some of Nigeria’s current ... more Political stability arising from individual and collective actions are some of Nigeria’s current challenges. The researcher set out to study possible philosophical means of enhancing in learners the skills to contribute to political stability in Nigeria. The researcher speculated that related ineffectiveness of our education arises from exclusive democratic approaches to curriculum implementations in attempt to be learner centered. Research questions were raised. Multiple philosophical research methods of speculation, analyses and prescription were used in the study. A philosophical study of possible exclusive democratic approaches in classroom practices revealed the need to complement our education processes with appropriate level of content centered approaches to enhance learners’ skills to perform action that bring about political stability. The study gave some guides for inclusive democratic education theory formulation and classroom practices. Conclusions were drawn and consequ...
Within the background of perceived decrease in students' interest in learning, the research o... more Within the background of perceived decrease in students' interest in learning, the research on Influence of Teachers' competence in subject matter on students' interest the learning of social studies Education in Akwa Ibom State in Nigeria will be aimed at determining the contributions of students' perception of teachers' competence in subject matter on students' interest in learning with particular attention to Social Studies Education. The ex-post facto research design was adopted for the study. Null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The data for the work were collected with the help of a ITCSMSILS (Influence of Teachers' competence in subject matter on students' interest the learning of social studies) questionnaire as the working instrument. The stratified random sampling technique and the simple random sampling technique were adopted for the choice of samples from the population which consisted of all Social Studies Education Student...
Nigeria still needs an education that can respond effectively to her challenges. Proper linguisti... more Nigeria still needs an education that can respond effectively to her challenges. Proper linguistic culture applied in education process can help in this regard. Though the importance of language is already recognized in our education policy, this study aims at complimenting such efforts for more effectiveness of the system. Using the philosophical method of analysis, the study sought to provide answers to the following relevant questions: What is the importance of language in education? How do linguistic symbols contribute to effectiveness in learning experiences? What are the factors that can contribute to low efficiency of language in education process in the Nigerian context of educational policy? It was concluded that: 1. language assists the learners to be connected to the holistic experiences of their cultural challenges and options. 2. Symbols adapted from language can assist learners in concepts and ideas constructions that are effectively responsive to their interests and c...
Kant's philosophy has in it some bases of moral actions which he outlines as categorical imperati... more Kant's philosophy has in it some bases of moral actions which he outlines as categorical imperatives. This philosophical base advocates for moral duties for duty sake and not for exterior motives. Many moral problems have been identified in Nigerian society as ensuing from actions or behaviours arising from exterior motives as the bases for actions. Testing Kant's moral principle against the moral requirements in the context of Social Studies Education, it has been found out that Kant's moral imperative if adopted in Social Studies Education as a philosophical base will enhance effectiveness of Social Studies as a discipline aimed at producing morally positive citizens in the multicultural and multidimensional actions that can be found in Nigeria. From the above study, some recommendations were made. Introduction Kant's moral philosophy is based on his metaphysics. Kant draws heavily on his observations and ideas about human nature to formulate his normative ethics. He makes explicit that the supreme moral principle itself must be discovered a priori, through a method of pure moral philosophy (G 4:387-92). Such must be inherent in and revealed through the operations of reason. This is contrary to empirical moral philosophy grounded in a posteriori principles inferred through observation or experience since they can tell us how people do act and cannot tell us how we ought to act. Kant then favors moral principles that are the most fundamental, authoritative and normative rather than descriptive. According to Kant(1952) then moral commands are unconditional. For him, we should not confuse conditional truths, such as what is prudentially good for certain individuals or species, with unconditional truths about fundamental moral requirements (G 4:389-90). Kant's notion of autonomy is one of the most central, distinctive, and influential aspects of his moral philosophy. Kant (1952) defines autonomy principally as the property of the will by which it is a law to itself being independent of any property of the objects of volition since it both gives itself the moral law (it is self-legislating) and can constrain or motivate itself to follow the law (it is self-constraining or self-motivating)(G 4:440). In this case then the source of the moral law is not in the agent's feelings, natural impulses or inclinations, but in her pure, rational will or noumenal self, which Kant identifies as the proper self(G 4:461). This is contrary to heteronomous wills governed by nature through their instincts, impulses, and empirical desires (G 4:444, CPrR 5:61). Kant (1952) conceives of the human agent as having both noumenal and phenomenal aspect being members of both the intelligible world and the sensible world. As members of the intellectual world we are free .As members of both intellectual and sensible world we are both free and determined. (G 4:451-52, 454; CPrR 5:43). Consequently, Kant (1952) then believes that morality presents itself to human agents as a categorical imperative and our all specific moral duties are derived from it. It is a categorical imperative because it commands and constrains us absolutely, with ultimate authority and without regard to our preferences or empirical features or circumstances. Contrary to this is the hypothetical imperative which can only express a command of reason, but only in relation to an end already set by the agent in form of objects of inclinations (G 4:413-20). Perhaps the two best known formulations of Kant's categorical imperatives are (1) act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law (G 4:421), (2) So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means (G 4:429) (Kant:1952). It is from these that he believes the highest good can be obtained. Kant believes that morality gives rise to a notion of the highest good. Although the end that Kant's ethics most closely concerns is rational in nature (the "end in itself" which grounds moral duties), Kant's ethics also contains a different sort of ultimate end: the complete object of practical reason, which we can think of all moral action as pointing toward. The highest good consists in a world of universal, maximal virtue, guaranteeing universal and maximal happiness (CPrR 5:10-111). One reason that makes Kant's account of the highest good important is that it emphasizes that virtue is unconditionally good, whereas happiness is conditionally good; happiness is good when and only when it is pursued and enjoyed virtuously. These two components of the highest good are heterogeneous. No amount of happiness can make up for a deficit of virtue, and no amount of virtue, despite its unconditioned goodness, can make up for a deficit of happiness. The highest good requires both. Another reason why Kant's account of the highest good is important is that Kant often portrays the highest good as a social good for us to strive for collectively and which history may be viewed as leading towards. This presents Kant's ethics to be less abstract and individualistic and more concerned with social and political progress than some of his more foundational writings suggest it is. A final reason why Kant's account of the highest good is important is that it is through his account of the highest good that Kant argues for the rationality of belief in God and immortality. For example in the Critique of Practical Reason, Kant argues that because reason sets forth the idea of happiness conditioned by virtue as
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